7.27.12

 

JAXPORT's staff is comprised of 150 employees, whom manage and market the port and plan for its improvement. JAXPORT's staff work in a variety of areas, including terminal operations and security; cruise operations; planning and properties; construction and engineering; finance, administration, procurement, IT, government and external affairs, corporate communications and trade development and marketing.

 

Talleyrand Marine Terminal:

This 173-acre terminal has 4,780 linear feet (1,457m) of berthing space on 40 feet (12.2m) of deepwater.

 

The terminal handles containerized and breakbulk cargoes, imported automobiles and liquid bulk commodities such as turpentine and vegetable oil. Breakbulk cargoes include steel, lumber and paper, and a variety of frozen and chilled goods. Talleyrand is equipped with four container cranes, on-dock rail and 160,000 square feet of transit shed space capable of handling cargo in refrigerated, freezer or ambient conditions. Additionally, a 553,000-square foot warehouse stores a variety of cargoes, including rolls of fine and specialty papers, magazine papers and newsprint.

 

The Talleyrand terminal also offers two 50-LT capacity rubber tired gantry cranes, both of which straddle four rail spurs totaling 4,800 linear feet (1,463 m). Talleyrand's on-dock rail facilities are run by Talleyrand Terminal Railroad, Inc., which provides direct switching service for Norfolk Southern and CSX railroads. The terminal is only 25 minutes from Florida East Coast Railroad's intermodal ramp, and is conveniently located within minutes of interstates I-95 and I-10.

 

Photo credit: JAXPORT, Meredith Fordham Hughes

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

My first shot of 66 772 on the Madeley Junction / Ironbridge branch took from the footbridge at Cherry Tree Hill, Coalbrookdale. 4F61 empty biomass to Tuebrook Liverpool

GBRf 66 716 passing Strethill Crossing Ironbridge with loaded containerized biomass 4G01 for Ironbridge

I had a little bit of luck tonight as I knew 60 020 had worked north on the Lime last night and was also later confirmed as working back with 6V71 Hardendale to Margam containerized lime. I had no idea if it was booked to stop in Shrewsbury for a crew change, but I decided to chance it may stop

My heart dropped when no driver got off a north bound unit (as did happen last time I went for 6V71) so I assumed the 60 would sail past with no chance of a night shot

However the last unit off Shrewsbury for Cardiff was on the wrong platform and the resulting shunting about delayed both the timber and the lime

No crew change for 6V71 Hardendale to Margam containerized lime but 60 020 was held for a couple of minutes on platform 4 Shrewsbury waiting for the late running unit to clear

 

66 772 passing Ruckley Sidings with 4F61 empty biomass to Tuebrook Liverpool

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

The Port of Miami, styled as "PortMiami" but formally the Dante B. Fascell Port of Miami, is a major seaport located in Biscayne Bay at the mouth of the Miami River in Miami, Florida. It is the largest passenger port in the world, and one of the largest cargo ports in the United States. It is connected to Downtown Miami by Port Boulevard—a causeway over the Intracoastal Waterway—and to the neighboring Watson Island via the PortMiami Tunnel.

 

The port is located on Dodge Island, which is the combination of three historic islands (Dodge, Lummus and Sam's Islands) that have since been combined into one. It is named in honor of 19 term Florida Congressman Dante Fascell.

 

As of 2018, PortMiami accounts for approximately 334,500 jobs and has an annual economic impact of $43 billion to the state of Florida.

 

In the early 1900s, Government Cut was dredged along with a new channel to what now is known as Bicentennial Park in downtown Miami. This new access to the mainland created the Main Channel which greatly improved the shipping access to the new port. From these original dredging spoils which were disposed on the south side of the new Main Channel, new islands were inadvertently created which later became Dodge, Lummus and Sam's Island along with several other smaller islands.

 

PortMiami's improved shipping access and growth of the South Florida community led to an expansion of the port. On April 5, 1960, Resolution No. 4830, "Joint Resolution Providing for Construction of Modern Seaport Facilities at Dodge Island Site" was approved by the Dade County Board of Commissioners. On April 6, 1960, the City of Miami approved City Resolution No. 31837 to construct the new port. The new port on Dodge Island required expansion of the island by joining it together with the surrounding islands. After the seawalls, administrative buildings, and a vehicle and railroad bridge were completed, Port of Miami operations were moved to the new Dodge Island port. Additional fill material enlarged the connected Lummus and Sam's islands as well as the North, South and NOAO slips, creating a completely man made island for PortMiami.

 

In 1993, the first dredge of PortMiami occurred, deepening it to 42 feet. In 2006, a $40 million project to expand the South Harbor finished. In 2011, a project to reconnect PortMiami to the mainland via railroad began. In 2013, a dredging project began to deepen the harbors around PortMiami from 44 to 52 feet. In April 2019, the Miami-Dade Tourism and Ports Committee approved a deal for Royal Caribbean Cruises to build a new office and parking garage on Dodge Island.

 

PortMiami is an important contributor to the local south Florida and state economies. As a world-class port, PortMiami is among an elite group of ports in the world which cater to both cruise ships and containerized cargo.

 

PortMiami boasts the title "cruise capital of the world", and is the busiest cruise/passenger port in the world. It accommodates the operations of major cruise lines such as Carnival, Royal Caribbean, Norwegian, Disney, and MSC, among others. Over 5.5 million cruise passengers pass through the port each year (FY2018/2019).

 

The largest cruise ship in the world by gross tonnage, the Symphony of the Seas, is currently homeported at PortMiami. As of October 2019, the following cruise ships are homeported at PortMiami: Carnival Conquest, Carnival Horizon, Carnival Sensation, Carnival Victory, Empress of the Seas, Navigator of the Seas, Symphony of the Seas, Norwegian Breakaway, Norwegian Sky, MSC Armonia, and MSC Seaside.

 

As of October 2019, there are currently seven actively operating passenger cruise terminals at PortMiami: A, C, D, E, F, G, and J. One facility that is purpose-built for a specific company is currently in use, with four more of these types of facilities in their planning or construction stages.

 

Credit for the data above is given to the following website:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PortMiami

 

© All Rights Reserved - you may not use this image in any form without my prior permission.

  

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

2 Yongnuo YN-560's with RF-602 Rx's inside Sistema Clip-It - Pasta Containers (the lids have 3 clips and a a silicone seal, which was also removed and smeared with a very-thin layer of silicone-grease). The flashes sat inside the tubes on top of large bags of silica-gel. The whole container never faltered and the flashes and the silica-gel bags were as dry when they came out as when they went in.

 

We used the YN-560 as it will fire at 8FPS if you keep the power at 1/8th or lower. We never changed the power, which remained at 1/8th with the heads 'zoomed' to the 105mm position.

 

The containerized flashes were then 'ball-bungeed' to Manfrotto arms & clamps which were attached to heavy duty PA stands and these were placed in the pool. The stands then filled up with water, negating the need to weight them down with lead-shot (although we did have some available).

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The bamboos (Bambusoideae) are a subfamily of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae.

 

Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. In bamboos, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent. The absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering.

 

Bamboos are some of the fastest-growing plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 88.9 Centimeters within a 24-hour period, at a rate of 3 cm/h (a growth of approximately 1 millimeter every 2 minutes). Bamboos are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel.

 

The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Malay.

 

SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

The bamboos have long been considered the most primitive grasses, mostly because of the presence of bracteate, indeterminate inflorescences, "pseudospikelets", and flowers with three lodicules, six stamens, and three stigmas. Following more recent molecular phylogenetic research, many tribes and genera of grasses formerly included in Bambusoideae are now classified in other subfamilies, e.g. the Anomochlooideae, the Puelioideae, and the Ehrhartoideae. The subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae (bluegrasses and relatives).

 

The bamboos contains three clades classified as tribes, and these strongly correspond with geographic divisions, representing the New World herbaceous species (Olyreae), tropical woody bamboos (Bambuseae) and temperate woody bamboos (Arundinarieae). The woody bamboos do not form a monophyletic group; instead, the tropical woody and herbaceous bamboos are sister to the temperate woody bamboos. Altogether, there are more than 1,400 species in 115 genera.

 

Tribe Olyreae (herbaceous bamboos)

Tribe Bambuseae (tropical woody bamboos)

Tribe Arundinarieae (temperate woody bamboos)

 

DISTRIBUTION

Bamboo species are found in diverse climates, from cold mountains to hot tropical regions. They occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin through to Northern Australia, and west to India and the Himalayas. They also occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and in the Americas from the mid-Atlantic states south to Argentina and Chile, reaching their southernmost point at 47°S latitude. Continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo.

 

Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a commercial basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa, especially in Rwanda. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, and distributing species such as Phyllostachys nigra (Henon) and Phyllostachys edulis (Moso).

 

ECOLOGY

Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates of 250 cm in 24 hours. However, the growth rate is dependent on local soil and climatic conditions, as well as species, and a more typical growth rate for many commonly cultivated bamboos in temperate climates is in the range of 3–10 centimetre per day during the growing period. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, vast fields existed in what is now Asia. Some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 15–20 cm in diameter. However, the size range for mature bamboo is species dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4.6–12 metres, depending on species. Anji County of China, known as the "Town of Bamboo", provides the optimal climate and soil conditions to grow, harvest, and process some of the most valued bamboo poles available worldwide.

 

Unlike all trees, individual bamboo stems, or culms, emerge from the ground at their full diameter and grow to their full height in a single growing season of three to four months. During these several months, each new shoot grows vertically into a culm with no branching out until the majority of the mature height is reached. Then, the branches extend from the nodes and leafing out occurs. In the next year, the pulpy wall of each culm slowly hardens. During the third year, the culm hardens further. The shoot is now considered a fully mature culm. Over the next 2–5 years (depending on species), fungus begins to form on the outside of the culm, which eventually penetrates and overcomes the culm. Around 5–8 years later (species and climate dependent), the fungal growths cause the culm to collapse and decay. This brief life means culms are ready for harvest and suitable for use in construction within about three to seven years. Individual bamboo culms do not get any taller or larger in diameter in subsequent years than they do in their first year, and they do not replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage. Bamboos have a wide range of hardiness depending on species and locale. Small or young specimens of an individual species will produce small culms initially. As the clump and its rhizome system mature, taller and larger culms will be produced each year until the plant approaches its particular species limits of height and diameter.

 

Many tropical bamboo species will die at or near freezing temperatures, while some of the hardier or so-called temperate bamboos can survive temperatures as low as −29 °C. Some of the hardiest bamboo species can be grown in places as cold as USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–6, although they typically will defoliate and may even lose all above-ground growth, yet the rhizomes will survive and send up shoots again the next spring. In milder climates, such as USDA Zone 8 and above, some hardy bamboo may remain fully leafed out year-round.

 

MASS FLOWERING

Most bamboo species flower infrequently. In fact, many bamboos only flower at intervals as long as 65 or 120 years. These taxa exhibit mass flowering (or gregarious flowering), with all plants in a particular cohort flowering over a several-year period. Any plant derived through clonal propagation from this cohort will also flower regardless of whether it has been planted in a different location. The longest mass flowering interval known is 130 years, and it is for the species Phyllostachys bambusoides (Sieb. & Zucc.). In this species, all plants of the same stock flower at the same time, regardless of differences in geographic locations or climatic conditions, and then the bamboo dies. The lack of environmental impact on the time of flowering indicates the presence of some sort of "alarm clock" in each cell of the plant which signals the diversion of all energy to flower production and the cessation of vegetative growth. This mechanism, as well as the evolutionary cause behind it, is still largely a mystery.

 

One hypothesis to explain the evolution of this semelparous mass flowering is the predator satiation hypothesis which argues that by fruiting at the same time, a population increases the survival rate of their seeds by flooding the area with fruit, so, even if predators eat their fill, seeds will still be left over. By having a flowering cycle longer than the lifespan of the rodent predators, bamboos can regulate animal populations by causing starvation during the period between flowering events. Thus the death of the adult clone is due to resource exhaustion, as it would be more effective for parent plants to devote all resources to creating a large seed crop than to hold back energy for their own regeneration.

 

Another, the fire cycle hypothesis, argues that periodic flowering followed by death of the adult plants has evolved as a mechanism to create disturbance in the habitat, thus providing the seedlings with a gap in which to grow. This argues that the dead culms create a large fuel load, and also a large target for lightning strikes, increasing the likelihood of wildfire. Because bamboos can be aggressive as early successional plants, the seedlings would be able to outstrip other plants and take over the space left by their parents.

 

However, both have been disputed for different reasons. The predator satiation hypothesis does not explain why the flowering cycle is 10 times longer than the lifespan of the local rodents, something not predicted. The bamboo fire cycle hypothesis is considered by a few scientists to be unreasonable; they argue[20] that fires only result from humans and there is no natural fire in India. This notion is considered wrong based on distribution of lightning strike data during the dry season throughout India. However, another argument against this is the lack of precedent for any living organism to harness something as unpredictable as lightning strikes to increase its chance of survival as part of natural evolutionary progress.

 

More recently, a mathematical explanation for the extreme length of the flowering cycles has been offered, involving both the stabilizing selection implied by the predator satiation hypothesis and others, and the fact that plants that flower at longer intervals tend to release more seeds. The hypothesis claims that bamboo flowering intervals grew by integer multiplication. A mutant bamboo plant flowering at a non-integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds alone, and would not enjoy the benefits of collective flowering (such as protection from predators). On the other hand, a mutant bamboo plant flowering at an integer multiple of its population's flowering interval would release its seeds only during collective flowering events, and would release more seeds than the average plant in the population. It could therefore take over the population, establishing a flowering interval that is an integer multiple of the previous flowering interval. The hypothesis predicts that observed bamboo flowering intervals should factorize into small prime numbers.

 

The mass fruiting also has direct economic and ecological consequences, however. The huge increase in available fruit in the forests often causes a boom in rodent populations, leading to increases in disease and famine in nearby human populations. For example, devastating consequences occur when the Melocanna bambusoides population flowers and fruits once every 30–35 years around the Bay of Bengal. The death of the bamboo plants following their fruiting means the local people lose their building material, and the large increase in bamboo fruit leads to a rapid increase in rodent populations. As the number of rodents increases, they consume all available food, including grain fields and stored food, sometimes leading to famine. These rats can also carry dangerous diseases, such as typhus, typhoid, and bubonic plague, which can reach epidemic proportions as the rodents increase in number. The relationship between rat populations and bamboo flowering was examined in a 2009 Nova documentary "Rat Attack".

 

In any case, flowering produces masses of seeds, typically suspended from the ends of the branches. These seeds will give rise to a new generation of plants that may be identical in appearance to those that preceded the flowering, or they may produce new cultivars with different characteristics, such as the presence or absence of striping or other changes in coloration of the culms.

 

Several bamboo species are never known to set seed even when sporadically flowering has been reported. Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus stocksii are common examples of such bamboo.

 

AS ANIMAL DIET

Soft bamboo shoots, stems, and leaves are the major food source of the giant panda of China, the red panda of Nepal and the bamboo lemurs of Madagascar. Rats will eat the fruits as described above. Mountain gorillas of Africa also feed on bamboo, and have been documented consuming bamboo sap which was fermented and alcoholic; chimpanzees and elephants of the region also eat the stalks.

 

The larvae of the bamboo borer (the moth Omphisa fuscidentalis) of Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Yunnan Province, China, feeds off the pulp of live bamboo. In turn, these caterpillars are considered a local delicacy.

 

CULTIVATION

COMMERCIAL TIMBER

Timber is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus Phyllostachys, are known as "timber bamboos".

 

HARVESTING

Bamboo used for construction purposes must be harvested when the culms reach their greatest strength and when sugar levels in the sap are at their lowest, as high sugar content increases the ease and rate of pest infestation.

 

Harvesting of bamboo is typically undertaken according to the following cycles:

 

1) Life cycle of the culm: As each individual culm goes through a 5– to 7-year life cycle, culms are ideally allowed to reach this level of maturity prior to full capacity harvesting. The clearing out or thinning of culms, particularly older decaying culms, helps to ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well-maintained clumps may have a productivity three to four times that of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle described above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years through to five to seven years, depending on the species.

