View allAll Photos Tagged captivity
This is the first time I've used GIMP to edit out an entire hand from a photo. It would have ruined this photo had it stayed there.
Photo can be downloaded and used for whatever your own "porpoises," EXCEPT FOR MONEY!
Doll Chateau Cyril - white skin
Dollshe Bernard - fresh skin
Dollzone Wig W60-037 (8/9)
Monique Gold Doll Wig PARIS 8/9 Carrot Red (wig is a little big for him)
The animals of this world exist for their own reasons. They were not made for humans anymore than black people were made for whites.
Alice Walker
The poor critter is in a small enclosure at Becky Falls Devon. There is a small heat lamp above the wee beasts head to give some warmth.
Tika the elephant at the metro Toronto zoo was spraying himself with sand to try to stay cool. I snapped off several shots in rapid succession to get this shot.
Tika and the other elephants were moved to San Diego with financial support from tv show host Bob Barker (the price is right) to a new home with more room than was given them in Toronto. No large animal should be penned up in such a small enclosure.
As a side not, the elephants at the metro zoo lived unusually short lives compared with their wild African cousins.
Thank you for visiting for marking my photo as a favourite and for the kind comments,.
Please do not copy my image or use it on websites, blogs or other media without my express permission.
© NICK MUNROE (MUNROE DESIGNS PHOTOGRAPHY
You can contact me @ karenick23@yahoo.com munroedesignsphotography@gmail.com or on Facebook @ www.facebook.com/MunroeDesignsPhotography
Doll Chateau Cyril - white skin
Dollshe Bernard - fresh skin
Dollzone Wig W60-037 (8/9)
Monique Gold Doll Wig PARIS 8/9 Carrot Red (wig is a little big for him)
Também: Bordaleiro, Chasco-do-rego, Juiz-do-rio, Pica-peixe, Rei-do-mar in "AVES DE PORTUGAL - Ornitologia do território continental" - Assírio & Alvim.
Residente comum, com alguns indivíduos migradores
26/07/2014 - São Miguel de Machede (Évora, Portugal)
[Obrigado pela visualização]
[Thanks for your visualization]
THANK YOU ALL for the tremendous support and continous encouragement all through this year.
It's been just over 4 months since I joined flickr..and I must admit that everyday, I've learnt a lot of new things about photography from each one of you!!
Hope you all have a truly MERRY CHRISTMAS and a FAIRYTALE-LIKE 2010 !!
Keep clicking.. Have fun.. Stay safe.. Cheers.
I got this, several years ago, on film with EOS5 and EF100mm/f2.8 macro. I used ring flash. I kept the mouse for about a week in the trap and fed him with cheese. When I took the trap to the mountains and opened the door he didn't want to leave!
Monkey in captivity, Bangkok, Thailand, July 1994
What a sad example of inhumanity...
scaned from slide
"The last Metroid is in captivity. The galaxy is at peace..."
Support it on LEGO Ideas:
ideas.lego.com/projects/0ca0ae99-d79e-4fb2-91c1-332aee51220d
Team up with Samus Aran, the toughest bounty hunter in the galaxy, and help her to take the dangerous last Metroid infant out of planet SR388. Then carry it aboard her iconic gunship and take off!
Based on the classic "Metroid" videogame franchise from Nintendo, this building toy features the bounty hunter's most recognisable vessel, as well as some key elements from the entire series.
Carry the jar with the Metroid in suspended animation inside the cargo hold.
Move the Technic liftarm to drop Samus inside the gunship to restore health and ammo. Then withdraw the axle at the back to exit the gunship via the lower hatch.
Remove the windscreen to access the cockpit.
Flaps can be open to reveal some inner details.
Modify the exposed intakes to conceal them.
Includes two moveable stud shooters.
Adjust the three bottom pads to land in any surface.
Open the secret door to drop Samus as a Morph Ball.
Includes a minifigure of Samus Aran's iconic Power Suit.
Samus next mission: to become part of a new LEGO Ideas product.
She NEEDS YOU. Can you help her? Now is your turn!
Support the project so we can achieve our mission accomplished at 100%.
The budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus), also known as the common parakeet, shell parakeet or budgie (/ˈbʌdʒi/ BUJ-ee), is a small, long-tailed, seed-eating parrot. Budgies are the only species in the genus Melopsittacus. Naturally, the species is green and yellow with black, scalloped markings on the nape, back, and wings.[5] Budgies are bred in captivity with colouring of blues, whites, yellows, greys, and even with small crests. Juveniles and chicks are monomorphic, while adults are told apart by their cere colouring, and their behaviour.
The species is the only member of the genus Melopsittacus, which is the only genus in the Melopsittacini tribe.
The origin of the budgerigar's name is unclear. First recorded in 1805, budgerigars are popular pets around the world due to their small size, low cost, and ability to mimic human speech. They are likely the third most popular pet in the world, after the domesticated dog and cat. Budgies are nomadic flock parakeets that have been bred in captivity since the 19th century. In both captivity and the wild, budgerigars breed opportunistically and in pairs.
They are found wild throughout the drier parts of Australia, where they have survived harsh inland conditions for over five million years. Their success can be attributed to a nomadic lifestyle and their ability to breed while on the move. The budgerigar is closely related to lories and the fig parrots.
