View allAll Photos Tagged constraining
Colors play with and contrast each other. This is an 8 foot by 3 foot 4 sided tower built with an inner frame and layered on the outside with 1232 3.5 inch square tiles cut from old fencing. Stained and painted various colors, it is a feast for the eyes. It is meant to transform something formerly constraining into a vibrant celebration of color and to recycle something headed for the dump into something beautiful. Peepholes add an interactive dimension.
LUNCH PLENARY SESSION
1:30 PM -
3:00 PM
Strengthening America’s Communities
I. A LEADERSHIP CONVERSATION
Addressing the Opioid Epidemic in America’s Communities
In this Opening Conversation, President Bill Clinton and Senator Joe Manchin of West Virginia will discuss strategies to address the devastating human impact and staggering economic cost—$25 billion in lost wages and productivity annually—of prescription opioid abuse across the nation.
II. PANEL DISCUSSION
Communities in Transition: Building a Sustainable Future
Climate change is altering the United States’ resources and environments, with winners and losers across regions. In some cases, these changes are welcome: from California to Vermont, the booming solar energy sector has added workers at a rate 20 times faster than the overall economy. In some cases, these changes are constraining overall economic growth and disproportionately limiting the opportunities available to low-income populations. For example, in the western United States, communities face water shortages that negatively affect agriculture. Meanwhile, the coal industry has lost 76 percent of its value in five years, particularly affecting the Appalachia region. Public and private actors across the United States must invest in resilient preventative measures to mitigate and adapt to these changes and ensure socially and environmentally sustainable growth.
In this session, leaders from the private, public, and nonprofit sectors will discuss how CGI America attendees can:
• Create jobs and local businesses in the renewable energy sector throughout the United States.
• Invest in alternative industries and retrain workers in regions reliant on coal and water.
• Create incentives across sectors to invest in resilient climate-adaptation and mitigation measures.
Opening Conversation:
Participants:
President Bill Clinton, Founding Chairman, Clinton Global Initiative, 42nd President of the United States
Joe Manchin III, U.S. Senator from West Virginia
Panel Discussion:
Moderator:
Kevin J. Delaney, Editor in Chief and President, Quartz
Participants:
Donnel Baird, Chief Executive Officer, BlocPower
W. Paul Bowers, Chairman, President and CEO, Georgia Power
Adrianna Quintero, Founder and Executive Director, Voces Verdes, Director of Partner Engagement, Natural Resources Defense Council
Gear: Camera - Sony A7III (2018). Lens - Sigma 28-45 mm f/1.8 Art zoom lens (newly released June 2024).
Shooting parameters: White Balance as shot (AWB) / ISO 200 / Focal length 45 mm / f/8.0 / 1/400s.
Raw photo processed in Lightroom as follows:
Camera Profile: Camera Standard
Remove Chromatic Aberration
Enable Lens Profile
Upright Perspective
Constrain Crop
Add Sky
Invert Mask 1
Preset: Turquoise & Red
Add Sky
Preset: Dark Drama
Point Curve: Medium Contrast
Windmill Co-founder Ayesha Chaudhary (Second from left) interacts with a health worker at Gadhciroli to understand constrains she faces
Location: A village in Gadchiroli Special thanks to SEARCH Gadhchiroli
Using the controversial kettling technique to physically constrain the limits of a demonstration, police then surrounded protestors on all four sides.
Read more: www.rioonwatch.org/?p=16651
Story:
Metropolitan cities (New York City, Boston, Chicago & L.A. have found a use for their former public baths. Since it became illegal to build residences with a shower stall in cities with a population higher than 1 million, urbanites find themselves purchasing the H2O2 for only 99 cents. The H2O2 capsule is not just a dissolvable soap paste but also your ticket into one of the city’s public shower rooms where you can clean your body for under 2 minutes.
Inspiration Forecast:
2021 Even as we work to mitigate climate change, we will adapt in thousands of small and local ways to our changing environment—leveraging strategies that range from simple to complex, and from constraining to transformative. —Jamais Cascio www.iftf.org/ourwork/globallandscape/tenyearforecast
The new 2.0 rig features a special action constrained lever for each foot that lifts the toe or the heel with one simple adjustment. This picture demonstrates lifting the heel when the lever is 0 to +45 degrees.
Fratton Centre Portsmouth UK.
MDC-T PORTSMOUTH BRANCH hold first Meeting for 2018
The MDC-T Portsmouth branch held its first branch meeting for the year 2018 on Saturday 26 January 2018.The meeting occurred in the wake of an avalanche of political events and developments in Zimbabwe. This kind of meeting is a branch calendar event which takes place after every two months. All branch members are expected to attend. The purpose of a branch meeting like this is to among other things, conduct party business which necessarily include collection of membership subscription, plan and organise party activities such as fund raising and awareness demistrations etc. Important reports such as the Chaimans and Treasurer's are also presented during this meeting.
There was a vibrant debate on the subject of sustainable growth of the party. This took place.immediately after the Chairman's opening address. Contributing speakers included Mr Banda, Mr Waretsa, Mr Piyo Choga(Chairman) , Mr Kaziboni, the Mrs Zvarevashe and Mrs Mbofana.All the speakers explored possible ways of how to grow our party. Mr Matewu was also afforded the opportunity to contribute on how to grow and improve our party membership in the diaspora
Mr Choga presented the Chairman's branch report which depicted a fairly healthy state of affairs in terms of subscriptions, membership and recruitment. He still encouragef members to maintain the momentum as regards subscription payments.
The Treasurer's report was delayed because Mr Masunda(treasurer) would attend the meeting later.
Mr Matewu presented an exhaustive report on the current situaition in Zimbabwe as regards the challenges, constrains and progress on the Biometric Voter registration exercise and the the MDC Alliance coalition.
