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Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted C4 grass with spreading crowns; stems are fine, hairless and to 1.5 m tall. Leaves are grey-green, 6-20 mm wide and nearly hairless. Flowerheads are subdigitate with 4-14 racemes usually in 3 whorls, about 7-17 cm long and brownish-purple when immature and brownish grey when mature. Spikelets are paired, 2-flowered, shortly-hairy and 2-4 mm long. Flowers in summer. A native of Africa, it is a sown species in the north with one variety Premier. Grows on a range of soil types, but is best suited to light-medium textured low-fertility soils. Good drought and frost tolerance, but is sensitive to waterlogging. Recruits well on light-medium textured soils. Can produce some growth in winter and commences growth in late winter-early spring, much earlier than most other tropical grasses. Very palatable, has low oxalate levels (i.e. suitable for horses) and tolerates close grazing.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
Soil profile: A representative soil profile of the Compton series (Clayic Fluvic Eutric Gleysols) in England. (Cranfield University 2021. The Soils Guide. Available: www.landis.org.uk. Cranfield University, UK.)
Soils classified and described by the World Reference Base for England and Wales:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/wrb_list.cfm
Landscape: Compton soils occupy low-lying flat ground along the floodplains of rivers and streams draining Triassic mudstone outcrops and is most common in the Midlands and South West England. Small areas are also mapped in south Wales and east of Wrexham.
Mapped areas of Compton soils contain clayey, severely waterlogged soils developed in reddish and greyish river alluvium subject to seasonal flooding. The association is dominated by reddish clayey alluvial gley soils of the Compton series, which have prominently mottled reddish and greyish subsoils which usually pass downwards into permanently waterlogged, greyish clay within 1 m depth. The reddish colours come from nearby reddish rocks, primarily of Triassic age. Along narrow valleys cut in Triassic mudstone, the association consists almost entirely of Compton soils. On broader river floodplains however, greyish clayey alluvial gley soils of the Fladbury series are found in backland areas and hollows. Here, prolonged waterlogging at shallow depth has produced a predominantly grey subsoil.
Compton soils suffer occasional damaging floods which can be extensive and protracted during the winter. When drained, both Compton soils can be improved to Wetness Class III or Wetness Class IV depending on their height above the river level. Underdrainage treatment is often impractical, however, because of the lack of adequate fall and in such cases the soils are severely waterlogged (Wetness Class V). Subsoil waterlogging caused by rising groundwater is accentuated by seasonal surface wetness. Although the soils have moderate or strong structure under old pasture, there are few pores within peds and excess water percolates through profiles mainly along fissures and earthworm channels. For most of the summer, when they are slightly moist or dry, soils are well fissured and relatively permeable, but because of their clayey nature, peds swell quickly as they become wetter during the autumn. As a result fissures and cracks quickly close, making the soils slowly permeable and subject to severe waterlogging in the autumn, winter and spring.
The soils are mostly under permanent grass or rough grazing. Prolonged waterlogging at shallow depths and the risk of damaging seasonal floods preclude arable crops in all but the highest parts of the floodplain. Grassland is used mainly for stock rearing because waterlogging, winter floods and the large amounts of moisture retained by topsoils, make cattle grazing safe only in summer. In most places the soils have an appreciable risk of poaching, but in the driest areas of eastern Nottinghamshire the risk is only slight. In Wales all the soils have a serious poaching risk and grassland needs to be very carefully managed to achieve consistent growth.
For additional information about the soil association, visit:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/mapunit.cfm?mu=81305
For more information on the World Reference Base soil classification system, visit:
The tea plant can grow between 900 and 2000 m above sea level. Because the plant can`t stand waterlogging the plantation has to be situated on a slope between 30 and 45 degrees. If you don´t cut the tea plant it would grow up to a tree of six meter height.
Munnar is a beautiful hill station, and was the summer resort of the British. Tourists come here to see the vast tea plantations of the area. The town itself is typically Indian with the usual shops, guest houses and is really beautiful and traditional. It is a good place to stay to see the surrounding countryside. It is also a popular place for Indian honeymooners.
The town is divided into two parts, Old Munnar, where the tourist information office is, and Munnar, where the bus station and most guest houses are located.
Munnar is famous for its tea plantations, many of them started by the British. The "Kannan Devan" brand of Tea from the Tata is cultivated and processed here.
There are more than 30 tea estates in and around Munnar. Among them, most of the plantations are taken over by the Tata's Group Kannan Devan Tea Estate. Some of the major tea estates in Munnar include Harrison Malayalam, AVT Tea, Michael's tea, Brooke Bond and Tata Tea. It is one of the biggest centers of tea trade in India.
Until 1790, Munnar and the surrounding area were forests covered, when they were first recognized by the European known as Duke of Wellington. Later in the year 1870, a subordinate of the ruler of Travancore, leased 588 sq. km of land to a Scottish tea planter named J.D. Munro, who was the lawyer in the employee of the Travancore Government. The first tea sapling was planted by A.H. Sharp at Parvathi, which is currently the part of Sevenmullay estate. Presently the whole area is covered by the mile and miles of lush tea gardens, owned by the various private companies.
For the tourists information, Munnar itself is the most popular and picturesque hill stations of Kerala, located 1600 to 1800meters above the sea level. It is popularly known as the 'Kashmir of South India'. The peaceful environment and perfect serenity makes it a famous hot spot among the tourists from all around the globe. Along with the valleys, mountain streams and tea plantations there is lot more to discover in its surrounding area.
Tourists can make a visit to the famous tea museum opened by the Tata Tea group. The museum puts light on the important fact and figures about the growth of the tea plantations in Munnar. It contains curios, old photographs, machineries and other things which have been used since long time. It provides the first hand experience to the tourists about the tea processing and the operations that go into the making of black tea. Some of the major items that are displayed at the museum are the original tea roller, used in earlier time around 1905, than the 'Pelton Wheel', which was used in the power generation plant in the 1920's, a rail engine wheel of the Kumdale Valley Light Railway.
Introduced cool-season annual herbaceous C3 legume forming dense swards. Stems are semi-erect to erect, branched and to 50 cm tall. Leaves have 3 leaflets; leaflets are hairless, 1-2 cm long, rounded becoming more elongated with age; margins are finely toothed and contain glands. Stipules are green. Flowerheads are many-flowered rounded heads. Flowers are pea-shaped with light to dark pink petals. Fruits are 2-3-seeded pods. Flowers in spring and early summer. A native of Eurasia, it is sown for hay and grazing on neutral to mildly acid soils. Best suited to 375-600 mm regions with a cool-season rainfall dominance, little summer rainfall and only light frosts. A moderately palatable high-quality forage with a growth pattern similar to early maturing Subterranean Clovers, but not as productive as Serradella and Biserrula. Resistant to red-legged earth mites, aphids and scorch, moderately tolerant to waterlogging and has low coumarin levels. Compatible with other temperate legumes, but susceptible to competition during establishment. Has excellent regeneration, as it has high levels of hard seed and seed yields. Can be grazed heavily in winter, but there is a need to restrict grazing during flowering, especially in the first year, to allow it to set large amounts of seed.
Soil profile: A representative soil profile of the Winter Hill series (Ombric Fibric Histosols) in England. (Cranfield University 2021. The Soils Guide. Available: www.landis.org.uk. Cranfield University, UK.)
Soils classified and described by the World Reference Base for England and Wales:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/wrb_list.cfm
Winter Hill soils are found on peat-covered hillsides, ridge tops and summit plateaux between 190 and 893 m O.D. Peat develops here because the climate is cold, wet and exposed, inhibiting the organisms which decompose plant remains and incorporate them into mineral soil. The ground is flat or gently sloping, the peat having filled in the hollows and produced a smooth undulating land surface.
Winter Hill soils are very extensive on the Pennines and common in Northumberland, the Lake District and on Dartmoor. It also occurs on the North York Moors, Bodmin Moor and Exmoor. The peat is usually between 2 and 4 m thick but can be up to 6 m (Conway 1954), and in the wettest sites has been accumulating at an average rate of 5 cm per century (Tallis and Switsur 1973). As it thickens, the soft and almost permanently waterlogged peat becomes increasingly vulnerable to gully erosion and, less commonly, to mass flow. The landscape thus varies according to the degree of erosion, from uneroded ground covered mainly by cotton-grass, to bare ground affected by wind erosion. Between these extremes are several stages of land degradation, the more spectacular consisting of parallel or reticulate patterns of gullies up to 6 m deep with peat haggs.
