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Stamp sands from the Mohawk Mill dumped into Lake Superior. Nothing has grown here since the mill stopped operating 50+/- years earlier. In spite of perceived environmental problems, in smaller amounts, the sands work great if they are spread on icy roads in the winter. They were also used as railroad ballast in the western UP, and would reduce the need for chemical weed control. Image taken September 1997 and scanned from a slide.
Juncus acutus herbicide treatment plot. 4 metre by 4 metre plot, white string - Treatment 1, no spray.
Upland rice weeds / POACEAE (grass family)
Weed name: Echinochloa colona (L.) Link
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Part of the image collection of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
Green Turf Management
4408 Twin Pines Drive
Knoxville TN 37921
(865) 454-1074
Knoxville's premiere residential and commercial landscape company. Mulch, weed control, fertilizer programs, bed renovation, aeration, Fall cleanup and leaf removal.
Knoxville Tennessee landscaping designers for rock
Fresno State Plant Science Department Professor Dr. Anil Shrestha compare different methods of organic weed control (hand weeding, propane flaming, an organic herbicide & combinations). photo by Geoff Thurner, Copyright 2015.
I came home mainly for the spraying but also weeds. Started upon my return and have been happily working on the orchard. The Trail got my mind off the orchard for the first time in 5 years, causation for my abrupt return. Working the orchard has kept my mind off the trail.
I returned with the mind set to address this programmatically, hopefully to extend time on trail. Being organic, my continuing concern is that I can't spray like everyone else. So number 1, weed control / management is strictly manual. Number 2, heavy loam means easy compaction. Compaction removes air spaces between sand and silt. 3, roots of weeds are necessary, create those air spaces and feed gophers. Gophers eat grasses, mainly, consuming, storing, and redistributing plant matter underground, they help to decompose organic material, enriching the soil. I can't plow or disk, so gophers are the answer. And too much of a good thing, isn't. 4, gopher control.
The 90 day wonder of the smallest roots is like a breathing process. I imagine roots are like leaves, expressing through the growing season, then dying back in the fall. Roots sequester carbon into the soil and increase organics in the soil structure after their death. The roots also feed the gophers, about 10% of their diet incidentally, while dragging grasses and organic material down into their tunnel stores, digging tunnels as they go, which in turn cultivate the heavy loam soil. More soil regeneration talk. And I'm not going to start with the emergence of all the snakes. Gopher Snakes. Part of gopher control, which include owl, hawk, and coyotes. On one of my review walks, I found a den and saw at least 5 little coyotes heads watching my every move. Mommy was out digging up gophers, hopefully.
From Wikipedia:
Farmall was a model name and later a brand name for tractors manufactured by the American company International Harvester (IH). The Farmall name was usually presented as McCormick-Deering Farmall and later McCormick Farmall in the evolving brand architecture of IH.
Farmalls were general-purpose tractors. Their origins were as row-crop tractors, a category that they helped establish and in which they long held a large market share. During the decades of Farmall production (1920s to 1980s), most Farmalls were built for row-crop work, but many orchard, fairway, and other variants were also built. Most Farmalls were all-purpose tractors that were affordable for small to medium-sized family farms and could do enough of the tasks needed on the farm that the need for hired hands was reduced and the need for horses or mules was eliminated. Thus Farmall was a prominent brand in the 20th-century trend toward the mechanization of agriculture in the US.
The original Farmall is widely viewed as the first tractor to combine a set of traits that would define the row-crop tractor category, although competition in the category came quickly. Although it was not the first tractor to have any one of these traits, it was early in bringing the winning combination to market. The traits included (a) 'tricycle' configuration (a single front wheel or narrowly spaced pair), high ground clearance, quickly adjustable axle track, excellent visibility all around and under the machine, and light weight; (b) sufficient power for plowing and harrowing, and a belt pulley for belt work; and (c) all at low cost, with a familiar brand and an extensive distribution and service network. The first group of traits allowed for more nimble maneuvering and accurate cultivation than most other tractors of the day; additionally, because of the second group, the Farmall could also, like previous tractors, perform all the other duties a farmer would have previously achieved using a team of horses. A tractor could yield lower overall operating costs than horses as long as it was priced right and reliable (and its fuel supply as well). The Farmall, mass-produced with the same low-cost-and-high-value ethos as the Ford Model T or Fordson tractor, could meet that requirement. The Farmall was thus similar to a Fordson in its capabilities and affordability, but with better cultivating ability.
Descriptions of tractors as "general-purpose" and "all-purpose" had been used loosely and interchangeably in the teens and early twenties; but a true all-purpose tractor would be one that not only brought power to ploughing, harrowing, and belt work but also obviated the horse team entirely. This latter step is what changed the financial picture to heavily favor the mechanization of agriculture. The Farmall was so successful at total horse replacement that it became a strong-selling product. With the success of the Farmall line, other manufacturers soon introduced similar general- to all-purpose tractors with varying success.
In later decades, the Farmall line continued to be a leading brand of all-purpose tractors. Its bright red color was a distinctive badge. During the 1940s and 1950s, the brand was ubiquitous in North American farming. Various trends in farming after the 1960s—such as the decline of cultivating in favor of herbicidal weed control, and the consolidation of the agricultural sector into larger but fewer farms—ended the era of Farmall manufacturing. However, many Farmalls remain in farming service, and many others are restored and collected by enthusiasts. In these respects, the Farmall era continues. As predicted in the 1980s and 1990s, the growing public understanding of environmental protection, and of sustainability in general, have brought a corollary resurgence of interest in organic farming and local food production. This cultural development has brought a limited but notable revival of cultivating and of the use of equipment such as Farmalls.
Photo by Eric Friedebach
ben simon from GWLAP - the goolwa to wellington local action planning association - leads a watercourse restoration guided walk along the finniss river
finniss conservation park, fleurieu peninsula, south australia
Juncus acutus herbicide treatment plot. 4 metre by 4 metre plot, yellow string - Treatment 2, spray at 10cm of regrowth.
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Broom snakeweed)
Dead after weed control at Science City, Maui, Hawaii.