Mrs Usuwana , a veteran MDC-T cadre attended with her daughter
All proceedings during the meeting were manually minuted and video recorded.
by Reuben Waretsa
email : rgwaretsa@yahoo/ rwaretsa@gmail.com
Reuben Waretsa is the branch vice chair at MDC-T PORTSMOUTH
Low at Thy feet, Lord Jesus,
This is the place for me;
Here I have learned deep lessons:
Truth that has set me free.
Free from myself, Lord Jesus,
Free from the ways of men;
Chains of thought that have bound me
Never can bind again.
None but Thyself, Lord Jesus,
Conquered this wayward will,
But for Thy love constraining,
I had been wayward still.
This poem was found in Darby's Bible after Christ called him home:
Come to Me, all who are weary and heavy-laden, and I will give you rest.
Take My yoke upon you and learn from Me, for I am gentle and humble in heart,
and YOU WILL FIND REST FOR YOUR SOULS.
“For My yoke is easy and My burden is light.”
(Matthew 11,28-30)
Minto / Relapse Tuberculosis
Miguel Montás, dueño del Restaurante El Nuevo Caridad dio la bendición al programa especial de Impacto Deportivo desde Nueva York. A la izquierda, Ricardo Ramón, Daniel Reyez y Franklin Mirabal.
Classic mistake: only allowing short passwords. Twenty characters is equivalent to at most a 100 bit key (5.2 bits of entropy in random alphanumeric text). Not very strong, especially when in practice most will use something close to English, which gives a pathetic 26-bit key (1.3 bits of entropy in average English).
By comparison, my "master password" is only English as well, but over 40 characters and containing spaces and punctuation for an approximate key size of over 200 bits.
Lesson: don't constrain passwords -- at all. If you absolutely must for some reason, make the constraints as loose as you possibly can: why prevent users from protection themselves?
Twitter ideas:
Hurricanes need warm water to intensify. #Jason3 will have its eye on future storms. www.nesdis.noaa.gov/jason-3/index.html
#Jason3 will monitor ocean water heat content to improve hurricane forecasting. www.nesdis.noaa.gov/jason-3/index.html
Facebook:
Hurricanes need warm water to intensify. Jason-3 will monitor this upper ocean heat content (OHC), which is a critical factor in forecasting the intensity of hurricanes as they approach the U.S. East and Gulf Coasts.
Altimetry data (the height of the sea surface) can be used to infer ocean heat content. Sea surface temperature plays a role, but is only a "skin temperature." Hurricanes, and particularly strong or slow-moving hurricanes, tend to mix the ocean very effectively, so if the warm water at the surface does not extend down very far, a hurricane can actually kill itself off by bringing up cold water under itself and constraining its energy source. Ocean heat content is generally understood to be a more useful predictor of hurricane intensity change than sea surface temperature alone. More info the many applications of Jason-3 data, such as improved forecasting of events like El Niño, can be found here: www.nesdis.noaa.gov/jason-3/mission.html#applications
Jason-3 will maintain the Nation’s satellite altimetry observations of global sea surface height that began in 1992 with the TOPEX/Poseidon mission. It follows the Ocean Surface Topography Mission on the current operational altimeter satellite, Jason-2. As with Jason-2, Jason-3 is an international cooperative mission, in which NOAA is partnering with NASA, the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES, France’s governmental space agency) and European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). A nominal three year lifetime is planned for Jason-3 with a possibility of a two year extended mission. Learn more: www.nesdis.noaa.gov/jason-3/mission.html
Clicking on White selects the color and constrains the sizes and inseams in the other sections accordingly.
Check out this blog entry for the details behind this set.
I recently joined Flickr and have been enjoying learning from other people's pictures. I knew that I had a very limited style, but never realized just how much I had been constraining my perspective. So after about a week of not picking up my new camera I determined to get a different kind of shot this morning. Here is my 1 1/2 year old, Kai who spends a lot of time perched on this stool eating. There is a strong story here ... one of his nicknames is Kai-Pi ... with that hint the picture should make sense if you are mathematical like me.
The day starts at 7:30 am with a 40-minute drive to the Punta Bandera dock to take a boat on Lago Argentino to Upsala Glacier, a large valley glacier on the eastern side of the Southern Patagonian Ice Field. Its higher portion lies in a disputed territory between Chile and Argentina. The glacier terminus is at Upsala channel of Lago Argentino. The Upsala Glacier is well known for its rapid retreat that has been ongoing since the glacier was first documented in 1810. The glacier showed almost continual recession up until 1999. The acceleration in ice motion during the two decades preceding 1999 may have been augmented by the release of backstress when the glacier retreated beyond the islands in Brazo Upsala. Another period of even faster retreat started in 2008. As of 2018 Upsala Glacier has retreated to such degree that it no longer constrains its tributary Bertacchi Glacier. The boat then drops us off at the Estancia Cristina, an Argentine cattle and sheep ranch located inside Los Glaciares National Park in Santa Cruz Province. It is here that we take a 4x4 for 45 minutes up a mountain, stop and continue up for another 20 minutes, reaching the summit around 12:30 pm. The ranch was founded in 1914 by Joseph Percival Masters, an Englishman who came to Patagonia with his wife in 1900; Estancia Cristina is named for Masters' daughter Cristina. Located on the coast of Brazo Cristina, a northern channel of Lago Argentino, Estancia Cristina still keeps the history of the Masters family alive. Its lodge has 20 rooms distributed over 5 buildings and it his here that we had lunch followed by a presentation of the traditional Mate, an Argentinean tea and a tour of the ranch. We then take the boat back to Punta Bandera and arrive back at the hotel at 8:00 pm.