The peats have formed in areas of considerable winter rainfall and thus extend to lower elevations in western districts than in the drier east. The maximum potential soil moisture deficit is small, often less than 25 mm. Because of the almost permanent waterlogging, (Wetness Class VI) the soils do not absorb excess rainwater. Run-off is therefore rapid.
Winter Hill soils have little agricultural value because of wetness, unpalatable vegetation and short growing season. The tussock-forming cotton-grass (Eriophorum vaginatum) dominates the most characteristic plant community with Molinia and deer-grass (Trichophorum cespitosum) common locally. In the wettest places the multiple headed cotton-grass (Eriophorum angustifolium) and species of Sphagnum moss predominate, the former often colonizing bare peat that has been deposited by streams issuing from peat gullies. Heather, cross-leaved heath and bilberry occur in less rainy districts and where the soil becomes drier along the edges of gullies. The land is grazed by sheep, and also red grouse for which heather is the staple food. Rawes (1983) has shown that sheep grazing can greatly influence the composition of the vegetation.
he blanket bog vegetation is dominated by bog-mosses and cotton-grasses often with abundant purple moor-grass and deer-grass. Ling and cross-leaved heath are confined to tussocks. The poor grazing value of the vegetation, combined with prolonged wetness and severe climate, restricts agricultural use to summer grazing for sheep, cattle and ponies. The association forms part of the conserved moorland of the Dartmoor and Exmoor National Parks and serves as water gathering ground. On Dartmoor some land is used as army firing ranges.
For additional information about the soil association, visit:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/mapunit.cfm?mu=101102
For more information on the World Reference Base soil classification system, visit:
Barton Aerodrome is an airport in Barton-upon-Irwell, Eccles, Greater Manchester, England, 5 nautical miles west of Manchester. Formerly known as City Airport and City Airport Manchester, It is known by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) as Manchester/Barton and rebranded as Manchester Barton Aerodrome on 3rd April 2023.
The United Kingdom's first purpose-built municipal airport, it has four grass runways. The airfield operates Tuesday - Sunday, from 9 am BST until 6 p.m. or sunset (whichever earlier) for fixed-wing aircraft. Commercial, private, military, police and air ambulance helicopters can operate in the hours of darkness by arrangement.
The airport serves as an important reliever airport for Manchester Airport. It is also used as a refuelling stop for light aircraft and helicopters. It lies on the edge of Chat Moss and the aircraft movements area suffers from occasional periods of waterlogging, restricting fixed wing operations. Works to improve drainage on the airfield have seen some success in reducing the number of closures. It has a CAA Ordinary Licence (Number P886) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee, City Airport Limited. The aerodrome is not licensed for night use.
Introduced warm-season perennial large tufted C4 grass; stems usually have hairy nodes, grow 30-200 cm tall and arise from short rhizomes. Leaf bases may be hairy and blades are 10-60 cm long and 3-14 mm wide. Flowerheads are narrow cylindrical bristly spike-like panicles to 18 cm long. Spikelets are 2-flowered and are surrounded by uniformly coloured bristles that remain after the spikelets fall; the upper glume is 40-55% of the spikelet's length. Flowers from early summer to autumn. A native of Africa, it occurs is sown as a pasture species, especially on medium to heavy soils of high fertility; it has also become naturalised on the North West Slopes and Plains. Easy to establish on heavy clays and is tolerant of drought and temporary waterlogging. Has superior production to most other tropical grasses in its first and second year after establishment. Oxalates may affect horses and cattle. Has reasonable palatability and feed quality below about 40 cm in height, but quickly runs to head and is then avoided by stock; generally preferred by cattle rather than sheep. Graze frequently to maintain quality. Heavy grazing in late summer promotes autumn germination of winter annual legumes; however its abundance will decline under heavy continuous grazing. Sufficient soil nitrogen is essential for its persistence.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
Hồng hay hường là tên gọi chung cho các loài thực vật có hoa dạng cây bụi hoặc cây leo lâu năm thuộc chi Rosa, họ Rosaceae, với hơn 100 loài với màu hoa đa dạng, phân bố từ miền ôn đới đến nhiệt đới. Các loài này nổi tiếng vì hoa đẹp nên thường gọi là hoa hồng. Đa phần có nguồn gốc bản địa châu Á, số ít còn lại có nguồn gốc bản địa châu Âu, Bắc Mỹ, và Tây Bắc Phi. Các loài bản địa, giống cây trồng và cây lai ghép đều được trồng làm cảnh và lấy hương thơm.. Đôi khi các loài này được gọi theo tiếng Trung là tường vi (薔薇).
Hình thái
Đây là các cây bụi mọc đứng hoặc mọc leo, thân và cành có gai. Lá kép lông chim lẻ, lá chét khía răng, có lá kèm. Hoa thơm, màu sắc đa dạng: hồng, trắng, vàng hay đỏ... Hoa thường có nhiều cánh do nhị đực biến thành. Đế hoa hình chén. Quả bế, tụ nhau trong đế hoa dày lên thành quả.
Các loài
Dưới đây là một số loài hồng tiêu biểu
•Rosa beauvaisii: hồng Beauvais
•Rosa californica: hồng California
•Rosa canina: tầm xuân
•Rosa chinensis: hồng, hường, nguyệt quý hoa
•Rosa cymosa: hồng roi, tầm xuân
•Rosa gallica: hồng Pháp
•Rosa glauca (đồng nghĩa R. rubrifolia): hồng lá đỏ
•Rosa laevigata (đồng nghĩa R. sinica): hồng vụng, kim anh
•Rosa leschenaultiana: hồng Leschenault
•Rosa longicuspis: hồng mũi dài
•Rosa multiflora: tầm xuân nhiều hoa
•Rosa pimpinellifolia: hồng Scotch
•Rosa rubus: hồng đum
•Rosa rugosa: hồng Nhật, hồng Rugosa Rose
•Rosa transmorissonensis: hồng choắt
•Rosa tunquinensis: tầm xuân Bắc, quầng quầng
•Rosa virginiana (đồng nghĩa R. lucida): hồng Virginia
•Rosa yunnanensis: hồng Vân Nam
Hoa hồng trong văn hóa
Với vẻ đẹp, hình dáng và hương thơm nổi bật, hoa hồng là hoa biểu trưng hay được dùng nhất ở phương Tây, tương ứng trong tổng thể với hình tượng hoa sen ở châu Á, cả hai đều gần gũi với biểu tượng bánh xe. Trong văn hóa Ấn Độ, bông hồng vũ trụ Triparasundari được dùng làm vật đối chiếu với vẻ đẹp của người Mẹ thánh thần, biểu thị một sự hoàn mĩ trọn vẹn và không có thiếu sót. Bên cạnh đó, hoa hồng còn tượng trưng cho phần thưởng cuộc sống, tâm hồn, trái tim, tình yêu, và có thể được chiêm ngưỡng như một mandala.
Trong hệ tranh tượng Kitô giáo, hoa hồng hoặc là cái chén hứng máu của Chúa Kitô, hoặc là sự hóa thân của những giọt máu này và thậm chí, là chính vết thương của Chúa.
Hình hoa hồng gô-thích và hoa hồng hướng gió (hình hoa hồng 32 cánh ứng với 32 hướng gió) đánh dấu bước chuyển của xu hướng biểu trưng của hoa hồng sang xu hướng biểu trưng bánh xe.
Saadi de Chiraz trong đạo Hồi quan niệm vườn hoa hồng là vườn của sự quán tưởng.
Trong văn hóa phương Tây, hoa hồng, bởi sự tương hợp với màu máu chảy, thường xuất hiện như là biểu tượng của sự phục sinh huyền bí. Abd Ul Kadir Gilani so sánh hoa hồng với những vết sẹo trên cơ thể sống, trong khi đó F. Portal quan niệm hoa hồng vào màu hồng hợp thành một biểu tượng của sự tái sinh do có quan hệ gần gũi ngữ nghĩa của từ latinh rosa (hoa hồng) với ros (mưa, sương). Với người Hy Lạp hoa hồng vốn là một loài hoa màu trắng, nhưng khi Adonis bị tử thương, nữ thần Aphorodite chạy đến cứu chàng đã bị đâm phải một cái gai và máu đã nhuộm thẫm những bông hồng cung tiến nàng. Chính ý nghĩa biểu trưng về sự tái sinh đã khiến con người, từ thời cổ đại, đặt những bông hồng lên các nấm mộ, và Hecate, nữ thần âm phủ đôi khi được thể hiện với hình ảnh đầu quấn một vòng hoa hồng có 5 lá.
