View allAll Photos Tagged Waterlogging,
River Dargle Flood Defence Scheme.
These images were taken during the last week of August 2012, tracking the on-going river bank alterations and excavation of the river bed.
River bed area further upstream of the La Vallee Apartment complex, adjacent to the permanent bridge allowing access to the Traveller site. This location is close to the point at which the river changes direction, running beneath the N11 dual-carriageway, and wending it's way back towards Powerscourt and Enniskerry village.
Gabions consist of steel ‘baskets’ filled with rock pieces. They are filled and then fixed together to provide protection and strength to the existing river bank. They allow ground water to flow through them which helps prevent waterlogging of the bank behind them. Existing examples of these can be seen (here) on the North bank to the rear of the La Vallee Apartments.
Long shallow versions of gabions, known as ‘mattresses’, are used to protect the edges of the river channel, particularly at bends in the river.
Soil profile: A representative soil profile of the Whimple series (Chromic Endostagnic Luvisols) in England. (Cranfield University 2021. The Soils Guide. Available: www.landis.org.uk. Cranfield University, UK.)
Soils classified and described by the World Reference Base for England and Wales:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/wrb_list.cfm
Landscape: Whimple soils are on gentle to moderate slopes, between Atherstone, Rugby, Leamington Spa and Birmingham. They formed on reddish clay shales, mudstones and interbedded sandstones.
The Whimple series comprises fine loamy or fine silty over clayey stagnogleyic argillic brown earths and covers over two-thirds of the map unit. It is associated with coarse loamy Bromsgrove series, typical brown earths, which occurs on narrow resistant sandstone bands giving steeper slopes.
The Whimple series has a slowly permeable subsoil and suffers from slight waterlogging in winter (Wetness Class III), but has a drier regime (Wetness Class II) in districts with less than 150 field capacity days. Disposal of excess winter rainfall occurs as downward percolation and lateral flow.
With efficient underdrainage and careful management, the land will grow moderately good crops of cereals and grass. Autumn-sown cereals and oilseed rape are preferred because there are few days when the land can be safely worked in spring, though some spring barley is grown on Bromsgrove soils. Some potatoes are grown but require irrigation in most years for good yields.
On Whimple and similar soils, cultivations should be carefully timed to avoid structural damage. The soils are slightly droughty for most crops but moderately droughty for potatoes. Ley grassland usually forms part of the crop rotation and cattle and sheep rearing are an integral part of the farming system. There is some permanent grassland locally in wet districts.
Whimple soils suffer structural damage if the land is stocked in late autumn or early spring, particularly on short-term leys which have lower surface bearing strengths than permanent or long-term grassland. This also promotes grass growth and an extended growing season.
Whimple soils have a moderate to high base status and nutrients are not readily leached. Upper horizons are often slightly acid but the subsoil is normally neutral or alkaline, especially where the underlying mudstone is calcareous. Potassium and magnesium reserves are adequate for most crops. The Bromsgrove soils are naturally acid with a moderate or low base status. Soluble nutrients and lime leach rapidly from upper horizons, and fertility status requires regular monitoring.
For additional information about the soil association, visit:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/mapunit.cfm?mu=57205
For more information on the World Reference Base soil classification system, visit:
The tea plant can grow between 900 and 2000 m above sea level. Because the plant can`t stand waterlogging the plantation has to be situated on a slope between 30 and 45 degrees. If you don´t cut the tea plant it would grow up to a tree of six meter height.
Munnar is a beautiful hill station, and was the summer resort of the British. Tourists come here to see the vast tea plantations of the area. The town itself is typically Indian with the usual shops, guest houses and is really beautiful and traditional. It is a good place to stay to see the surrounding countryside. It is also a popular place for Indian honeymooners.
The town is divided into two parts, Old Munnar, where the tourist information office is, and Munnar, where the bus station and most guest houses are located.
Munnar is famous for its tea plantations, many of them started by the British. The "Kannan Devan" brand of Tea from the Tata is cultivated and processed here.
There are more than 30 tea estates in and around Munnar. Among them, most of the plantations are taken over by the Tata's Group Kannan Devan Tea Estate. Some of the major tea estates in Munnar include Harrison Malayalam, AVT Tea, Michael's tea, Brooke Bond and Tata Tea. It is one of the biggest centers of tea trade in India.
Until 1790, Munnar and the surrounding area were forests covered, when they were first recognized by the European known as Duke of Wellington. Later in the year 1870, a subordinate of the ruler of Travancore, leased 588 sq. km of land to a Scottish tea planter named J.D. Munro, who was the lawyer in the employee of the Travancore Government. The first tea sapling was planted by A.H. Sharp at Parvathi, which is currently the part of Sevenmullay estate. Presently the whole area is covered by the mile and miles of lush tea gardens, owned by the various private companies.