Took another trip down to chi-town with some friends to wander around and take photos. I wanted to constrain myself for the day so just used my 50 f/1.8 lens. It was nice because it makes you think about the composition a little more and the DoF is very nice. But i did pop on the 70-200 f/2.8 while we sat at the bean. It's always fun to try new styles and to people watch :)
Guy: "i'm going to take a picture of myself by myself...but can you look to see it i get the bean in the shot?" lol why don't you just have him take the photo?!
--
Edited Hubble Space Telescope image of OH 339.88-1.26 and stars and dust lanes.
Original caption: The protostellar object OH 339.88-1.26, which lies 8 900 light-years from Earth in the constellation Ara, lurks in this dust-filled image from the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope. Winding lanes of dark dust thread through this image, which is also studded with bright stars crowned with criss-crossing diffraction spikes. The dark vertical streak at the centre of this image hides OH 339.88-1.26, which is an astrophysical maser. A maser — which is an acronym for “microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation” — is essentially a laser that produces coherent light at microwave wavelengths. Such objects can occur naturally in astrophysical situations, in environments ranging from the north pole of Jupiter to star-forming regions such as the one pictured here. This image comes from a set of Hubble observations that peer into the hearts of regions where massive stars are born to constrain the nature of massive protostars and test theories of their formation. Astronomers turned to Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 to explore five intermediate-mass protostars at infrared wavelengths. The Hubble observations were supported by other state-of-the-art observatories including ALMA, the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array. ALMA is composed of 66 moveable high-precision antennas which can be arranged over distances of up to 16 kilometres on a plateau perched high in the Chilean Andes. Further data were contributed by the Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), which is a telescope that — until recently — operated out of a converted 747 aircraft. [Image Description: The field is field with hundreds of bright stars. They are primarily blue in colour, with scattered smaller stars visible in yellow/orange. The background is dominated by cloudy grey dust, with permeating regions of dark black and orange.]
I always come to these things late.
I first heard about the Moo cards back when they had that flickr promotion where they were giving out 10 free cards. By the time I got around to ordering, the promotion was done with, and I sort of dropped it. A little while later, a few people at the SFBAS Chinatown shoot had some, and we were all oooing and ahhhing over them.
I still didn't get around to ordering them. I thought it was a nifty idea, but I knew I'd want to go with the option of choosing 100 different photos, and I never found the inclination to do that. Then there was the fact I wasn't really sure who I'd give them out to.
But when I saw the sfgate article about the Moo cards, I knew I finally had to get some. Why? Because once they hit the mainstream press, I knew they were just unhip enough for me to finally jump on the bandwagon.
So I did.
I loved the experience. They've integrated with flickr really well. Since the majority of my pictures came from my My Favorites set, it was easy enough to choose that set on moo's page and drag and drop the ones I wanted.
I was worried the narrow format of the cards would be constraining, but I found there were very few of my images that just wouldn't work at all with the format. In fact, it improved a lot of them (making me think I should more often break out of the normal 4x6 mode I tend to stay in). It was actually kind of fun dragging the little box around each picture, making it just right.
The hardest part was the waiting. I was worried an article in the Chronicle might deluge them, but either it didn't or they were prepared, as I got it in two shakes of a lamb's tail.
The box was much smaller than what I expected (I guess I have a bad memory). When I opened them up though--wow. I just loved it. Most of my photos stay on my computer and on flickr, and I rarely print any out. But being able to hold this small block in my hand and rub my fingers across the images and I shuffled through made me feel much more connected to them.
The quality was much better than I expected, too. They were slick (I thought I'd remembered them being a bit more textured) and thick. The text on the back was high quality as well.
Now I've just got two problems. For one, I don't really want to give any away. I've become selfish about my pictures, but maybe because each one stirs up memories I feel like I can't part with them.
The other problem, which happily compliments the first, is that I really can't imagine bringing these anywhere where I could give them out.
line-space algorithm with a constraining shape applied to it so it only draws within it the word.
font is Futura.
i was at the upper deck looking down at the crowd streaming by underneath these signs and i wonder how we have managed to label the whole world and everything that is in it. and how these labels facilitate and constrain our thoughts and communications at the same time. and what if the labels we assign each other don't fit. do we wear them like masks in a masquerade party or do we throw them away and make our own. and what if we are more than all the labels that are
c. 1827; c.1864-65
Oil on 3 pieces of canvas, mounted on wood
This image is related to Ingres' monumental Apotheosis of Homer (1827), originally a ceiling painting in the Musée Charles X in the Louvre (now the Egyptian Rooms). Author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, Homer was considered the father of all the arts, and is depicted in the large painting surrounded by his heirs in music, literature, theatre, sculpture and painting, from ancient times to the present. Ingres reworked the theme many times. Here, he focuses on the 14th-century Florentine poet Dante, author of The Divine Comedy. The artist brings Dante's hands, which hold his masterpiece, closer to his face, constraining the poet's festure of homage to Homer in an awkward but emotionally evocative way.
Ordrupgaard, Copenhagen (no. 248WH)
This has to be one of my favourite National Parks. The cliffs and canyons seem to confine a space - full of history and interest - without oppressively constraining it. In a 'so-called' land of lawyers, the ladders and climbs, laid out for visitors to see the cliff villages are a remarkable - and dizzying - approach to 'health and safety'.
I can no longer climb the spire of my local Norwich Cathedral - which was constructed before these cliff dwellings - because I might get injured and then I might sue. Increasing population means less space for everybody and more rules to regulate that space. I wonder if the pressures will sometime require a law which stipulates how and when we may safely breath.
06.03.09
Persian love cake with cream cheese frosting and adorned with fondant monkey couple. I could have done a better job if it wasn't for budget constrain.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Sanhedrin (disambiguation).