September 26, 2011
wedge-tailed eagle nest!
ben simon from GWLAP - the goolwa to wellington local action planning association - leads a watercourse restoration guided walk along the finniss river
finniss conservation park, fleurieu peninsula, south australia
ben simon from GWLAP - the goolwa to wellington local action planning association - leads a watercourse restoration guided walk along the finniss river
finniss conservation park, fleurieu peninsula, south australia
Harlequin Produce has worked with the NRCS on cover cropping in order to build the soil, provide competition for weeds and promote habitat for pollinators, Photo taken June 10, 2019 in Arlee, Montana located in Lake County.
Bayer Showcase Days Plot Tours at Dawson, GA and Athens, IL - August 2016
Bayer Showcase Plot Tours in Dawson, GA and Athens, IL
Bayer Showcase Days plot tours in Dawson, GA and Athens, IL
Philadelphia Landscaping provides the Delaware valley with the best landscaping services.This will Include lawn care, residential landscaping, commercial landscaping, tree trimming and pruning, weed control, lawn sprinkler repair, lawn mowing, and sod installation.
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Broom snakeweed)
Dead after weed control at Science City, Maui, Hawaii.
September 26, 2011
University of Arkansas System Division of Agriculture / RYAN MCGEENEY — 08-23-2022 — KEISER, Ark. — Division of Agriculture weed science researchers Jason Norsworthy and Tom Barber, along with representatives from John Deer and Blue River Technologies, host a demonstration of the See & Spray Ultimate herbicide spraying system. Jason Norsworthy, distinguished professor of weed science with the University of Arkansas System Division of Agriculture, has been evaluating the combination of image recognition software and machine learning that comprises John Deere’s See & SprayTM Ultimate system.
Belgium. Antwerp Zoo.
The giant gourami, Osphronemus goramy, is a species of gourami believed to be originally native to Southeast Asia, with its occurrence in other locations due to introductions. This species is commercially important as a food fish and is also farmed. It can also be found in the aquarium trade.[2] The species has also been used for weed control, as it can be a voracious herbivore.
Juncus acutus herbicide treatment plot. 4 metre by 4 metre plot, white string - Treatment 1, no spray.
Stanisol weed spray unit built to extend over an entire bed of seedlings. Hoosier National Forest, Indiana.
Photo by: Unknown
Date: July 1948
Image credit: National Archives and Records Administration
RG# 95-GP. Records of the Forest Service. General Subject Files.
Forest Service Negative Number: 451050
National Archives Identifier: 2129798
Image provided by USDA Forest Service, Region 6, State and Private Forestry, Forest Health Protection: www.fs.usda.gov/main/r6/forest-grasslandhealth
GBRf Class 66/7 No.66720 Wascosa with No.66731 Captain Tom Moore at Stowmarket on 28th March 2024 on the Weed control train.
Juncus acutus herbicide treatment plot. 4 metre by 4 metre plot, pink string - Treatment 4, spray at 50cm of regrowth.
One-year-old koa seedling that received fertilization and both pre- and post-planting weed control. Black screens are frost protection devices to prevent freezing. Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge, Mauna Kea, Hawaii Island.
NEWTON, IA - AUGUST 3: during the NASCAR Nationwide Series U.S. Cellular 250 Presented by Enlist Weed Control System at Iowa Speedway on August 3, 2013 in Newton, Iowa. (Photo by Sean Gardner/Getty Images)
The Alliance for Grassland Renewal provided an educational school to assist producers with successfully converting Kentucky 31 tall fescue to novel endophyte varieties at Wurdack Research Center in Cook Station on April 1. The School began with understanding fescue toxicosis, then walked producers through the conversion process. Conversion topics included establishment practices, fertility needs, smother crops, weed control, stand maintenance and variety selection. The school provided hands-on training for drill calibration in addition to pasture walks to observe different novel endophyte varieties. The workshop is a combination of MU, NRCS, Agribusiness and Producers presentations to give participant the opportunity to get answers to questions from a variety of perspectives and information sources.
Craig Roberts, professor of plant sciences, has workshop attendees look through a microscope to see the novel endophytes up close.
Photo by Kyle Spradley | © 2014 - Curators of the University of Missouri
The 2012 Forest Youth Success crew conducts noxious weed control on Service lands at the Willard National Fish Hatchery, WA. www.fws.gov/gorgefish/
Photo by Steve Wingert/USFWS.
Upland rice weeds / POACEAE (grass family)
Weed name: Eleusine indica (L.)
books.google.com.ph/books/irri?id=tqRtCQ9WMLUC&pg=PA3...
Part of the image collection of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
The Alliance for Grassland Renewal provided an educational school to assist producers with successfully converting Kentucky 31 tall fescue to novel endophyte varieties at Wurdack Research Center in Cook Station on April 1. The School began with understanding fescue toxicosis, then walked producers through the conversion process. Conversion topics included establishment practices, fertility needs, smother crops, weed control, stand maintenance and variety selection. The school provided hands-on training for drill calibration in addition to pasture walks to observe different novel endophyte varieties. The workshop is a combination of MU, NRCS, Agribusiness and Producers presentations to give participant the opportunity to get answers to questions from a variety of perspectives and information sources.
Photo by Kyle Spradley | © 2014 - Curators of the University of Missouri
Photo: Brent Marchant
Spot spraying, seen here, which can accurately target individual bushes on cliff faces.
Spraying of bitou bush infestations between Miners Beach and Tacking Point Lighthouse at Port Macquarie as part of a long-term program to rid the coast of this unwanted pest.
The aerial control of bitou bush is part of an on-going campaign against this serious coastal weed by the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) in cooperation with Port Macquarie Hastings Council.
An integrated weed control program includes on-ground spraying, bush regeneration, biological control and aerial spraying from helicopters.
Bitou Bush is a highly competitive weed that smothers native plants and destroys natural habitat and food sources for animals such as the Koala and birds such as the Glossy-black Cockatoo.
Spraying in autumn is effective because the bitou bush is more susceptible and most native plants are less active and unlikely to absorb the herbicide.