Theo Bède, ở thế kỷ VII mộ của Chúa Giêxu được sơn một màu pha lẫn trắng và đỏ. Hai yếu tố tạo thành màu của hoa hồng này, màu trắng và màu đỏ, với giá trị biểu trưng truyền thống của chúng phản ánh các bình diện từ trần tục đến thiêng liêng, trong sự khác nhau ứng với sự dâng tặng những bông hồng trắng hay đỏ[4].
Hoa hồng đã trở thành biểu tượng của tình yêu và còn hơn thế, của sự dâng hiến tình yêu, của tình yêu trong trắng, tương tự ý nghĩa của hoa sen Ai Cập và cây thủy tiên Hy Lạp[4].
Dù là màu trắng hay màu đỏ, hoa hồng cũng đều được các nhà luyện đan ưa chuộng hơn cả, mà những chuyên luận của họ thường mang những tiêu đề như "Những cây hồng của các nhà triết học". Trong khi đó, hoa hồng màu lam lại biểu tượng của cái bất khả, cái không thể đạt tới.
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A rose is a perennial plant of the genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae. There are over 100 species. They form a group of erect shrubs, and climbing or trailing plants, with stems that are often armed with sharp prickles. Flowers are large and showy, in a number of colours from white through yellows and reds. Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, and northwest Africa. Species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and fragrance. Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach 7 meters in height. Species from different parts of the world easily hybridize, which has given rise to the many types of garden roses.[1]
The name rose comes from French, itself from Latin rosa, which was perhaps borrowed from Oscan, from Greek ρόδον rhodon (Aeolic βρόδον wrodon), related to Old Persian wrd-, Avestan varəda, Sogdian ward, Parthian wâr, Armenian vard.[2][3]
Botany
The leaves are borne alternately on the stem. In most species they are 5 to 15 centimetres (2.0 to 5.9 in) long, pinnate, with (3–) 5–9 (–13) leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. Most roses are deciduous but a few (particularly from South east Asia) are evergreen or nearly so.
The flowers of most species have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, which usually has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals (or in the case of some Rosa sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. The ovary is inferior, developing below the petals and sepals. Roses are insect-pollinated in nature.
The aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Many of the domestic cultivars do not produce hips, as the flowers are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination. The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g. Rosa pimpinellifolia) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer, the hypanthium, which contains 5–160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits called achenes) embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species, especially the Dog Rose (Rosa canina) and Rugosa Rose (Rosa rugosa), are very rich in vitamin C, among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. Some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds.
While the sharp objects along a rose stem are commonly called "thorns", they are technically prickles — outgrowths of the epidermis (the outer layer of tissue of the stem). (True thorns, as produced by e.g. Citrus or Pyracantha, are modified stems, which always originate at a node and which have nodes and internodes along the length of the thorn itself.) Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as Rosa rugosa and Rosa pimpinellifolia have densely packed straight spines, probably an adaptation to reduce browsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind-blown sand and so reduce erosion and protect their roots (both of these species grow naturally on coastal sand dunes). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer. A few species of roses have only vestigial prickles that have no points.
Species
Further information: List of Rosa species
The genus Rosa is subdivided into four subgenera:
•Hulthemia (formerly Simplicifoliae, meaning "with single leaves") containing one or two species from southwest Asia, R. persica and Rosa berberifolia which are the only roses without compound leaves or stipules.
•Hesperrhodos (from the Greek for "western rose") contains Rosa minutifolia and Rosa stellata, from North America.
•Platyrhodon (from the Greek for "flaky rose", referring to flaky bark) with one species from east Asia, Rosa roxburghii.
•Rosa (the type subgenus) containing all the other roses. This subgenus is subdivided into 11 sections.
oBanksianae - white and yellow flowered roses from China.
oBracteatae - three species, two from China and one from India.
oCaninae - pink and white flowered species from Asia, Europe and North Africa.
oCarolinae - white, pink, and bright pink flowered species all from North America.
oChinensis - white, pink, yellow, red and mixed-color roses from China and Burma.
oGallicanae - pink to crimson and striped flowered roses from western Asia and Europe.
oGymnocarpae - one species in western North America (Rosa gymnocarpa), others in east Asia.
oLaevigatae - a single white flowered species from China
oPimpinellifoliae - white, pink, bright yellow, mauve and striped roses from Asia and Europe.
oRosa (syn. sect. Cinnamomeae) - white, pink, lilac, mulberry and red roses from everywhere but North Africa.
oSynstylae - white, pink, and crimson flowered roses from all areas.
Uses
Roses are best known as ornamental plants grown for their flowers in the garden and sometimes indoors. They have been also used for commercial perfumery and commercial cut flower crops. Some are used as landscape plants, for hedging and for other utilitarian purposes such as game cover. They also have minor medicinal uses.
Ornamental plants
The majority of ornamental roses are hybrids that were bred for their flowers. A few, mostly species roses are grown for attractive or scented foliage (such as Rosa glauca and Rosa rubiginosa), ornamental thorns (such as Rosa sericea) or for their showy fruit (such as Rosa moyesii).
Ornamental roses have been cultivated for millennia, with the earliest known cultivation known to date from at least 500 BC in Mediterranean countries, Persia, and China.[4] Many thousands of rose hybrids and cultivars have been bred and selected for garden use as flowering plants. Most are double-flowered with many or all of the stamens having mutated into additional petals.
In the early 19th century the Empress Josephine of France patronized the development of rose breeding at her gardens at Malmaison. As long ago as 1840 a collection numbering over one thousand different cultivars, varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted by Loddiges nursery for Abney Park Cemetery, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England.
A few species and hybrids are grown for non-floral ornamental use. Among these are those grown for prominent hips, such as the flagon shaped hips of Rosa moyesii. Sometimes even the thorns can be treated as an attraction or curiosity, such as with Rosa sericea.
Cut flowers
Bouquet of pink roses
Roses are a popular crop for both domestic and commercial cut flowers. Generally they are harvested and cut when in bud, and held in refrigerated conditions until ready for display at their point of sale.
In temperate climates, cut roses are often grown in glasshouses, and in warmer countries they may also be grown under cover in order to ensure that the flowers are not damaged by weather and that pests and disease control can be carried out effectively. Significant quantities are grown in some tropical countries, and these are shipped by air to markets across the world.[5]
Perfume
Main article: Rose oil
Rose perfumes are made from attar of roses or rose oil, which is a mixture of volatile essential oils obtained by steam distilling the crushed petals of roses. An associated product is rose water which is used for cooking, cosmetics, medicine and in religious practices. The production technique originated in Persia then spread through Arabia and India, but nowadays about 70% to 80% of production is in the Rose Valley near Kazanluk in Bulgaria, with some production in Qamsar in Iran and Germany.[citation needed] The Kaaba in Mecca is annually washed by the Iranian rose water from Qamsar[citation needed]. In Bulgaria, Iran and Germany, damask roses (Rosa damascena 'Trigintipetala') are used. In the French rose oil industry Rosa centifolia is used. The oil is transparent pale yellow or yellow-grey in colour. 'Rose Absolute' is solvent-extracted with hexane and produces a darker oil, dark yellow to orange in colour. The weight of oil extracted is about one three-thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of the flowers; for example, about two thousand flowers are required to produce one gram of oil.
Geraniol (C10H18O)
The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrant alcohols geraniol and l-citronellol; and rose camphor, an odourless paraffin. β-Damascenone is also a significant contributor to the scent.
Rose water, made as a byproduct of rose oil production, is widely used in Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine. The French are known for their rose syrup, most commonly made from an extract of rose petals. In the United States, this French rose syrup is used to make rose scones and marshmallows.
Rose hips
The rose hip, the fruit of some species, is used as a minor source of Vitamin C.
Rose hips are occasionally made into jam, jelly, and marmalade, or are brewed for tea, primarily for their high vitamin C content. They are also pressed and filtered to make rose hip syrup. Rose hips are also used to produce Rose hip seed oil, which is used in skin products and some makeup products.