Etymology
Pair of budgerigars
Several possible origins for the name budgerigar have been proposed. One origin could be that budgerigar may be a mispronunciation or alteration of the Gamilaraay word gidjirrigaa (Aboriginal pronunciation: [ɡ̊iɟiriɡaː]) or gijirragaa from the Yuwaalaraay. Another possible origin is that budgerigar might be a modified form of budgery or boojery (Australian English slang for "good") and gar ("cockatoo"). While many references mention "good" as part of the meaning, and a few specify "good bird", it is quite possible that reports by those local to the region are more accurate in specifying the direct translation as "good food".
Alternative spellings include budgerygah and betcherrygah, the latter used by Indigenous people of the Liverpool Plains in New South Wales.
Alternative names for the budgerigar include the shell parrot or shell parakeet, the warbling grass parakeet, the canary parrot, the zebra parrot, the flight bird, and the scallop parrot. Although more often used as a common name for small parrots in the genus Agapornis, the name "lovebird" has been used for budgerigars, because of their habit of close perching and mutual preening, and their long term pair-bonds.
Taxonomy
Evolutionary history
parrots
Lories and lorikeets
Budgerigar
Fig parrots
genera Cyclopsitta & Psittaculirostris
... other parrots
Phylogenetic chart
The budgerigar was first described by George Shaw in 1805, and given its current binomial name by John Gould in 1840. The genus name Melopsittacus, from Ancient Greek, means "melodious parrot". The species name undulatus is Latin for "undulated" or "wave-patterned".
The budgerigar was once proposed to be a link between the genera Neophema and Pezoporus, based on the barred plumage. However, recent phylogenetic studies using DNA sequences place the budgerigar very close to the lories (tribe Loriini) and the fig parrots (tribe Cyclopsittini).
Description
Wild budgerigars average 18 cm (7 in) long,[6] weigh 30–40 grams (1.1–1.4 oz), 30 cm (12 in) in wingspan, and display a light green body colour (abdomen and rumps), while their mantles (back and wing coverts) display pitch-black mantle markings (blackish in fledglings and immatures) edged in clear yellow undulations. The forehead and face is yellow in adults. Prior to their adult plumage, young individuals have blackish stripes down to the cere (nose) in young individuals until around 3–4 months of age. They display small, iridescent blue-violet cheek patches and a series of three black spots across each side of their throats (called throat patches). The two outermost throat spots are situated at the base of each cheek patch. The tail is cobalt (dark-blue); and outside tail feathers display central yellow flashes. Their wings have greenish-black flight feathers and black coverts with yellow fringes along with central yellow flashes, which only become visible in flight or when the wings are outstretched. Bills are olive grey and legs blueish-grey, with zygodactyl toes.
In their natural Australian habitat, budgerigars are noticeably smaller than those in captivity. This particular parrot species has been bred in many other colours and shades in captivity (e.g. blue, grey, grey-green, pieds, violet, white, yellow-blue). Pet store individuals will commonly be blue, green, or yellow. Like most parrot species, budgerigar plumage fluoresces under ultraviolet light – a phenomenon possibly related to courtship and mate selection.
The upper half of their beaks is taller than the bottom half, covering the bottom when closed. The beak does not protrude much, due to the thick, fluffy feathers surrounding it, giving the appearance of a downward-pointing beak that lies flat against the face. The upper half acts as a long, smooth cover, while the bottom half is just about a half-sized cup-piece. These beaks allow the birds to eat plants, fruits, and vegetables.
The colour of the cere (the area containing the nostrils) differs between the sexes, being a lavender/baby blue in males, pale brownish/white (non breeding) to brown (breeding) in females, and pink in immature birds of both sexes (usually of a more even purplish-pink colour in young males). Some female budgerigars develop brown cere only during breeding time, which later returns to the normal colour. Young females can often be identified by a subtle, chalky whiteness that starts around the nostrils. Males that are either albino, lutino, dark-eyed clear or recessive pied (Danish pied or harlequin) retain the immature purplish-pink cere colour for their entire lives.
Behaviours and head shape also help indicate sex. Veterinarians can determine the sex of a bird by invasive examination or samples of blood, feather, or eggshell.
Mature males usually have a cere of light to dark blue, but in some particular colour mutations it can be periwinkle, lavender, purplish or pink – including dark-eyed clears, Danish pieds (recessive pieds) and inos, which usually display much rounder heads. The behaviour of males can distinguish them from females. Males are typically cheerful, extroverted, highly flirtatious, peacefully social, and very vocal.
Female ceres are pinkish while immature. As they age, they move from being beigeish or whitish outside breeding condition into brown (often with a 'crusty' texture) in breeding condition and usually display flattened backs of heads (right above the nape). Females are more dominant and less socially tolerant. This behavior is more pronounced around other females than with males.
Budgerigars have tetrachromatic colour vision, although all four classes of cone cells will not operate simultaneously unless under sunlight or a UV lamp. The ultraviolet spectrum brightens their feathers to attract mates. The throat spots in budgerigars reflect UV and can be used to distinguish individual birds. While ultraviolet light is essential to the good health of caged and pet birds, inadequate darkness or rest results in overstimulation.