 

2) Annual cycle: As all growth of new bamboo occurs during the wet season, disturbing the clump during this phase will potentially damage the upcoming crop. Also during this high rainfall period, sap levels are at their highest, and then diminish towards the dry season. Picking immediately prior to the wet/growth season may also damage new shoots. Hence, harvesting is best a few months prior to the start of the wet season.

 

3) Daily cycle: During the height of the day, photosynthesis is at its peak, producing the highest levels of sugar in sap, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe the best time to harvest is at dawn or dusk on a waning moon.

 

LEACHING

Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. In many areas of the world, the sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis.

 

EXEMPLES OF THIS PRACTICE INCLUDE:

Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leaned against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant.

A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap.

Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks.

Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment).

 

In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation.

 

Durability of bamboo in construction is directly related to how well it is handled from the moment of planting through harvesting, transportation, storage, design, construction and maintenance. Bamboo harvested at the correct time of year and then exposed to ground contact or rain, will break down just as quickly as incorrectly harvested material.

 

ORNAMENTAL BAMBOOS

The two general patterns for the growth of bamboo are "clumping" (sympodial) and "running" (monopodial). Clumping bamboo species tend to spread slowly, as the growth pattern of the rhizomes is to simply expand the root mass gradually, similar to ornamental grasses. "Running" bamboos, on the other hand, need to be controlled during cultivation because of their potential for aggressive behavior. They spread mainly through their roots and/or rhizomes, which can spread widely underground and send up new culms to break through the surface. Running bamboo species are highly variable in their tendency to spread; this is related to both the species and the soil and climate conditions. Some can send out runners of several metres a year, while others can stay in the same general area for long periods. If neglected, over time they can cause problems by moving into adjacent areas.

 

Bamboos seldom and unpredictably flower, and the frequency of flowering varies greatly from species to species. Once flowering takes place, a plant will decline and often die entirely. Although there are always a few species of bamboo in flower at any given time, collectors desiring to grow specific bamboo typically obtain their plants as divisions of already-growing plants, rather than waiting for seeds to be produced.

 

Regular observations will indicate major growth directions and locations. Once the rhizomes are cut, they are typically removed; however, rhizomes take a number of months to mature, and an immature, severed rhizome will usually cease growing if left in-ground. If any bamboo shoots come up outside of the bamboo area afterwards, their presence indicates the precise location of the removed rhizome. The fibrous roots that radiate from the rhizomes do not produce more bamboo.

 

Bamboo growth is also controlled by surrounding the plant or grove with a physical barrier. Typically, concrete and specially rolled HDPE plastic are the materials used to create the barrier, which is placed in a 60– to 90-cm-deep ditch around the planting, and angled out at the top to direct the rhizomes to the surface. (This is only possible if the barrier is installed in a straight line.) If the containment area is small, this method can be detrimental to ornamental bamboo, as the bamboo within can become rootbound and start to display the signs of any unhealthy containerized plant. In addition, rhizomes can escape over the top, or beneath the barrier if it is not deep enough. Strong rhizomes and tools can penetrate plastic barriers, so care must be taken. In small areas, regular maintenance may be the best method for controlling the running bamboos. Barriers and edging are unnecessary for clump-forming bamboos, although these may eventually need to have portions removed if they become too large.

 

The ornamental plant sold in containers and marketed as "lucky bamboo" is actually an entirely unrelated plant, Dracaena sanderiana. It is a resilient member of the lily family that grows in the dark, tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Africa. Lucky bamboo has long been associated with the Eastern practice of feng shui and images of the plant widely available on the Web are often used to depict bamboo. On a similar note, Japanese knotweed is also sometimes mistaken for a bamboo, but it grows wild and is considered an invasive species. Phyllostachys species of bamboo are also considered invasive and illegal to sell or propagate in some areas of the US.

 

USES

CULINARY

Although the shoots (new culms that come out of the ground) of bamboo contain a toxin taxiphyllin (a cyanogenic glycoside) that produces cyanide in the gut, proper processing renders them edible. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh and canned versions. The golden bamboo lemur ingests many times the quantity of the taxiphyllin-containing bamboo that would kill a human.

 

The bamboo shoot in its fermented state forms an important ingredient in cuisines across the Himalayas. In Assam, India, for example, it is called khorisa. In Nepal, a delicacy popular across ethnic boundaries consists of bamboo shoots fermented with turmeric and oil, and cooked with potatoes into a dish that usually accompanies rice (alu tama (आलु तामा) in Nepali).

 

In Indonesia, they are sliced thin and then boiled with santan (thick coconut milk) and spices to make a dish called gulai rebung. Other recipes using bamboo shoots are sayur lodeh (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and lun pia (sometimes written lumpia: fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain toxins that need to be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely.

 

Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots.

 

The sap of young stalks tapped during the rainy season may be fermented to make ulanzi (a sweet wine) or simply made into a soft drink. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for steamed dumplings which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients.

 

Pickled bamboo shoots (Nepali:तामा tama) are cooked with black-eyed beans as a delicacy food in Nepal. Many Nepalese restaurant around the world serve this dish as aloo bodi tama. Fresh bamboo shoots are sliced and pickled with mustard seeds and turmeric and kept in glass jar in direct sunlight for the best taste. It is used alongside many dried beans in cooking during winter months. Baby shoots (Nepali: tusa) of a very different variety of bamboo (Nepali: निगालो Nigalo) native to Nepal is cooked as a curry in Hilly regions.

 

In Sambalpur, India, the tender shoots are grated into juliennes and fermented to prepare kardi. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bamboo shoot, karira. This fermented bamboo shoot is used in various culinary preparations, notably amil, a sour vegetable soup. It is also made into pancakes using rice flour as a binding agent. The shoots that have turned a little fibrous are fermented, dried, and ground to sand-sized particles to prepare a garnish known as hendua. It is also cooked with tender pumpkin leaves to make sag green leaves.

 

In Konkani cuisine, the tender shoots (kirlu) are grated and cooked with crushed jackfruit seeds to prepare 'kirla sukke'.

 

The empty hollow in the stalks of larger bamboo is often used to cook food in many Asian cultures. Soups are boiled and rice is cooked in the hollows of fresh stalks of bamboo directly over a flame. Similarly, steamed tea is sometimes rammed into bamboo hollows to produce compressed forms of Pu-erh tea. Cooking food in bamboo is said to give the food a subtle but distinctive taste.

 

In addition, bamboo is frequently used for cooking utensils within many cultures, and is used in the manufacture of chopsticks. In modern times, some see bamboo tools as an ecofriendly alternative to other manufactured utensils.

 

MEDICINE

Bamboo is used in Chinese medicine for treating infections and healing. In northern Indian state of Assam, the fermented bamboo paste known as khorisa is known locally as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, infertility, and menstrual pains.

 

CONSTRUCTION

Bamboo, like true wood, is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.

 

In its natural form, bamboo as a construction material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia and the South Pacific, to some extent in Central and South America, and by extension in the aesthetic of Tiki culture. In China and India, bamboo was used to hold up simple suspension bridges, either by making cables of split bamboo or twisting whole culms of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the area of Qian-Xian is referenced in writings dating back to 960 AD and may have stood since as far back as the third century BC, due largely to continuous maintenance.

 

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; the practice has been banned in China for buildings over six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the most basic sort of housing where bamboo is used; the walls are split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles may be used as its support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is used primarily as a supplemental and/or decorative element in buildings such as fencing, fountains, grates and gutters, largely due to the ready abundance of quality timber.

 

Various structural shapes may be made by training the bamboo to assume them as it grows. Squared sections of bamboo are created by compressing the growing stalk within a square form. Arches may similarly be created by forcing the bamboo's growth into the desired form, costing much less than it would to obtain the same shape with regular wood timber. More traditional forming methods, such as the application of heat and pressure, may also be used to curve or flatten the cut stalks.

 

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks. This process involves cutting stalks into thin strips, planing them flat, and boiling and drying the strips; they are then glued, pressed and finished. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs started developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West during the mid-1990s; products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinetry, furniture and even decorations, are currently surging in popularity, transitioning from the boutique market to mainstream providers such as Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which also includes small goods, fabric, etc.) is expected to be worth $25 billion by 2012. The quality of bamboo laminate varies among manufacturers and varies according to the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years being considered the optimum); the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood while others may be softer than standard hardwood.

 

Bamboo intended for use in construction should be treated to resist insects and rot. The most common solution for this purpose is a mixture of borax and boric acid. Another process involves boiling cut bamboo to remove the starches that attract insects.

 

Bamboo has been used as reinforcement for concrete in those areas where it is plentiful, though dispute exists over its effectiveness in the various studies done on the subject. Bamboo does have the necessary strength to fulfil this function, but untreated bamboo will swell with water absorbed from the concrete, causing it to crack. Several procedures must be followed to overcome this shortcoming.

 

Several institutes, businesses, and universities are researching the use of bamboo as an ecological construction material. In the United States and France, it is possible to get houses made entirely of bamboo,[citation needed] which are earthquake- and cyclone-resistant and internationally certified. In Bali, Indonesia, an international K-12 school, the Green School, is constructed entirely of bamboo, for its beauty and advantages as a sustainable resource. There are three ISO standards for bamboo as a construction material.

 

In parts of India, bamboo is used for drying clothes indoors, both as a rod high up near the ceiling to hang clothes on, and as a stick wielded with acquired expert skill to hoist, spread, and to take down the clothes when dry. It is also commonly used to make ladders, which apart from their normal function, are also used for carrying bodies in funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name velu for bamboo is most likely from Sanskrit, while vana means forest.

 

Furthermore, bamboo is also used to create flagpoles for saffron-coloured, Hindu religious flags, which can be seen fluttering across India, especially in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, as well as in Guyana and Suriname in South America.

 

Bamboo was used for the structural members of the India pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, about 34 m in diameter, with bamboo beams/members overlaid with a ferro-concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar PV panels, a small windmill, and live plants. A total of 30 km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported on 18-m-long steel piles and a series of steel ring beams. The bamboo was treated with borax and boric acid as a fire retardant and insecticide and bent in the required shape. The bamboo sections were joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to achieve the necessary lengths.

 

TEXTILES

Since the fibers of bamboo are very short (less than 3 mm), they are not usually transformed into yarn by a natural process. The usual process by which textiles labeled as being made of bamboo are produced uses only rayon made from the fibers with heavy employment of chemicals. To accomplish this, the fibers are broken down with chemicals and extruded through mechanical spinnerets; the chemicals include lye, carbon disulfide and strong acids. Retailers have sold both end products as "bamboo fabric" to cash in on bamboo's current ecofriendly cachet; however, the Canadian Competition Bureau and the US Federal Trade Commission, as of mid-2009, are cracking down on the practice of labeling bamboo rayon as natural bamboo fabric. Under the guidelines of both agencies, these products must be labeled as rayon with the optional qualifier "from bamboo".

 

AS A WRITING SURFACE

Bamboo was in widespread use in early China as a medium for written documents. The earliest surviving examples of such documents, written in ink on string-bound bundles of bamboo strips (or "slips"), date from the fifth century BC during the Warring States period. However, references in earlier texts surviving on other media make it clear that some precursor of these Warring States period bamboo slips was in use as early as the late Shang period (from about 1250 BC).

 

Bamboo or wooden strips were the standard writing material during the Han dynasty, and excavated examples have been found in abundance. Subsequently, paper began to displace bamboo and wooden strips from mainstream uses, and by the fourth century AD, bamboo slips had been largely abandoned as a medium for writing in China. Several paper industries are surviving on bamboo forests. Ballarpur (Chandrapur, Maharstra) paper mills use bamboo for paper production.

 

Bamboo fiber has been used to make paper in China since early times. A high-quality, handmade paper is still produced in small quantities. Coarse bamboo paper is still used to make spirit money in many Chinese communities.

 

Bamboo pulps are mainly produced in China, Myanmar, Thailand and India, and are used in printing and writing papers. The most common bamboo species used for paper are Dendrocalamus asper and Bamboo bluemanea. It is also possible to make dissolving pulp from bamboo. The average fiber length is similar to hardwoods, but the properties of bamboo pulp are closer to softwood pulps due to it having a very broad fiber length distribution. With the help of molecular tools, it is now possible to distinguish the superior fiber-yielding species/varieties even at juvenile stages of their growth, which can help in unadulterated merchandise production.[

 

WEAPONS

Bamboo has often been used to construct weapons and is still incorporated in several Asian martial arts.

 

A bamboo staff, sometimes with one end sharpened, is used in the Tamil martial art of silambam, a word derived from a term meaning "hill bamboo".

Staves used in the Indian martial art of gatka are commonly made from bamboo, a material favoured for its light weight.

A bamboo sword called a shinai is used in the Japanese martial art of kendo.

Bamboo is used for crafting the bows, called yumi, and arrows used in the Japanese martial art kyudo.

Bamboo is sometimes used to craft the limbs of the longbow and recurve bow used in traditional archery, and to make superior weapons for bowhunting and target archery.

The first gunpowder-based weapons, such as the fire lance, were made of bamboo.

Bamboo was apparently used in East and South Asia as a means of torture.

 

OTHER USES

Bamboo has traditionally been used to make a wide range of everyday utensils, particularly in Japan, where archaeological excavations have uncovered bamboo baskets dating to the Late Jomon period (2000–1000 BC).

 

Bamboo has a long history of use in Asian furniture. Chinese bamboo furniture is a distinct style based on a millennia-long tradition.

 

Several manufacturers offer bamboo bicycles, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.

 

Due to its flexibility, bamboo is also used to make fishing rods. The split cane rod is especially prized for fly fishing. Bamboo has been traditionally used in Malaysia as a firecracker called a meriam buluh or bamboo cannon. Four-foot-long sections of bamboo are cut, and a mixture of water and calcium carbide are introduced. The resulting acetylene gas is ignited with a stick, producing a loud bang. Bamboo can be used in water desalination. A bamboo filter is used to remove the salt from seawater.

 

Food is cooked in East Timor in bamboo in fire. This is called Tukir.

 

Many minority groups in remote areas that have water access in Asia use bamboo that is 3–5 years old to make rafts. They use 8 to 12 poles, 6–7 metres long, laid together side by side to a width of about 1 metre. Once the poles are lined up together, they cut a hole crosswise through the poles at each end and use a small bamboo pole pushed through that hole like a screw to hold all the long bamboo poles together. Floating houses use whole bamboo stalks tied together in a big bunch to support the house floating in the water. Bamboo is also used to make eating utensils such as chop sticks, trays, and tea scoops.

 

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) Chinese scientist and polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used the evidence of underground petrified bamboo found in the dry northern climate of Yan'an, Shanbei region, Shaanxi province to support his geological theory of gradual climate change.

 

SYMBOLISM AND CULTURE

Bamboo's long life makes it a Chinese symbol of uprightness, while in India it is a symbol of friendship. The rarity of its blossoming has led to the flowers' being regarded as a sign of impending famine. This may be due to rats feeding upon the profusion of flowers, then multiplying and destroying a large part of the local food supply. The most recent flowering began in May 2006 (see Mautam). Bamboo is said to bloom in this manner only about every 50 years (see 28–60 year examples in FAO: 'gregarious' species table).

 

In Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.

 

The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.

 

BAMBOO, NOBLE AND USEFUL

Bamboo, one of the "Four Gentlemen" (bamboo, orchid, plum blossom and chrysanthemum), plays such an important role in traditional Chinese culture that it is even regarded as a behavior model of the gentleman. As bamboo has features such as uprightness, tenacity, and hollow heart, people endow bamboo with integrity, elegance, and plainness, though it is not physically strong. Countless poems praising bamboo written by ancient Chinese poets are actually metaphorically about people who exhibited these characteristics. According to laws, an ancient poet, Bai Juyi (772–846), thought that to be a gentleman, a man does not need to be physically strong, but he must be mentally strong, upright, and perseverant. Just as a bamboo is hollow-hearted, he should open his heart to accept anything of benefit and never have arrogance or prejudice. Bamboo is not only a symbol of a gentleman, but also plays an important role in Buddhism, which was introduced into China in the first century. As canons of Buddhism forbids cruelty to animals, flesh and egg were not allowed in the diet. The tender bamboo shoot (sǔn筍 in Chinese) thus became a nutritious alternative. Preparation methods developed over thousands of years have come to incorporated into Asian cuisines, especially for monks. A Buddhist monk, Zan Ning, wrote a manual of the bamboo shoot called "Sǔn Pǔ筍譜" offering descriptions and recipes for many kinds of bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoot has always been a traditional dish on the Chinese dinner table, especially in southern China. In ancient times, those who could afford a big house with a yard would plant bamboo in their garden.