Medicine
The fruits of many species have significant levels of vitamins and have been used as a food supplement (see previous section). Many roses have been used in herbal and folk medicines. Rosa chinensis has long been used in Chinese traditional medicine. This and other species have been used for stomach problems, and are being investigated for controlling cancer growth.[6]
Culture
Art
Roses are a favored subject in art and therefore used in various artistic disciplines. They appear in portraits, illustrations, on stamps, as ornaments or as architectural elements. The Luxembourg born Belgian artist and botanist Pierre-Joseph Redouté is known for his detailed watercolours of flowers, particularly roses.
Renoir's painting of cabbage roses, Roses in a vase
Henri Fantin-Latour was also a prolific painter of still life, particularly flowers including roses. The Rose 'Fantin-Latour' was named after the artist.
Other impressionists including Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne and Pierre-Auguste Renoir have paintings of roses among their works.
Symbolism
Further information: Rose (symbolism)
The long cultural history of the rose has led to it being used often as a symbol.
Pests and diseases
Main articles: Pests and diseases of roses and List of rose diseases
Roses are subject to several diseases. The main fungal diseases affecting the leaves are rose black spot (Diplocarpon rosae), rose rust (Phragmidium mucronatum), rose powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa) and rose downy mildew (Peronospora sparsa). Stems can be affected by several canker diseases, the most commonly seen of which is stem canker (Leptosphaeria coniothyrium). Diseases of the root zone include honey fungus (Armillaria spp.), verticillium wilt, and various species of phytophthora.
Fungal leaf diseases affecting roses are best prevented by choosing to grow cultivars and species known to be less susceptible to attack, and by using a preventative fungicidal spray program (rather than by trying to cure an infection after it emerges on the plant). After disease is visible, spread can be minimized through pruning and the use of fungicides, although the actual infection cannot be reversed. Stem cankers are best treated by pruning out infection as soon as it is noticed. Root diseases are not usually possible to treat, once infection has occurred; the most practical line of defence is to ensure that growing conditions maximise plant health and thereby prevent infection. Phytophthora species are waterborne and therefore improving drainage and reducing waterlogging can help reduce infection.
The main pest affecting roses is the aphid (greenfly), which sucks the sap and weakens the plant. (Ladybugs are a predator of aphids and should be encouraged in the rose garden.) In areas where they are endemic Japanese beetles (Popillia japonica) take a heavy toll on rose flowers and foliage; rose blooms can also be destroyed by infestations of thrips (Thysanoptera spp). Roses are also used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species; see list of Lepidoptera that feed on roses. The spraying with insecticide of roses is often recommended but should be done with care to minimize the loss of beneficial insects.
Native warm-season perennial, tufted C4 grass; stems grow to 80 cm tall. Leaves are 10-20 cm long and have a pale midrib and sparse tubercle-based hairs (i.e. with small wart-like outgrowths at their base) along their margins. Flowerheads are panicles; 10-30 cm long, pale green and often drooping (giving it a rice-like appearance). Spikelets are 2-flowered, 3-4.5 mm long and relatively densely arranged; lower glume is about 30% of the spikelet’s length; lower lemma is sterile; upper lemma is smooth, shiny and about half the spikelet’s length. Flowers in summer and autumn. Found on clay loam and clay soils subject to flooding (e.g. alluvial soils, riverbanks and roadside drains) in open woodlands and grasslands; most common on the North West Slopes and northern half of the adjacent Plains. Native biodiversity. Tolerates salinity and waterlogging. Usually not an abundant species, but can become so after good summer rains. More common in ungrazed areas or lightly to intermittently grazed areas; declines under high grazing pressure. Not highly productive, but its leaves are soft and readily eaten by livestock.
Native, warm season, annual, erect, shrubby legume, which grows 1-3m tall. Leaves are pinnate and 5-20cm long, with 12-30 pairs of 7-18mm long leaflets. Flowerheads are 1-6 flowered racemes in the leaf axils. Flowers are about 1cm long and yellow with purple streaks on the back. Flowering is from late spring to autumn. Pods are long, narrow and cylindrical (12-20cm long x 2-3mm wide). Seeds are long-lived and germinate in successive flushes from spring to autumn. Widespread in periodically flooded sites; most common on heavy clays of floodplains, swamps and watercourses. It is a major weed of cotton due to its prolific production of long-lived seed and abilities to withstand disturbance and waterlogging; also a weed of sorghum crops. Can form dense thickets, which may provide harbour for native and feral animals. Productive. Leaves provide a high quality feed, but the palatability and quality of the whole plant quickly declines as it rapidly becomes stemmy and hard. Very frost sensitive. Anti-nutritional factors may limit animal production (especially horses). However, some feeding trials have shown no adverse effect. Seeds are poisonous to pigs.
Native warm-season perennial, tufted C4 grass; stems grow to 80 cm tall. Leaves are 10-20 cm long and have a pale midrib and sparse tubercle-based hairs (i.e. with small wart-like outgrowths at their base) along their margins. Flowerheads are panicles; 10-30 cm long, pale green and often drooping (giving it a rice-like appearance). Spikelets are 2-flowered, 3-4.5 mm long and relatively densely arranged; lower glume is about 30% of the spikelet’s length; lower lemma is sterile; upper lemma is smooth, shiny and about half the spikelet’s length. Flowers in summer and autumn. Found on clay loam and clay soils subject to flooding (e.g. alluvial soils, riverbanks and roadside drains) in open woodlands and grasslands; most common on the North West Slopes and northern half of the adjacent Plains. Native biodiversity. Tolerates salinity and waterlogging. Usually not an abundant species, but can become so after good summer rains. More common in ungrazed areas or lightly to intermittently grazed areas; declines under high grazing pressure. Not highly productive, but its leaves are soft and readily eaten by livestock.
Native, yearlong-green, perennial, scrambling-climbing
legume, with stolons. Leaves have 3 leaflets, each 3-10 cm long, sparsely hairy and ovate. The central leaflet has a longer stalk than the lateral leaflets. Flowerheads are racemes of 2-12 yellow to greenish-yellow, 12-25 mm long, pea-like flowers in the leaf axils. Pods are drooping, cylindrical, hairy and 4-8 cm long. Flowering is over most of the year. Found north from the Macleay Valley in damp-wet areas where the annual rainfall exceeds 1200 mm. Tolerant of acidity, waterlogging, short-term flooding and shade, but not drought or frost. Native biodiversity. Not commonly sown as no commercial seed, even though it is one of the best legumes for wet conditions and a useful pioneer species. Easily established, very palatable, non-bloating and relatively high yielding (especially compared to other legumes in moderate to dense shade). It is preferentially grazed and can only withstand short periods of heavy grazing (appropriate rest periods are essential). Stands will persist for 3 or more years and production is maximised if soil phosphorus is maintained at moderate (or better) levels and lenient grazing is used. Remove stock when there is still plenty of vine and some leaf to maximise persistence and production. The more leaf left on the plant, the faster the regrowth.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
The tea plant can grow between 900 and 2000 m above sea level. Because the plant can`t stand waterlogging the plantation has to be situated on a slope between 30 and 45 degrees. If you don´t cut the tea plant it would grow up to a tree of six meter height.
Munnar is a beautiful hill station, and was the summer resort of the British. Tourists come here to see the vast tea plantations of the area. The town itself is typically Indian with the usual shops, guest houses and is really beautiful and traditional. It is a good place to stay to see the surrounding countryside. It is also a popular place for Indian honeymooners.
The town is divided into two parts, Old Munnar, where the tourist information office is, and Munnar, where the bus station and most guest houses are located.
Munnar is famous for its tea plantations, many of them started by the British. The "Kannan Devan" brand of Tea from the Tata is cultivated and processed here.
There are more than 30 tea estates in and around Munnar. Among them, most of the plantations are taken over by the Tata's Group Kannan Devan Tea Estate. Some of the major tea estates in Munnar include Harrison Malayalam, AVT Tea, Michael's tea, Brooke Bond and Tata Tea. It is one of the biggest centers of tea trade in India.
Until 1790, Munnar and the surrounding area were forests covered, when they were first recognized by the European known as Duke of Wellington. Later in the year 1870, a subordinate of the ruler of Travancore, leased 588 sq. km of land to a Scottish tea planter named J.D. Munro, who was the lawyer in the employee of the Travancore Government. The first tea sapling was planted by A.H. Sharp at Parvathi, which is currently the part of Sevenmullay estate. Presently the whole area is covered by the mile and miles of lush tea gardens, owned by the various private companies.