The Sanhedrin, from an 1883 encyclopedia
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The Sanhedrin (Hebrew and Middle Aramaic סַנְהֶדְרִין, a loanword from Koine Greek: Συνέδριον, romanized: synedrion,[1] 'assembly,' 'sitting together,' hence 'assembly' or 'council') was a Jewish legislative and judicial assembly in the ancient land of Israel.
There were two classes of Rabbinite courts called sanhedrins: Greater and Lesser. A lesser Sanhedrin of 23 judges was appointed to sit as a tribunal in each city. In general usage, the Sanhedrin without qualifier usually refers to the Great Sanhedrin. There was only one Great Sanhedrin of 71 judges, which, among other roles, acted as a supreme court, taking appeals from cases that lesser courts decided. The Great Sanhedrin was presided over by the Nasi (lit. "prince", often translated as "president" in modern English), assisted by the Av Beit Din ("chief of the court").
In the Second Temple period, the Great Sanhedrin met in the Temple in Jerusalem, in a building called the Hall of Hewn Stones. The Great Sanhedrin convened every day except festivals and the sabbath day (Shabbat).
After the destruction of the Second Temple and the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt, the Great Sanhedrin moved to Galilee, which became part of the Roman province of Syria Palaestina. In this period, the Sanhedrin was sometimes called the Galilean Patriarchate or Patriarchate of Palaestina, the governing legal body of Galilean Jewry. In the late 200s CE, to avoid persecution, the name Sanhedrin was dropped and its decisions were issued under the name of Beit HaMidrash (house of learning). The last universally binding decision of the Great Sanhedrin appeared in 358 when the Hebrew calendar was established. The Great Sanhedrin was finally disbanded in 425.
Over the centuries, attempts have been made to revive the institution, such as by Jacob Berab, the Grand Sanhedrin convened by Napoleon Bonaparte, and modern attempts in Israel.
Hebrew Bible
In the Hebrew Bible, Moses and the Israelites were commanded by God to establish courts of judges.[2] They were also commanded to establish a "supreme court" located at the central sanctuary (after arriving in the Land of Israel), to handle cases too difficult for local courts.[3]
When Moses declared that the task of leading the people was too difficult for him, God had him appoint 70 elders (zekenim) to share the burden of leadership with him.[4] According to the Mishnah, these 70 elders plus Moses himself are the source for the 71 judges of the "Great Sanhedrin".[5] These elders are described as "the elders of the people and its officers",[6] according to a midrash, they were the same officers who were beaten in Egyptian slavery for failing to meet Pharaoh's quota of bricks, and after the Exodus were rewarded with membership on the first Sanhedrin.[7]
The 23 judges of the "Lesser Sanhedrin" are derived from the following exegesis: it must be possible for a "community" to vote for both conviction and exoneration (Numbers 35:24–25). The minimum size of a "community" is 10 men,[8] thus 10 vs 10. One more is required to achieve a majority (11 vs. 10), but a simple majority cannot convict (Exodus 23:2), and so an additional judge is required (12 vs. 10). Finally, a court should have an odd number of judges to prevent deadlocks; thus 23 rather than 22.[5]
History
Early Sanhedrin
The first historic mention of a Synedrion (Greek: Συνέδριον) occurs in the Psalms of Solomon (17:49), a Jewish religious book translated into Greek.
The Hasmonean court in Judea, presided over by Alexander Jannaeus, until 76 BCE, followed by his wife, Queen Salome Alexandra, was called Synhedrion or Sanhedrin.[9] The exact nature of this early Sanhedrin is not clear. It may have been a body of sages or priests, or a political, legislative and judicial institution. The first historical record of the body was during the administration of Aulus Gabinius, who, according to Josephus, organized five synedra in 57 BCE as Roman administration was not concerned with religious affairs unless sedition was suspected.[10] Only after the destruction of the Second Temple was the Sanhedrin made up only of sages.[9]
Josephus describes a synhedrion for the first time in connection with the decree of the Roman governor of Syria, Aulus Gabinius (57 BCE), who abolished the constitution and the then existing form of government of Judea and divided the country into five provinces, at the head of each of which a synhedrion was placed; Jerusalem was the seat of one of these.[11] Later, Josephus describes Herod (at the time governor of Galilee) as being summoned before the synhedrion, led by High Priest Hyrcanus II, due to having executed alleged criminals without permission from the synhedrion.[12] Eventually, though, Herod would go on to kill many members of this synhedrion.[13]
The Mishnah describes the Sanhedrin in this period further. The Great Sanhedrin met in the Hall of Hewn Stones in the Temple in Jerusalem. It convened every day except festivals and Shabbat. Its members included priests, Levites, and ordinary Jews whose families had a pure lineage such that their daughters were allowed to marry priests.[14]
The trial of Jesus, and early Christianity
Main article: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus
A Synhedrion is mentioned 22 times in the Greek New Testament, including in the Gospels in relation to the trial of Jesus, and in the Acts of the Apostles, which mentions a "Great Synhedrion" in chapter 5 where rabbi Gamaliel appeared, and also in chapter 7 in relation to the stoning death of Saint Stephen. This body is described as a court led by the High Priest or leading priests, as well as the "elders" and/or Pharisees.[15]
During Jewish–Roman Wars
After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, the Sanhedrin was re-established in Yavneh, with reduced authority, by agreement between Yochanan ben Zakai and Roman Emperor Vespasian. Vespasian agreed in part due to the perception that the Pharisees had not participated in the first revolt to the extent that other groups had. Thus the Sanhedrin in Yavneh was comprised almost exclusively of pharisaic scholars. The imperial Roman government recognized the Sanhedrin. They regarded the head of the Sanhedrin as their own paid government official with the status of a prefect. Roman legislation severely reduced the scope of its authority, but confirmed the body's ultimate authority in religious matters. In an attempt to quash revolutionary elements, Rome in effect declared one form of Judaism to be the only recognized form of religion. This led to persecution of sectarian groups, and attempts by these groups to find fault with the Sanhedrin before the Roman government. [citation needed]
The seat of the Patriarchate moved to Usha under the presidency of Gamaliel II in 80 CE. In 116 it moved back to Yavneh, and then again back to Usha. [citation needed]
After Bar Kokhba Revolt
Galilee in late antiquity
Rabbinic texts indicate that following the Bar Kokhba revolt, southern Galilee became the seat of rabbinic learning in the Land of Israel. This region was the location of the court of the Patriarch which was situated first at Usha, then at Bet Shearim, later at Sepphoris and finally at Tiberias.[16]
In the Galilee, the Sanhedrin assembled on the Three Pilgrimage Festivals, and delegations of diaspora Jews traveled there to have their questions answered.[17]
The Great Sanhedrin moved in 140 to Shefaram under the presidency of Shimon ben Gamliel II, and subsequently to Beit She'arim and later to Sepphoris, under the presidency of Judah ha-Nasi (165–220). Finally, it moved to Tiberias in 220, under the presidency of Gamaliel III (220–230), a son of Judah ha-Nasi, where it became more of a consistory, but still retained, under the presidency of Judah II (230–270), the power of excommunication.