Ecology
Budgerigars are nomadic and flocks move on from sites as environmental conditions change. Budgerigars are found in open habitats, primarily in scrublands, open woodlands, and grasslands of Australia. The birds are normally found in small flocks, but can form very large flocks under favourable conditions. The nomadic movement of the flocks is tied to the availability of food and water. Budgerigars have two distinct flight speeds which they are capable of switching between depending on the circumstance. Drought can drive flocks into more wooded habitat or coastal areas. They feed on the seeds of spinifex and grass, and sometimes ripening wheat.
Outside of Australia, the only long-term establishment of naturalised feral budgerigars is a large population near St. Petersburg, Florida. Increased competition for nesting sites from European starlings and house sparrows is thought to be a primary cause of the Florida population declining from the 1980s. The more consistent, year-round conditions in Florida significantly reduced their nomadic behaviour.
The species has been introduced to various locations in Puerto Rico and the United States.
Budgerigars feed primarily on grass seeds. The species also opportunistically depredates growing cereal crops and lawn grass seeds.[35] Due to the low water content of the seeds they rely on the availability of freshwater.
Behaviour
Breeding in the wild generally takes place between June and September in northern Australia and between August and January in the south, although budgerigars are opportunistic breeders and respond to rains when grass seeds become most abundant. Budgerigars are monogamous and breed in large colonies throughout their range. They show signs of affection to their flockmates by preening or feeding one another. Budgerigars feed one another by eating the seeds themselves, and then regurgitating it into their flockmate's mouth. Populations in some areas have increased as a result of increased water availability at farms. Nests are made in holes in trees, fence posts or logs lying on the ground; the four to six eggs are incubated for 18–21 days, with the young fledging about 30 days after hatching.
In the wild, virtually all parrot species require a hollow tree or a hollow log as a nest site. Because of this natural behaviour, budgerigars most easily breed in captivity when provided with a reasonable-sized nest box.
The eggs are typically one to two centimetres long and are pearl white without any colouration if fertile. Female budgerigars can lay eggs without a male partner, but these unfertilised eggs will not hatch. Females normally have a whitish tan cere; however, when the female is laying eggs, her cere turns a crusty brown colour. Certain female budgies may always keep a whitish tan cere or always keep a crusty brown cere regardless of breeding condition. A female budgerigar will lay her eggs on alternating days. After the first one, there is usually a two-day gap until the next. She will usually lay between four and eight eggs, which she will incubate (usually starting after laying her second or third) for about 21 days each. Females only leave their nests for very quick defecations, stretches and quick meals once they have begun incubating and are by then almost exclusively fed by their mate (usually at the nest's entrance). Females will not allow a male to enter the nest, unless he forces his way inside. Clutch size ranges from 6 to 8 chicks. Depending on the clutch size and the beginning of incubation, the age difference between the first and last hatchling can be anywhere from 9 to 16 days. At times, the parents may begin eating their own eggs due to feeling insecure in the nest box.
There is evidence of same-sex sexual behaviour amongst male budgerigars. It is originally hypothesised that they did this as a form of "courtship practice" so they were better breeding partners for females, however an inverse relationship exists between participation in same-sex behaviour and pairing success.
Chick health
Breeding difficulties arise for various reasons. Some chicks may die from diseases and attacks from adults. Other budgerigars (virtually always females) may fight over the nest box, attacking each other or a brood. Another problem may be the birds' beaks being under-lapped, where the lower mandible is above the upper mandible.
Most health issues and physical abnormalities in budgerigars are genetic. Care should be taken that birds used for breeding are active, healthy and unrelated. Budgerigars that are related or have fatty tumours or other potential genetic health problems should not be allowed to breed. Parasites (lice, mites, worms) and pathogens (bacteria, fungi and viruses), are contagious and thus transmitted between individuals through either direct or indirect contact. Nest boxes should be cleaned between uses.
Splay leg is a relatively common problem in baby budgerigars and other birds; one of the budgerigar's legs is bent outward, which prevents it from being able to stand properly and compete with the other chicks for food, and can also lead to difficulties in reproducing in adulthood. The condition is caused by young budgerigars slipping repeatedly on the floor of a nest box. It is easily avoided by placing a small quantity of a safe bedding or wood shavings in the bottom of the nest box. Alternatively, several pieces of paper may be placed in the box for the female to chew into bedding.
Development
Eggs take about 18–20 days before they start hatching. The hatchlings are altricial – blind, naked, unable to lift their head and totally helpless, and their mother feeds them and keeps them warm constantly. Around 10 days of age, the chicks' eyes will open, and they will start to develop feather down. The appearance of down occurs at the age for closed banding of the chicks.
They develop feathers around three weeks of age. (One can often easily note the colour mutation of the individual birds at this point.) At this stage of the chicks' development, the male usually has begun to enter the nest to help his female in caring and feeding the chicks. Some budgerigar females, however, totally forbid the male from entering the nest and thus take the full responsibility of rearing the chicks until they fledge.
Depending on the size of the clutch and most particularly in the case of single mothers, it may then be wise to transfer a portion of the hatchlings (or best of the fertile eggs) to another pair. The foster pair must already be in breeding mode and thus either at the laying or incubating stages, or already rearing hatchlings.