For the tourists information, Munnar itself is the most popular and picturesque hill stations of Kerala, located 1600 to 1800meters above the sea level. It is popularly known as the 'Kashmir of South India'. The peaceful environment and perfect serenity makes it a famous hot spot among the tourists from all around the globe. Along with the valleys, mountain streams and tea plantations there is lot more to discover in its surrounding area.
Tourists can make a visit to the famous tea museum opened by the Tata Tea group. The museum puts light on the important fact and figures about the growth of the tea plantations in Munnar. It contains curios, old photographs, machineries and other things which have been used since long time. It provides the first hand experience to the tourists about the tea processing and the operations that go into the making of black tea. Some of the major items that are displayed at the museum are the original tea roller, used in earlier time around 1905, than the 'Pelton Wheel', which was used in the power generation plant in the 1920's, a rail engine wheel of the Kumdale Valley Light Railway.
A representative soil profile of the Hanslope series (Calcaric Stagnic Cambisols) in England. (Cranfield University 2021. The Soils Guide. Available: www.landis.org.uk. Cranfield University, UK.)
Soils classified and described by the World Reference Base for England and Wales:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/wrb_list.cfm
Hanslope soils are developed in chalky till on low plateaux and gently to strongly sloping valley flanks. These are soils on which, with good management, direct drilling can achieve similar yields of winter cereals to those achieved with conventional cultivation. Direct drilled spring crops, however, are less successful.
Hanslope soils are calcareous and argillic pelosols and provide some of the most extensive cereal growing land in the Midlands and Eastern England, covering 3,634 km². The soils are developed in chalky till on low plateaux and gently to strongly sloping valley flanks. Both the main soils are clayey to the surface, have slowly permeable subsurface horizons but are seldom seriously waterlogged. Hanslope soils have a calcareous, chalky subsurface horizon that is normally brown but can be grey mottled. It passes below into a dense mottled substrate containing chalk stones.
When undrained, Hanslope soils are seldom seriously waterlogged (Wetness Class III), despite a slowly permeable subsurface horizon, and waterlogging at shallow depth is brief in duration. They are responsive to drainage which can achieve an improvement to Wetness Class II in the drier districts (less than 125 F.C. days). With moderately permeable upper horizons but restriction at depth, they have a moderate potential for winter rain acceptance. Disposal of excess winter rain at shallow depth is by lateral flow and is more rapid on sloping than on level sites.
Hanslope soils have clayey water-retentive topsoils and slowly permeable subsoils but after appropriate drainage treatment they are moderately easy to work for sustained arable cropping. Opportunities for spring cultivations are restricted, so autumn-sown crops of winter cereals and oilseed rape are preferred, though spring barley, beans, sugar beet, brassicas and potatoes are also grown. These are soils on which, with good management, direct drilling can achieve similar yields of winter cereals to those achieved with conventional cultivation. Direct drilled spring crops, however, are less successful. Profile available water is slightly deficient for arable crops but the soils are moderately droughty for grass. Irrigation of root crops on these soils, however, can increase the risk of soil structural damage during harvesting.
A significant proportion of the land is in grass, either leys as part of an arable rotation or permanent grassland on the steeper slopes, but a large retained water capacity in the topsoil and the associated poaching risk restricts winter use. Drought reduces summer herbage yields. Potassium and magnesium status is generally good and phosphorus levels depend mainly on past management. Acidity is rare, base status is high and there are no trace element problems.
For additional information about the soil association, visit:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/series.cfm?serno=70...
For more information on the World Reference Base soil classification system, visit:
Introduced cool-season annual C3 herb 30-200 cm tall. Stems are erect, hollow and exude white latex if damaged. Leaves are thin, soft, 6-35 cm long, with irregularly toothed margins ending in soft spines. Flowerheads are panicles, with heads (5-20 mm wide) containing yellow petal-like flowers. Fruits are ribbed, wrinkled and topped with a tuft of silky hairs. Flowers throughout the year, but especially winter and spring. A native of Europe, it is a weed of disturbed areas, such as roadsides, stockyards, dairy laneways and cropping. It is well adapted to a wide range of soils and environments, but is drought and waterlogging intolerant. Edible as a vegetable, either cooked or raw. Highly palatable and nutritious, but suspected of occasionally causing photosensitisation in cattle. Only a nuisance weed of pastures in difficult to access areas, as it is readily grazed by stock where they can reach it. Can be a problem in reduced-till and stubble retention systems due to herbicide resistance. Can act as an alternative host to pest and diseases of crops. Can be controlled by grazing, chipping, cultivation and herbicides. For control, it is essential to prevent its prolific seed production. Fruits are dispersed long distance on the wind.
Introduced cool-season annual C3 herb 30-200 cm tall. Stems are erect, hollow and exude white latex if damaged. Leaves are thin, soft, 6-35 cm long, with irregularly toothed margins ending in soft spines. Flowerheads are panicles, with heads (5-20 mm wide) containing yellow petal-like flowers. Fruits are ribbed, wrinkled and topped with a tuft of silky hairs. Flowers throughout the year, but especially winter and spring. A native of Europe, it is a weed of disturbed areas, such as roadsides, stockyards, dairy laneways and cropping. It is well adapted to a wide range of soils and environments, but is drought and waterlogging intolerant. Edible as a vegetable, either cooked or raw. Highly palatable and nutritious, but suspected of occasionally causing photosensitisation in cattle. Only a nuisance weed of pastures in difficult to access areas, as it is readily grazed by stock where they can reach it. Can be a problem in reduced-till and stubble retention systems due to herbicide resistance. Can act as an alternative host to pest and diseases of crops. Can be controlled by grazing, chipping, cultivation and herbicides. For control, it is essential to prevent its prolific seed production. Fruits are dispersed long distance on the wind.
The tea plant can grow between 900 and 2000 m above sea level. Because the plant can`t stand waterlogging the plantation has to be situated on a slope between 30 and 45 degrees. If you don´t cut the tea plant it would grow up to a tree of six meter height.
Munnar is a beautiful hill station, and was the summer resort of the British. Tourists come here to see the vast tea plantations of the area. The town itself is typically Indian with the usual shops, guest houses and is really beautiful and traditional. It is a good place to stay to see the surrounding countryside. It is also a popular place for Indian honeymooners.
The town is divided into two parts, Old Munnar, where the tourist information office is, and Munnar, where the bus station and most guest houses are located.
Munnar is famous for its tea plantations, many of them started by the British. The "Kannan Devan" brand of Tea from the Tata is cultivated and processed here.
There are more than 30 tea estates in and around Munnar. Among them, most of the plantations are taken over by the Tata's Group Kannan Devan Tea Estate. Some of the major tea estates in Munnar include Harrison Malayalam, AVT Tea, Michael's tea, Brooke Bond and Tata Tea. It is one of the biggest centers of tea trade in India.
Until 1790, Munnar and the surrounding area were forests covered, when they were first recognized by the European known as Duke of Wellington. Later in the year 1870, a subordinate of the ruler of Travancore, leased 588 sq. km of land to a Scottish tea planter named J.D. Munro, who was the lawyer in the employee of the Travancore Government. The first tea sapling was planted by A.H. Sharp at Parvathi, which is currently the part of Sevenmullay estate. Presently the whole area is covered by the mile and miles of lush tea gardens, owned by the various private companies.
For the tourists information, Munnar itself is the most popular and picturesque hill stations of Kerala, located 1600 to 1800meters above the sea level. It is popularly known as the 'Kashmir of South India'. The peaceful environment and perfect serenity makes it a famous hot spot among the tourists from all around the globe. Along with the valleys, mountain streams and tea plantations there is lot more to discover in its surrounding area.
Tourists can make a visit to the famous tea museum opened by the Tata Tea group. The museum puts light on the important fact and figures about the growth of the tea plantations in Munnar. It contains curios, old photographs, machineries and other things which have been used since long time. It provides the first hand experience to the tourists about the tea processing and the operations that go into the making of black tea. Some of the major items that are displayed at the museum are the original tea roller, used in earlier time around 1905, than the 'Pelton Wheel', which was used in the power generation plant in the 1920's, a rail engine wheel of the Kumdale Valley Light Railway.