For the tourists information, Munnar itself is the most popular and picturesque hill stations of Kerala, located 1600 to 1800meters above the sea level. It is popularly known as the 'Kashmir of South India'. The peaceful environment and perfect serenity makes it a famous hot spot among the tourists from all around the globe. Along with the valleys, mountain streams and tea plantations there is lot more to discover in its surrounding area.
Tourists can make a visit to the famous tea museum opened by the Tata Tea group. The museum puts light on the important fact and figures about the growth of the tea plantations in Munnar. It contains curios, old photographs, machineries and other things which have been used since long time. It provides the first hand experience to the tourists about the tea processing and the operations that go into the making of black tea. Some of the major items that are displayed at the museum are the original tea roller, used in earlier time around 1905, than the 'Pelton Wheel', which was used in the power generation plant in the 1920's, a rail engine wheel of the Kumdale Valley Light Railway.
WIKIPEDIA
Native warm-season perennial, tufted C4 grass; stems grow to 80 cm tall. Leaves are 10-20 cm long and have a pale midrib and sparse tubercle-based hairs (i.e. with small wart-like outgrowths at their base) along their margins. Flowerheads are panicles; 10-30 cm long, pale green and often drooping (giving it a rice-like appearance). Spikelets are 2-flowered, 3-4.5 mm long and relatively densely arranged; lower glume is about 30% of the spikelet’s length; lower lemma is sterile; upper lemma is smooth, shiny and about half the spikelet’s length. Flowers in summer and autumn. Found on clay loam and clay soils subject to flooding (e.g. alluvial soils, riverbanks and roadside drains) in open woodlands and grasslands; most common on the North West Slopes and northern half of the adjacent Plains. Native biodiversity. Tolerates salinity and waterlogging. Usually not an abundant species, but can become so after good summer rains. More common in ungrazed areas or lightly to intermittently grazed areas; declines under high grazing pressure. Not highly productive, but its leaves are soft and readily eaten by livestock.
Stemless Carex growing in burnt Eucalyptus coccifera/gunnii woodland in the Central Plateau Conservation Area, near Liawenee. First encounter with this plant outside of an area with obvious waterlogging.
Originally identified as Carex canescens, however identity is being reassessed.
Introduced warm-season perennial large tufted C4 grass; stems usually have hairy nodes, grow 30-200 cm tall and arise from short rhizomes. Leaf bases may be hairy and blades are 10-60 cm long and 3-14 mm wide. Flowerheads are narrow cylindrical bristly spike-like panicles to 18 cm long. Spikelets are 2-flowered and are surrounded by uniformly coloured bristles that remain after the spikelets fall; the upper glume is 40-55% of the spikelet's length. Flowers from early summer to autumn. A native of Africa, it occurs is sown as a pasture species, especially on medium to heavy soils of high fertility; it has also become naturalised on the North West Slopes and Plains. Easy to establish on heavy clays and is tolerant of drought and temporary waterlogging. Has superior production to most other tropical grasses in its first and second year after establishment. Oxalates may affect horses and cattle. Has reasonable palatability and feed quality below about 40 cm in height, but quickly runs to head and is then avoided by stock; generally preferred by cattle rather than sheep. Graze frequently to maintain quality. Heavy grazing in late summer promotes autumn germination of winter annual legumes; however its abundance will decline under heavy continuous grazing. Sufficient soil nitrogen is essential for its persistence.
Stemless Carex growing in burnt Eucalyptus coccifera/gunnii woodland in the Central Plateau Conservation Area, near Liawenee. First encounter with this plant outside of an area with obvious waterlogging.
Originally identified as Carex canescens, however identity is being reassessed.
The tea plant can grow between 900 and 2000 m above sea level. Because the plant can`t stand waterlogging the plantation has to be situated on a slope between 30 and 45 degrees. If you don´t cut the tea plant it would grow up to a tree of six meter height.
Munnar is a beautiful hill station, and was the summer resort of the British. Tourists come here to see the vast tea plantations of the area. The town itself is typically Indian with the usual shops, guest houses and is really beautiful and traditional. It is a good place to stay to see the surrounding countryside. It is also a popular place for Indian honeymooners.
The town is divided into two parts, Old Munnar, where the tourist information office is, and Munnar, where the bus station and most guest houses are located.
Munnar is famous for its tea plantations, many of them started by the British. The "Kannan Devan" brand of Tea from the Tata is cultivated and processed here.
There are more than 30 tea estates in and around Munnar. Among them, most of the plantations are taken over by the Tata's Group Kannan Devan Tea Estate. Some of the major tea estates in Munnar include Harrison Malayalam, AVT Tea, Michael's tea, Brooke Bond and Tata Tea. It is one of the biggest centers of tea trade in India.