During the presidency of Gamaliel IV (270–290), due to Roman persecution, it dropped the name Sanhedrin; and its authoritative decisions were subsequently issued under the name of Beth HaMidrash.[citation needed]
In the year 363, the emperor Julian (r. 355–363 CE), an apostate from Christianity, ordered the Temple rebuilt.[18] The project's failure has been ascribed to the Galilee earthquake of 363, and to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.[19] As a reaction against Julian's pro-Jewish stance, the later emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395 CE) forbade the Sanhedrin to assemble and declared ordination illegal. Capital punishment was prescribed for any Rabbi who received ordination, as well as complete destruction of the town where the ordination occurred.[20]
However, since the Hebrew calendar was based on witnesses' testimony, which had become far too dangerous to collect, rabbi Hillel II recommended change to a mathematically based calendar that was adopted at a clandestine, and maybe final, meeting in 358 CE. This marked the last universal decision made by the Great Sanhedrin.
Gamaliel VI (400–425) was the Sanhedrin's last president. With his death in 425, Theodosius II outlawed the title of Nasi, the last remains of the ancient Sanhedrin. An imperial decree of 426 diverted the patriarchs' tax (post excessum patriarchorum) into the imperial treasury.[20] The exact reason for the abrogation of the patriarchate is not clear,[21] though Gamaliel VI, the last holder of the office who had been for a time elevated by the emperor to the rank of prefect,[22] may have fallen out with the imperial authorities.[21] Thereafter, Jews were gradually excluded from holding public office.[23] A law dated to 429, however, refers to the existence of a Sanhedrin in each of the Eastern Roman provinces of Palestine.[24] In Tiberias, the Sanhedrin continued to function in some capacity in the 6th century, led by the rashei haperek ("heads of the chapter").[25] It ultimately evolved into the Palestinian Gaonate,[26] which relocated from Tiberias to Jerusalem by the mid-tenth century.[27]
Powers
The Talmud tractate Sanhedrin identifies two classes of rabbinical courts called Sanhedrin, a Great Sanhedrin (בית דין הגדול) and a Lesser Sanhedrin (בית דין הקטן). Each city could have its own lesser Sanhedrin of 23 judges, but there could be only one greater Sanhedrin of 71, which among other roles acted as the Supreme Court, taking appeals from cases decided by lesser courts.[28] The uneven numbers of judges were predicated on eliminating the possibility of a tie, and the last to cast his vote was the head of the court.
Function and procedures
The Sanhedrin as a body claimed powers that lesser Jewish courts did not have. As such, they were the only ones who could try the king, extend the boundaries of the Temple and Jerusalem, and were the ones to whom all questions of law were finally put. Moreover, the lesser Sanhedrin of 23 judges was the only juridical body in Israel having the statutory and constitutional authority and power to render a verdict of capital punishment to would-be offenders,[29] and the greater Sanhedrin of 71 judges was solely authorized to send forth the people to a battle waged of free choice.[30]
Before 191 BCE the High Priest acted as the ex officio head of the Sanhedrin,[31] but in 191 BCE, when the Sanhedrin lost confidence in the High Priest, the office of Nasi was created. After the time of Hillel the Elder (late 1st century BCE and early 1st century CE), the Nasi was almost invariably a descendant of Hillel. The second highest-ranking member of the Sanhedrin was called the Av Beit Din, or 'Head of the Court' (literally, Av Beit Din means 'father of the house of judgment'), who presided over the Sanhedrin when it sat as a criminal court.[32]
During the Second Temple period, the Sanhedrin met in a building known as the Hall of Hewn Stones (Lishkat ha-Gazit), which has been placed by the Talmud and many scholars as built into the northern wall of the Temple, half inside the sanctuary and half outside, with doors providing access variously to the Temple and to the outside. The name presumably arises to distinguish it from the buildings in the Temple complex used for ritual purposes, which could not be constructed of stones hewn by any iron implement.
In some cases, it was necessary only for a 23-member panel (functioning as a Lesser Sanhedrin) to convene. In general, the full panel of 71 judges was convened only on matters of national significance (e.g., a declaration of war) or when the 23-member panel failed to reach a conclusive verdict.[33]
By the end of the Second Temple period, the Sanhedrin reached its pinnacle of importance, legislating all aspects of Jewish religious and political life within parameters laid down by Biblical and Rabbinic tradition.