 

In Japan, a bamboo forest sometimes surrounds a Shinto shrine as part of a sacred barrier against evil. Many Buddhist temples also have bamboo groves.

 

Bamboo plays an important part of the culture of Vietnam. Bamboo symbolizes the spirit of Vovinam (a Vietnamese martial arts): cương nhu phối triển (coordination between hard and soft (martial arts)). Bamboo also symbolizes the Vietnamese hometown and Vietnamese soul: the gentlemanlike, straightforwardness, hard working, optimism, unity, and adaptability. A Vietnamese proverb says, "When the bamboo is old, the bamboo sprouts appear", the meaning being Vietnam will never be annihilated; if the previous generation dies, the children take their place. Therefore, the Vietnam nation and Vietnamese value will be maintained and developed eternally. Traditional Vietnamese villages are surrounded by thick bamboo hedges (lũy tre).

 

IN MYTHOLOGY

Several Asian cultures, including that of the Andaman Islands, believe humanity emerged from a bamboo stem.

 

In Philippine mythology, one of the more famous creation accounts tells of the first man, Malakás ("Strong"), and the first woman, Maganda ("Beautiful"), each emerged from one half of a split bamboo stem on an island formed after the battle between Sky and Ocean. In Malaysia, a similar story includes a man who dreams of a beautiful woman while sleeping under a bamboo plant; he wakes up and breaks the bamboo stem, discovering the woman inside. The Japanese folktale "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" (Taketori Monogatari) tells of a princess from the Moon emerging from a shining bamboo section. Hawaiian bamboo ('ohe) is a kinolau or body form of the Polynesian creator god Kāne.

 

A bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo.

 

In a Chinese legend, the Emperor Yao gave two of his daughters to the future Emperor Shun as a test for his potential to rule. Shun passed the test of being able to run his household with the two emperor's daughters as wives, and thus Yao made Shun his successor, bypassing his unworthy son. Later, Shun drowned in the Xiang River. The tears his two bereaved wives let fall upon the bamboos growing there explains the origin of spotted bamboo. The two women later became goddesses.

 

WIKIPEDIA

This 173-acre terminal has 4,780 linear feet (1,457m) of berthing space on 40 feet (12.2m) of deepwater.

 

The terminal handles containerized and breakbulk cargoes, automobiles and liquid bulk commodities such as molasses and vegetable oils. Breakbulk cargoes include steel, lumber and paper, and a variety of frozen and chilled goods. Talleyrand is equipped with four container cranes, on-dock rail and 160,000 square feet of transit shed space capable of handling cargo in refrigerated, freezer or ambient conditions. Additionally, a 553,000-square foot warehouse stores a variety of cargoes, including rolls of fine and specialty papers.

 

The Talleyrand terminal also offers two 50-LT capacity rubber tired gantry cranes, both of which straddle four rail spurs totaling 4,800 linear feet (1,463m). Talleyrand's on-dock rail facilities are run by Talleyrand Terminal Railroad, Inc., which provides direct switching service for Norfolk Southern and CSX rail lines. The terminal is only 25 minutes from Florida East Coast Railroad's intermodal ramp, and is conveniently located within minutes of interstates I-95 and I-10.

 

20676-DSC_9092 (6.13.2013) cd

Card from Billy and Sarah Christmas 2007 featuring one of Billy's photos of "Beyond the Irish Sea" by Iñigo Manglano-Ovalle. Details from artinliverpool.com:

Beyond the Irish Sea is a large-scale sculpture by artist Iñigo Manglano-Ovalle, ‘drawn’ using data scanned from an actual iceberg. This stunning sculpture, which also acts as a weather station, was unveiled on Thursday 10 November at 12 noon on the South Lawn of Liverpool Pier Head.

Beyond the Irish Sea is based on the 460 ft deep iceberg,“r11i01”, which broke away from the Greenland ice-sheet and drifted into the Labrador Sea in 2001. Working with the Canadian Hydraulics Centre, the artist acquired topographical data of the iceberg, using a combination of radar and sonar technology above and below water. The resulting sculpture is modeled on this data, scaled down to create a work just under 18 feet high.

The sculpture has been commissioned by Liverpool Biennial and is supported by the Northwest Regional Development Agency (NWDA) and Henry Moore Foundation. It is temporarily sited until 10 February 2006 on the Pier Head to form a part of the Sea Liverpool 2005 celebrations.

Constructed from 561 aircraft aluminium tubes and connected by 148 digitally printed rapid-prototype joints, the iceberg is mounted on two shipping containers, while the addition of an anemometer, used to measure wind speed and direction, reveals the artist’s ongoing fascination with the weather.

Situated between the River Mersey and the Port of Liverpool Building, historic home of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, the sculpture’s location signals a midway position between the forces of nature and human efforts to control and predict these.

For the artist, ‘climate’ extends beyond ‘natural’ phenomena to encompass a whole set of seemingly intangible forces – social, political and economic – which affect and condition contemporary life. The sculpture explores these forces through using weather as a metaphor.

The title refers to Liverpool’s historic legacy as one of the primary ports for emigration to America during the late 19th century. Today Liverpool continues to hold a prominent position amidst other world ports as a key centre for the shipping of containerized goods. Beyond the Irish Sea reflects on these shifts within a contemporary climate of growing concern about globalization and the environment.

  

SF Bay RR, 21 June 2018

 

The San Francisco Bay RR operates on the southeast side of San Francisco on and near the port. It uses two Alco S2 switchers that were built for the State Belt RR, later the San Francisco Belt RR, the line that served the piers of the Port of San Francisco for many years.

 

As shipping companies moved to containerization, the Port of Oakland became the big northern California container terminal and most of the piers of the Port of San Francisco were abandoned or converted to uses other than marine freight, so the SF Belt RR found itself out of a job. After 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake damaged the Embarcadero Freeway, which had run over the SF Belt for most of its length, the freeway was removed, opening up San Francisco's waterfront and much of the Belt's trackage as converted for use by the Muni F line, which runs historic streetcars to Fishermen's Wharf, and the Muni lines that now server the Caltrain station.

 

Meanwhile, Pier 96, near Hunter's Point was converted to a container facility and the railroad's operations survived there. The line was renamed the San Francisco Bay RR and continued to use Alco S2s 23 and 25 to switch its customers.

 

Today, the railroad's main business is transloading dirty dirt from constructions and clean up sites in the Bay Area from trucks to railcars. It is owned by Waste Solutions Group, which also owns a fleet of hopper cars. The SF Bay and UP interchange on an as needed basis, with UP's South City job running into the SF Bay's yard on Cargo Way with empties and taking away loads.

 

A couple of railfans, Ryan and Ben, work for the railroad and Ryan invited me to come by for a visit. I had stopped by one afternoon a couple of years ago, and lucked out to see an S2 running around the yard a bit, but the railrroad usually goes on duty betweeen 4 and 5 am, switches cars for a few hours and then is done for the day. So, a visit to the SF Bay from Sacramento entailed a night in a hotel. It took a few tries for me to get time off from work scheduled on the same day the railroad was running.

 

Eventually, it all lined up and my alarm went off at 0315 at a hotel in Daly City, just south of the SF city limit.

 

I was at the yard by 4 and met Ben, who went out and started Alco 23. 25 is out of service with a bad bearing on the radiator fan drive shaft. Ryan explained that the SF Belt had done a jerry rigged repair of the shaft at some point and it was never documented, so nobody knew about the bearing until it failed. As a new low emission unit will be delivered in the next few months, there is no reason to repair 25. 25 will be put on display somewhere, perhaps near the Ferry Building, while 23 will be held as backup for the new unit.

 

But for now, an S2 built in 1944 is doing the job it was built to do. If you think about it, that is as though the Virginia and Truckee had still been using the Reno and Genoa during WW2.

 

Shorty after I got there, Ben went out and fired up the 23. It has a block heater, so it started easily with a puff of white smoke. He did an inspection of the engine, including checking the journal boxes. We then went back into the office and waited for Ryan, brakeman Johnny, and engineer Nick to arrive. The crew plotted their switching moves for the day. Ryan, who is yard operations manager, suggested that I get some blue hour photos from the ground as empties were switched and then we rode 23 while they switched loads.

 

Each car has dirt from one particular construction site and the dirt from sites cannot be mixed as different sites will have different contamination. UP ships it to a dump site in Nevada, where it is processed. Ryan explained that sometimes they can use dividers in a car to separate dirt from different projects if there is not that much.

 

Right now transshipping dirty dirt is the SF Bay's only business, but there a couple of other industries are interested in bringing new business. The line that crosses the Illinois St. bridge has been out of service for a couple of years as there currently no customers north of Islais Creek.

 

We rode the S2 for a while after the day brightened, then got down and Ryan drove me around in a company car to get some more angles as they switched. He then had other work to do and I shot the end of 23's work day as well as 25, some spare Alco parts and another project of Waste Solutions, goats that are leased out for natural weed control. Ryan said that since Waste Solutions got more cars, they can't use their goats as much for weed control in the yard as most of the yard tracks are occupied.

 

The crew called it a day for switching about 0800 and then would be doing other work in the yard for the rest of their work day.

 

All of these photos were taken with permission after signing a release and while wearing required PPE.

 

I want to than Ryan, Ben, Johnny and Nick for their hospitality. I had a great time.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Europe District is managing the construction of a $134 million Aegis Ashore Missile Defense Complex in Deveselu, Romania. In preparation for construction of this key facility, site activation work totaling $3.3 million has taken place to ready the 269-acre site at Deveselu Air Base for the project. A Romanian contractor, SC Glacial PROD SRL, constructed temporary facilities including offices, containerized housing, a warehouse and vehicle inspection area in support of the U.S. Ballistic Missile Defense complex project. Key partners representing the U.S., Romania and NATO will officially break ground on the Aegis Ashore Missile Defense project Oct. 28. The Aegis Ashore site in Romania is scheduled to be operational in the 2015 time frame.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Neuse Plant & Bark is one of the largest growers of containerized plants in Eastern NC.

Greenwich Village, Manhattan

 

The American Seamen's Friend Society Sailors' Home and Institute was constructed in 1907-08 to the handsome neo-Classical style design of architect William A. Boring. He was formerly a partner in Boring & [Edward L.] Tilton, most noted as the firm that won the 1897 competition for new buildings at the U.S. Immigration Station on Ellis Island. The American Seamen's Friend Society (ASFS), established in New York City in 1828, was one of a number of nineteenth-century religious organizations concerned with improving the social and moral welfare of seamen throughout the U.S. and abroad. ASFS, which had operated a Sailors' Home near the East River docks from 1837 to 1903, purchased a lot in 1905 in Greenwich Village amidst the busiest section of the by then more active Hudson River waterfront. Half of the cost of the Sailors' Home and Institute was paid for by a grant from Olivia Sage, one of the world's wealthiest and most important philanthropic women.

 

The five-story (plus basement and partial sixth story) building, clad in brick and cast stone on its principal facades, is distinctively embellished with a polygonal comer tower, entrance portico, and nautical ornament. Called by the New York Times "the largest institution of its kind in the world," it was operated as a hotel with numerous amenities for seamen of the commercial merchant marine, as well as a home for indigent sailors, and was intended as an alternative to the waterfront "dives" and sailors' boardinghouses. After the luxury liner Titanic sank in 1912, surviving crew members received care here. In 1930-31, ASFS joined with the Young Men's Christian and Seamen's Christian Associations in building a new Seamen's House at 550 West 20th Street.

 

The American Seamen's Friend Society Sailors' Home and Institute building then became the Seamen's Relief Center annex, which provided free beds and meals to destitute seamen during the Depression and World War n. The property was officially conveyed in 1944 to the YMCA, which removed a beacon from the tower in 1946, symbolically signaling the end of its institutional history. Since then it has been a residential and transient hotel. The building stands out along the Hudson River waterfront as a significant reminder of the era when the Port of New York was one of the world's busiest and half a million seamen docked in the city each year.

 

American Seamen's Friend Society

 

The American Seamen's Friend Society (ASFS), formally established in New York City in May 1828, was one of a number of nineteenth-century religious organizations concerned with improving the social and moral welfare of seamen throughout the United States and abroad. It was part of the broader American evangelical reform movement, whose followers and organizations also distributed bibles and tracts, funded missionaries, and advocated temperance and abolition of slavery. In American seaport towns, the perceived vices of sailors in waterfront sections were seen as threats to the general moral order. ASFS was also genuinely concerned with the physical well-being of sailors, who were generally poor and exploited working-class men with specific job-related problems and needs.

 

The roots of ASFS were in the Brick Presbyterian Church; members began holding prayer meetings in 1816 on Water Street that were attended by large numbers of sailors, suggesting a need for an interdenominational church especially for them. The Marine Bible Society (1817) and the Society for Promoting the Gospel Among Seamen in the Port of New York (1818) supported the building of the first Mariners Church (1820), located on Roosevelt Street near the East River. Rev. John Truair of that church, who was also the founder of The Mariner's Magazine, called for a meeting in 1825 to plan for a national nonsectarian seamen's welfare association. The Hon. Smith Thompson, a Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court and a former Secretary of the Navy,2 was the first president of ASFS and Rev. Joshua Leavitt, a leading reformer and editor,3 was the first general agent. Most of its trustees were from the U.S. Navy and from other American port cities. ASFS was incorporated in 1833.

 

The goals of ASFS, as later stated, were "to improve the social, moral and religious condition of seamen; to protect them from imposition and fraud; to prevent them from becoming a curse to each other and the world; to rescue them from sin and its consequences, and to save their souls. ... [and] to sanctify commerce, an interest and a power in the earth, second only to religion itself, and make it everywhere serve as the handmaid of Christianity."4 The leaders of ASFS further desired to "enlist the seamen of America and the world in the foreign mission enterprise."5 The major activities of ASFS to effect those goals were the "founding of chaplaincies, building of Bethels, i.e., seamen's churches, ... promoting a mental and moral culture among seamen afloat by the Loan Library System, and philanthropic work, such as promoting Sailors' Homes, Mariners'

Houses, Institutes, Reading Rooms, Coffee Rooms, Shelters, and other places of a helpful character."6

 

In 1828, ASFS began publication of The Sailor's Magazine & Naval Journal; the first Seamen's Bethel Church was founded in 1829 in Honolulu; the first loan library began in 1833; and forty-two local ASFS chapters had been formed by 1834. Many of the trustees and officers of ASFS also presided over the Seamen's Bank for Savings, established in 1829 for the legitimate handling of sailors' wages. Later in the century, ASFS confined its work solely to seamen of the commercial merchant marine, rather than including sailors of the U.S. Navy.

 

In New York City and elsewhere, one of the main concerns of ASFS founders was the need for sailors' homes that offered alternatives to the "dives, dance halls, saloons, and the sailors' boarding houses" that lined the waterfront.7 A sailors' home in New York was planned as early as 1830, but it did not open until 1837 in a leased building at 140 Cherry Street near the East River docks. Two more homes, one for "colored seamen," were opened over the next three years. In 1841-42, ASFS built a new Sailors' Home at 190 Cherry Street, which was called by the organization "the first sailors' home in the United States to be erected and maintained by a welfare society."8

 

This building held sleeping quarters for around 300 sailors, as well as a bank, library, chapel, and reading, dining, and recreation rooms. The Annual Report of ASFS in 1879 referred to the "remodeling, enlargement and virtual rebuilding" of the facility, which was completed in 1880.9 The Sailors' Home was closed in 1903 and the property acquired by the city for the construction of the approach to the Manhattan Bridge. Although the Sailors' Home had accommodated over 128,000 seamen to that date, its usefulness in the old seaport neighborhood of the East River docks had lessened since the North (Hudson) River had become the more active waterfront. In January 1905, ASFS acquired a lot for a new home at the northeast corner of West and Jane Streets in Greenwich Village for $70,000.