As the chicks develop and grow feathers, they are able to be left on their own for longer periods of time. By the fifth week, the chicks are strong enough that both parents will be comfortable in staying out of the nest more. The youngsters will stretch their wings to gain strength before they attempt to fly. They will also help defend the box from enemies, mostly with their loud screeching. Young budgerigars typically fledge (leave the nest) around their fifth week of age and are usually completely weaned between six and eight weeks old. However, the age for fledging, as well as weaning, can vary slightly depending on the age and the number of surviving chicks. Generally speaking, the oldest chick is the first to be weaned. Although it is logically the last one to be weaned, the youngest chick is often weaned at a younger age than its older sibling(s). This can be a result of mimicking the actions of older siblings. Lone surviving chicks are often weaned at the youngest possible age as a result of having their parents' full attention and care.
Hand-reared budgies may take slightly longer to wean than parent-raised chicks. Hand feeding is not routinely done with budgerigars, due to their small size and because young parent raised birds can be readily tamed.
Relationship with humans
Aviculture
The budgerigar has been bred in captivity since the 1850s. Breeders have worked to produce a variety of colour, pattern and feather mutations, including albino, blue, cinnamon-ino (lacewing), clearwing, crested, dark, greywing, opaline, pieds, spangled, dilute (suffused) and violet.
"English budgerigars", more correctly called "show" or "exhibition budgerigars", are about twice as large as their wild counterparts and have puffier head feathers, giving them a boldly exaggerated look. The eyes and beak can be almost totally obscured by these fluffy head feathers. English budgerigars are typically more expensive than wild-type birds, and have a shorter life span of about seven to nine years. Breeders of English budgerigars show their birds at animal shows. Most captive budgerigars in the pet trade are more similar in size and body conformation to wild budgerigars.
Budgerigars are social animals and require stimulation in the shape of toys and interaction with humans or with other budgerigars. Budgerigars, and especially females, will chew material such as wood. When a budgerigar feels threatened, it will try to perch as high as possible and to bring its feathers close against its body in order to appear thinner.
Tame budgerigars can be taught to speak, whistle and play with humans. Both males and females sing and can learn to mimic sounds and words and do simple tricks, but singing and mimicry are more pronounced and better perfected in males. Females rarely learn to mimic more than a dozen words. Males can easily acquire vocabularies ranging from a few dozen to a hundred words. Pet males, especially those kept alone, are generally the best speakers.
Budgerigars will chew on anything they can find to keep their beaks trimmed. Mineral blocks (ideally enriched with iodine), cuttlebone and soft wooden pieces are suitable for this activity. Cuttlebones also supply calcium, essential for the proper forming of eggs and bone solidity. In captivity, budgerigars live an average of five to eight years, but life spans of 15–20 years have been reported. The life span depends on breed, lineage, and health, being highly influenced by exercise and diet. Budgerigars have been known to cause "bird fancier's lung" in sensitive people, a type of hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Apart from a handful of illnesses, diseases of the species are not transmittable to humans.
Colour mutations
Main article: Budgerigar colour genetics
All captive budgerigars are divided into two basic series of colours; namely, white-based (blue, grey and white) and yellow-based (green, grey-green and yellow). Presently, at least 32 primary mutations (including violet) occur, enabling hundreds of possible secondary mutations (stable combined primary mutations) and colour varieties (unstable combined mutations).
Mimicry
Main article: Talking bird
Male specimens of budgerigars can be skilled at mimicking human speech.
Puck, a male budgerigar owned by American Camille Jordan, holds the world record for the largest vocabulary of any bird, at 1,728 words. Puck died in 1994, with the record first appearing in the 1995 edition of Guinness World Records.
In 2001, recordings of a budgerigar called Victor got some attention from the media. Victor's owner, Ryan B. Reynolds of Canada, stated Victor was able to engage in contextual conversation and predict the future. Although some believe the animal was able to predict his own death as was claimed, further study on the subject is difficult without the bird. As of 2001, the recordings still remain to be verified by scientific analysis. Critics argue Victor's speech in the recordings is not coherent enough to be determined as spoken in context.
The budgerigar "Disco" became Internet famous in 2013. As of 2023, Disco had been viewed over 24,198,346 times on his YouTube channel. Some of Disco's most repeated phrases included, "I am not a crook" and "Nobody puts baby bird in a corner!". Disco died in 2017.
In popular culture
Small bathing suits for men, commonly referred to as togs or "Speedos", are informally called "budgie smugglers" in Australia. The phrase is humorously based on the appearance of the tight-fitting cloth around the male's genitals looking like a small budgie. The phrase was officially added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2016
The following text, in english, is from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
The Giant Otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) is a South American carnivorous mammal. It is the longest member of the Mustelidae, or weasel family, a globally successful group of predators. Unusually for a mustelid, the Giant Otter is a social species, with family groups typically supporting three to eight members. The groups are centered on a dominant breeding pair and are extremely cohesive and cooperative. Although generally peaceful, the species is territorial and aggression has been observed between groups. The Giant Otter is diurnal, being active exclusively during daylight hours. It is the noisiest otter species and distinct vocalizations have been documented that indicate alarm, aggressiveness, and reassurance. The Giant Otter ranges across north-central South America.