Archaeological findings
In 2004, excavations in Tiberias conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority uncovered a structure dating to the 3rd century CE that may have been the seat of the Sanhedrin when it convened in that city. At the time it was called Beit Hava'ad.[34]
Nasi (president)
Further information: Tannaim
Before 191 BCE the High Priest acted as the ex officio head of the Sanhedrin,[31] but in 191 BCE, when the Sanhedrin lost confidence in the High Priest, the chair passed to the new office of the Nasi. The Sanhedrin was headed by the chief scholars of the great Talmudic Academies in the Land of Israel, and with the decline of the Sanhedrin, their spiritual and legal authority was generally accepted, the institution itself being supported by voluntary contributions by Jews throughout the ancient world.
Being a member of the house of Hillel and thus a descendant of King David, the Nasi (prince), who was the chairman of the assembly, enjoyed almost royal authority. His functions were political rather than religious, though the office’s influence was not limited to the secular realm.[22] The Patriarchate attained its zenith under Judah ha-Nasi, who compiled the Mishnah.[22]
Up to the middle of the fourth century, the Patriarchate retained the prerogative of determining the Hebrew calendar and guarded the intricacies of the needed calculations, in an effort to constrain interference by the Babylonian community. Christian persecution obliged Hillel II to fix the calendar in permanent form in 359 CE.[22][35] This institution symbolized the passing of authority from the Patriarchate to the Babylonian Talmudic academies.[36]
List of patriarchs
PresidentTerm in office
Yose ben Yoezer170 BCE140 BCE
Joshua ben Perachyah140 BCE100 BCE
Simeon ben Shetach100 BCE60 BCE
Shmaya65 BCEc. 31 BCE
Hillel the Elderc. 31 BCE9 CE
Rabban Shimon ben Hillel9?
Rabban Gamaliel the Elder3050
Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel5070
Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai7080
Rabban Gamaliel II of Yavne80118
Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah118120
Interregnum (Bar Kokhba revolt)120142
Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel II142165
Rabbi Judah I HaNasi (ThePresident)165220
Gamaliel III220230
Judah II Nesi'ah230270
Gamaliel IV270290
Judah III Nesi'ah290320
Hillel II320365
Gamaliel V365385
Judah IV385400
Gamaliel VIc. 400425
Summary of patriarchal powers
The following is a summary of the powers and responsibilities of the Patriarchate from the onset of the third century, based on rabbinic sources as understood by L.I. Levine:[37]
Representative to Imperial authorities;
Focus of leadership in the Jewish community:
Receiving daily visits from prominent families;
Declaration of public fast days;
Initiating or abrogating the ban (herem);
Appointment of judges to Jewish courts in the Land of Israel;
Regulation of the calendar;
Issuing enactments and decrees with respect to the applicability or release from legal requirements, e.g.:
Use of sabbatical year produce and applicability of sabbatical year injunctions;
Repurchase or redemption of formerly Jewish land from gentile owners;
Status of Hellenistic cities of the Land of Israel re: purity, tithing, sabbatical year;
Exemptions from tithing;
Conditions in divorce documents;
Use of oil produced by gentiles;
Dispatching emissaries to diaspora communities;
Taxation: both the power to tax and the authority to rule/intervene on the disposition of taxes raised for local purposes by local councils.
Revival attempts
Since the dissolution of the Sanhedrin in or around 358 CE, there have been several attempts to re-establish it.
There are records of what may have been attempts to reform the Sanhedrin in Arabia,[38] in Jerusalem under the Caliph Umar,[38] and in Babylon (Iraq),[39] but none of these attempts were given attention by later rabbinic authorities and little information is available about them.
Napoleon Bonaparte's "Grand Sanhedrin"
Main article: Napoleon Bonaparte's "Grand Sanhedrin"
Medallion struck in honor of the "Grand Sanhedrin" convened by Emperor Napoleon I of France. In the collection of the Jewish Museum of Switzerland.
The "Grand Sanhedrin" was a Jewish high court convened by Napoleon I to give legal sanction to the principles expressed by the Assembly of Notables in answer to the twelve questions submitted to it by the government. It did not follow the halakhic procedures of the traditional Sanhedrin.
On 6 October 1806, the Assembly of Notables issued a proclamation to all the Jewish communities of Europe, inviting them to send delegates to the Sanhedrin, to convene on 20 October. This proclamation, written in Hebrew, French, German, and Italian, speaks in extravagant terms of the importance of this revived institution and of the greatness of its imperial protector. While the action of Napoleon aroused in many Jews of Germany the hope that, influenced by it, their governments also would grant them the rights of citizenship, others looked upon it as a political contrivance. When in the war against Prussia (1806–07) the emperor invaded Poland and the Jews rendered great services to his army, he remarked, laughing, "The sanhedrin is at least useful to me."[40] David Friedländer and his friends in Berlin described it as a spectacle that Napoleon offered to the Parisians.
Inauguration of the Sanhedrin in 2004
Modern attempts
Main article: Modern attempts to revive the Sanhedrin
Maimonides (1135–1204) proposed a rationalist solution for achieving the goal of re-establishing semikhah and the Sanhedrin.[41][42] There have been several attempts to implement Maimonides' recommendations by Rabbi Jacob Berab in 1538, Rabbi Yisroel Shklover in 1830, Rabbi Aharon Mendel haCohen in 1901, Rabbi Zvi Kovsker in 1940, Rabbi Yehuda Leib Maimon in 1949, and a group of Israeli rabbis in 2004.
See also
Judaism portal
Council of Jamnia
Beth din shel Kohanim
Great Assembly – or Anshei Knesset HaGedolah ('Men of the Great Assembly')
Magnum Concilium, a similar body in medieval England
Synedrion, a general term for judiciary organs of Greek and Hellenistic city states and treaty organisations.