 

The Port of New York and the Greenwich Village Waterfront

 

By the early nineteenth century, New York City developed as the largest port in the United States and in the early twentieth century emerged as one of the busiest ports in the world. In Manhattan, South Street along the East River had been the primary artery for maritime commerce, but West Street became a competitor in the 1870s and supplanted the former by about 1890. ASFS specifically chose a location that was the approximate midway point between Piers 1 and 91 that lined the busy North (Hudson) River waterfront. This site was also close to the nine Chelsea Piers (1902-10, Warren & Wetmore, demolished) then under construction, which were to be the docks of the great transatlantic liners for the "United States, Grace, Cunard White Star, Panama Pacific, and American Merchant" lines.10

 

This area was described in 1914 as "in the heart of the busiest section of the port, adjacent to the transatlantic liners, coast and gulf vessels, between Christopher and 23rd Streets, surrounded by 5,000 seamen of all nationalities" of the half a million seamen that came into the harbor each year.11 By 1939, the Federal Writers' Project's New York City Guide described this "most lucrative water-front property in the world" as follows:

 

Although the western rim of Manhattan is but a small section of New York's far-flung port, along it is concentrated the largest aggregate of marine enterprises in the world. Glaciers of freight and cargo move across this strip of ... water front. It is the domain of the super-liner, but it is shared by the freighter, the river boat, the ferry, and the soot-faced tug... Ships and shipping are not visible along much of West Street. South of Twenty-third Street, the river is walled by an almost unbroken line of bulkhead sheds and dock structures... Opposite the piers, along the entire length of the highway, nearly every block houses its quota of cheap lunchrooms, tawdry saloons and waterfront haberdasheries catering to the thousands of polyglot seamen who haunt the "front." Men "on the beach" (out of employment) usually make their headquarters in barrooms, which are frequented mainly by employees of lines leasing piers in their vicinity. 12

 

American Seamen' s Friend Society Sailors' Home and Institute 13

 

The ASFS Annual Report in 1905 stated that it had "under consideration a new place for the men, more modern and to meet local and the Society's needs."14 In April 1906, ASFS announced thatits new home was to be built to plans from the office of architects Boring and Tilton. The trustees of ASFS were concerned about constructing an expensive new building. Two months earlier, another organization, the Seamen's Church Institute, had unveiled plans to construct what it intended to be the world's largest sailors' home at Coenties Slip and South Street. In April 1907, however, ASFS received an unsolicited gift of $150,000 from Olivia Sage.

 

The widow of financier Russell Sage and one of the world's wealthiest and most important philanthropic women, she was a relative of Rev. Charles A. Stoddard, the president of ASFS.15 "Said to be the largest single gift for seamen's work up to that time,"16 it was given the same month that Olivia Sage created the Russell Sage Foundation.17 As quoted in the Mew York Times, Mrs. Sage requested that "the building [be] correct and adequate from the start."18

 

A rendering of the proposed American Seamen's Friend Society Sailors' Home and Institute appeared on the cover of the ASFS Annual Report of 1906 and in the Real Estate Record & Guide of July 13, 1907. The accompanying article in the latter journal stated that the building would accommodate about 250 men and be partly "modeled after the Mills Hotel."19 (Mills House (1896-97, Ernest Flagg), 160 Bleecker Street, had been built as a hotel for working men.) Reflecting the "institute" part of its name, the building would house various recreational and other amenities. By the end of July, the construction contract was awarded to Richard Deeves & Son. The building as originally proposed was to be clad in white granite on the ground story and light-colored brick and limestone above. The design featured a polygonal corner tower rising an additional story and surmounted by a beacon and a flagpole; a roof garden with pergolas; and a monumental round-arched entrance adjacent to the tower on the longer facade on Jane Street.

 

The cornerstone was laid on November 26,1907. A number of changes were made to the original design, such as the substitution of red brick, laid in English bond, and cast stone as the cladding materials of the principal facades, and buff brick elsewhere; elimination of the roof pergolas; construction of a rectangular entrance portico, with an entablature supported by pilasters and columns, and a straight stoop rather than a box stoop; and modifications to the overall decorative scheme.

 

The five-story (plus basement and partial sixth story) structure was built with iron-and-steel framing on concrete footings. The plan is arranged around an open light court above the second story. The completed building, called by ASFS "the first of its kind in the United States" and "the largest and finest building for seamen on the western Continent,"20 was dedicated and opened on October 7, 1908. The New York Times called it "the largest institution of its kind in the world," as well as a "handsome" building "which has all the appurtenances of a modern club."21 Nautical motifs that refer to ASFS are included on cartouches above the first story. The total cost, including the lot and furnishings, was around $300,000. During the dedication week, ASFS sponsored the first International Conference for Welfare Workers for Seamen. The building design appeared in the annual exhibition of the Architectural League of New York in 1908.22 George Jean Nathan, writing in Harper's Weekly in 1909, referred to it as "the greatest nonresident club in the world."23

 

The American Seamen's Friend Society Sailors' Home and Institute was operated as a hotel for seamen of all nationalities and ranks, as well as a free home for destitute, sick, or shipwrecked sailors. The different classes of seamen had separate quarters: there were 170 single rooms for sailors and firemen, thirty-two rooms for officers and engineers, and a dormitory with beds for twenty-four cooks and stewards. Amenities included a swimming pool, a bowling alley, and a restaurant in the basement; an auditorium/concert hall (for lectures, weekly concerts, and amateur theatricals), the general offices of ASFS, and rooms for reading, writing, and billiards on the first story; an interdenominational chapel (the "Church of the Sea" for daily evening prayers), officers' billiard rooms, and lounging rooms on the second story; as well as a bank, postal service, showers, library, laundry, cooperative clothing store, and baggage room.24 The tower, with an observatory and a polygonal beacon "whose light flashes a welcome up and down the river,"25 was planned to include a navigation school. The initial cost of lodging per night was 25 cents for seamen and 50 or 75 cents for officers; dinner cost 25 cents. The Sailors' Home and Institute was intended to provide "opportunities for rest and recreation among decent surroundings," an alternative "far different from the other hotels and lodging houses on the waterfront."26 It was reported that in the month of February 1909 nearly 16,000 sailors visited the building.27

 

Later History

 

ASFS considered its successful Sailors' Home and Institute "the most popular resort for seamen in the port... [and that it ] was also a model largely patterned after by other organizations who were building homes for seamen."31 After the luxury liner Titanic sank on its maiden voyage on April 15, 1912, surviving crew members carried by the Carpathia docked in New York at Pier 54 on April 18 and were brought to the Sailors' Home and Institute, where they received care and clothing. A memorial for the victims of the Titanic was held here on April 19.

 

By the 1920s, there were three seamen's welfare organizations near each other on the Greenwich Village-Chelsea waterfront: ASFS, the Young Men's Christian Association Merchant Seamen's Branch (established 1920), 525 West 23rd Street, and the Seamen's Christian Association (founded 1888), 399 West Street. The trustees of these agencies decided to cooperate rather than compete in mission and fundraising. In October 1928, ASFS made an agreement with the YMCA that it would sell its Sailors' Home and Institute building and turn over the proceeds for the construction of a new facility to be operated by the YMCA. The Seamen's Christian Association made a similar agreement.

 

The eight-story, million-dollar Seamen's House (1930-31, Shreve, Lamb & Harmon; plans by the Architectural Bureau of the National Council of the YMCA), 550 West 20th Street, was dedicated on November 2,1931. At that time, the American Seamen's Friend Society Sailors' Home and Institute building was officially closed. The three organizations participated in the program, administration, and staffing of the new building, which catered to the needs of the crews of the estimated 10,000 passenger and freight ships that docked in New York harbor each year.

 

The American Seamen's Friend Society Sailors' Home and Institute building, rather than being sold, soon became the Seamen's Relief Center annex, where free beds and meals were provided to indigent seamen during the Depression and World War n. The building was officially conveyed in 1944 to the YMCA, which removed the beacon from the tower in 1946, symbolically signaling the end of its institutional history. Since then it has been a privately-held residential and transient hotel. It was acquired in 1946 by the Jane-West Corp. and operated as the Jane-West Hotel. The property was transferred in 1951 to Benbar Associates, and in 1967 to Hotel Associates. It has recently been named the Riverview Hotel. From the 1930s until the present, the building has housed a series of commercial tenants, such as a lunchroom, a bar and grill, a theater, clubs, and union offices.

 

After 1960, with the introduction of containerized shipping and the accompanying need for large facilities (space for which could be accommodated in Brooklyn and New Jersey), the Manhattan waterfront rapidly declined as the center of New York's maritime commerce. In addition, airplanes replaced ocean liners carrying passengers overseas. Most of the piers and many buildings associated with Manhattan's maritime history have been demolished. ASFS disbanded its New York office in the 1970s. The American Seamen's Friend Society Sailors' Home and Institute building remains a significant reminder of the era when the Port of New York was one of the world's busiest and half a million seamen docked in the city each year.

 

Description

 

The five-story (plus basement and partial sixth story) neo-Classical style American Seamen's Friend Society Sailors' Home and Institute is located on the northeast corner of West and Jane Streets. The building is clad in red brick laid in English bond with cast-stone trim on its principal facades, and buff brick elsewhere. It is arranged with three-and-a-half bays along West Street and a six-bay pavilion along Jane Street (each bay on each facade having paired of windows on the upper three stories), that are connected to a polygonal corner tower, rising an additional story, and a first-story entrance portico located in front of a one-bay setback to the east of the tower. The plan is arranged around an open light court above the second story.

 

A partial sixth story and elevator bulkhead are located adjacent to (northeast of) the tower. The building is embellished by round-arched windows on the first story and rectangular windows above, most with patterned brick surrounds and/or keystones; a stringcourse or band course above the basement, at the first-story sill level, above the first story, at the second-story sill level, and above the fourth story; and patterned brick panels at the fifth story. The building is surmounted by a denticulated and modillioned cornice. The base of the building has recently been painted. Non-historic anodized aluminum windows have replaced original six-over-one or eight-over-one double-hung wood sash; those on the first story had multi-paned fanlights.

 

Non-historic security lights have been installed along the top of the base and above the cornice. West Street facade The base has an entrance at the north end with a molded surround and bracketed entablature (recently painted) and non-historic metal door; two openings covered by non-historic rolldown gates; and a basement entrance with stone steps and a non-historic metal door. The areaway has a non-historic metal railing set on a stone base, and wood bins. Two rondels are between the first-story arched windows. The first story is terminated by a molded band flanked by cartouches bearing fish, anchors, ropes, and buoys. Narrow windows are above the north-end entrance on the first through fourth stories. Jane Street facade The base has three entrances with non-historic metal doors and stone steps; two windows covered with mesh; one opening with louvers; an historic iron railing set on a stone base; and wood bins. Stone steps with a brick and concrete (recently painted) cheekwall and a metal mesh screen and gate, lead to a first-story entrance at the east end, which has a non-historic metal door and wood "parapet." The first-story round-arched windows are covered with wood and louvers.

 

Two banner flagpoles were recently placed to the east of the entrance portico. Tower The four-sided, six-story corner tower has a cornerstone on the base with the inscription "A.D. 1907"; three bracketed balconies above the first story; patterned brickwork and round-arched windows on the sixth story; and a secondary cornice and balustrade. The original polygonal, steel-framed and copper-clad beacon, surmounted by a large flagpole, was removed in 1946; presumably at the same time, an original iron railing was removed at the sixth story above the cornice. Three square openings in the base are covered by non-historic rolldown gates and wood. A non-historic security camera has been placed on the first story on West Street; a non-historic electrical connection/wireless antenna box is located between the comer and eastern balconies; and a non-historic neon sign hangs at the second story. Entrance portico The rectangular entrance portico is flanked by pilasters and columns that support an entablature surmounted by a balustrade ornamented by cartouches bearing anchors, ropes, and wreaths.

 

A non-historic metal sign with the inscription "Hotel Riverview" has been placed on the east side. Stone steps are flanked by historic curved decorative iron railings. The side walls of the portico frame brick-clad panels (recently painted). The entrance has a molded surround, double wood-and-glass doors, and multi-pane sidelights and transom. The ceiling of the portico is clad with Guastavino tiles.33 The portico is flanked by plaques with original decorative metal sconces. A non-historic curved fabric entrance canopy is supported by metal poles on the sidewalk. East wall The side wall, partially visible from the street, is clad in red and buff brick and has the returns of the cornice, band courses, and stringcourses, one bay of windows, an end chimney, and a fire escape. A non-historic security camera has been placed at the Jane Street corner.

 

- From the 2000 NYCLPC Landmark Designation Report

 

Love the bit about a "non-historic security camera."

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Guemes Channel. Dakota Creek Industries.

Coastal Standard carries palletized frozen product below decks with space for containerized or breakbulk cargo topside. Moving cargo on and off the ship is done by the sideport loading system built by TTS of Bergen, Norway.

SF Bay RR, 21 June 2018

 

The San Francisco Bay RR operates on the southeast side of San Francisco on and near the port. It uses two Alco S2 switchers that were built for the State Belt RR, later the San Francisco Belt RR, the line that served the piers of the Port of San Francisco for many years.

 

As shipping companies moved to containerization, the Port of Oakland became the big northern California container terminal and most of the piers of the Port of San Francisco were abandoned or converted to uses other than marine freight, so the SF Belt RR found itself out of a job. After 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake damaged the Embarcadero Freeway, which had run over the SF Belt for most of its length, the freeway was removed, opening up San Francisco's waterfront and much of the Belt's trackage as converted for use by the Muni F line, which runs historic streetcars to Fishermen's Wharf, and the Muni lines that now server the Caltrain station.

 

Meanwhile, Pier 96, near Hunter's Point was converted to a container facility and the railroad's operations survived there. The line was renamed the San Francisco Bay RR and continued to use Alco S2s 23 and 25 to switch its customers.

 

Today, the railroad's main business is transloading dirty dirt from constructions and clean up sites in the Bay Area from trucks to railcars. It is owned by Waste Solutions Group, which also owns a fleet of hopper cars. The SF Bay and UP interchange on an as needed basis, with UP's South City job running into the SF Bay's yard on Cargo Way with empties and taking away loads.

 

A couple of railfans, Ryan and Ben, work for the railroad and Ryan invited me to come by for a visit. I had stopped by one afternoon a couple of years ago, and lucked out to see an S2 running around the yard a bit, but the railrroad usually goes on duty betweeen 4 and 5 am, switches cars for a few hours and then is done for the day. So, a visit to the SF Bay from Sacramento entailed a night in a hotel. It took a few tries for me to get time off from work scheduled on the same day the railroad was running.

 

Eventually, it all lined up and my alarm went off at 0315 at a hotel in Daly City, just south of the SF city limit.

 

I was at the yard by 4 and met Ben, who went out and started Alco 23. 25 is out of service with a bad bearing on the radiator fan drive shaft. Ryan explained that the SF Belt had done a jerry rigged repair of the shaft at some point and it was never documented, so nobody knew about the bearing until it failed. As a new low emission unit will be delivered in the next few months, there is no reason to repair 25. 25 will be put on display somewhere, perhaps near the Ferry Building, while 23 will be held as backup for the new unit.

 

But for now, an S2 built in 1944 is doing the job it was built to do. If you think about it, that is as though the Virginia and Truckee had still been using the Reno and Genoa during WW2.

 

Shorty after I got there, Ben went out and fired up the 23. It has a block heater, so it started easily with a puff of white smoke. He did an inspection of the engine, including checking the journal boxes. We then went back into the office and waited for Ryan, brakeman Johnny, and engineer Nick to arrive. The crew plotted their switching moves for the day. Ryan, who is yard operations manager, suggested that I get some blue hour photos from the ground as empties were switched and then we rode 23 while they switched loads.