Until 1790, Munnar and the surrounding area were forests covered, when they were first recognized by the European known as Duke of Wellington. Later in the year 1870, a subordinate of the ruler of Travancore, leased 588 sq. km of land to a Scottish tea planter named J.D. Munro, who was the lawyer in the employee of the Travancore Government. The first tea sapling was planted by A.H. Sharp at Parvathi, which is currently the part of Sevenmullay estate. Presently the whole area is covered by the mile and miles of lush tea gardens, owned by the various private companies.
For the tourists information, Munnar itself is the most popular and picturesque hill stations of Kerala, located 1600 to 1800meters above the sea level. It is popularly known as the 'Kashmir of South India'. The peaceful environment and perfect serenity makes it a famous hot spot among the tourists from all around the globe. Along with the valleys, mountain streams and tea plantations there is lot more to discover in its surrounding area.
Tourists can make a visit to the famous tea museum opened by the Tata Tea group. The museum puts light on the important fact and figures about the growth of the tea plantations in Munnar. It contains curios, old photographs, machineries and other things which have been used since long time. It provides the first hand experience to the tourists about the tea processing and the operations that go into the making of black tea. Some of the major items that are displayed at the museum are the original tea roller, used in earlier time around 1905, than the 'Pelton Wheel', which was used in the power generation plant in the 1920's, a rail engine wheel of the Kumdale Valley Light Railway.
WIKIPEDIA
Introduced warm-season perennial large tufted C4 grass; stems usually have hairy nodes, grow 30-200 cm tall and arise from short rhizomes. Leaf bases may be hairy and blades are 10-60 cm long and 3-14 mm wide. Flowerheads are narrow cylindrical bristly spike-like panicles to 18 cm long. Spikelets are 2-flowered and are surrounded by uniformly coloured bristles that remain after the spikelets fall; the upper glume is 40-55% of the spikelet's length. Flowers from early summer to autumn. A native of Africa, it occurs is sown as a pasture species, especially on medium to heavy soils of high fertility; it has also become naturalised on the North West Slopes and Plains. Easy to establish on heavy clays and is tolerant of drought and temporary waterlogging. Has superior production to most other tropical grasses in its first and second year after establishment. Oxalates may affect horses and cattle. Has reasonable palatability and feed quality below about 40 cm in height, but quickly runs to head and is then avoided by stock; generally preferred by cattle rather than sheep. Graze frequently to maintain quality. Heavy grazing in late summer promotes autumn germination of winter annual legumes; however its abundance will decline under heavy continuous grazing. Sufficient soil nitrogen is essential for its persistence.
5 Furlong Road at Guindy - Velachery which leads you to the Guindy Station with waterlogging on November 8, 2009
Mung bean sprouts are a culinary vegetable grown by sprouting mung beans. They can be grown by placing and watering the sprouted beans in the shade until the roots grow long. Mung bean sprouts are extensively cultivated and consumed in East Asia.
CULTIVATION
A variety of techniques are used for sprouting mung beans. A common technique for home growers is sprouting the beans in a jar, with a fine mesh or muslin cloth tied over the top with a rubber band or string. Fresh water is then poured into the jar three to four times a day; the jars are then upturned and left to drain. The precise growing technique to use depends on the amount that one wants to collect. The main principles are: selecting good seed (new and uniform), ensuring that light reaches the seeds, and also ensuring they receive enough humidity while avoiding waterlogging.
CULINARY USE
Mung bean sprouts can be microwaved or stir fried. They may also be used as an ingredient, e.g., for spring rolls.
CHINA
In Chinese cuisine, common dishes that may use mung bean sprouts, known as dòuyá (豆芽), are fried rice, spring rolls, egg drop soup, and hot and sour soup.
JAPAN
In Japanese cuisine, moyashi (もやし, "bean sprout") in a strict sense refers to the mung bean sprout. They are a common ingredient in many Japanese dishes such as stir-fries and soups.
KOREA
In Korean cuisine, sukjunamul (숙주나물) refers to both the mung bean sprouts themselves and the namul (seasoned vegetable dish) made from mung bean sprouts. Mung bean sprouts are not as common an ingredient as soybean sprouts in Korean cuisine, but they are used in bibimbap, in the fillings of dumplings and in sundae (Korean sausage).
The name sukjunamul is a compound of Sukju and namul, of which the former derived from the name of Sin Sukju (1417–1475), one of the prominent Joseon scholars. Sin Sukju betrayed his colleagues and favoured the King's uncle as a claimant to the throne. People regarded Sin Sukju's move as unethical and immoral, and so gave his name to mung bean sprouts, which tend to go bad and spoil very easily.