Tombs of the Sanhedrin
References
"Greek Lexicon :: G4892 (KJV)". Blue Letter Bible.
Exodus 18:21–22, Deuteronomy 1:15–18
Deuteronomy 17:9–12
Numbers 11:16–17, 24–25
Mishnah, Sanhedrin 1:6
Numbers 11:16
Rashi, Exodus 5:14
The Hebrew term "community" appears in Numbers 14:27; i.e., the 10 spies who had spread a bad report about the land, thus a "community" is 10 men.
Chaim Potok (1978). Wanderings: Chaim Potok's History of the Jews. Knopf. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-394-50110-9.
Mantel, Hugo. (1972) "Sanhedrin". in Encyclopaedia Judaica. Jerusalem: Macmillan. 14, p. 836
Antiquities 14:5 § 4
Antiquities 14:167–180
Antiquities 14:175
Sanhedrin 4:2
Grabbe, Lester L. "Sanhedrin, Sanhedriyyot, or Mere Invention?" Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period 39, no. 1 (2008): 1–19. JSTOR 24670033.
Jack N. Lightstone; Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion (2002). Mishnah and the social formation of the early Rabbinic Guild: a socio-rhetorical approach. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-88920-375-4. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
Alon, Gedalia; Levi, Gershon (1989). The Jews in their land in the Talmudic age (70-640 C.E.). Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. p. 470. ISBN 978-0-674-47495-6.
Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.1.2–3.
See "Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE" and "Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple" Archived 2005-10-20 at the Wayback Machine.
Hayim Ben-Sasson (1985). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6.
Nicholas Robert Michael De Lange; Jane S. Gerber (1997). The illustrated history of the Jewish people. Harcourt Brace. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-15-100302-0. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
Wikisource This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Abrahams, Israel (1911). "Jews". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 487–410, see page 403. III. – From the Dispersion to Modern Times
Alfred Edersheim (1856). History of the Jewish nation after the destruction of Jerusalem under Titus. T. Constable and Co. p. 551. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
Lee I. Levine (2018). "The Jewish patriarchate". In Tim Whitmarsh (ed.). Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8133. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel (1976). A history of the Jewish people. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard university press. p. 357. ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6.
Gil, Mosheh; Broido, Ethel; Gil, Mosheh (1997). A history of Palestine, 634 - 1099 (1. paperback ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 495. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Wechsler, Michael G. (2013). "New Data from Saadia Bearing on the Relocation of the Palestinian Yeshiva to Jerusalem" (PDF). Jewish Studies, an Internet Journal (JSIJ). 12: 1. Retrieved 12 May 2026.
Shurpin, Yehuda. "The Sanhedrin". Chabad. Retrieved January 26, 2026.
Danby, H., ed. (1977), The Mishnah, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 383 (Sanhedrin 1:4), ISBN 0-19-815402-X
Danby, H., ed. (1977), The Mishnah, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 383 (Sanhedrin 1:5), ISBN 0-19-815402-X
Goldwurm, Hersh and Holder, Meir, History of the Jewish People, I "The Second Temple Era" (Mesorah Publications: 1982) ISBN 0-89906-454-X.
"Sanhedrin". CUNY. Archived from the original on 2006-05-19.
Babylonian Talmud: Sanhedrin 2a.
"Researchers say Tiberias basilica may have housed Sanhedrin". Haaretz. 22 March 2004. Archived from the original on June 4, 2015.
Esther Rogoff Taus; Zev Garber (2008). Torah for Today. University Press of America. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-7618-3635-3. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
Isaac Landman (1941). The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: an authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times. The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, inc. p. 399. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
Jack N. Lightstone; Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion (2002). Mishnah and the social formation of the early Rabbinic Guild: a socio-rhetorical approach. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-88920-375-4. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
The Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614 compared with Islamic conquest of 638
Sefer Yuchsin, cf. Yarchei Kallah, Rabbi Nassan describes "the seventy judges who comprise the Sanhedrin".
"Sanhedrin, French – JewishEncyclopedia.com". www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2025-02-16.
Maimonides (1965). Mishnah, with Maimonides' Commentary (Seder Nezīqīn) (in Hebrew). Vol. 2. Translated by Yosef Qafih. Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook. p. 102 (Sanhedrin 1:3). OCLC 233308346.
Maimonides, Sefer Mishneh Torah (Maimonides' Code of Jewish Law) (in Hebrew), Hil. Sanhedrin 4:11
Bibliography
Cohen, S.J.D., "Patriarchs and Scholarchs," PAAJR 48 (1981), 57–85.
Goodman, M., "The Roman State and the Jewish Patriarch in the Third Century," in L.I. Levnie (ed.), The Galilee in late Antiquity (New York, 1992), 127.39.
Habas (Rubin), E., "Rabban Gamaliel of Yavneh and his Sons: The Patriarchate before and after the Bar Kokhva Revolt," JJS 50 (1999), 21–37.
Levine, L.I., "The Patriarch (Nasi) in Third-Century Palestine," ANRW 2.19.2 (1979), 649–88.
External links
Wikisource logo
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Synedrium".
Wikisource This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Abrahams, Israel (1911). "Jews". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 487–410 [403]. III. – From the Dispersion to Modern Times
Wikisource logo
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article "Sanhedrin".
Secular and religious history of the Jewish Sanhedrin
The Sanhedrin Chabad.org
English web site of the re-established Jewish Sanhedrin in Israel
The Jewish Court System by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan
Jewish Encyclopedia: "Sanhedrin"
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Sanhedrin" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata
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Gryslaksman
(Lanius minor)
The lesser grey shrike (Lanius minor) is a member of the shrike family Laniidae. It breeds in South and Central Europe and western Asia in the summer and migrates to winter quarters in southern Africa in the early autumn, returning in spring. It is a scarce vagrant to western Europe, including Great Britain, usually as a spring or autumn erratic.