 

Each car has dirt from one particular construction site and the dirt from sites cannot be mixed as different sites will have different contamination. UP ships it to a dump site in Nevada, where it is processed. Ryan explained that sometimes they can use dividers in a car to separate dirt from different projects if there is not that much.

 

Right now transshipping dirty dirt is the SF Bay's only business, but there a couple of other industries are interested in bringing new business. The line that crosses the Illinois St. bridge has been out of service for a couple of years as there currently no customers north of Islais Creek.

 

We rode the S2 for a while after the day brightened, then got down and Ryan drove me around in a company car to get some more angles as they switched. He then had other work to do and I shot the end of 23's work day as well as 25, some spare Alco parts and another project of Waste Solutions, goats that are leased out for natural weed control. Ryan said that since Waste Solutions got more cars, they can't use their goats as much for weed control in the yard as most of the yard tracks are occupied.

 

The crew called it a day for switching about 0800 and then would be doing other work in the yard for the rest of their work day.

 

All of these photos were taken with permission after signing a release and while wearing required PPE.

 

I want to than Ryan, Ben, Johnny and Nick for their hospitality. I had a great time.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

1104, 1431 & CM3314 lead QUBE containerized grain service 5164 through Flemington Goods Junction.

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

In 2021, The Air Force Research Laboratory and ABL Space Systems partnered with operators from the 2nd Space Launch Squadron and 412th Test Wing at Edwards Air Force Base, California to demonstrate how launch systems can be operated rapidly by small teams from nontraditional sites. AFWERX, part of AFRL, brought together players from across the national security space enterprise for this rapid rocket launch concept of operations demonstration. The complete test campaign, from training to full operations with cryogenic rocket propellants, validated the strong training base and capability of U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force active-duty personnel in conducting liquid rocket CONOPS and fielding of novel deployable systems.

Meatpacking District, Manhattan

 

669-685 Hudson Street (AKA 22-36 Ninth Avenue And 355-361 West 13th Street) Herring Building

 

Ownership History (formerly lots 1 and 2) Col. Silas Clark and Caroline S. Tarbell Herring John and Alida R. Pettit Henry Jotham and Mary A. Gates Newton Stephen Philbin Estate (foreclosure) 14" Street and Ninth Avenue Corp. (John J. Gillen, James S. Maher) Produce Center Realty Corp. City Bank Farmers Trust Co. (foreclosure) Monash Family (Samuel, Alexander, Louis, Rose, Paul, Lillian, Rebecca) David Ellis Commercial Tenants Herring Safe &Lock Co.1 Herring, Fanel& Sherman1 Herring & Co. (1849-83); Martha Washington Flour Co. (1889); William Adams, fruit (1889); Joseph Mallard, fruit (1889); Vetelli & Vaccheri, grocers (1889); James Hughes, produce (1889); Hugh Reilly, produce (1889); John Higgins, liquor (1891); Martin Early, saloon (1892); William Ehlers, saloon (1897-1905); Osborn Mfg. Co., cages (1901-02); Frederick M. Beakes Specialty Co., grocer (1902); John J. Tarlton, grocer (1902); Hefner Gilding Co. (1904); William F. Lubbert, beer (1905-09); Horace E. Demorest, butter (1906-42); Winfield Mapes, butter, eggs, cheese (1906-08); William F. Bourke, butcher (1912); Louis J. Sice, restaurant (19 12); Charles Moewes, restaurant (1913- 17); Frederick Knippenberg, caf6 (1916-42); Elite Specialty Metal Co. (1928-33); Kleinhardt Hardware Co.1 Kleinhardt, Inc.1 Willets Mfg. Co., push carts (1929-70); Elson Express Co. (1929); Hyvis Motor Oil Co. (1929); Chelsea Wire Works (1929-38); Georgette Hat Co. (1929); Modern Office Devices (1929-42); R-X Filing Co. (1929); Charles H. Breese, William F. Clifford, provisions (1929-33); Brook Valley1 Oakleigh Farms (1929-42); Nathan Zarkower, butter and eggs (1929-42); Market Restaurant (1933-70); L.I. Transport Co. (1933); Acme Machine & Motor Co. (1933); Ballard's Motor Transportatin Co. (1933); Brut's Motor Service/Express (1933-42); Elson Trucking Co. (1933-42); M.S. Abraham, provisions (1936-38); Premier Rubber Mfg. Co. (1942); Merchants Trucking Co. (1942); Edwin Elevator Co. (1942-65); Apex Provision Co. (1946); E.F. Kaiser Co., engineering (1946-93); Majestic Elevator Co. (1946); Tricomi Machine & Mfg. Co. (1946); Cherra China, decorators (1946); Triangle Bar & Grill (1946-65); Leib & Mendell355 Meat Co., wholesale meats (1950-70); Brown & Langer, pickle products (1950); Marvin Ellis Co.1 Silk Screen Process Co., displays (1950-65); Syn-Craft Display Studios (1950); James Fancelli, produce (1955); Allied Wood Products (1959); Tele-Sound Corp. (1959); Dic Concrete Corp. (1965); Buy-Rite/ Chelsea Locksmith (1970); Circle Elevator Co. (1970-75); Ambassador Hotel Supply Co. (1970); Hudson General Concrete Co. (1970); Jumper Plumbing & Heating Corp. (1970-75); Jersey-Cursley Communications, Inc. (1975); Liberty Meats (1975); Funny Farm Restaurant, Inc. (1975-93); Metropolitan Community Church of New York (1980); Triangle, Barn, Attic, Sewer, J's Hangout, gay clubs; Hellfire, club (1971-2002); Two Flags Butcher Supplies (1986-93); Hog Pit, restaurant (1995-2003)

 

History

 

In 1849, Col. Silas C. Herring purchased this triangular-shaped parcel of land from Joseph Harrison. Herring (1803-1881), born in Vermont, moved to New York City in 1834 and launched a downtown grocery business that was wiped out in the fire of 1835. In 1841, Herring became the agent for inventor Enos Wilder's "Salamander" safe, a type of fireproof, plaster-of-Paris-lined metallic safe. Herring bought the sole manufacturing rights in 1844. He profitably manufactured and marketed the safes with shrewd advertising, making him "one of the foremost manufacturers in the country," according to the New York Times. Herring's first factories were located on Water and Washington Streets.

 

Based on tax records, this factory building was constructed immediately after his purchase of the land in 1849. A photograph c. 1854 by Victor Prevost shows that only the southern two-thirds of the five-story factory was standing at that time; another building was located to the north. Herring's building was covered by painted advertising signs. At some point prior to 1860, the northern portion of the factory was constructed. The building then had a pedimented parapet and central belvedere. The name of the firm changed by 1870 to Herring, Farrel& Sherman.

 

In the 1870s, the firm expanded to a second factory, across Hudson Street at No. 666.

 

After Clark's death, the structure was very briefly held in 1884 by J.D. Eldridge and converted to a store-and-loft building (Alt. 193-1884, Joseph Esterbrook, Jr., architect). It was probably at this time that the cornice and storefront cornice were added. The property was acquired in 1884 by John Petit, a major figure in New York real estate, as head of John Pettit Realty Co. and owner of the Bennett Building and other valuable downtown buildings (who mysteriously disappeared in 1898). The Herring Building was next purchased by Henry J. Newton (1823-1895), a former New York piano maker (1849-58) and president of the Henry-Bonnard Bronze Co., architectural and artistic bronzework, who also owned 339-349 West 13th Street (east of the historic district). Newton became a millionaire through his investments in New York real estate.

 

His experiments in photography, his hobby, led to his being called the "father of the dry-plate process in America." Newton was struck and killed by a Broadway streetcar in 1895. The Herring Building was foreclosed in 1898 and acquired by the Estate of lawyer Stephen Philbin. In 1923, the old "Chelsea Landmark" was sold to the 14'~S treet and Ninth Avenue Corp., whose principals were architect James S. Maher and developer John J. Gillen [see Architects Appendix, and 401-403 and 413-435 West 141h Street]. In 1927, when the new owner was the Produce Center Realty Corp., the basement had a restaurant and bowling alley, the ground story had stores, and the upper floors were used for manufacturing. The City Bank Farmers Trust Co. held the property for ten years after its foreclosure in 1934; it was sold in 1944 to the Monash family, who retained it for nearly thirty years.

 

The building, until just recently, has been known for its clubs over the last three decades, and was featured in the movie "The Hours" in 2002.

 

This vernacular1 neo-Grec style factory building, which is largely intact, contributes to the historically-mixed architectural character and varied uses - including industrial and market-related functions -of the Gansevoort Market fistoric District. Built c. 1849, with the northern section added by 1860, it is the earliest extant purpose-built industrial building in the first phase of development of the historic district. It further contributes to the visual cohesion of the district through its unusual triangular shape and placement at a very prominent and wide intersection, and through its three brick and stone facades and late-19"-century cornice.

 

----About the district----

 

The Gansevoort Market Historic District - consisting of 104 buildings - is distinctive for its architectural character which reflects the area's long history of continuous, varied use as a place of dwelling, industry, and commerce, particularly as a marketplace, and its urban layout. The buildings, most dating from the 1840s through the 1940s, represent four major phases of development, and include both purpose-built structures, designed in then-fashionable styles, and those later adapted for market use. The architecture of the district tells the story of an important era in New York City's history when it became the financial center of the country and when its markets were expanding to serve the metropolitan region and beyond. Visual cohesion is provided to the streetscapes by the predominance of brick as a facade material; the one- to six-story scale; the presence of buildings designed by the same architects, a number of them prominent, including specialists in market-related structures; the existence of metal canopies originally installed for market purposes; and the Belgian block paving still visible on most streets. The street layout is shaped by the transition between the irregular pattern of northwestern Greenwich Village (as far north as Gansevoort Street) and the grid of the 1811 Commissioner's Plan. Unusually large and open intersections contribute to the area's unique quality, particularly where Ninth Avenue meets West 14'~S treet and Gansevoort Street (which was widened in l887), and provide sweeping vistas that showcase the unusual building typology and mixed-use quality of the district. Aside from Tribeca, the Gansevoort Market Historic District is the only remaining marketplace district that served the once-flourishing Hudson River commercial waterfront.

 

The earliest buildings in the historic district date from the period between 1840 and 1854, most built as rowhouses and town houses, several of which soon became very early working-class tenements (all eventually had stores on the ground floor). The area's early mixed use, however, is evident in the rare surviving early factory building (c. 1849-60), on a flatiron-shaped lot, for Col. Silas C. Herring, a nationally significant manufacturer of safes and locks, at 669-685 Hudson Street.

 

This mixed use, consisting of single-family houses, multiple dwellings, and industry was unusual for the period. The stretch of Ninth Avenue between Gansevoort and West 15' Streets, albeit altered and interrupted with later additions, offers the vista of a distinctive Manhattan streetscape featuring twenty buildings of the 1840s: the rowhouses at Nos. 3-7 (c. 1849) and Nos. 21-27 (c. 1844-46), the Herring factory, and culminating in the rare, picturesque ensemble of twelve rowhouses and town houses, Nos. 44-60 Ninth Avenue and 351-355 West 14th Street (c. 1841-46), at the wide, angled intersection with Hudson and West 14" Streets. Another business from this period was the woodworking factory of the prominent building firm of James C. Hoe & Co. (c. 1850-54) at 52-58 Gansevoort Street (later altered).

 

After the Civil War, the area began to flourish commercially as New York City solidified its position as the financial center of the country, and construction resumed in the district in 1870. Two major businesses located here were A.H. Wellington's Merchants' Print Works (1 874, S. W. Johnson), cotton printers at 416-418 West 14" Street (later altered); and the Italianate style Centennial Brewery (1876, John B. Snook) at 409-41 1 West 14' Street.

 

The bulk of the buildings in the district date from the 1880s through the 1920s and were designed in then-popular historical revival styles. Residential and commercial development, including a variety of building types, was particularly spurred in the 1880s by two major factors. The first was the creation of two nearby municipal markets: the open-air Farmers' or Gansevoort Market (1 879), for regional produce, at Gansevoort and Washington Streets (adjacent to the historic district), and the West Washington Market (1889), for meat, poultry, and dairy products, on the river side of West Street. From the 1880s until World War II, wholesale produce, fruit, groceries, dairy products, eggs, specialty foods, and liquor (until Prohibition) were among the dominant businesses within the district in response to the adjacent markets, particularly along Gansevoort, Little West 12', and Washington Streets. The first of the two-story, purpose-built market buildings in the district were erected in 1880. These vernacular and neo-Grec style structures typified the low-rise market buildings constructed in the district over the next 90 years: produce (or, later, meat) handling on the ground story, shielded by a metal canopy over the sidewalk, and offices on the second story.

 

Commercial construction during this period, which represents the highest percentage of the district's varied yet distinctive building stock, included not only low-rise purpose-built market buildings, but also, in a variety of period styles, stables buildings, and five- and six-story store-and-loft buildings and warehouses were constructed to house and serve these businesses. The warehouses, in particular, are among the most monumental structures in the district.

 

The second factor spurring development within the historic district was the 1878 partition of real estate owned by the Astor family, which had remained underdeveloped since John Jacob Astor 1's acquisition in 1819. Of the 104 buildings in the district, over one-third of them were constructed by the Astors and related family members. Astor improvements included the market buildings at 823-833 Washington Street and 32-36 Little West 12" Street (1880, Joseph M. Dunn, James Stroud); the distinguished Queen Anne style French flats building (with stores) at 440 West 14" Street (1887, James W. Cole), the block-long Queen Anne style produce market building at 859- 877 Washington Street (1887, Cole), and the handsome Romanesque Revival style stables building (1893, Thomas R. Jackson) for the New York Biscuit Co. (later Nabisco), the world's largest supplier of crackers, at 439-445 West 14" Street. A number of other prominent owners also invested in real estate here and began to develop their properties: the Goelet family constructed the unusual flatiron-shaped store-and-loft building at 53-61 Gansevoort Street (1887, Dunn), which housed E.S.

 

Burnham & Co., clam canners; James AlfredRoosevelt owned the warehouse at 400 West 14thS treet (1886, Dunn); and former New York Mayor Hugh J. Grant developed the neo-Romanesque style warehouses (1 899-1900, George P. Chappell) at 97-103 Horatio Street. The Astors and other owners gave several commissions to architects Joseph M. Dunn, who designed seven buildings in the district, and James W. Cole, who designed three buildings in the district. These multiple commissions in the then-fashionable neo-Grec or Queen Anne styles contribute to the district's visual cohesion.

 

Between 1897 and 1935, nearly the entire block bounded by Gansevoort, Horatio, Washington, and West Streets was developed with a handsome neo-Classical style ensemble in tan brick, by noted architects Lansing C. Holden, J. Graham Glover, and John B. Snook Sons, that included a power plant and nine cold storage warehouses for the Manhattan Refrigerating Co. (incorporated 1894). The company was responsible for installing the system of underground pipes that carried refrigeration to market-related structures throughout the district by about 1906. This infrastructure, along with the completion by the N.Y.C. Dept. of Docks of the nearby Gansevoort Piers (1894-1902) and Chelsea Piers (1902-10, with Warren & Wetmore), docks for the great trans- Atlantic steamships (and the busiest section of New York's port), had profound impacts on the district. The distribution of wholesale meat, poultry, and seafood, particularly for hotels, restaurants, and steamships, emerged as an important business throughout the district, resulting in new construction as well as bringing new uses to existing buildings. Some companies were subsidiaries of major national meatpackers, while other independent firms were among the nation's largest.

 

The underground refrigeration system, the new piers, and the emergence of new uses relating to the burgeoning hotel and steamship industry further triggered the 20th-century construction and architectural change and flexibility that has shaped the character of the Gansevoort Market Historic District. Typically, commercial redevelopments of neighborhoods in New York City involved the demolition of earlier buildings for structures housing new uses. However, one of the district's unique qualities is that earlier buildings were retained and altered to market uses. Earlier examples include the Centennial Brewery (409-41 1 West 14" Street), converted to meat, produce, and dairy use in 1901, and 21-27 Ninth Avenue, rowhouses adapted in 1923-24 as meat market buildings.