The Alliance for Grassland Renewal provided an educational school to assist producers with successfully converting Kentucky 31 tall fescue to novel endophyte varieties at Wurdack Research Center in Cook Station on April 1. The School began with understanding fescue toxicosis, then walked producers through the conversion process. Conversion topics included establishment practices, fertility needs, smother crops, weed control, stand maintenance and variety selection. The school provided hands-on training for drill calibration in addition to pasture walks to observe different novel endophyte varieties. The workshop is a combination of MU, NRCS, Agribusiness and Producers presentations to give participant the opportunity to get answers to questions from a variety of perspectives and information sources.
Photo by Kyle Spradley | © 2014 - Curators of the University of Missouri
Tomato Farming information such as production, variety, crop rotation, soil fertility, pest control, and weed control and about some aspects.
Photos of a unique natural area of Kauai, the Makauwahi Cave Reserve, a privately owned park, and adjacent Gillin’s Beach, in the south part of the island, a few miles east of Po’ipu. Not an easy place to get to. A 4-wheel drive helps. This is an area of Pleistocene limestone, formed from carbonate dune sands, and karst (solutional) features. It is very unlike the rest of the island made up of basaltic lava flows from the old Kauai shield volcano. In one area of the park, indigenous Pleistocene-era plants (based on fossil plants preserved in the cave system) are being grown as part of a project to revegetate part of the island with native plants. In this part of the preserve, giant tortoises are used for weed control (sorry, didn’t get any photos of them). There are some nice trails here to survey the area. - Panorama, looking east, of the Reserve and Gillin's/Mahaulepu Beaches, from Punahoa Point..
Visitors toured test plots and heard presentations about Division of Agriculture research during a field day Aug. 3, 2018 at the Rice Research and Extension Center. Dr. Jason Norsworthy discusses weed control in rice and soybeans..(Division of Agriculture photo by Fred Miller)
Lowland rice weeds / CYPERACEAE (sedge family),
Weed name: Cyperus iria L.
books.google.com.ph/books/irri?id=tqRtCQ9WMLUC&pg=PA1...
Part of the image collection of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
Upland rice weeds / POACEAE (grass family)
Weed name: Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
books.google.com.ph/books/irri?id=tqRtCQ9WMLUC&pg=PA3...
Part of the image collection of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
Sofia Barbé
Sofia is celebrating a rich spread of natural materials, mostly from the UK, entangling carded wool from different breeds with jute, recycled wool felt, coconut coir, flax and sisal for her idiosyncratic wall hangings, adding mycelium for her quirky sculptural “characters”. Her main technique is needle-felting, using a set of special needles to push the fibres into a backing. The base layers for the wall hangings come “mainly from the gardening world” such as coconut coir liners, jute mat (used for weed control) or recycled Herdwick wool. “My family in Uruguay own a garden centre, so these materials connect me to them. They bring nature into my work with lots of contrast from the different fibres. Using materials that grow and protect plants almost makes me feel I am growing my art.” The finishing touch is to blanket stitch around the edges with sisal fibres.
Sofia’s soft-sculpture characters are similarly needle-felted, but their base is mycelium which takes around five days to grow in recycled plastic containers, before being baked to stop the process. Pieces are glued together and coated with milk-based paint. Then comes the needle-felting, with a mix of natural fibres such as flax, cotton, and various wools. It’s very spontaneous. “I’m thinking through making. I never know how things will turn out, and I never follow a drawing. My inspirations include nature and our connection to it, along with childhood memories. Play is very important. I feel connected to my creations.”
Sofia has won The Newby Trust Award at Cockpit Studios, which provides free studio space for a year.
MA Textiles, Royal College of Art
@sofiabarbe_
@greengradsuk @crucialtrading
“I love natural materials and making them playful and colourful. My techniques may be unconventional but I am also preserving traditional crafts.”
Sofia Barbé
TALKING TEXTILES: February 2025
Six GREEN GRADS CAME together in a show commissioned by our sponsor Crucial Trading, the leading brand for natural floor coverings. This was curated by our founder Barbara Chandler for the elegant Crucial Trading showroom on the second floor of the South Dome of the prestigious Design Centre, Chelsea Harbour. The GREEN GRADS explored central issues affecting sustainable textiles, including the advance of biomaterials, creative use of waste, best sustainable textile practice, natural dyes, and reviving use of the currently neglected British fleece. The GREEN GRADS were there in person to show their work (much of which is already commercially available) and share expertise, with regular spinning demonstrations.
Design Centre, Chelsea Harbour, Lots Road, London SW10 0XE
6.1 Single and 2-row cono weeders.
Drawings, design information, and limited technical supported are provided free to manufacturers who want to produce IRRI designs on a commercial basis. IRRI retains worldwide distribution and patent rights for all designs developed by the Institute, and does not grant exclusive manufacturing rights or licenses in any country or region.
6.1 Single and 2-row cono weeders.
Drawings, design information, and limited technical supported are provided free tomanufacturers who want to produce IRRI designs on a commercial basis. IRRI retains worldwide distribution and patent rights for all designs developed by the Institute, and does not grant exclusive manufacturing rights or licenses in any country or region.
books.google.com.ph/books/irri?id=tqRtCQ9WMLUC&pg=PA7...
Part of the image collection of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
Mucuna planted in oil palm plantation for mulching, weed control and soil erosion control....all done naturally by the covercrop creepers
ben simon from GWLAP - the goolwa to wellington local action planning association - leads a watercourse restoration guided walk along the finniss river
finniss conservation park, fleurieu peninsula, south australia
The endangered Small Purple-was once relatively widespread in south-eastern Australia but is now restricted to fewer than 30 sites across NSW, the ACT and Victoria. Populations only persist in patches of remnant habitat which have had, by chance, a favourable management and land use history. It was presumed extinct in Victoria until the re-discovery of a single plant at Glenrowan and the more recent discovery of four plants near Chiltern. Causes of decline include habitat loss due to pasture improvement and other agricultural developments, domestic stock grazing, competition from herbaceous weeds and reduced fire frequency and the resulting competition with native groundcover species. Recovery actions include weed control, ecological burns, and investigate potential sites suitable for enrichment planting or re-establishment of Small Purple-pea populations and undertake translocation projects. Photo: Tricia Hogbin
Sunflower
D.H. Putnam1, E.S. Oplinger2, D.R. Hicks1, B.R. Durgan1, D.M. Noetzel1, R.A. Meronuck1, J.D. Doll2, and E.E. Schulte2
1Departments of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, Entomology and Plant Pathology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108.