It is similar in appearance to the great grey shrike Lanius excubitor and the Iberian grey shrike Lanius meridionalis being predominantly black, white and grey, with the males having pink-flushed underparts. It is slightly smaller than the great grey shrike, and has a black forehead and relatively longer wings. This species prefers dry open lowlands, and is often seen on telephone wires.
This medium-sized passerine eats large insects, especially beetles, butterflies, moths and grasshoppers. Like other shrikes it hunts from prominent perches and sometimes impales corpses on thorns or barbed wire as a "larder".
The lesser grey shrike was first described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788. There are two subspecies, Lanius minor minor and Lanius minor turanicus.
The genus name, Lanius, is derived from the Latin word for "butcher", and some shrikes are also known as "butcher birds" because of their feeding habits. The specific minor is Latin for "smaller". The common English name "shrike" is from Old English scríc, "shriek", referring to the shrill call.
The adult male lesser grey shrike has its nape, cheeks, ear and eye coverts and front part of the crown black. The hind part of the crown and the back is a pale bluish-grey and the rump is a similar but rather paler colour. The underparts are white with the lower breast and belly suffused with pink. The axillaries are greyish-white and the underwing coverts are brownish-black. The two central tail feathers are black with a white tip and base. The other pairs have increasing areas of white and less black. The primaries are black with a buff tip and white base. The secondaries are black with broader, paler tips but no white bases. The wing coverts are black with the lesser coverts being fringed with grey. The female has similar plumage but the head is dark grey rather than black, the ear coverts brownish-black, the upperparts a brownish-grey and the underparts less pink than the male. The juvenile is similar to the adults but is altogether more brown. It lacks the grey back and rump which are instead pale brown and faintly barred, and the underparts are white and cream without any pink. All birds have a brownish-black beak with a paler base to the lower mandible, brown irises and black legs and feet. Adult length is around 20 cm (7.9 in) with a wing length of 13 cm (5.1 in) and a tarsus length of 2.5 cm (1 in).
The lesser grey shrike spends the summer in South and Central Europe and western Asia. It breeds in southern France, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Italy, the former Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria and southern Russia. In Asia it breeds in the Middle East, its range extending as far as eastern Turkey and Iran. It is a vagrant to more northerly parts of Europe, usually in spring or autumn. Countries where it has been seen include Sweden, Finland, Denmark, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Belgium and northern France. It is a migratory species and winters in a broad belt across tropical southern Africa.[6]
During the summer the lesser grey shrike inhabits open countryside, the edges of cultivated areas, heathland with scattered bushes and trees, gardens, coppices, woodland and roadside trees. In its winter quarters it is usually found in scrubland and among thorn trees.
The lesser grey shrike hunts from a strategic post, wire or branch and primarily feeds on insects which it catches in the air or on the ground. The diet includes beetles, moths and butterflies, large flies, grasshoppers, crickets and millipedes. Some fruits such as cherries and figs are eaten to a limited extent. The bird occasionally impales freshly caught prey on thorns for use later, but this is done to a much lesser extent than by some other shrike species. It has been shown experimentally that this species only creates a larder when it is satiated and that prey items are seldom plentiful enough for this to be the case. The male has been observed to feed the female before starting to create a food store. Repeated experimental exposure of birds to a food surplus significantly increases the rate at which they impale freshly caught prey. Other causal factors in the failure of this species to hoard may be a shortage of suitable caching sites and the fact that the bird lacks practice in storing food and this constrains its learning ability.
The flight of the lesser grey shrike is low and somewhat undulating and it occasionally glides with extended wings. At the end of the flight it swoops upward to land on a new hunting perch. It then turns its head from side to side searching for prey. When on the ground it hops, but it normally only stays there for long enough to pick up an item of food. Like other shrikes, when excited it fans its tail and moves it up and down or from sided to side. It is pugnacious and will defend its nest with vigour and drive away larger birds.
The nest is often built in a roadside tree with good all-round visibility some 4 to 10 metres (13 to 33 ft) off the ground. It is built by both birds out of the stems of various flowering plants such as cudweed (Gnaphalium) and (Filago), and thyme (Thymus), and lined with whisps of wool, hairs, roots and feathers. There are five to seven eggs in the clutch, usually bluish green blotched with greenish-brown. Sometimes the background colour is cream or buff with pinkish-brown blotches. Their average size is 26.1 by 18.2 millimetres (1.03 in × 0.72 in). Incubation lasts about fifteen days and is chiefly done by the female though both parents take part. They both feed the young which are ready to leave the nest after about fourteen days. There is usually a single brood.
Wikipedia
Constraining a balloon ice lantern inside an ice lantern mold can soften angular shapes and allow the luminary to be made larger than the mold. The Arctic Ice Lantern mold tends to produce a lantern with an irregular base, because the freezing ice oozes out onto the upper surface while freezing. If that upper surface is inside a balloon, a smoother, flatter base is produced.
My Analogue and the Beginnings with Ned Kelly
From songs of love,
from analog beginnings to emotional intensity,
warships still carry their burdens of righteousness and disease.
This is where our leaders stand with us.
As we adore,
we also constrain and repel;
as we fall and fail,
we obediently accept tales without verification.
Then we became subdivided,
gridlocked,
until imagination offered an escape.
He floated through its fields,
controlling the space within,
between,
and such is life.
Poetry Genre: nihilist, dark ambient, industrial, avant-garde.
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We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,
That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed.
But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.
Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government.
The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States.
To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
-- Thomas Jefferson