Its distribution has been greatly reduced and is now discontinuous. Decades of poaching for its velvety pelt, peaking in the 1950s and 1960s, hugely diminished population numbers. The species was listed as endangered in 1999 and population estimates are typically below 5,000 in the wild. The Guianas are the last real stronghold for the species. It is the most endangered mammal in the neo-tropics. Habitat degradation and loss is the greatest current threat. The Giant Otter is also rare in captivity: as of 2003, only 60 animals were held.[3]
The Giant Otter shows a variety of adaptations suitable to an amphibious lifestyle, including exceptionally dense fur, a wing-like tail, and webbed feet. The species prefers freshwater rivers and streams, which are usually seasonally flooded, and may also take to freshwater lakes and springs. It constructs extensive campsites close to feeding areas, clearing large amounts of vegetation. The Giant Otter largely subsists on a diet of fish, particularly characins and catfish, and may also eat crabs. It has no serious natural predators other than humans, although it must compete with other species, including the Neotropical Otter and caiman species, for food resources.
Naming:
The Giant Otter has a handful of other names in English. River Wolf (Spanish: Lobo del Río) and Water Dog (Spanish: Perro del Agua) are used occasionally. The last of these may have been more common in the reports of explorers in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.[4] All three names are in use in Spanish and Portuguese, with a number of regional variations. "Giant Otter" translates as Nutria Gigante and Lontra Gigante in Spanish and Portuguese, respectively; a fourth name, Ariraí or Ariranha is also in use in South America.[5] Among the Achuar people, they are known as Wankanim,[6] and among the Sanumá as Hadami.[7][8] The genus name, Pteronura, is derived from the Ancient Greek words pteron/πτερον 'feather' or 'wing' and ura/ουρά 'tail',[9] a reference to its distinctive wing-like tail.[10]
Taxonomy and evolution:
The otters form the Lutrinae subfamily within the mustelids and the Giant Otter is the only member of the genus Pteronura. Two subspecies are currently recognized by the canonical Mammal Species of the World, P. b. brasiliensis and P. b. paraguensis. Incorrect descriptions of the species have led to multiple synonyms (the latter subspecies is often P. b. paranensis in the literature).[1] P. b. brasiliensis is distributed across the north of the Giant Otter range, including the Orinoco, Amazon, and Guianas river systems; to the south, P. b. paraguensis has been suggested in Paraguay, Uruguay, southern Brazil, and northern Argentina,[5] although it may be extinct in the last three of these four. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) considers the species' presence in Argentina and Uruguay uncertain.[2] In the former, investigation has shown thinly distributed population remnants.[11] P. b. paraguensis is supposedly smaller and more gregarious, with different dentition and skull morphology. Carter and Rosas, however, rejected the subspecific division in 1997, noting that the classification had only been validated once, in 1968, and that the P. b. paraguensis type specimen was very similar to P. b. brasiliensis.[12] Biologist Nicole Duplaix calls the division of "doubtful value."[13]
An extinct genus, Satherium, is believed to be ancestral to the present species, having migrated to the New World during the Pliocene or early Pleistocene.[10] The Giant Otter shares the South American continent with three of the four members of the Lontra genus of otters: the Neotropical River Otter, the Southern River Otter, and the Marine Otter.[14] It seems to have evolved independently of Lontra in South America, despite the overlap. The Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) of Asia may be its closest extant relative: similar behaviour, vocalizations, and skull morphology have been noted.[10] Both species also show strong pair bonding and paternal engagement in rearing cubs.[15]
Phylogenetic analysis by Koepfli and Wayne in 1998 found that the Giant Otter has the highest divergence sequences within the otter subfamily, forming a distinct clade that split away 10 to 14 million years ago. They noted that the species may be the basal divergence among the otters or fall outside of them altogether, having split even before other mustelids, such as the Ermine, Polecat, and Mink.[10] Later gene sequencing research on the mustelids, from 2005, places the divergence of the Giant Otter somewhat later, between 5 and 11 million years ago; the corresponding phylogenetic tree locates the Lontra divergence first amongst otter genera, and Pteronura second, although divergence ranges overlap.[16]
Biology and behaviour:
The Giant Otter is large, gregarious, and diurnal (active through the day). Early travellers' reports describe noisy groups surrounding explorers' boats but little scientific information was available on the species until Duplaix's groundbreaking work in the late 1970s.[17] Concern over this endangered species has since generated a corpus of research.