2Departments of Agronomy and Soil Science, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences and Cooperative Extension Service, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wl 53706. November, 1990.
I. History:
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is one of the few crop species that originated in North America (most originated in the fertile crescent, Asia or South or Central America). It was probably a "camp follower" of several of the western native American tribes who domesticated the crop (possibly 1000 BC) and then carried it eastward and southward of North America. The first Europeans observed sunflower cultivated in many places from southern Canada to Mexico.
Sunflower was probably first introduced to Europe through Spain, and spread through Europe as a curiosity until it reached Russia where it was readily adapted. Selection for high oil in Russia began in 1860 and was largely responsible for increasing oil content from 28% to almost 50%. The high-oil lines from Russia were reintroduced into the U.S. after World War II, which rekindled interest in the crop. However, it was the discovery of the male-sterile and restorer gene system that made hybrids feasible and increased commercial interest in the crop. Production of sunflowers subsequently rose dramatically in the Great Plains states as marketers found new niches for the seeds as an oil crop, a birdseed crop, and as a human snack food. Production in these regions in the 1980s has declined mostly because of low prices, but also due to disease, insect and bird problems. Sunflower acreage is now moving westward into dryer regions; however, 85% of the North American sunflower seed is still produced in North and South Dakota and Minnesota.
II. Uses:
A. Edible oil:
Commercially available sunflower varieties contain from 39 to 49% oil in the seed. In 1985-86, sunflower seed was the third largest source of vegetable oil worldwide, following soybean and palm. The growth of sunflower as an oilseed crop has rivaled that of soybean, with both increasing production over 6-fold since the 1930s. Sunflower accounts for about 14% of the world production of seed oils (6.9 million metric tons in 1985-86) and about 7% of the oilcake and meal produced from oilseeds. Europe and the USSR produce over 60% of the world's sunflowers.
The oil accounts for 80% of the value of the sunflower crop, as contrasted with soybean which derives most of its value from the meal. Sunflower oil is generally considered a premium oil because of its light color, high level of unsaturated fatty acids and lack of linolenic acid, bland flavor and high smoke points. The primary fatty acids in the oil are oleic and linoleic (typically 90% unsaturated fatty acids), with the remainder consisting of palmitic and stearic saturated fatty acids. The primary use is as a salad and cooking oil or in margarine. In the USA, sunflower oils account for 8% or less of these markets, but in many sunflower-producing countries, sunflower is the preferred and the most commonly used oil.
High oleic sunflower oil (over 80% oleic acid) was developed commercially in 1985 and has higher oxidated stability than conventional oil. It has expanded the application of sunflower oils for frying purposes, tends to enhance shelf life of snacks, and could be used as an ingredient of infant formulas requiring stability.
B. Meal:
Non-dehulled or partly dehulled sunflower meal has been substituted successfully for soybean meal in isonitrogenous (equal protein) diets for ruminant animals, as well as for swine and poultry feeding. Sunflower meal is higher in fiber, has a lower energy value and is lower in lysine but higher in methionine than soybean meal. Protein percentage of sunflower meal ranges from 28% for non-dehulled seeds to 42% for completely dehulled seeds. The color of the meal ranges from grey to black, depending upon extraction processes and degree of dehulling.
C. Industrial Applications:
The price of sunflower oil usually prohibits its widespread use in industry, but there are several applications that have been explored. It has been used in certain paints, varnishes and plastics because of good semidrying properties without color modification associated with oils high in linolenic acid. In Eastern Europe and the USSR where sunflower oil is plentiful, sunflower oil is used commonly in the manufacture of soaps and detergents. The use of sunflower oil (and other vegetable oils) as a pesticide carrier, and in the production of agrichemicals, surfactants, adhesives, plastics, fabric softeners, lubricants and coatings has been explored. The utility of these applications is usually contingent upon petrochemical feedstock prices.
Sunflower oil contains 93% of the energy of US Number 2 diesel fuel (octane rating of 37), and considerable work has been done to explore the potential of sunflower as an alternate fuel source in diesel engines. Blends of sunflower oil and diesel fuel are expected to have greater potential than the burning of pure vegetable oil.
D. Non-Oilseed:
The use of sunflower seed for birdfeed or in human diets as a snack, has grown consistently over the past 15 years. Varieties used for non-oilseed purposes are characterized by a larger seed size and require slightly different management practices. During processing, seed is divided into 1) larger seed for in-shell roasting, 2) medium for dehulling, and 3) small for birdseed. Standards for different uses vary.
E. Forage:
Sunflower can also be used as a silage crop. It can be used as a double crop after early harvested small grains or vegetables, an emergency crop, or in areas with a season too short to produce mature corn for silage.
Forage yields of sunflower are generally less than corn when a full growing season is available. In one study, sunflower dry matter yields ranged from 2.0 to 3.0 ton/acre compared with 3.1 to 3.8 ton/acre for corn. Moisture content of sunflower at maturity is usually high (80 to 90%) and would require wilting before ensiling.
Nutritional quality of sunflower silage is often higher than corn but lower than alfalfa hay (Table 1). Crude protein level of sunflower silage is similar to grass hay and higher than corn silage. Generally, crude protein of sunflower decreases and lignin percentage increases after the flowering stage. High plant populations increases fiber and lignin percentage. Seed size does not seem to affect yield or quality.
Table 1: Nutritional quality of sunflower, immature corn, and mature corn silage, alfalfa hay (harvested in early bloom) and timothy bay (harvested in late vegetative stage).1
Silage
Hay
Sunflower
Immature corn
Mature corn
Alfalfa
Timothy
% of dry matter
Total digestible nutrients
67.0
60.0
69.0
58.0
68.0
Crude protein
11-12
8.2
7.8
18.0
11.4
Ether extract
10-12
2.6
2.9
2.2
2.4
Crude fiber
31.0
31.0
23.0
31.0
31.0
Acid detergent fiber
32.0
---
31.0
38.0
33.0
Lignin
10-16
---
---
9.0
3.1
IVDDM 2
63-70
---
---
66.0
63.0
1Data from Miller, Oplinger and Collins, 1986.
2In vitro dry matter disappearance.