A representative soil profile of the Dale series (Clayic Eutric Stagnosols) in England. (Cranfield University 2021. The Soils Guide. Available: www.landis.org.uk. Cranfield University, UK.)
Soils classified and described by the World Reference Base for England and Wales:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/wrb_list.cfm
The Dale association is found over Carboniferous mudstones and shales throughout the Pennine foothills, in the coalfields around Bristol, over similar rocks of Jurassic age in and around the North York Moors, and on small areas of Lower Palaeozoic rocks in the Welsh Borderland. It occurs on gently or moderately sloping valley sides below 300 m O.D.
Mapped areas are confined to small areas of Coal Measures shales around Cromhall, Coalpit Heath, Pensford, and Clutton in Avon and Nettlebridge in Somerset. The geological succession consists of shales interbedded with bands of less fissile mudstone and sandstone. These strata form a gently rounded landscape dominated by the clayey Dale series.
Dale soils are seasonally waterlogged (Wetness Class IV) where undrained. There is however wide variation in waterlogging according to rainfall. Excess winter rainwater moves laterally, mainly at shallow depth.
The highest land is predominantly in permanent grass but winter use is not advised because of poaching risk and it can be only lightly stocked at other times. Grass yields are potentially good in moist districts but less so in the lowlands where the soil moisture deficit is large. Opportunities for reseeding are restricted to summer months. At lower altitudes in Derbyshire cereals are grown with grass leys, but the fine loamy and clayey topsoils are unsuitable for root crops. Cultivations need careful timing as these soils usually have a large retained water capacity and low bearing strength when at or near field capacity. Early ploughing in autumn is essential and spring cultivation in wet years is likely to cause severe structural damage.
The main limitation to tree growth is shallow rooting caused by surface wetness, so ploughing and drainage are essential. Wind damage is possible in all but sheltered sites. The soils are easily prepared and are fertile, although weed growth is vigorous. Nitrogen status is good and in the higher parts of the North York Moors Sitka spruce has responded to phosphate. In North Yorkshire, planting is mainly Sitka or Norway spruce and some hardwoods with amenity value, namely ash, sycamore and elm, can be grown in sheltered places. Potential spruce yields are good. Lodgepole pine has also been commonly planted. Corsican pine, Japanese larch and hybrid larch have been planted to the north-east of Sheffield, where the climate is drier and air pollution appreciable.
For additional information about the soil association, visit:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/mapunit.cfm?mu=71201
For more information on the World Reference Base soil classification system, visit:
Introduced cool-season annual
moderately-hairy herbaceous C3 legume with strong erect stems to 60 cm tall. Leaves have 3 leaflets, each 1-3 cm long and finely toothed; often developing purple edges with age. Flowerheads are spike-like, cylindrical and to 6 cm long. Flowers are numerous, pea-like and usually bright red. Flowers in spring. A native of Eurasia, it mostly occurs as a sown species in areas with greater than 500-600 mm annual rainfall. Grows best on fertile well-drained soils, but is well-adapted to lower fertility soils. Tolerant of a wide range of soil acidities (pHCa 4.5-8), but is not tolerant of waterlogging or salinity. Sown for silage, hay and short-term grazing, generally in a monoculture or with cereals or other short-term grasses. Produces large quantities of high-quality fodder. Germinates in autumn and has good winter production followed by rapid growth in early to mid-spring. Good tolerance of clover scorch, but more susceptible to virus diseases than Subterranean Clover or medics. Can be heavily grazed in winter and early spring, but avoid heavy grazing at flowering and seed set If intended for more than one year of production.
Hartlepool Rovers double up to snuff out a Gosforth attack in rugby union's Durham & Northumberland One league. Visiting Rovers, who led 10-0 and 28-7, won 28-17 at Druid Park. The game was switched to a plastic pitch at the Woolsington venue, one of nomadic Gos's many former homes, because of waterlogging at Broadway West. The Northumberland RFU, eager to make inroads into a sizeable fixture backlog, paid the hire costs.
Admission: £3. Programme: 20 pages (w/a). Attendance: 55.
This is a task for Phil D's explorers! Knee/waist high waterlogging on the short Oakenshaw North-Goose Hill Junction line.
A representative soil profile of the Hexworthy series (Placic Endoskeletic Histic Stagnic Albic Podzols) in England. (Cranfield University 2021. The Soils Guide. Available: www.landis.org.uk. Cranfield University, UK.)
Soils classified and described by the World Reference Base for England and Wales:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/wrb_list.cfm
Hexworthy soils consists mostly of podzolic soils and extends over the granite outcrop of South West England from 510 m O.D. on Dartmoor to sea level on the Isles of Scilly. Smaller areas are found over granite on the Cheviot Hills and on microgranite and rhyolite in North Wales. In Wales bedrock is usually closer to the surface and much of the land is rocky and bouldery. Over half the soils are ironpan stagnopodzols, Hexworthy series.
The land is rocky and boulder-strewn and the soils are in stony sometimes skeletal material with bedrock normally within profile depth. Rock outcrops and shallow humic rankers are found on ridges while freely drained Moor Gate series cover steep slopes and screes. Humic gley soils of the Laployd and Fordham series occur on relatively flat ground with some deeper peat soils of the Crowdy series in basin and flush sites. Rough Tor series is widespread, most extensively on Garnedd-goch and near Blaenau Ffestiniog.
The land is open heather moorland with mire vegetation on wetter soils. The grazing is poor because of the low fertility of the acid soils, and the rocky mountainous terrain makes improvements uneconomic. None is afforested; deep ploughing to break the ironpan is largely precluded by rockiness and the risk of windthrow is considerable because the land is exposed. Lodgepole pine is the most suitable species but Sitka spruce is a better choice for the more sheltered, less rocky sites.
In west Cornwall the soils are mostly unreclaimed because of steep slopes or bouldery ground, and within the Dartmoor National Park conservation and amenity aspects are over-riding. On Bodmin Moor, as elsewhere, the potential for agricultural improvement is limited by waterlogging caused by ironpans or other slowly permeable upper horizons restricting the movement of water into more permeable material below. Mechanical disruption of these layers by subsoiling improves the natural drainage. Unreclaimed Hexworthy soils have very low winter rain acceptance potential but after subsoiling winter rain penetrates more readily. After reclamation, grassland requires careful grazing and regular use of lime and fertilizer to prevent reversion to rushes. The large retained water capacity of humose or peaty topsoils makes them susceptible to poaching and traffic damage during wet periods. The soils may have been deeply ploughed and subsoiled to encourage deep rooting and so counteract windthrow on exposed sites. Sitka spruce and some Lodgepole pine have been planted as the most suitable species for the climate. The soils have low reserves of phosphorus and require fertilizer applications for adequate growth.
For additional information about the soil association, visit:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/series.cfm?serno=75...
For more information on the World Reference Base soil classification system, visit:
– Grand Hotel Battery –
The site of the World War II Grand Hotel Battery built around 1940, the northern gun house is located at the end of Kensington Road, during the war it was disguised as cliff top shelter. The Gun House is being used by the Council as a park shelter/store, but there are plans to turn it into an art gallery. The two coastal artillery searchlights were set into the cliff to either side, the observation and contol posts were still present at the Grand Hotel itself, now the CEFAS Building. Recent extensions work unfortunately required the removal of both posts.
Given the importance of the East Coast in general, and Lowestoft in particular, the provision of coastal artillery in this part of Suffolk was considerable. On the outbreak of war in 1939 Britain’s fixed defences were situated at the major ports (such as Felixstowe), but this situation changed out of all recognition in May 1940 when the Emergency Coastal Defence Battery (ECDB) programme greatly expanded coastal artillery. This initiative saw guns that had been taken off ships scrapped after the First World War and subsequently put into storage hurriedly brought back into service. The normal arrangement was for the guns to be placed in pairs at perceived vulnerable points along the coastline. Initially, the battery positions were often rudimentary, but in time ECDB's became miniature strong points in their own right; they were integrated into the broader anti-invasion defences and often had elaborate arrangements for their own defence.