Physical characteristics:
The Giant Otter is clearly distinguished from other otters by morphological and behavioural characteristics. It has the greatest body length of any species in the mustelid family, although the Sea Otter may be heavier. Males are between 1.5 and 1.8 meters (4.9–5.9 feet) in length and females between 1.5 and 1.7 m (4.9–5.6 ft). The animal's well-muscled tail can account for as much as 69 centimeters (27 in) of total body length.[18] Early reports of skins and living animals suggested exceptionally large males of up to 2.4 m (7.9 ft); intensive hunting likely reduced the occurrence of such massive specimens. Weights are between 32 and 45.3 kilograms (70–100 pounds) for males and 22 and 26 kg (48–57 lbs) for females.[19]
The Giant Otter has the shortest fur of all otter species; it is typically chocolate brown but may be reddish or fawn, and appears nearly black when wet.[19] The fur is extremely dense, so much so that water cannot penetrate to the skin.[20] Guard hairs trap water and keep the inner fur dry; the guard hairs are approximately 8 millimeters (one third of an inch) in length, about twice as long as the fur of the inner coat.[21] Its velvety feel makes the animal highly sought after by fur traders and has contributed to its decline.[22] Unique markings of white or cream fur color the throat and under the chin, allowing individuals to be identified from birth.[19]
Giant Otter muzzles are short and sloping and give the head a ball-shaped appearance.[13] The ears are small and rounded.[20] The nose (or rhinarium) is completely covered in fur, with only the two slit-like nostrils visible. The Giant Otter's highly sensitive whiskers (vibrissae) allow the animal to track changes in water pressure and currents, which aids in detecting prey.[23] The legs are short and stubby and end in large webbed feet tipped with sharp claws. Well suited for an aquatic life, it can close its ears and nose while underwater.[24]
As of Carter and Rosas' writing, vision had not been directly studied but field observations show that the animal primarily hunts by sight; above water, it is able to recognize observers at great distances. The fact that it is exclusively active during the day further suggests its eyesight should be strong, to aid in hunting and predator avoidance. In other otter species vision is generally normal or slightly myopic, both on land and in water. The Giant Otter's hearing is acute and its sense of smell excellent.[25][19]
Vocalizations:
The Giant Otter is an especially noisy animal, with a complex repertoire of vocalizations. All otters produce vocalizations, but by frequency and volume, the Giant Otter may be the most vocal.[26] Duplaix identified nine distinct sounds, with further subdivisions possible, depending on context. Quick HAH! barks or explosive snorts suggest immediate interest and possible danger. A wavering scream may be used in bluff charges against intruders, while a low growl is used for aggressive warning. Hums and coos are more reassuring within the group. Whistles may be used as advance warning of non-hostile intent between groups, although evidence is limited. Newborn cubs squeak to elicit attention, while older young whine and wail when they begin to participate in group activities.[27]
Social structure:
The Giant Otter is a highly social animal and lives in extended family groups. Group sizes are anywhere from two to twenty members but likely average between three and eight.[5] (Larger figures may reflect two or three family groups temporarily feeding together.)[28] The groups are strongly cohesive: the otters sleep, play, travel, and feed together.
Group members share roles, structured around the dominant breeding pair. The species is territorial, with groups marking their ranges with latrines, gland secretions, and vocalizations.[29] At least one case of a change in alpha relationship has been reported, with a new male taking over the role; the mechanics of the transition were not determined.[30] Duplaix suggests a division between residents, who are established within groups and territories, and nomadic and solitary transients; the categories do not seem rigid, and both may be a normal part of the Giant Otter life cycle.[31] One tentative theory for the development of sociality in mustelids is that locally abundant but unpredictably dispersed prey causes groups to form.[32]
Aggression within the species ("intraspecific" conflict) has been documented. Defense against intruding animals appears to be cooperative: while adult males typically lead in aggressive encounters, cases of alpha females guarding groups have been reported.[30] One fight was directly observed in the Brazilian Pantanal in which three animals violently engaged a single individual near a range boundary.[29] In another instance in Brazil, a carcass was found with clear indications of violent assault by other otters, including bites to the snout and genitals, an attack pattern similar to that exhibited by captive animals.[33] While not rare amongst large predators in general, intraspecific aggression is uncommon amongst otter species; Ribas and Mourão suggest a correlation to the animal's sociability, which is also rare amongst other otters.[29] A capacity for aggressive behaviour should not be overstated with the Giant Otter. Researchers emphasize that even between groups, conflict avoidance is generally adopted.[34][35] Within groups, the animals are extremely peaceful and cooperative. Group hierarchies are not rigid and the animals easily share roles.[36]
Reproduction and life cycle:
Details of Giant Otter reproduction and life cycle are scarce, and captive animals have provided much of the information. Females appear to give birth year round, although in the wild births may peak during the dry season. The estrous cycle is 21 days, with females receptive to sexual advances between 3 and 10 days.[37] Study of captive specimens has found that only males initiate copulation.[3] At Tierpark Hagenbeck in Germany, long-term pair bonding and individualized mate selection were seen, with copulation most frequently taking place in water.[38] Females have a gestation period of 65 to 70 days, giving birth to one to five pups, with an average of two.[38][37] Research over five years on a breeding pair at the Cali Zoo in Colombia found that the average interval between litters was six to seven months, but as short as 77 days when the previous litter did not survive.[3] Other sources have found greater intervals, with as long as 21 to 33 months suggested for the wild.[37]
Mothers give birth to furred and blind cubs in an underground den near to the river shore and fishing sites.[39] Males actively participate in rearing cubs and family cohesion is strong;[40] older, juvenile siblings also participate in rearing, although in the weeks immediately after birth they may temporarily leave the group.[37] Cubs open their eyes in their fourth week, begin walking in their fifth, and are able to swim confidently between 12 and 14 weeks.[3] They are weaned by nine months and begin hunting successfully soon after.[37] The animal reaches sexual maturity at about two years of age and both male and female cubs leave the group permanently after two to three years.[38][37] They then search for new territory to begin a family of their own.[41]
The Giant Otter is very sensitive to human activity when rearing its young. No institution, for example, has successfully raised Giant Otter cubs unless parents were provided sufficient privacy measures; the stress caused by human visual and acoustic interference can lead to neglect, abuse and infanticide, as well as decreased lactation. In the wild, it has been suggested, although not systematically confirmed, that tourists cause similar stresses: disrupted lactation and denning, reduced hunting, and habitat abandonment are all risks.[41] This sensitivity is matched by a strong protectiveness towards the young. All group members may aggressively charge intruders, including boats with humans in them.[42]