Sunflower silage contains considerably more fat than many other forages, (Table 1). Some producers and researchers in Oregon have experimented with sunflower/corn intercrops to increase energy content of a silage, but results of this work are not yet complete. In South Dakota trials, milk yields were reduced by 9% when straight sunflower silage was compared with corn. The nutritional quality of sunflower silage is generally recognized as adequate for dry cows, steers, and low milk producers.
III. Growth Habit:
Sunflower is an annual, erect, broadleaf plant with a strong taproot and prolific lateral spread of surface roots. Stems are usually round early in the season, angular and woody later in the season, and normally unbranched.
Sunflower leaves are phototropic and will follow the sun's rays with a lag of 120 behind the sun's azimuth. This property has been shown to increase light interception and possibly photosynthesis.
The sunflower head is not a single flower (as the name implies) but is made up of 1,000 to 2,000 individual flowers joined at a common receptacle. The flowers around the circumference are ligulate ray flowers without stamens or pistils; the remaining flowers are perfect flowers (with stamens and pistils). Anthesis (pollen shedding) begins at the periphery and proceeds to the center of the head. Since many sunflower varieties have a degree of self-incompatibility, pollen movement between plants by insects is important, and bee colonies have generally increased yields.
In temperate regions, sunflower requires approximately 11 days from planting to emergence, 33 days from emergence to head visible, 27 days from head visible to first anther, 8 days from first to last anther, and 30 days from last anther to maturity. Cultivar differences in maturity are usually associated with changes in vegetative period before the head is visible.
IV. Environment requirements:
A. Climate:
Sunflower is grown in many semi-arid regions of the world from Argentina to Canada and from central Africa into the Soviet Union. It is tolerant of both low and high temperatures but more tolerant to low temperatures. Sunflower seeds will germinate at 39°F, but temperatures of at least 46 to 50°F are required for satisfactory germination. Seeds are not affected by vernalization (cold) in the early germination stages. Seedlings in the cotyledon stage have survived temperatures down to 23°F. At later stages freezing temperatures may injure the crop. Temperatures less than 28°F are required to kill maturing sunflower plants.
Optimum temperatures for growth are 70 to 78°F, but a wider range of temperatures (64 to 91°F) show little effect on productivity. Extremely high temperatures have been shown to lower oil percentage, seed fill and germination.
Sunflower is often classified as insensitive to daylength, and photoperiod seems to be unimportant in choosing a planting date or production area in the temperate regions of North America. Oil from northern regions tends to be higher in linoleic acid and has a higher ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids than oil produced in southern latitudes.
Sunflower is an inefficient user of water, as measured by the amount of water transpired per gram of plant above-ground dry matter. Levels were 577 (g H2O/g DM) for sunflower, 349 for corn, 304 for sorghum in an Akron, Colorado study. It is similar to wheat, soybean, fieldbean, oat, and rape in that respect. Efficiency is measured at an optimum moisture level and is not a measure of drought resistance.
Sunflower is not considered highly drought tolerant, but often produces satisfactory results when other crops are damaged during drought. Its extensively branched taproot, penetrating to 6.5 ft, aids the plant during water stress. A critical time for water stress is the period 20 days before and 20 days after flowering. If stress is likely during this period, irrigation will increase yield, oil percentage and test weight, but decrease protein percentage.
B. Soil:
Sunflower will grow in a wide range of soil types from sands to clays. The demands of a sunflower crop on soil macronutrients are not as great as corn, wheat or potato. As with other non-leguminous grain crops, nitrogen is usually the first limiting factor for yield. Medium to high levels of macronutrients are usually required for good plant growth. Sunflower stover contains a large proportion of these elements, which means sunflower is relatively inefficient in the use of these elements. However, most of these nutrients are returned to the soil with the stover.
Sunflower is low in salt tolerance but is somewhat better than fieldbean or soybean in this respect. Corn, wheat, rye and sorghum are rated medium, and sugarbeet and barley are high in salt tolerance.
Good soil drainage is required for sunflower production, but this crop does not differ substantially from other field crops in flooding tolerance.
V. Cultural Practices:
A. Seedbed Preparation:
Many different tillage systems can be used effectively for sunflower production. Conventional systems of seedbed preparation consist of moldboard plowing or chisel plowing to invert residue and several secondary field operations. Conventional systems have been shown to increase the availability and improve the distribution of potassium and nitrogen and to increase the seed zone temperatures. However, the risk of erosion and expense of the several tillage operations has led to greater interest in minimum or ridge tillage systems.
Both germination percentage and lodging have been shown to increase in ridge-till systems vs. level plantings. Several tillage systems have been used with some success in specific environments. Major considerations are: 1) firm placement of seed near moist soil, 2) absence of green vegetation during emergence, 3) maintaining an option to cultivate and 4) reduce the risk of soil erosion.
B. Seeding Date:
Sunflower can be planted at a wide range of dates, as most cultivars are earlier in maturity than the length of growing season in most areas. In areas of the world with no winters, sunflower has been planted at any month of the year to obtain satisfactory yields. In northern regions, highest yields and oil percentages are obtained by planting early - as soon after the spring-sown small grain crops as possible. In the northern midwest and Canada this is often May 1 through 20 and mid-March through early April in the southern USA. Resistance to frost damage decreases as the seedlings develop into the 6leaf stage, so too-early sowings in the northern USA or Canada can be risky.
A later planting date tends to increase the proportion of linoleic acid in sunflower, especially at southern locations. Damage of sunflower heads by insect larvae may be increased by early planting. Test weight tends to decrease with late plantings. A planting date of early to mid May is recommended in Minnesota and Wisconsin.
C. Method and Rate of Seeding:
A planting depth of 1 to 3.5 in. allows sunflower seeds to reach available moisture and gives satisfactory stands. Deeper plantings have resulted in reduced stands and yields. If crusting or packing of the soil is expected, with silt loam or clay soils, a shallower planting depth is recommended.
Sunflower row spacing is most often determined by machinery available, which might be 30 or 36 in. for corn, soybean or sorghum growers, or narrower rows for sugarbeet growers. In Minnesota trials, sunflower yield, oil percentage, seed weight, test weight, height, and flowering date did not differ at narrow vs. wide rows over five plant populations. Hence, row spacings can be chosen to fit available equipment. Row spacings of 30 in. are most common. There is evidence that earlier, semidwarf varieties may perform better in narrower rows at high populations.