By the end of 1941 there were some seven batteries in total in the area: three at Lowestoft (or Kent) Battery, the South Pier Battery and the Grand Hotel Battery and one each at Covehithe, Kessingland, Pakefield and Southwold. As early as March 1940 Lowestoft had been earmarked as the site for a coastal battery, but at that date the first defences had already been put in place. These comprised an antiquated pair of First World War field guns placed within sandbagged emplacements on Lowestoft Esplanade and the North Pier Extension. At the commencement of the ECDB programme in May work started on batteries at Lowestoft, Pakefield and Southwold, with Covehithe following in early June. In 1941 an additional battery was constructed at Kessingland, the site of the battery at Covehithe was moved to a better location at Easton Woods and that at Southwold was shifted northwards from its initial location on the Denes to Gun Hill.
The arrangements for coastal artillery around Lowestoft were elaborate, with each of the port’s three batteries having slightly different roles. The South Pier Battery, with two quick-firing 12-pounder guns, offered close protection for the harbour, while from 1941 the Grand Hotel Battery, with 6-inch guns, covered the main harbour entrance and the South Roads, while the Lowestoft (Kent) Battery, also with 6-inch guns, had an additional role in what was known as the ‘Examination Service’, which controlled entry to the port. This battery could immediately fire on unidentified vessels attempting to gain unauthorised entry. The southern approaches to the harbour area were protected not only by coastal guns placed in the town itself but also by the battery at Pakefield.
One purpose of the batteries was to engage enemy shipping that came within range of the coastline, which was normally 6,000 yards or less. While it was possible that major warships might present themselves as targets during a major confrontation, more likely objectives would be the shelling of smaller vessels, such as E-boats or landing craft being used during a
major raid or an invasion attempt. Defending the beaches themselves was a secondary role. That at Easton Bavents, for example, was permitted to fire on the beaches around Benacre Broad, while that at Kessingland could fire on land targets at Lowestoft Swing Bridge, the harbour area, the Claremont Pier and the railway junction. The design of each coastal battery was similar and the sites were made up of common elements, but the exact arrangement varied on the ground. Typically, the guns themselves were housed in concrete gunhouses adjacent to which were magazines from which the ammunition was brought up. Usually in close proximity was the generator building. Searchlights, used to illuminate targets, were usually placed on either side of the gunhouses. At Kessingland the searchlights were on the beach on either side of the gun positions, something that necessitated the removal of mines. Ancillary structures included crew shelters, kitchens, billets and gun stores.
In the initial stages of the ECDB programme the batteries were manned by Navy personnel as a temporary measure, while army gunners from the Royal Artillery were trained in how to use the unfamiliar equipment. Thus, at Pakefield, the battery’s two 6-inch guns were initially established by the Navy before a heavy regiment of the Royal Artillery was ready to take over in July. The Lowestoft (Kent) Battery began as 6-inch guns on concrete foundations in a gunhouse built of sandbags and was manned by Royal Marines. It subsequently developed first into two gunhouses built of steel poles and corrugated iron and then into brick gunhouses with concrete roofs. The full battery position was finally finished in December 1940.
While the Germans would be aware from their reconnaissance that ports had fixed defences, the existence of Emergency Batteries would not necessarily be known and, to further this deception, camouflage occupied an important place during the construction and operation of the batteries. The speed with which the batteries were established during 1940 meant that concealment was impossible at first, however; at Pakefield the ECDB was so obvious that one officer observed that ‘the whole layout was more conspicuous than any of the dummy batteries’). By 1941, however, camouflage had developed into something of an art form.
Photographs of the Southwold Battery on Gun Hill show the sophistication of the scheme. At Lowestoft Grand Hotel Battery the gunhouses were camouflaged by scaffolding which supported nets onto which were fixed both barbed wire and fake plants, with the passageway between the two guns given similar treatment. Camouflage also extended to deliberate deception.
Dummy positions with fake guns were built to confuse Luftwaffe observers. After the Southwold Battery had completed its move to Gun Hill the buildings on the former site were used by training troops in a deliberate attempt to convince German reconnaissance that it was still active. Where their locations were known, the ECDB's were regular targets for the Luftwaffe. An aerial photograph of Southwold battery in 1941 shows a bomb crater close to the battery position and Pakefield ECDB was bombed twice in 1940, resulting in the death of a subaltern. Together with the threat of attack, the placing of such large fortifications on the cliffs or close to the beaches posed further risk. The Southwold Battery was moved from its initial location on the low-lying area of the Denes, to the south of the town, up to the high point of Gun Hill in part because of the risk of inundation by the sea. At Covehithe the risk of the battery falling off the cliff was the main reason for its move to Eastern Woods.
At Kessingland one of the searchlights collapsed at the end of December 1942 during the high tide, while, similarly, at Lowestoft Battery the high tides and strong winds at the end of December put one of the searchlights out of action. The same high tide in December 1942 was responsible for the fact that one of the searchlights for Pakefield Battery was out of action the following January; this light was subsequently moved from the beach to the adjacent cliff top. Shortly afterwards, in February 1943, one of the searchlights at Lowestoft South Battery was temporarily rendered unusable as heavy seas had resulted in waterlogging.
Information sourced from – A GUIDE TO SECOND WORLD WAR ARCHAEOLOGY IN SUFFOLK.
Native warm-season perennial, tufted C4 grass; stems grow to 80 cm tall. Leaves are 10-20 cm long and have a pale midrib and sparse tubercle-based hairs (i.e. with small wart-like outgrowths at their base) along their margins. Flowerheads are panicles; 10-30 cm long, pale green and often drooping (giving it a rice-like appearance). Spikelets are 2-flowered, 3-4.5 mm long and relatively densely arranged; lower glume is about 30% of the spikelet’s length; lower lemma is sterile; upper lemma is smooth, shiny and about half the spikelet’s length. Flowers in summer and autumn. Found on clay loam and clay soils subject to flooding (e.g. alluvial soils, riverbanks and roadside drains) in open woodlands and grasslands; most common on the North West Slopes and northern half of the adjacent Plains. Native biodiversity. Tolerates salinity and waterlogging. Usually not an abundant species, but can become so after good summer rains. More common in ungrazed areas or lightly to intermittently grazed areas; declines under high grazing pressure. Not highly productive, but its leaves are soft and readily eaten by livestock.
This bog pine stump may have been exposed, in cutaway bog, for a couple of decades or more and would come to pieces if moved as a fair bit of the wood is rotten. It's actually only 60m or so from the bog pine excavated for Townawilly Community Centre. It also, like some of the others around, bears scorch marks (on right) from a bog fire of a couple of years previously. But even in decay the roots still have a certain grace and style.
Did these trees grow at the same time as 'our' one 60 metres away that has been dated to 5,000 years ago? Don't know the answer to that. But these ones are smaller which might (most likely?) indicate lack of nutrition on what might have been a fairly bare rock or stone surface, climate stress at the end of one of the bog pine growing periods, or other causes, e.g. spaghnum moss can actually kill trees by causing waterlogging.. I don't know the answer to why these trees died before getting bigger.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
Introduced cool-season annual
moderately-hairy herbaceous C3 legume with strong erect stems to 60 cm tall. Leaves have 3 leaflets, each 1-3 cm long and finely toothed; often developing purple edges with age. Flowerheads are spike-like, cylindrical and to 6 cm long. Flowers are numerous, pea-like and usually bright red. Flowers in spring. A native of Eurasia, it mostly occurs as a sown species in areas with greater than 500-600 mm annual rainfall. Grows best on fertile well-drained soils, but is well-adapted to lower fertility soils. Tolerant of a wide range of soil acidities (pHCa 4.5-8), but is not tolerant of waterlogging or salinity. Sown for silage, hay and short-term grazing, generally in a monoculture or with cereals or other short-term grasses. Produces large quantities of high-quality fodder. Germinates in autumn and has good winter production followed by rapid growth in early to mid-spring. Good tolerance of clover scorch, but more susceptible to virus diseases than Subterranean Clover or medics. Can be heavily grazed in winter and early spring, but avoid heavy grazing at flowering and seed set If intended for more than one year of production.
Native, yearlong-green, perennial, scrambling-climbing
legume, with stolons. Leaves have 3 leaflets, each 3-10 cm long, sparsely hairy and ovate. The central leaflet has a longer stalk than the lateral leaflets. Flowerheads are racemes of 2-12 yellow to greenish-yellow, 12-25 mm long, pea-like flowers
in the leaf axils. Pods are drooping, cylindrical, hairy and 4-8 cm long. Flowering is over most of the year. Found north from the Macleay Valley in damp-wet areas where the annual rainfall exceeds 1200 mm. Tolerant of acidity, waterlogging, short-term flooding and shade, but not drought or frost. Native biodiversity. Not commonly sown as no commercial seed, even though it is one of the best legumes for wet conditions and a useful pioneer species. Easily established, very palatable, non-bloating and relatively high yielding (especially compared to other legumes in moderate to dense shade). It is preferentially grazed and can only withstand short periods of heavy grazing (appropriate rest periods are essential). Stands will persist for 3 or more years and production is maximised if soil phosphorus is maintained at moderate (or better) levels and lenient grazing is used. Remove stock when there is still plenty of vine and some leaf to maximise persistence and production. The more leaf left on the plant, the faster the
regrowth.