 

Over the years, the Astors continued their policy of high-quality architectural commissions by hiring distinguished architects known for their significant public, commercial, and residential buildings, such as the neo-Classical style offices and printing plant (1901-02, Trowbridge & Livingston) of P.F. Collier & Son, publisher of books and the nationally-known magazine Collier's, at 416-424 West 13' Street; the neo-Romanesque style liquor warehouse at 29-35 Ninth Avenue (1902-03, Boring & Tilton); and the Arts and Crafts style warehouse building (1913, LaFarge, Morris & Cullen) at 5 Little West 1 2 '~S treet.

 

The completion of the Holland Tunnel (1927), the elevated Miller Highway (1931), and the New York Central Railroad's elevated freight railway (1934) providedeasier access between the area and the metropolitan region and spurred another major phase of new low-rise construction and the functional conversion of existing buildings for market use in the district. New structures included the earlyInternationa1 style General Electric Co. annex (1929-30, Lockwood Greene Engineers, Inc.) at 414 West 14' Street, and the Moderne style John Morrell & Co. meat market building (1936-37, H. Peter Henschien) at 446-448 West 14'~S treet. The unusually wide Gansevoort Street assumed its distinctive character of low-rise market buildings with metal canopies at this time, through such new construction as the fruitlproduce market building (1938-39, Charles H. Stadler) at No. 46-50, and the Moderne style R&L Restaurant (1949), at No.69, and newly adapted structures, including No. 52-58 (formerly James C. Hoe & Co.), altered as a market building in 1937, and No. 60-68 (1880-81 tenements), reduced to a two-story market building in 1940.

 

By World War II, poultry- and meat- packing had consolidated as the main commercial activity within the district. Maritime commerce along the Hudson River waterfront declined by the 1960s, however, with the end of the ocean liner era and the rise of containerized shipping. Changes in the meat and poultry industries meant a lessening presence in this area. The Manhattan Refrigerating Co. closed in 1979 and its buildings were subsequently converted to apartments.

 

The completion of several more transportation and development projects (most located outside the historic district) in the 1930s spurred another major phase of new low-rise construction and functional conversion for market use of existing buildings within the historic district. Easier access was provided between the market area and the metropolitan region. The construction of the elevated Miller Highway (1929-3 1) necessitated the displacement of some produce and meat and poultry merchants in both the Gansevoort and West Washington Markets, including the demolition of several buildings at the latter. The Port of New York Authority built the Union Inland Terminal No. 1 (1931-32, Abbott, Merkt & Co.), a unified truck-rail terminal (modeled functionally after the Starrett-Lehigh Building), just northeast of the district and occupying the entire block at Ninth Avenue and West 15" Street.

 

The New York Central Railroad's elevated freight railway (193 1-34) passed through some thirty buildings on its route southward to the new St. John's Park Freight Terminal at West and Clarkson Streets. This railway also used part of the Gansevoort Market site, and additionally, the City constructed a meat processing plant on the market site (1939). The Lincoln Tunnel (1937) provided a second automotive route to New Jersey. The Ninth Avenue el, which ran through the district, was demolished (c. 1940); streetcar tracks located below the el had been taken up in 1936.

 

The first new purpose-built low-scale (one-story) market building in the historic district was 14-20 Little West 12" Street (1928, John B. Snook Sons), for the Wendel family and used initially by produce merchants. The P.F. Collier & Son building at 416-424 West 13" Street became a warehouse of the General Electric Co. in 1929; an early International style annex (1929-30, Lockwood Greene Engineers, Inc.) was constructed next door at 414 West 14" Street. Owned by Vincent Astor, this was the last of the Astor improvements within the district. 13 and 15 Little West 12' Street (1933, Martin Smith) were one-story fruit market buildings. Designed in the Moderne style were the John Morrell & Co. meat market building (1936-37, H. Peter Henschien) at 446-448 West 14th Street; the meat market building at 837-843 Washington Street (1938, David M. Oltarsh); and the fruitlproduce market building at 46-50 Gansevoort Street (1938-39, Charles H. Stadler).

 

Built at a time when the growing prevalence of the automobile resulted in the predominance of new market types throughout the U.S. (such as drive-in markets, chain grocery stores, and supermarkets), these buildings are rare and late examples of the older market building typology.34 Many of the buildings in the district that were architecturally adapted for market functions were properties acquired through foreclosure at the height of the Depression. Most of these buildings were functionally maximized at two stories (vacant, formerly residential, upper stories were no longer necessary): the lower story was refrigerated for produce or meat use and the upper story held offices. The unusually wide Gansevoort Street assumed its distinctive character of low-rise market buildings with metal canopies at this time, largely through such newly-adapted structures, including the vernacular style No. 52-58 (formerly James C. Hoe & Co.), altered as a fruit and produce market building in 1937 (S. Walter Katz); the neo-Grec style No. 60-68 (five 1880-81 tenements), reduced to a two-story market building in 1940 (Voorhees, Walker, Foley & Smith); and No. 7 1-73 (aka 8 17- 821 Washington Street) (three 1886-87 Queen Anne style French flats buildings), reduced to three stories in 1940 for use as a meat market building. The neo-Grec and utilitarian style 823-833 Washington Street and neo-Grec style 32-36 Little West 12" Street, 1880 two-story market buildings, were also altered in 1940-41 for meat merchants.

 

By World War II, poultry- and meat- packing had consolidated as the main commercial activity throughout the district. The opening of the Queens Live Poultry Terminal Market (1941) caused poultry dealers to move from the West Washington Market, replaced in part by produce merchants. The creation in 1950 of the Gansevoort Market Meat Center on the site of Gansevoort Market and the demolition of the remaining West Washington Market buildings, with the associated displacement of the businesses at both locations, hastened changes within the district. In 1959, the Gansevoort Market area was referred to in the New York Times as "the largest meat and poultry receiving market in the world. In the district, 408-412 West 13" Street (1941, Charles N. & Selig Whinston) was a new two-story market building used by hides/skins and meat businesses, while 36- 40 Gansevoort Street (aka 831-835 Greenwich Street) (1947-48, Horace Ginsbern & Assocs.), for poultry businesses, was the last new purpose-built market building in the district. The Moderne style R & L Restaurant (1949), 69 Gansevoort Street, resulted from the alteration of a three-story house.

 

Alterations associated with conversions to meat market uses included 809-813 Washington Street (aka 70-74 Gansevoort Street) (1940-42, Voorhees, Walker, Foley & Smith), a freight trucking depot altered in 1950; 402-404 and 406 West 13th Street (1840s rowhouses) altered in1950 and 1955 (Abraham L. Seiden); and 15 and 13 Little West 12" Street (c. 1961 and 1969 additions, bylattributed to Seiden).

 

Today, the Gansevoort Market Historic District is a vibrant neighborhood of remaining meatpackers, high-end retail commerce, restaurants, offices, clubs, galleries, and apartments, that retains, despite recent changes, a strong and integral sense of place as a market district, due to its distinctive streetscapes, metal canopies, notable buildings, both purpose-built and those adapted over the years for market use, and unusual street pattern with its Belgian block paving.

 

- From the 2003 NYCLPC Landmark Designation Report

Port of Oakland

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Asbestos asphalt floor tile rendered friable by aggressive manual scraping removal method.

 

Not all asbestos floor tile were created equal, where asphalt-based tile appear to disintegrate more readily than vinyl-based tile, and in shard-like fragments.

 

Perhaps an example of how NOT to remove asbestos-containing floor tile, activities in this work area were promptly halted; application of wetting-agent adequately administered, and waste debris promptly containerized.

Its been a while since the containerized biomass has ran to Ironbridge 66 761 runs past Ruckley Sidings in late afternoon winter sun with the empty containers 4F01 from Ironbridge

Batuwangala Maha Vidyalaya's students participated for their annual excursion from 03.08.2009 to 07.08.2009.This event was organized by the Buddhist Association of the college and was proposed at the English literary Association.The whole plan was to cover the most impotent places of the Sri Lankan culture.The late Kingdoms of ancient Sri lanka was given priority.We left the school early morning at about 3am of 03.08.2009 and traveled through Mathugama,Horana,Aththanagalla and reached to Dambulla area by 2pm.We had the day one break fast near Horana.We first visited the ' Namal Uyana temple near Dambulla,Sri Lanka.This temple was a full of collections of pictures.

The pictures were about the misbehavior of the people in this birth and consequences of the deeds when they enter the next birth.It was put in to pictures in a way kind of calling to one to refrain from bad deeds.Students were awarded of the Eight fold path way revealed by Loard Bhudhdha and the statues of the temple was very helpful to depict.After taking the lunch of the day one @ the same temple we left for Dambulla Rock temple.

 

Dambulla Rock temple is more impotent to Art Students coz of its wall paintings.Dambulla temple is one of the masters peace of Buddhist Rock cravings and the watershed technologies used by the ancient people.All the students climbed up to the caves and worshiped there.there after We left for Anuradhapura where our day one accommodations were readied.The Night meal was cooked by the accompanied parents with the help of teachers and Senior Girls.Senior Boys were divided in to groups and assigned duties Accordingly.The parents woke up early morning with teachers and again prepared breakfast and lunch all together.We server break fast and containerized the Lunch.We left the technical College of Anuradhapura At about 7.30am And reached to the Isurumuniya Raja Maha Viharaya by 10 minutes traveling.

 

Isurumuniya is another impotent place for Sinhala Buddhist.there is a 6th Century Gupta style carving. The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless."

The figures may represent The Great King Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

 

After the Isurumuniya we left for 'mirisaweliya' next to it.Mirisawetiya was built by the great King Dutugamunu who reigned during the time (161-137 BC) and united Sri Lanka under a single flag.

 

It is believed that King Dutugamunu had a sceptre that contained a scared relic of the Buddha. While going to the tank “Tissawewa”, for a water festival, the King has planted the scepter in a certain place. When he came back, it is said that his men could not remove the scepter from the place.

 

Witnessing the miracle, the King decided to build a dagaba enclosing the scepter. Thus was the creation of Mirisawetiya.

 

The significance of the scepter is the fact that this was the king's "victory scepter" for his battles with Elara, and by building the Dagaba around it shows the tremendous dedication that the King had for Buddhism and his spirituality.Mirisawetiya was the first dagaba built by the great king Dutugamunu.

 

After that we left for Ruwanweli Saya.The Ruwanwelisaya is a stupa in Sri Lanka, considered a marvel for its architectural qualities and sacred to many Buddhists all over the world. It was built by King Dutugemunu, who became lord of all Sri Lanka after a war in which the Chola King Elara, were defeated. It is also known as Mahathupa, Swarnamali Chaitya and Rathnamali Dagaba.

 

The stupa is also one of the Solosmasthana (the 16 places of veneration) and the Atamasthana (the 8 places of veneration in the ancient sacred city of Anuradhapura). The stupa is one of the world's tallest monuments, standing at 300 ft (92 m) and with a circumference of 950 ft (292 m).

 

Then we left for Jaya Shi Maha Bodhiya.The 'Bo' ( 'Bodhi') tree or Pipal (ficus religiosa) was planted as a cutting brought from India by by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some point after 236 BC. Guardians have kept uninterrupted watch over the tree ever since. There are other Bo trees around the Sir Maha Bodhi which stands on the highest terrace. In April a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the tree with milk. Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious.

After the Sri Maha Bhodiya we vent to worship Thuparamaya.Thera Mahinda him self had introduce Theravada Buddhism and also chetiya worship to Sri Lanka. At his request King Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya in which was enshrined the collarbone of the Buddha and is considered as the first dagaba built in Sri Lanka, after the introduction of Buddhism. This is considered the earliest monument of chronicled Sri Lanka. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

 

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy. This dagaba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagaba, done in 1862 AD. As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft (18 m), at the base. The dome is 11 feet 4 inches (3.45 m) in height from the ground, 164½ ft (50.1 m) in diameter. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagaba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagaba.

 

After that we went to see Sandakadapahana.The Best of the Moon Stones we have in Sri Lanka is the one which is at the entrance to the palace of King Mahasen. According to Dr. Senarath Paranawithana, there is a deep philosophy underlying these carvings found in this Moon Stone.

 

We can clearly see the Hindu influence on the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa . In the Moonstones of Anuradhapura , among the animals carved out was an ox. Hindus consider the oxen as sacred. Hence we do not see the ox in the Moon Stones of Polonnaruwa.

Then we moved to see the Samadhi Statue.Samadhi statue is a statue situated at Mahamevuna Park in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture. The statue is 8 feet in height and made of granite and the Dhyana mudra is symbolished - The posture of meditation in which Buddha sits in the cross - legged position with upturned palms, placed one over the other on the lap.

 

Then we visited"kuttam Pokuna".One of the best specimen of bathing tanks or pools in ancient Sri Lanka is the pair of pools known as "Kuttam Pokuna" (Twin Ponds/Pools). The said pair of pools were built by the Sinhalese in the ancient kingdom of Anuradhapura. These are considered one of the significant achievements in the field of hydrological engineering and outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

A garden was landscaped which separates the two ponds which in length is 18 1/2 ft. The larger pool of the two is 132ft by 51 ft, while the smaller pool is 91ft by 51 ft. The depths of the two pools is 14ft and 18ft for the smaller pool and the larger pool respectively.

The faces of the pools were cut granite slabs which includes the bottom and the sides of the pool. A wall was also built around the pool which encloses the compound. Flights of steps are seen on both ends of the pool decorated with punkalas, or pots of abundance and scroll design. Embankments were constructed to enable monks to bathe using pots or other utensils. Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

 

Dr. Senerath Paranavithana was actively involved in the restoration of the ponds, in which small figures of fish, a conch, a crab and a dancing woman were found in the bottom.

With kuttampokuna we left the Ancient city Anuradhapura.Students wanted to have there Lunch on a Tank Dam.So we had our day two lunch on the dam of Nuwara wewa,Anuradhapura.But before lunch we did not forget to feel the breeze and the cold of the water.

By 2 pm day two we finished the Anuradhapura Visiting and left for Sigiriya.Student were curious and active.They took just 1hour to climb up to the Sigiya.Sigiriya (Lion's rock) is an ancient rock fortress and palace ruin situated in the central Matale District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by the remains of an extensive network of gardens, reservoirs, and other structures. A popular tourist destination, Sigiriya is also renowned for its ancient paintings (frescos), which are reminiscent of the Ajanta Caves of India. The Sigiriya was built during the reign of King Kassapa I (AD 477 – 495), and it is one of the seven World Heritage Sites of Sri Lanka.

Sigiriya may have been inhabited through prehistoric times. It was used as a rock-shelter mountain monastery from about the 5th century BC, with caves prepared and donated by devotees to the Buddhist Sangha. The garden and palace were built by King Kasyapa. Following King Kasyapa's death, it was again a monastery complex up to about the 14th century, after which it was abandoned. The ruins were discovered in 1907 by British explorer John Still. The Sigiri inscriptions were deciphered by the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana in his renowned two-volume work, published by Oxford, Sigiri Graffiti. He also wrote the popular book "Story of Sigiriya".

 

The Mahavamsa, the ancient historical record of Sri Lanka, describes King Kasyapa as the son of King Dhatusena. Kasyapa murdered his father by walling him alive and then usurping the throne which rightfully belonged to his brother Mogallana, Dhatusena's son by the true queen. Mogallana fled to India to escape being assassinated by Kasyapa but vowed revenge. In India he raised an army with the intention of returning and retaking the throne of Sri Lanka which he considered was rightfully his. Knowing the inevitable return of Mogallana, Kasyapa is said to have built his palace on the summit of Sigiriya as a fortress and pleasure palace. Mogallana finally arrived and declared war. During the battle Kasyapa's armies abandoned him and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Chronicles and lore say that the battle-elephant on which Kasyapa was mounted changed course to take a strategic advantage, but the army misinterpreted the movement as the King having opted to retreat, prompting the army to abandon the king altogether. Moggallana returned the capital to Anuradapura, converting Sigiriya into a monastery complex.