Sunflower stands have the capacity to produce the same yield over a wide range of plant densities (Table 2). The plants adjust head diameter, seed number per plant, seed size, to lower or higher populations, so that yield is relatively constant over a wide range of plant populations. Trials in eastern North Dakota show increases in yields with densities up to 29,000 plants/acre, but most studies have shown less effect of seeding rate. Higher densities are often recommended for irrigated or high rainfall areas.
Table 2: Effect of plant population on yield and yield components - average of 12 trials in Minnesota
Plant density
heads/acre
Seed yield
lbs/acre
Seed number
seeds/head
Seed weight
mg/seed
Large seedl
%
Oil content
%
Lodging
score2
14,970
2,004
831
73
52
42.1
1.5
19,830
2,131
727
67
44
43.2
1.8
25,090
2,169
632
62
33
43.2
2.1
29,940
2,173
548
60
31
43.4
2.4,
34,800
2,231
501
58
16
43.8
2.5
lNon-oilseed cultivars held on an 0.8 cm round-hole screen
21 = erect, 9 = prostrate.
Plant population has a strong effect on seed size, head size, and percent oil. A medium to high population produces higher oil percentage than does low populations, and the smaller heads dry down faster at higher plant populations.
A lower plant population is critical for maximizing seed size for non-oilseed use. Current recommendations in Minnesota and Wisconsin are 17,000 plants/acre (4 lb seed/acre) for non-oilseed and 23,000 plants/acre (3 lb seed/acre) for oilseed.
Some have suggested that north-south orientation of rows produce higher yields than east-west rows, but studies to examine this effect have found no differences in yield.
D. Fertility and Lime Requirements:
Research has shown that sunflower responds to N, P and K. Nitrogen is usually the most common limiting factor for yield. Nitrogen fertilizer tends to reduce oil percentage of the seed, change the amino acid balance, and increase leaf area of the plant. Yield increases from N fertilizer rates up to 175 lb/acre have been observed, but rates considerably lower than this are usually recommended. Nitrogen recommendations in dryer regions can be made from estimates of nitrate nitrogen in the soil, but in wetter regions, this is not feasible. In the wetter regions of eastern and southern Minnesota and Wisconsin, recommendations are based upon soil organic matter and previous crop history. Recommendations of approximately 18 lb N/acre after fallow or legume sod, 60 lb N/acre after small grain or soybean and 80 to 100 lb N/acre after corn or sugarbeet are common. On higher organic matter soils, amounts should be lowered. Nitrogen can be supplied from mineral or non-mineral sources (manures, legumes, compost). Row placement of P and K may be important in sunflower for maximizing efficiency of fertilizer use, as it is with many species.
More yield increases are reported as a result of applications of P than from K in Europe and North America. Recommendations for applications of P and K should be made from soil tests and the yield goal for each field. Recommendations range from 40 to 70 lbs P2O5 and -60 to 140 lbs K2O /acre for soils testing very low in P or K, depending on soil yield potential. These recommendations decrease as soil test P and/or K increase. Response to P is not expected if soil P exceeds 30 lb/acre nor to K if the K test is greater than 300 lb/acre.
Sunflower is not highly sensitive to soil pH. The crop is grown commercially on soils ranging in pH from 5.7 to over 8. The optimum depends upon other properties of the soil; no pH is considered optimum for all soil conditions. The 6.0 to 7.2 range may be optimal for many soils.
E. Variety Selection:
The development of a cytoplasmic male-sterile and restorer system for sunflower has enabled seed companies to produce high-quality hybrid seed. Most of these outyield open-pollinated varieties and are higher in percent oil. Performance of varieties tested over several environments is the best basis for selecting sunflower hybrids. The choice should consider yield, oil percentage, maturity, seed size (for non-oilseed markets), and lodging and disease resistance. Performance results from the Upper Midwest are usually available annually from North Dakota State University, University of Minnesota, and South Dakota State University.
F. Weed Control:
As a crop, sunflower yields are reduced, but rarely eliminated by weeds which compete with sunflower for moisture and nutrients and occasionally for light. Sunflower is a strong competitor with weeds, especially for light, but does not cover the ground early enough to prevent weed establishment. Therefore, early season weed control is essential for good yields. Annual weeds have been the primary focus of weed control research. Perennial weeds can also present problems but are usually not specific to sunflower.
Successful weed control should include a combination of cultural and chemical methods. Almost all North American sunflower plantings are cultivated and/or harrowed for weed control, and over 2/3 are treated with herbicides. Postemergence cultivation with a coilspring harrow, spike tooth harrow or rotary hoe is possible with as little as 5 to 7% stand loss when sunflowers are at the four to six leaf stage (beyond cotyledon), preferably in dry afternoons when the plants are less turgid. One or two between row cultivations are common after the plants are at least 6 in. tall.
Several herbicides are currently approved for weed control in sunflowers. Information on chemical weed control in sunflowers is available at most county extension offices.
G. Diseases:
The most serious diseases of sunflower are caused by fungi. The major diseases include rust, downy mildew, verticillium wilt, sclerotinia stalk and head rot, phoma black stem and leaf spot. The symptoms of these diseases are given in Table 3. The severity of these disease effects on total crop yield might be ranked: 1) sclerotinia, 2) verticillium, 3) rust (recently more severe), 4) phoma, and 5) downy mildew. Resistance to rust, downy mildew, and verticillium wilt has been incorporated into improved sunflower germplasm.
Table 3: Major sunflower diseases and symptoms.
Downy mildew
Plasmopara halstedi
Cottony fungus on underside of leaves. Dwarfing, contrasting discoloration of yellow-green and green. Blackening and sometimes swelling at base of stem. Disease most severe when rain occurs before and after emergence.
Powdery mildew
Erysiphe cichoracearum
Cottony fungus on green leaves late in summer - not largely damaging.
Leaf spot
Septoria helianthi
Dead blotches on flower leaves before heading. Has not caused appreciable loss.