Introduced warm-season perennial slender grass-like sedge, mostly 5-20 cm tall and with long rhizomes. Leaves are bright green, shiny, hairless and grasslike. Flowerheads are green, oval and 3-7 mm across; with numerous (up to 100), densely-packed spikelets. Flowering is from spring to early autumn. A native of tropical regions, it is a weed of lawns, pastures and disturbed areas. An indicator of wet, poorly drained situations. Produces little bulk and of little importance for grazing animals. Can become abundant in wet years, but becomes less common in dry years. Generally control is not required. If invasive, it can be controlled by improving drainage and sowing pasture species that are tolerant of waterlogging.
The tea plant can grow between 900 and 2000 m above sea level. Because the plant can`t stand waterlogging the plantation has to be situated on a slope between 30 and 45 degrees. If you don´t cut the tea plant it would grow up to a tree of six meter height.
Munnar is a beautiful hill station, and was the summer resort of the British. Tourists come here to see the vast tea plantations of the area. The town itself is typically Indian with the usual shops, guest houses and is really beautiful and traditional. It is a good place to stay to see the surrounding countryside. It is also a popular place for Indian honeymooners.
The town is divided into two parts, Old Munnar, where the tourist information office is, and Munnar, where the bus station and most guest houses are located.
Munnar is famous for its tea plantations, many of them started by the British. The "Kannan Devan" brand of Tea from the Tata is cultivated and processed here.
There are more than 30 tea estates in and around Munnar. Among them, most of the plantations are taken over by the Tata's Group Kannan Devan Tea Estate. Some of the major tea estates in Munnar include Harrison Malayalam, AVT Tea, Michael's tea, Brooke Bond and Tata Tea. It is one of the biggest centers of tea trade in India.
Until 1790, Munnar and the surrounding area were forests covered, when they were first recognized by the European known as Duke of Wellington. Later in the year 1870, a subordinate of the ruler of Travancore, leased 588 sq. km of land to a Scottish tea planter named J.D. Munro, who was the lawyer in the employee of the Travancore Government. The first tea sapling was planted by A.H. Sharp at Parvathi, which is currently the part of Sevenmullay estate. Presently the whole area is covered by the mile and miles of lush tea gardens, owned by the various private companies.
For the tourists information, Munnar itself is the most popular and picturesque hill stations of Kerala, located 1600 to 1800meters above the sea level. It is popularly known as the 'Kashmir of South India'. The peaceful environment and perfect serenity makes it a famous hot spot among the tourists from all around the globe. Along with the valleys, mountain streams and tea plantations there is lot more to discover in its surrounding area.
Tourists can make a visit to the famous tea museum opened by the Tata Tea group. The museum puts light on the important fact and figures about the growth of the tea plantations in Munnar. It contains curios, old photographs, machineries and other things which have been used since long time. It provides the first hand experience to the tourists about the tea processing and the operations that go into the making of black tea. Some of the major items that are displayed at the museum are the original tea roller, used in earlier time around 1905, than the 'Pelton Wheel', which was used in the power generation plant in the 1920's, a rail engine wheel of the Kumdale Valley Light Railway.
Hooker Andrew Flounders sidesteps a weak attempt at a tackle by Gosforth wing Ryan Gillespie to set up field position for Hartlepool Rovers' opening try in rugby union's Durham & Northumberland One league. Visiting Rovers, who led 10-0 and 28-7, went on to win 28-17, scoring four tries to three. The game was switched to the plastic pitch at Druid Park, Woolsington, one of nomadic Gosforth's former homes, owing to waterlogging at Broadway West.
Admission: £3. Programme: 20 pages (w/a). Attendance: 55.
A representative soil profile of the Fyfield series (Chromic Luvisols) in England. (Cranfield University 2021. The Soils Guide. Available: www.landis.org.uk. Cranfield University, UK.)
Soils classified and described by the World Reference Base for England and Wales:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/wrb_list.cfm
Fyfield soils occur mainly in broad shallow valleys or on other gently sloping land at the foot of the Hythe Beds dipslope but are on steeper scarp slopes between Reigate and Oxted. Most of the land is used for arable farming with some grass leys. Cereal crops, which are widely grown, rarely suffer from drought. The main soils are suitable for potatoes and field vegetables, though irrigation is necessary in most years for consistently large yields
Some of the most useful agricultural land in Surrey, east Hampshire and West Sussex is the loamy Fyfield series. These well drained typical argillic brown earths, cover most of the land. These soils pass to sand or sandstone at moderate depth, are easy to work and allow free rooting when well managed. The associated fine loamy Bursledon soils, stagnogleyic argillic brown earths with slowly permeable subsoils, are found locally on low hills or ridges formed in Sandgate Beds and in glauconitic Hythe Beds. The land is mostly below 100 m O.D. in Hampshire and Sussex, but rises to 200 m O.D. in Surrey.
There is much variation in water regime even among soils with the same gley morphology. Most soils show some evidence, in the form of grey and ochreous mottling, of periodic or prolonged waterlogging by groundwater. Field observations suggest that mottled soils with humose topsoils may be waterlogged for part of the growing season (Wetness Class IV or V) whilst non-humose alluvial gley soils are wet mainly in winter (Wetness Class III to IV). Where pump or arterial drainage schemes operate, waterlogging is reduced in winter (Wetness Class III). A modern border-dyke irrigation system has been installed at one site in Wiltshire on an experimental basis.
There are long periods in autumn and spring when Fyfield soils can be cultivated safely, though there are fewer days in West Sussex than elsewhere. Timing of cultivations is strongly influenced by the local distribution of Bursledon soils which take longer to drain after heavy rain than Fyfield and Dundale soils. With care, yields of direct drilled winter sown cereal crops are similar to those obtained with traditional cultivations. Heavy rain when the soils are already saturated causes sheet, rill and, in extreme cases, gully erosion on Fyfield soils. Erosion occurs particularly where there is a sandstone or closely-packed sand substrate. The risk is greatest where there is little topsoil organic matter, the soils are compacted by traffic and crop cover is sparse. Water erosion often occurs on slopes of only 3-7° but the risk is reduced if cultivations are carried out across the slope.
Most of the land is used for arable farming with some grass leys. Cereal crops, which are widely grown, rarely suffer from drought. The main soils are suitable for potatoes and field vegetables, though irrigation is necessary in most years for consistently large yields. Permanent grassland and long leys are rare and are chiefly found on farms keeping horses. Top and soft fruit are grown in West Sussex on predominantly south-facing slopes as around Nutbourne. Fyfield and Dundale soils are inherently acid, but with regular liming crop failures from acidity are rare. Waller (1973) studying these soils in Kent, where they were formerly mapped as Barming series, reported that phosphorus status is better than average, but that potassium and magnesium deficiencies occurred in potatoes, brassicas and top fruit. He also discusses trace elements and other aspects of soil fertility.
For additional information about the soil association, visit:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/mapunit.cfm?mu=57104
For more information on the World Reference Base soil classification system, visit:
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted C4 grass with spreading crowns; stems are fine, hairless and to 1.5 m tall. Leaves are grey-green, 6-20 mm wide and nearly hairless. Flowerheads are subdigitate with 4-14 racemes usually in 3 whorls, about 7-17 cm long and brownish-purple when immature and brownish grey when mature. Spikelets are paired, 2-flowered, shortly-hairy and 2-4 mm long. Flowers in summer. A native of Africa, it is a sown species in the north with one variety Premier. Grows on a range of soil types, but is best suited to light-medium textured low-fertility soils. Good drought and frost tolerance, but is sensitive to waterlogging. Recruits well on light-medium textured soils. Can produce some growth in winter and commences growth in late winter-early spring, much earlier than most other tropical grasses. Very palatable, has low oxalate levels (i.e. suitable for horses) and tolerates close grazing.