The longest documented Giant Otter lifespan in the wild is eight years. In captivity this may increase to 17, with an unconfirmed record of 19. The animal is susceptible to a variety of diseases, including the canine parvovirus. Parasites, such as the larvae of flies and a variety of intestinal worms, also afflict the Giant Otter.[41] Other causes of death include accidents, gastroenteritis, infanticide, and epileptic seizures.[37]
Hunting and diet:
The Giant Otter is an apex predator and its population status reflects the overall health of riverine ecosystems.[43] It feeds mainly on fish, including cichlids, characins (such as piranha), catfish, and perch. One full year study of Giant Otter scats in Amazonian Brazil found fish present in all fecal samples. Fish from the order Perciformes, particularly cichlids, were seen in 97% of scats, and Characiformes, such as characins, in 86%. Fish remains were of medium-sized species that seem to prefer relatively shallow water, to the advantage of the probably visually oriented Giant Otter. Prey species found were also sedentary, generally swimming only short distances, which may aid the Giant Otter in predation. The Giant Otter seems to be opportunistic, taking whatever species are most locally abundant.[44] If fish are unavailable it will also take crabs, snakes, and even small caimans and anacondas.[45]
The species can hunt singly, in pairs, and in groups, relying on its sharp eyesight to locate prey.[46] In some cases, supposed cooperative hunting may be incidental, a result of group members fishing individually in close proximity; truly coordinated hunting may only occur where the prey cannot be taken by a single Giant Otter, such as with anacondas and the Black Caiman.[35] The Giant Otter seems to prefer prey fish that are generally immobile on river bottoms in clear water. Prey chase is rapid and tumultuous, with lunges and twists through the shallows and few missed targets. The otter can attack from both above and below, swiveling at the last instant to clamp the prey in its jaws. Giant Otters catch their own food and consume it immediately; they grasp the fish firmly between the forepaws and begin eating noisily at the head.[46] Carter and Rosas have found that captive adult animals consume around 10% of their body weight daily—about 3 kilograms (7 lb), in keeping with findings in the wild.[47]
Habitat:
The species is amphibious, although primarily terrestrial.[48] It is found in freshwater rivers and streams, which are generally seasonally flooded. Other water habitats include freshwater springs and permanent freshwater lakes.[2] Four specific vegetation types were found on one important creek in Suriname: riverbank high forest; floodable mixed marsh and high swamp forest; floodable low marsh forest; and grass islands and floating meadows within open areas of the creek itself.[48] Duplaix identifies two critical factors in habitat selection: food abundance, which appears to positively correlate to shallow water, and low sloping banks with good cover and easy access to preferred water types. The Giant Otter seems to choose clear black waters with rocky or sandy bottoms over silty, saline, and white waters.[49]
Areas adjacent to rivers are used for the construction dens, campsites, and latrines.[50] Giant Otters clear significant amounts of vegetation in constructing their campsites. One report suggests maximum areas 28 m (92 ft) long and 15 m (49 ft) wide, well-marked by scent glands, urine, and feces to signal territory.[14] Carter and Rosas find average areas a third this size. Communal latrines are adopted adjacent to the campsites, and dens with a handful of entrances are dug, typically under root systems or fallen trees. One report found between three and eight campsites, clustered around feeding areas. In seasonally flooded areas, the Giant Otter may abandon campsites during the wet season, dispersing to flooded forests in search of prey.[51] Preferred locations may be adopted perennially, often on high ground. These can become quite extensive, including "backdoor" exits into forests and swamps, away from the water.[48] Not every site is visited or marked daily, but all are usually patrolled, often by a pair of otters in the morning.[52]
Research generally takes place in the dry season and an understanding of the species' overall habitat use remains partial. Dry season range size analysis of three otter groups in Ecuador found areas between 0.45 and 2.79 square kilometres (0.17 and 1.08 sq mi). Habitat requirements and availability were presumed to be dramatically different in the rainy season: range sizes of 1.98 to as much as 19.55 square kilometres (0.76 to 7.55 sq mi) were estimated for the groups.[50] Other researchers suggest approximately 7 square kilometres (2.7 sq mi) and note a strong inverse correlation between sociality and home range size; the highly social Giant Otter has smaller home range sizes than would be expected for a species of its mass.[32] Population densities varied with a high of 1.2 /km2 (3.1 /sq mi) reported in Suriname and with a low of 0.154 /km2 (0.40 /sq mi) found in Guyana.[5]
Predation and competition:
Adult Giant Otters have no serious natural enemies, beyond human beings. "Possible and occasional" predation by the Jaguar, Cougar, and anacondas has been suggested by Duplaix, but based on historical reports, not direct observation.[53] Cubs are more vulnerable, and may be taken by the Black Caiman and other large predators,[41] although adults are constantly mindful of stray young. The Spectacled Caiman is another potential competitor, but Duplaix found no conflict with the species in Suriname. When in the water, the Giant Otter faces danger from animals that are not strictly preying upon it: the Electric eel and stingrays are potentially deadly if stumbled upon, and piranha may be capable of at least taking bites out of a Giant Otter, as evidenced by scarring on individuals.[54]
Even if without direct predation, the Giant Otter must still compete with other predators for food resources. Duplaix documented interaction with the Neotropical Otter.[55] While the two species are sympatric (with overlapping ranges) during certain seasons, there appeared to be no serious conflict. The smaller Neotropical Otter is far more shy, less noisy, and less social; at about a third the weight of the Giant Otter, it is more vulnerable to predation and, hence, a lack of conspicuousness is to its advantage. The Neotropical Otter is active during twilight and darkness, reducing the likelihood of conflict with the diurnal Giant Otter.[56] Its smaller prey, different denning habits, and different preferred water types also reduce interaction.[47]
Other species that prey upon similar food resources include the caimans and large fish that are themselves piscivores. Gymnotids, such as the Electric Eel, and the large Silurid catfish are among aquatic competitors. Two river dolphins, the Tucuxi and Boto, might potentially compete with the Giant Otter but different spatial use and dietary preferences suggest minimal overlap.[47]
Conservation status:
The IUCN listed the Giant Otter as "endangered" in 1999; it had been considered "vulnerable" under all previous listings from 1982 when sufficient data had first become available. It is regulated internationally under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): all trade in specimens and parts is illegal.[57]
Ariranha, Lontra Gigante ou Lobo-do-rio (Pteronura brasiliensis).