Verticillium wilt
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Before heading, dead areas along leaf veins, bordered by light yellow-green margins. Decayed vascular tissue in cross-section of stem.
Rust
Puccini helianthi
Rust colored pustules on leaves, latter black specks on stems.
Sclerotinia head and stem rot
Verticillium dahliae
Wilt soon after flowering. Light tan band around the stem at soil level. Grey-black sclerotia (size of seed) in rotted heads and stems. Seed and meats discolored.
Phoma black stem
Phoma macdonaldii
Large chocolate colored blotches on stems at maturity.
H. Insects, Pollinators, and Birds:
Bees are beneficial to sunflower yield because they carry pollen from plant to plant which results in cross pollination. Some sunflower varieties will not produce highest yields unless pollinators are present. All varieties will produce some sterile seed (without meats), but varieties differ in their degree of dependence on insect pollinators. Autogamous sunflower hybrids do not require bees for maximum yield and will yield the same when covered by bags as uncovered. In non-autogamous sunflower varieties, pericarp (bull) development is normal but no ovules or meat develop. Wind is relatively unimportant in cross-pollination of sunflower. Some of the older open-pollinated varieties such as Peredovick set only 15 to 20% of seed without pollinators, whereas many hybrids set 85 to 100% seeds without pollinators.
Insect pests have become major potential yield-reducing factors in sunflower production in the northern Midwest (Table 4). Insects specific to sunflower that feed on the heads include the larvae of three moths; sunflower moth, banded sunflower moth and sunflower bud moth. Sunflower midge has caused widespread damage in some years. Sunflower headclipping weevil, sunflower beetle, sunflower maggot, wireworm, grasshopper, cutworm, sugarbeet webworm, ragweed plant bug, woolybear and painted.lady caterpillar have caused occasional damage to sunflower. Adults of insect pests of other crops (such as corn rootworm beetle and blister beetle) can be found as pollen feeders on sunflower heads, but usually cause little injury.
Table 4: Common Insects in Sunflower
Sunflower moth
Homoeosoma electellum
Eggs are laid at flowering and hatch in 1 week. Larva have dark bands running length of body. Feeds on floral parts, tunnels in Seed.
Banded sunflower moth
Cochylis hospes
Moth has brown area mid-wing (.5 in.). Larvae are not dark striped, smaller than head moth. Makes a small hole in top of seed, feeds on meat.
Sunflower bud moth
Suleima helianthana
Dark grey moth. Larvae .5 to 1 in. in length. Feeds on young stem and head. Headless or damaged heads or large hole on stem near a leaf petiole is symptom.
Sunflower midge
Contarinia schulzi
Small (.1 in.) gnat with tiny (.1 in.) cream-colored larvae laid when head is 1" in diameter. Brown spots at base of individual florets or absence of ray flowers, cupping of heads is symptom.
Sunflower headclipping weevil
Haplorynchites aeneus
Black weevil, about .25 in. long, causes head drop.
Sunflower beetle
Zygogramma exclamationis
Adult is .25 in. long with yellow strips length of wing covers. Humpback yellow larvae causes large areas of defoliation.
Sunflower maggot
Strauzia longipennis
Adult a yellow fly with dark wing markings, smaller than housefly. Maggots burrow in stem.
Red sunflower seed weevil
Smicronyx fulvus
Adult about 1/8 in. long, rusty colored, and found in head. Adult female drills egg hole in developing seed and lays egg in hole. Larvae internal to seed; white legless with dark head capsule.
Gray sunflower seed weevil
Smicronyx sordidus
Adult about 1/8 in. long, gray colored; has behavior similar to red sunflower seed weevil.
Sunflower stem weevil
Cylindrocopturus adspersus
A robust brown and white spotted snout beetle found on the stem and in leaf axils. It is about 1/4 in. long. Drills egg hole in stem in which it lays its egg. The larva, a white legless larva, burrows in the stem pith. Much more abundant in drouthy sites and years.
Resistance to seed insects can be improved by the presence of a dark colored "armor" layer in the seed coat. Resistance to midge has been suggested but is not currently effective. Only currently approved insecticides should be used for control of insects.
Birds can be major pests in sunflowers. Especially important are blackbird, goldfinch, dove, grosbeak and sparrow. Many approaches to disruption of feeding have been tried, including scarecrows, fright owls, aluminum strips that flutter in the wind, and carbide exploders. No techniques are 100% effective, as birds will adapt to many of these techniques. However, in many environments, some attempt is wan-anted. Currently, no chemicals are approved for bird control in sunflower.
I. Harvesting:
Sunflowers are generally mature long before they are dry enough for combining. Seed maturity occurs when the backs of the heads are yellow, but the fleshy sunflower head takes a long time to dry. Often, there are only a few good combining days in October when the seed is dry enough for storage. Seeds should be below 12% moisture for temporary storage and below 10% for long term storage. Seed up to 15% moisture is satisfactory for temporary storage in freezing weather, but spoilage is likely after a few days of warm weather.
Commercially available sunflower headers are useful in decreasing loss of seed as the crop is direct combined. This equipment usually includes 9 to 36 in. width metal pans for catching matured seed and a three-armed or similar reel. A narrower (9 in.) pan width enables harvesting diagonal to the row, which produces fewer harvest losses in some situations.
Windrowing has been demonstrated to be effective, but probably would not be economical, given the added cost of windrower and pickup-modifications.
VII. Economics of Production and Markets:
The cost of production and return over variable costs for sunflower is similar to that for small grains. The culture of sunflower and growing season requirements makes them a good niche in cropping systems where small grains are the predominant crops. Markets are generally available in most areas where sunflower has been traditionally grown. However, if a grower considers sunflower as an alternative crop, marketing opportunities should be pursued prior to making the decision to grow sunflower, particularly for non-oilseed varieties.
VIII. Information Sources:
The sunflower crop in Minnesota. 1973. R.G. Robinson. Extension Bulletin 299. Agricultural Extension Service, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN.
Sunflower science and technology. 1978. Jack F. Carter (ed.). Agronomy Monograph 19. American Society of Agronomy, 677 South Segoe Rd, Madison, WI 53711.
Sunflower production in Wisconsin. 1979. E.S. Oplinger. Publication A3005, University of Wisconsin-Extension. Agric. Bulletin, Rm. 245,30 N. Murray St., Madison, WI 53715.