 

Alternative stories have the primary builder of Sigiriya as King Dhatusena, with Kasyapa finishing the work in honour of his father. Still other stories have Kasyapa as a playboy king, with Sigiriya a pleasure palace. Even Kasyapa's eventual fate is mutable. In some versions he is assassinated by poison administered by a concubine. In others he cuts his own throat when isolated in his final battle. Still further interpretations have the site as the work of a Buddhist community, with no military function at all.

 

We did not miss the beauty of sigiriya and to have some pictures of it.After the Sigiriya we Finished day two.Our day two Accommodation was ready @ Royal college Polonnaruwa.it was a nice experience coz all the students should experience a bath in a canal.most of them this was the first time to bath in a canal.

 

In early morning after taking the breakfast and the contained lunch we left to see polonnaruwa,the late kingdom of Sri Lanka.First fo all we went to see the statue of King Parakramabhahu facing the Parakrama Samudraya.it was another master peace of rock carvings.

then we traveled on the Dam of Parakrama Samudraya,the leargest tank of the polonnaruwa,and captured some occasions.We could visit the museum in frat of the Parakrama Samudraya.

After that we left for Dimbulagala.But we saw the Mahaweli river at Manampitiya and the newly built bridge.So we stopped there for the day three lunch.Students got the first chance to have a bath in the Mahaweli River.The water was cald and so clean even the dry season in the polonnaruwa area.it was so hot but still the water of Mahaweli river gave the full satisfaction of having a birth.with in 40 Minutes we finished the bathing and started to have our lunch.Students were very happy to have their lunch on a river bank.Dimbulagala is Another impotent Rock in polonnaruwa.After the lunch we left for Dimbulagala temple and visited the temple.After that we left for Mahiyanganaya.Our aim is to visit the ancient people in Sri lanka and to talk to them.We reached to the Dambana with the dawn an could talk to some Ancient people there.A gang of people there entertained us with some beautiful Veddas dance and songs.

 

After Dambana we went to our day three resting place.We stayed in a resthall at Mahiyanganaya.Like the two previous days cooking and containing food for the day was happened and we went to see mahiyangana Dagoba.Mahiyanganaya is one of a place where the lord Buddha has visited.We could capture the beauty of the dagoba to our lenses.

 

After that we went to see Soraborawewa.Another master piece of Tank technology by Ancient Sri lanken People.At sorabora wewa we went on a cane trip on the river and we found one capable oarsman with us on board.He too joined with other oarsman and took us around the Soraborawewa.

Then we left for Kandy.The road to Kandy to Mahiyanganaya was under construction but our two drivers took us to Kandy by 4.30pm.then we went to see Sri Dalandamaligawa.But on the way we impotent guests there.

 

According to Sri Lankan legends, when the Buddha died, his body was cremated in a sandalwood pyre at Kusinara in India and his left canine tooth was retrieved from the funeral pyre by Arahat Khema. Khema then gave it to King Brahmadatte for veneration. It became a royal possession in Brahmadatte's country and was kept in the city of Dantapuri (present day Puri in Orissa).

 

A belief grew that whoever possessed the Sacred Tooth Relic had a divine right to rule that land. Wars were fought to take possession of the relic. 800 years after the Buddha's death, in the 4th century CE, the tooth came into the possession of King Guhaseeva of Kalinga, which roughly corresponds to the present day state of Orissa.

 

Kalinga had become a Buddhist and begun to worship the Sacred Tooth relic. This caused discontent among some of the citizens, who went to King Paandu and said that King Guhaseeva had stopped believing in god and that he had started to worship a tooth.

 

King Paandu decided to destroy the relic, and ordered to it brought to the city. It is said that, as the tooth arrived at the city, a miracle occurred, and King Paandu converted to Buddhism.

 

When King Ksheeradara heard, he went with his army to attack Paandu in the city of Palalus. The invaders were defeated before reaching the city, and King Ksheeradara died.

 

A prince from the city of Udeni who had become a Buddhist came to worship the sacred tooth. King Guhaseeva was pleased with him, and let him marry his daughter. The prince was known as Dantha and the princess as Hemamala.

 

When they heard that King Ksheeradara had died in the war, his sons raised a large army to attack King Guhaseeva and destroy the relic. They entered the city, but King Guhaseeva secretly sent Dantha and Hemamala out of the city, with the relic.

According to legend, Hemamali hid the relic in her hair ornament and the royal couple disguised themselves as Brahmins in order to avoid discovery. They set sail from Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of the river Ganges, and landed in Sri Lanka at the port of Lankapattana (now Ilankeiturei).

It is said that Sri Lanka was chosen as the new home for the tooth relic because the Lord Buddha had declared that his religion would be safe in Sri Lanka for 2,500 years.[citation needed]

 

At the time of Dantha's and Hemamali's arrival on the island, King Kirti Sri Megavanna or Kithsirimevan ruled Sri Lanka. The King was overjoyed when he heard the news and warmly welcomed the royal couple and received the Sacred Tooth Relic with great veneration. He built a beautiful palace within the Royal Palace Complex itself and enshrined the Relic in it. Thereafter, he ordered that an annual perahera be held in honour of the Sacred Relic.

 

As time went on, as the land was threatened with foreign invasions, the seat of the kingdom was moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa, then to Dambadeniya and other cities. Upon each change of capital, a new palace was built to enshrine the Relic. Finally, it was brought to Kandy where it is at present, in the Sri Dalada Maligawa temple.

 

The Sacred Tooth Relic came to be regarded as a symbolic representation of the living Buddha and it is on this basis that there grew up a series of offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. These are conducted under the supervision of the two Mahanayake Theros of Malwatte, Asgiriya Chapters, and Diyawadana Nilame of the Maligawa. These have a hierarchy of officials and temple functionaries to perform the services and rituals.

 

Finally we visited the Peradeniya botonical guarden.Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya is located in close proximity to the city of Kandy in the Central Province of Sri Lanka. It is renowned for the collection the variety of Orchids,and has more than 300 varieties of Orchids, spices, medicinal plants and palms trees attach it is the National Herbarium. Total land mass of the botanical garden is 147 acres, 460 Meters above sea level with a 200 day annual rain fall, it is managed by the Division of National Botanic Gardens of the Department of Agriculture.

Finally we finished our Annual Excursion with lot of Joy and Knowledge,Experiences and lot more.We would like to thank the Two Rivers who took us all around this Island and parents,Teachers who helped to make this event a success.

Greenwich Village, Manhattan

 

No. 354 West 11th Street is a relatively rare surviving residential building of the early period of the mixed-use development that came to characterize the far western section of Greenwich Village, which was built up with residences for the middle and professional classes, industry, and transportation-and maritime-related commerce. It is also one of the best extant examples of the Greek Revival style rowhouses of the 1830s-40s located in the Hudson River waterfront section of Manhattan, specifically the area west of the Greenwich Village Historic District between West 14th Street and Lower Manhattan. The Greek Revival style characteristics of the house are its 3­story height; machine-pressed red brickwork laid in stretcher bond; stoop and areaway with wrought-ironwork; entrance with pilasters, entablature, sidelights, and transom; molded brownstone lintels; and flat roofline.

 

The building was constructed c.1841-42, apparently for William B. Fash, a carver and “composition ornament” manufacturer, and his wife, Frances, who were foreclosed in 1843. It was next owned, until 1852, by attorney Edwin L.B. Brooks and his wife, Catherine. They never resided here, but leased it to merchant-class tenants, as did subsequent owners. The first long-term owners of the property, from 1866 to 1923, were the family of Friedrich C. Knubel, a German-born grocer. The Knubels lived in No. 354 in 1870-75, and in 1871 extended the house in the rear; it is likely the pressed metal cornice on the front facade dates from this period. A son, Frederick Hermann Knubel, born the year they moved into the house, went on to study for the ministry and became the first president of the United Lutheran Church in America (1918-45). In the 20th and 21st centuries, the building has housed single-family and multiple residents.

 

DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS

  

The Development of the Far West Village

 

In the early 17th century, the area now known as the Far West Village was a Lenape encampment for fishing and planting known as Sapokanican, identified through archeology and historical documents at the foot of Gansevoort Street. During Dutch rule, the second director general (1633-37) of New Amsterdam, Wouter van Twiller, “claimed” a huge area of land in and around today=s Greenwich Village for his personal plantation, Bossen Bouwerie, where he cultivated tobacco. Starting in the 1640s, freed African slaves were granted and farmed parcels of land near current-day Washington Square, Minetta Lane, and Thompson Street, establishing the nucleus of a community of African-Americans that remained in this location until the Civil War.

 

Under British rule during the 18th century, the area of Greenwich Village was the location of the small rural hamlet of Greenwich, as well as the country seats and summer homes of wealthy downtown aristocrats, merchants, and capitalists. The vicinity of the Far West Village was amassed during the 1740s by Sir Peter Warren as part of a vast tract of land along the North (Hudson) River. An admiral in the British Navy, Warren earned a fortune in war prize money and had extensive land holdings throughout the New York region. As historian Jill Lepore suggests based on a review of documents at The New-York Historical Society, “Warren appears to have owned a sizable number of slaves.”2 Warren’s three daughters, who resided in England, inherited the property after his death in 1752 and slowly sold off portions. In 1788, Richard Amos, one of Warren’s trustees, acquired the portion of the estate north of today’s Christopher Street, between Hudson and Washington Streets.

The land west of this tract was acquired by 1794 by Abijah Hammond, another Warren trustees and also owner of holdings to the southeast. According to the New York Census (1790 to 1810), Hammond owned several slaves, while Amos had none.

 

New York State=s first prison, the 4-acre “State Prison at Greenwich,” or Newgate State Prison, was constructed in 1796-97, with grounds extending between today=s Christopher, Perry, and Washington Streets and the North (Hudson) River shoreline. The land was transferred from Hammond. Newgate=s massive buildings, surrounded by high stone walls, were designed by Joseph-Francois Mangin, later the architect of City Hall (1802-11, with John McComb, Jr.) and (old) St. Patrick=s Cathedral (1809-15) on Mott Street.3 Prisoners were transferred here from the old Bridewell jail in City Hall Park. “A more pleasant, airy, and salubrious spot could not have been selected in the vicinity of New York,”4 stated an observer in 1801, and the prison, as one of the area’s most imposing structures, became one of Greenwich’s first tourist attractions. Ferry service was established from the prison=s dock to Hoboken in 1799.

 

The Greenwich Hotel, opened in 1809 near the prison, became a popular summer hostelry and daily stage service was begun from the hotel to lower Manhattan in 1811. A number of cholera and yellow fever epidemics in lower Manhattan between 1799 and 1822 led to an influx of settlers in the Greenwich area, with the population quadrupling between 1825 and 1840. Previously undeveloped tracts of land were speculatively subdivided for the construction of town houses and rowhouses. By the 1820s and 30s, as commercial development and congestion increasingly disrupted and displaced New Yorkers living near City Hall Park, the elite moved northward into Greenwich Village, particularly the area east of Sixth Avenue. Throughout the 19th century, Greenwich Village developed as a primarily residential precinct, with the usual accompanying institutions and commercial activities.

 

The far western section of Greenwich Village developed with mixed uses, including residences for the middle and professional classes, industry, and transportation- and maritime-related commerce.

 

Street improvements were made in the vicinity. Amos (later West 10th), Perry, and Charles Streets were surveyed in 1796 and, extending westerly only to the prison grounds, deeded to the City in 1809 by Richard Amos. Christopher Street had been the northern boundary of the Trinity Church Farm, granted to the church by the Crown of England in 1708; it was laid out prior to 1799, opened as a street in 1817, and paved in 1825. Hammond (later West 11th) Street was laid out by 1799 leading to a wharf on the river. Amos subdivided his land into lots by 1817, as did Hammond in 1827. South of the prison, landfill extended the shoreline westward, and West Street was laid out by 1824. In 1828, a pier was opened at the end of Christopher Street that became a transfer depot for lumber and building materials. In 1826, the City of New York acquired from the State the Newgate prison, and prisoners were moved to Sing Sing Prison in 1828-29.

 

The City plotted and sold the prison land in 1829, reserving the blockfront along West Street between Christopher and Amos Streets for a public market. Jacob Lorillard purchased the prison buildings, which he converted into a sanitorium spa in 1831. Around the same time, the former farms located along Christopher Street were plotted and readied for development.

 

A public Greenwich Market had existed since 1813 on the south side of Christopher Street between Greenwich and Washington Streets, on land formerly owned by Trinity Church. The market house was enlarged in 1819 and 1828, and the streetbed of Christopher Street was widened west of Greenwich Street to accommodate the market business and wagon traffic. Market business here was negatively affected by the 1833 opening of the Jefferson Market at Greenwich Lane (later Avenue) and Sixth Avenue, and the Greenwich Market was closed in 1835. The new market, also officially called the Greenwich Market but known as the “Weehawken Market” to differentiate it from the old market one block away on Christopher Street, was constructed in 1834, but only operated until 1844.

 

Examples of the earliest surviving residential buildings located in the far western section of Greenwich Village, all rowhouses, include: the rare, vernacular wood-framed No. 132 Charles Street (c. 1819), attributed to carpenter Matthew Armstrong, a co-owner/occupant who was active in neighborhood development, and extended one story c. 1853, attributed to carpenters/owner-occupants John and Levi Springsteen; Nos. 651, 653 and 655 Washington Street (1829), 3-1/2-story, brick-clad Federal style houses owned by merchant Samuel Norsworthy; No. 398 West Street (1830-31), a 3-1/2-story, brick-clad Federal style house built for flour merchant Isaac Amerman; No. 7 Weehawken Street (c. 1830-31), a 3-story, brick-clad rowhouse/stable owned by carpenter Jacob P. Roome; No. 131 Charles Street (1834), an intact, relatively rare and late example of a 2-1/2-story, brick-clad Federal style house, owned by stone cutter David Christie and a designated New York City Landmark since 1966; No. 269 West 10th Street (c. 1835), a Greek Revival style (now altered) house for widow Hannah Jenkins; and No. 159 Charles Street (c. 1838), a brick-clad Greek Revival style house built for merchant Henry J. Wyckoff and today a designated New York City Landmark.

 

Three activities helped to spur commercial activity in the vicinity. Ferry service to Hoboken was re­instituted by 1841 at the foot of Christopher Street (earlier service, after 1799, was from the prison dock). Around 1845, part of the Newgate prison site was adapted for use as a brewery by Nash, Beadleston & Co. (later Beadleston & Woerz). In 1846, the Hudson River Railroad was incorporated, and was constructed along West Street, terminating in a station at Chambers Street in 1851 (this was replaced by the St. John’s Park Terminal for freight in 1868).

 

Construction and 19th-Century Ownership and Residency of No. 354 West 11th Street

 

This block, formerly part of the Greenwich Village land holdings of Abijah Hammond (the western, underwater portion of which he acquired in 1821), was extended by landfill and later plotted and sold by Hammond in 1827. This lot was acquired by cartman/milkman Jonathan Lounsberry and his wife, Charlotte, who built a house here c. 1828. The address was originally No. 144 Hammond Street (the name was officially changed to West 11th Street by the City Council in 1865).7 The house was sold in 1830 to Charles Gilmore, a New Jersey resident, and his wife, Elizabeth, and in 1832 to James Agnew, a lawyer who lived here. In 1838, however, a fire in the Baurmeister & Scheplin soap factory located in the rear of No. 160 Hammond Street destroyed much of the block, including some 50 buildings.8 The 1841 tax assessments listed Agnew’s lot (with no building) at $1600.

 

That year, Agnew was foreclosed, and the property was briefly owned by John Westervelt, Jr., a coal merchant. It was purchased in October 1841 for $2250 by William B. Fash, a carver and “composition ornament” manufacturer (at 192 Varick Street), and his wife, Frances. The 1842 tax assessments listed Fash’s “house and lot” at $2500, with the annotation “unfinished.” (City directories in 1842-43 indicate that Fash was living at No. 752 Greenwich. The 1843 tax assessment for the 144 Hammond Street property is missing). In April 1843, a foreclosure action against Fash was concluded by George O. Post and Edward Mitchell, guardians of George Edward Post, and the Greek Revival style rowhouse was placed at auction. The highest bidder ($3325) was attorney Edwin L.B. Brooks and his wife, Catherine M., then residents of No. 47 Bank Street. The 1844 assessment of this property was $4000.