O texto, em português, a seguir, é da wikipédia:
A ariranha, lontra-gigante (do inglês Giant Otter) ou lobo-do-rio (Pteronura brasiliensis), é um mamífero mustelídeo, característico do Pantanal e da bacia do Rio Amazonas.
A ariranha é a maior espécie da sub-família Lutrinae (as lontras) e pode chegar a medir cerca de 180 centímetros de comprimento, dos quais 65 compõem a cauda. Os machos são geralmente mais pesados que as fêmeas e pesam até 26 kg. A ariranha têm olhos relativamente grandes, orelhas pequenas e arredondadas, patas curtas e espessas e cauda comprida e achatada. Os dedos das patas estão unidos por membranas interdigitais que facilitam a natação. A pelagem é espessa, com textura aveludada e cor escura, excepto na zona da garganta onde apresentam uma mancha branca.
A ariranha vive e caça em grupos que podem chegar aos dez indivíduos e alimenta-se dos peixes, que habitam os rios da América do Sul, principalmente de caracídeos como a piranha e a traíra. Ingere-os sempre com a cabeça fora d'água, freqüentemente nadando pitorescamente para trás. Em condições de escassez, os grupos caçam pequenos jacarés e cobras, que podem inclusive ser pequenas anacondas. No seu habitat, as ariranhas adultas são predadores de topo da cadeia alimentar.
A época do acasalamento é na estação das chuvas, que pode ir de janeiro a março e resulta em gestações de 65 a 72 dias. Apenas a fêmea dominante do grupo se reproduz. Entre maio e setembro, as fêmeas dão à luz uma ninhada de pequenas lontras que são educadas em conjunto por todo o grupo. As crias ficam numa toca durante os primeiros três meses, após o que são integradas na vida do grupo. As ariranhas atingem a maturidade sexual entre os dois e os três anos de vida.
É uma espécie em perigo e a principal ameaça à sua sobrevivência é o desmatamento e destruição do seu habitat. A poluição dos rios, principalmente junto de explorações mineiras causam vítimas entre as lontras que se alimentam de peixe contaminado por metais, que se acumulam nos peixes e mais intensamente ainda nas ariranhas que estão no topo da cadeia alimentar. Entre os metais o que mais freqüentemente contamina animais é o mercúrio, usado na extração de ouro. Há também algumas perdas devidas a caça furtiva por causa da pele, que foi mais intensa no passado.
Os primeiros sucessos reprodutivos em cativeiro foram produzidos pela Fundação Zoológico de Brasília, onde os animais desfrutam de um ótimo recinto. A espécie protagonizou um episódio trágico no zoo: um militar, o Sargento do Exército Brasileiro Sílvio Delmar Hollenbach, atirou-se no recinto objetivando salvar um garoto que lá caíra, e apesar de ter concluído seu objetivo acabou morrendo dias depois, em virtude de uma infecção generalizada, causada pelas inúmeras mordidas.
[editar]Características
A ariranha é claramente distinguível das demais lontras pelas características morfológicas e comportamentais. Ela é o maior membro da família Mustelidae em comprimento, sendo a lontra-marinha a maior em peso. Os machos possuem de 1.5 a 1.8 metros de comprimento e as fêmeas de 1.5 a 1.7 metros. . O peso varia de 32 a 45.3 kilogramas para machos e de 22 a 26 kg para fêmeas.
[editar]Ataques a Humanos
Ataques registrados de Ariranhas são raros, a maioria ocorrido acidentalmente na região da bacia amazônica.
Porém em 1977 um ataque resultou na morte do Sargento Silvio Delmar Hollenbach no Jardim Zoológico de Brasília
[editar]Referências
Groenendijk, J., Hajek, F. & Schenck, C. 2004. Pteronura brasiliensis. In: IUCN 2006. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. (http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/18711/all). Salvo em 7 de janeiro de 2007.