Pest control in sunflowers. 1980. J.D. Doll and J.L. Wedberg. Publication A3075. Univ. of Wisconsin-Extension. Agric. Bulletin, Rm. 245, 30 N. Murray SL, Madison, WI 53715.
Irrigation and nitrogen for sunflower and fieldbean on sandy soil. 1985. R.G. Robinson. Minnesota Report AD-MR-2862. Agric. Expt. Stn. University of Minnesota. St. Paul, MN.
Sunflower monoculture and crop rotation. 1979. R.G. Robinson, L.J. Smith, J.V. Wiersma. Misc. Report 166 - Agricultural Expt. Stn. Univ. of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN.
Sunflower planting date: An important decision. 1985. R.G. Robinson, D.L. Rabas, J.V. Wiersma, D.D. Warnes. Minnesota Report AD-MR-2737. Agric. Expt. Stn. University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN.
Sunflowers for silage in Idaho. 1986. G.A. Murray, D.L. Auld, V.M. Thomas, B.D. Brown. Bulletin No. 652. Agric. Expt. Stn. University of Idaho.
Oil crops of the world, their breeding and utiliLzation. 1989. G. Robbelen, P.K. Downey, A. Ashri, eds. McGraw Hill, NY. 553 pages.
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Last updated: Sat Apr 23 10:10:39 UTC+0800 2011 by aw
Nearly Half of All US Farms Now Have Superweeds
—By Tom Philpott
from:www.motherjones.com
Last year's drought took a big bite out of the two most prodigious US crops, corn and soy. But it apparently didn't slow down the spread of weeds that have developed resistance to Monsanto's herbicide Roundup (glyphosate), used on crops engineered by Monsanto to resist it. More than 70 percent of all the the corn, soy, and cotton grown in the US is now genetically modified to withstand glyphosate.
Back in 2011, such weeds were already spreading fast. "Monsanto's 'Superweeds' Gallop Through Midwest," declared the headline of a post I wrote then. What's the word you use when an already-galloping horse speeds up? Because that's what's happening. Let's try this: "Monsanto's 'Superweeds' Stampede Through Midwest."
That pretty much describes the situation last year, according to a new report from the agribusiness research consultancy Stratus. Since the 2010 growing season, the group has been polling "thousands of US farmers" across 31 states about herbicide resistance. Here's what they found in the 2012 season:
• Nearly half (49 percent) of all US farmers surveyed said they have glyphosate-resistant weeds on their farm in 2012, up from 34 percent of farmers in 2011.
• Resistance is still worst in the South. For example, 92 percent of growers in Georgia said they have glyphosate-resistant weeds.
• But the mid-South and Midwest states are catching up. From 2011 to 2012 the acres with resistance almost doubled in Nebraska, Iowa, and Indiana.
• It's spreading at a faster pace each year: Total resistant acres increased by 25 percent in 2011 and 51 percent in 2012.
• And the problem is getting more complicated. More and more farms have at least two resistant species on their farm. In 2010 that was just 12 percent of farms, but two short years later 27 percent had more than one.
So where do farmers go from here? Well, Monsanto and its peers would like them to try out "next generation" herbicide-resistant seeds—that is, crops engineered to resist not just Roundup, but also other, more toxic herbicides, like 2,4-D and Dicamba. Trouble is, such an escalation in the chemical war on weeds will likely only lead to more prolific, and more super, superweeds, along with a sharp increase in herbicide use. That's the message of a peer-reviewed 2011 paper by a team of Penn State University researchers led by David A. Mortensen. (I discussed their paper in a post last year.)
And such novel seeds won't be available in the 2013 growing season anyway. None have made it through the US Department of Agriculture's registration process. The USDA was widely expected to award final approval on Dow's 2,4-D/Roundup-resistant corn during the Christmas break, but didn't. The agency hasn't stated the reason it hasn't decided on the product, known as Enlist, but the nondecision effectively delays its introduction until 2014 at the earliest, as Dow acknowledged last month. Reuters reporter Carey Gillam noted that the USDA' delay comes amid "opposition from farmers, consumers and public health officials" to the new product, and that these opponents have "bombarded Dow and US regulators with an array of concerns" about it.
So industrial-scale corn and soy farmers will likely have to muddle along, responding in the same way that they have been for years, which is by upping their herbicide use in hopes of controlling the rogue weeds, as Washington State University's Charles Benbrook showed in a recent paper (my post on it here). That means significant economic losses for farmers—according to Penn State's Mortensen, grappling with glyphosate resistance was already costing farmers nearly $1 billion per year in 2011. It will also likely mean a jump in toxic herbicides entering streams, messing with frogs and polluting people's drinking water.
For a good idea of what's in store, check out this piece in the trade mag Corn & Soy Digest on "Managing Herbicide-Resistant weeds." Here's the key bit—note that "burndown" means a complete flattening of all vegetation in a field with a broad-spectrum herbicide such as paraquat, an infamously toxic weed killer that's been banned in 32 countries, including those of the European Union:
For those with a known resistance problem, it’s not uncommon to see them use a fall burndown plus a residual herbicide, a spring burndown before planting, another at planting including another residual herbicide, and two or more in-season herbicide applications. “If you can catch the resistant weeds early enough, paraquat does a good job of controlling them. But once Palmer amaranth [a common glyphosate-tolerant weed] gets 6 ft. tall, you can't put on enough paraquat to kill it," [one weed-control expert] says.
But of course there's another way. In a 2012 study I'll never tire of citing, Iowa State University researchers found that if farmers simply diversified their crop rotations, which typically consist of corn one year and soy the next, year after year, to include a "small grain" crop (e.g. oats) as well as offseason cover crops, weeds (including Roundup-resistant ones) can be suppressed with dramatically less fertilizer use—a factor of between 6 and 10 less. And much less herbicide means much less poison entering streams—"potential aquatic toxicity was 200 times less in the longer rotations" than in the regular corn-soy regime, the study authors note. So, despite what the seed giants and the conventional weed specialists insist, there are other ways to respond to the accelerating scourge of "superweeds" than throwing more—and ever-more toxic—chemicals at them.