 

The Brookses never resided at No. 144 Hammond Street, but leased it. The earliest known tenants were Eliza Scott (1849-50), the widow of Charles T. Scott, a drygoods merchant living at No. 7 Hammond Street in 1848­49; drygoods merchant Willet Hawkins and his wife, Sarah (1849-52); and typemaker C. Joepfer (1851). After Brooks’ death, the house was sold in 1852 to undertaker Peter Relyea and his wife, Margaretta (it was briefly held in 1853 by Asa W. Roath, ice merchant, and his wife, Hanna Maria, but reverted to the Relyeas). In 1854, Relyea advertised: “ROOMS TO LET: On the first floor of house No. 144 Hammond-st... N.Y.. consisting of two parlors, two bed-rooms, and cook kitchen in the rear. Inquire of PETER RELYEA on the premises.”9 The house was acquired that year by Joshua and Mary Stafford Read.

 

Read (1783-1865), a prosperous farmer/businessman and a resident of Palatine Bridge, N.Y., was the uncle of Susan Brownell Anthony (1820-1906), the future women’s rights advocate – the brother of her mother, Lucy Read Anthony, he had significantly assisted the Anthony family when it was ruined financially in the Panic of 1837. In 1859, Read transferred this property to his daughter, Eleanor J. Read Caldwell, wife of merchant George Caldwell (Eleanor J. Caldwell had been listed in the tax assessments here as early as 1854), who retained it until 1866.

 

The Read/Caldwell family never lived here, but rented the house in 1856-62 to clerk David S. Lockwood (1825-1891), who had married Eleanor C. Griswold in 1856.

 

In 1866, the house (now No. 354 West 11th Street) was purchased by Friedrich (Frederick) C. Knubel (1827­1908), a German-born grocer who had immigrated in 1855, and his wife, Katherine (Anna) Knubel Knubel. The Knubels were the first long-term owners of the property. Formerly residents of Nos. 163 and 145 Hammond Street (his business was at No. 137 Hammond), the Knubels lived in No. 354 in 1870-75 and in 1871 extended the house about 11 feet in the rear. It is likely the pressed metal, denticulated, modillioned, and bracketed cornice on the front facade dates from their ownership. Their son, Frederick Hermann Knubel (1870-1945), born the year they moved into the house, went on to study for the ministry and became the first president of the United Lutheran Church in America (1918-45). After the senior Frederick Knubel’s death in 1908, the property was transferred in 1909 to his daughter, Henrietta M. Knubel Wilshusen (c. 1861-1929), the wife of John Wilshusen (died 1915), who retained it until 1923.

 

Greek Revival Style Rowhouses in Manhattan

 

As the city of New York grew in the period after the Revolution, large plots of land in Manhattan were sold and subdivided for the construction of groups of brick-clad houses. Their architectural style has been called “Federal” after the new republic, but in form and detail they continued the Georgian style of Great Britain. Federal style houses were constructed from the Battery as far north as 23rd Street between the 1790s and 1830s. The size of the lot dictated the size of the house: typically each house lot was 20 or 25 feet wide by 90 to 100 feet deep, which accorded with the rectilinear plan of New York City, adopted as the Commissioners’ Plan in 1811. The rowhouse itself would be as wide as the lot, and 35 to 40 feet deep. This allowed for a stoop and small front yard, or areaway, and a fairly spacious rear yard. During the early 19th century, several houses were often constructed together, sharing common party walls, chimneys, and roof timbering to form a continuous group.

 

The houses, of load-bearing masonry or modified timber-frame construction, had brick-clad front facades. With the increasing availability of pattern books, such as Asher Benjamin’s American Builders Companion (published in six editions between 1806 and 1827), local builders had access to drawings and instructions for exterior and interior plans and details. Federal style rowhouses usually had a 3-bay facade with two full stories over a high basement and an additional half story under a peaked roof with the ridge line running parallel to the front facade. The front facade was usually clad in red brick laid in the Flemish bond pattern, with stone trim, commonly brownstone. The planar quality of the facades was relieved by ornament in the form of lintels, entrances, stoops and areaways with iron railings, cornices, and dormers. The most ornamental feature was the doorway, often framed with columns and sidelights and topped with a rectangular transom or fanlight, and having a wooden paneled door.

 

The wood-framed sash were double hung and multi-light (typically six-over-six). A wooden cornice with a molded fascia extended across the front along the eave. Pedimented or segmental dormers on the front roof slope usually had decorative wood trim.

 

Around 1830, builders in New York City began to incorporate some Greek Revival style features on grander Federal style houses, such as the Seabury Tredwell (“Old Merchant’s”) House (1831-32), 29 East 4th Street. During the early 1830s, fashionable rowhouses were constructed in a Greek Revival style that was distinct from the earlier Federal style houses. Local builders were influenced by the designs and builder’s guides of architects such as Asher Benjamin, Minard Lafever, and Alexander Jackson Davis. Some examples were “high style,” such as the nine marble-fronted houses with a continuous Corinthian colonnade known as LaGrange Terrace or Colonnade Row (1832-33, attributed to Seth Greer), of which Nos. 428-434 Lafayette Street survive. Many rows of speculatively-built Greek Revival style houses were constructed, particularly in the Greenwich Village and Chelsea neighborhoods, during the period of enormous growth and development in New York City during the 1830s-40s.

 

Greek Revival style rowhouses, which became widely popular, basically continued many of the traditions of Federal style houses, including 3-bay front facades, brick cladding with brownstone trim, and raised stoops and areaways with iron railings. They differed, however, in stylistic details and in scale, being taller and somewhat grander at a full three stories above a basement (with higher ceilings per story). By this period, technological advances in brickmaking allowed for higher quality, machine-pressed brick. The brick was laid in a bond other than Flemish, such as stretcher bond. Ornamentation was spare, including simple, molded rectangular lintels and a flat roofline capped by a denticulated and molded wooden cornice (sometimes with attic windows). Like on Federal style houses, the most ornamental feature was the doorway.

 

The Greek Revival style doorway was recessed, with a rectangular transom, sidelights, and paneled (often a single vertical panel) door. On grander houses, the entrance featured a portico with Doric or Ionic columns flanking the doorway and supporting a prominent entablature. Examples of this type include “The Row” (1832-33), 1-13 Washington Square North, and the Samuel Tredwell Skidmore House (1845), 37 East 4th Street. More commonly, the entrance featured a brownstone surround with wide pilasters supporting an entablature. No. 354 West 11th Street is of this latter type. The wood-framed sash were double hung and typically six-over-six (often nine-over-nine or six-over-nine on the parlor level).

 

Late-19th and 20th Century History of the Far West Village

 

New York City had developed as the largest port in the United States by the early 19th century, and in the early 20th century emerged as one of the busiest ports in the world. In Manhattan, South Street along the East River had been the primary artery for maritime commerce, but West Street became a competitor in the 1870s and supplanted the former by about 1890. After the Civil War, New York also flourished as the commercial and financial center of the country. The continued mixed-use character of the Far West Village is evidenced by industries located on the southern side of the block behind No. 354 West 11th Street – an 1879 map shows an iron foundry here, while an 1885 map indicates a coalyard. To the west, there was a boat basin on the Hudson River.12

 

At the turn of the century, the New York Times and New York Police Department considered the section of the Hudson River waterfront along the piers between Houston and West 14th Streets particularly unsavory. A 1902 newspaper article stated that “for years, especially in fine weather, it has at night been the resort of outcasts, drunkards, dissolute people, and a dangerous class of depredators and petty highwaymen...” 13 A major public undertaking that had a profound impact on this section of the waterfront was the construction, by the New York City Department of Docks, of the Gansevoort Piers (1894-1902) and Chelsea Piers (1902-10, with Warren & Wetmore), between West 11th and West 23rd Streets. These long docks accommodated the enormous trans-Atlantic steamships of the “United States, Grace, Cunard White Star, Panama Pacific, and American Merchant” lines.

 

This area was described in 1914 as “in the heart of the busiest section of the port, adjacent to the transatlantic liners, coast and gulf vessels, between Christopher and 23rd Streets, surrounded by 5,000 seamen of all nationalities” of the half a million seamen that came into the harbor each year.

 

After a period of decline, Greenwich Village was becoming known, prior to World War I, for its historic and picturesque qualities, its affordable housing, and the diversity of its population and social and political ideas. Many artists and writers, as well as tourists, were attracted to the Village. At the same time, as observed by museum curator Jan S. Ramirez,

 

As early as 1914 a committee of Village property owners, merchants, social workers, and realtors had embarked on a campaign to combat the scruffy image the local bohemian populace had created for the community. ... Under the banner of the Greenwich Village Improvement Society and the Greenwich Village Rebuilding Corporation, this alliance of residents and businesses also rallied to arrest the district=s physical deterioration... their ultimate purpose was to reinstate higher-income-level families and young professionals in the Village to stimulate its economy. Shrewd realtors began to amass their holdings of dilapidated housing. 16

 

These various factors and the increased desirability of the Village led to a real estate boom – “rents increased during the 1920s by 140 percent and in some cases by as much as 300 percent”.17 The desirability of the far western section of Greenwich Village as a residential community by the late 1920s is exemplified by the conversion of multiple dwellings and other building types into middleclass apartments.

 

The completion of the Holland Tunnel (1919-27) and, especially, the elevated Miller Highway (1929-31) above West Street, while providing easier access between the Hudson River waterfront and the metropolitan region, had a number of effects on real estate values and on the uses of buildings, particularly along West Street. The Federal Writers’ Project’s New York City Guide (1939) described this stretch of the waterfront along West Street, the “most lucrative water-front property in the world,” as follows:

 

Although the western rim of Manhattan is but a small section of New Yorks far-flung port, along it is concentrated the largest aggregate of marine enterprises in the world. Glaciers of freight and cargo move across this strip of ... water front. It is the domain of the super-liner, but it is shared by the freighter, the river boat, the ferry, and the soot-faced tug... Ships and shipping are not visible along much of West Street. South of Twenty-third Street, the river is walled by an almost unbroken line of bulkhead sheds and dock structures... Opposite the piers, along the entire length of the highway, nearly every block houses its quota of cheap lunchrooms, tawdry saloons and waterfront haberdasheries catering to the thousands of polyglot seamen who haunt the “front.” Men “on the beach” (out of employment) usually make their headquarters in barrooms, which are frequented mainly by employees of lines leasing piers in their vicinity.

 

In 1961, Mayor Robert Wagner announced an urban renewal plan for the far western section of Greenwich Village that would have included the 12 blocks bounded by West, Christopher, Hudson, and West 11th Streets, and another 2 blocks along West Street south of Christopher Street. As reported in the Times in March 1961, residents of the site immediately rallied in vigorous protest. Their spokesman [sic] was Mrs. Jane Jacobs, an editor of Architectural Forum magazine, who lives with her family in a house they own at 555 Hudson Street. The entire site, the group said, contains only a negligible amount of blight. It would be unconscionable, they argued, to demolish any of their well-maintained homes to make way for a bleak, architecturally sterile, institutional housing development.

 

The Housing and Redevelopment Board responded that its intention was actually to “remove the industrial buildings, warehouses and trucking depots that threaten the neighborhood.”19 That same year, Jane Jacobs authored the influential The Death and Life of Great American Cities. The urban renewal plan for this area was never to proceed as initially envisioned by the City. Jacobs, on behalf of the West Village Committee, wrote to the newly formed New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1963 (prior to the passage of the Landmarks Law in 1965 which enabled designations), urging that any consideration of a Greenwich Village historic district include the far western section of the Village to West Street.

 

After 1960, with the introduction of containerized shipping and the accompanying need for large facilities (space for which could be accommodated in Brooklyn and New Jersey), the Manhattan waterfront rapidly declined as the center of New York’s maritime commerce. In addition, airplanes replaced ocean liners carrying passengers overseas. Most of the piers and many of the buildings associated with Manhattan’s Hudson River maritime history have been demolished.

 

In 1974, the Miller Elevated Highway was closed, and it was subsequently demolished in the 1980s. The buildings along West Street, formerly in the permanent shadow of the highway, were exposed again. A New York Times writer in 1986 still disparaged the character of West Street as “a gritty mixture of auto garages, shuttered sex clubs, truckers’ coffee shops and a flurry of construction.”21 Buildings along West Street had begun to be redeveloped and demolished – as early as 1968-69, the Bell Telephone Laboratories, at West and Bank-Bethune Streets, had been converted into Westbeth, a residential complex for artists. Farther north, the Manhattan Refrigerating Co. complex, West Street and Horatio-Gansevoort Streets, was renovated and converted as the West Coast Apartments and opened in the 1980s (the complex today is located within the Gansevoort Market Historic District).

 

By 1999, the Times observed the Far West Village’s “developers’ gold rush” to convert structures and construct new high rises along the West Street corridor.22 The relatively rare surviving individual rowhouses in the area, such as No. 354 West 11th Street, were also restored for use as single-family homes.

 

Later History of No. 354 West 11th Street

 

In 1923, Henrietta M. Knubel Wilshusen sold No. 354 West 11th Street to fireman Anthony Udovicich, and his wife, nee Elena Possidel; they were listed in 1930s city directories living at No. 354. The next owners were Josefa Muino (1946-61), who resided here for a time, and John and Sidney Wasserman (1961-63). Beginning in the late 1950s, directories listed multiple occupants of the house. In 1963-65, the owner/occupant was John F. Mehegan (1916-1984), a noted jazz pianist, recording artist, teacher (including Juilliard, 1947-64), and author of numerous books, including the widely used 4-volume work Jazz Improvisation. Mehegan had been the composer of the musical score for Tennessee Williams’ Broadway play “A Streetcar Named Desire” (1947), which he played offstage during its initial run. No. 354 was briefly owned (1965-67) by Sophie G. Griscom, a Maine resident.

 

The building was transferred in 1967 to the 354 West Eleventh Street Corp. (Lester Fiske); Fiske resided here c. 1975-86. In 1988, it was sold to Neil and Susan Selkirk. A London-born photographer, Neil Selkirk has specialized in portraits and advertising and corporate work, which has been widely published in magazines, and has been an instructor at Parsons School of Design. He has been the sole person authorized to print the work of photographer Diane Arbus since her death in 1971.

 

Today, No. 354 West 11th Street is a relatively rare surviving residential building of the early period of development of the far western section of Greenwich Village, and is one of the best extant examples of the Greek Revival style rowhouses of the 1830s-40s located in the Hudson River waterfront section of Manhattan, specifically the area west of the Greenwich Village Historic District between West 14th Street and Lower Manhattan.

 

Description

 

This 3-story (plus basement) Greek Revival style rowhouse is clad in machine-pressed red brick laid in stretcher bond above a (painted) rusticated brownstone base. The areaway, bordered by stone with historic wrought-iron railings and gate, has steps and concrete and bluestone paving. The basement level has two windows with non-historic iron grilles, and an entrance under the stoop with a non-historic iron gate and a wood-and-glass entrance door. The high (painted) stone stoop has historic wrought-iron railings with curved newel-posts. The main entrance has a (painted) brownstone surround with pilasters supporting a denticulated entablature, and a recessed doorway with pilasters, sidelights, a triple-light transom, and a paneled wooden door. Sconces are placed on the reveals.

 

Windows have molded brownstone lintels and plain sills, recede in size from the first- to third-story levels, and have six-over-six double-hung wood sash (six-over-nine on the first-story level) (installed c. post-1980; previously, two­over-two double-hung wood sash). Planters are set on metal brackets below the first-story windows. One through-the-wall air conditioner is located below the center window of the second story. The facade is terminated by a c. 1870s pressed metal, denticulated and modillioned cornice (four brackets were removed prior to c. 1980).

 

- From the 2007 NYCLPC Landmark Designation Report