NEPAL
In Nepalese cuisine, kwati, a soup of nine types of sprouted beans, is especially prepared in a festival of Janai Purnima which normally falls in the month of August. Kwati is prepared by frying and mixing onion, garlic, ginger, potatoes, spices and bean sprouts, including mung bean sprouts. A lot of variation exists from house to house but is basically about making the kwati. It is considered to be a nutritious food in Nepal. Kwati is normally eaten with rice. Sometimes meat (esp. fried goat) is also added to spice up the kwati.
THAILAND
In Thai cuisine, mung bean sprouts are usually eaten in soups and stir-fried dishes. In pad thai they are often added to the pan for one quick stir before serving and in soups such as nam ngiao they are sprinkled on top of the dish.
WIKIPEDIA
Native, warm season, annual, erect, shrubby legume, which grows 1-3m tall. Leaves are pinnate and 5-20cm long, with 12-30 pairs of 7-18mm long leaflets. Flowerheads are 1-6 flowered racemes in the leaf axils. Flowers are about 1cm long and yellow with purple streaks on the back. Flowering is from late spring to autumn. Pods are long, narrow and cylindrical (12-20cm long x 2-3mm wide). Seeds are long-lived and germinate in successive flushes from spring to autumn. Widespread in periodically flooded sites; most common on heavy clays of floodplains, swamps and watercourses. It is a major weed of cotton due to its prolific production of long-lived seed and abilities to withstand disturbance and waterlogging; also a weed of sorghum crops. Can form dense thickets, which may provide harbour for native and feral animals. Productive. Leaves provide a high quality feed, but the palatability and quality of the whole plant quickly declines as it rapidly becomes stemmy and hard. Very frost sensitive. Anti-nutritional factors may limit animal production (especially horses). However, some feeding trials have shown no adverse effect. Seeds are poisonous to pigs.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
A representative soil profile of the Wickham series (Eutric Luvic Planosols) in England. (Cranfield University 2021. The Soils Guide. Available: www.landis.org.uk. Cranfield University, UK.)
Soils classified and described by the World Reference Base for England and Wales:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/wrb_list.cfm
Mapped areas of Wickham soils is confined to Kent, Surrey and Sussex, is the most extensive in the Low Weald where intermittent thin drift rests on Atherfield and Weald Clays. It also occurs in the High Weald over Wadhurst and Grinstead Clays. These soils are season ally waterlogged and grey and ochreous mottled. Wickham series includes soils previously described as Titchfield and Hildenborough series.
Most of the Wickham soils have fine-silty topsoils, probably remnants of aeolian silty drift, although they are thin on moderate or strong slopes. These upper horizons are variably stony, more so in the west of the Weald on ridge crests. They formed in drift over Cretaceous clay or mudstone.
Wickham soils have slowly permeable subsoils and are waterlogged for long periods in winter (Wetness Class IV) when undrained. Appropriate field drainage measures achieve some improvement, though it is often difficult to reduce waterlogging substantially and the soils continue to be wet in winter (Wetness Class III or IV). The soils present some difficulties for landwork even after drainage treatment. There is a moderate risk of poaching, the greatest being on soils, in higher rainfall areas or where the soils are undrained. Summer growth of grass is restricted by drought and the grazing value of some undrained permanent grass fields is reduced by rush infestation. The soils are naturally acid and require regular liming. Amounts of potassium are usually adequate but regular dressings of phosphorus fertilizer are needed.
There is much woodland on these soils, particularly in the High Weald. For new plantingsthe slowly permeable clayey subsoils restrict the choice to species tolerant of seasonally waterlogged ground including Corsican pine, Norway spruce, western hemlock and western red cedar. Shallow rooting often leads to poor growth and windthrow where exposed. Weed competition is severe on all soils and tine ploughing is needed before planting to suppress weeds and assist surface drainage.. Because the soils are saturated there is rapid run-off in winter and erosion can occur on moderate slopes. The soils have good reserves of available water and are slightly droughty for cereals but grass suffers seriously from drought in most years.
There is much woodland on these soils, particularly in the High Weald. For new plantingsthe slowly permeable clayey subsoils restrict the choice to species tolerant of seasonally waterlogged ground including Corsican pine, Norway spruce, western hemlock and western red cedar. Shallow rooting often leads to poor growth and windthrow where exposed. Weed competition is severe on all soils and tine ploughing is needed before planting to suppress weeds and assist surface drainage.
For additional information about the soil association, visit:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/series.cfm?serno=22...
For more information on the World Reference Base soil classification system, visit:
Tolerant of acid soils (to pHCaCl2 4), high exchangeable
aluminium and low fertility and is often sown in these areas. Not tolerant of waterlogging, but moderately drought tolerant.
Introduced warm-season perennial large tufted C4 grass; stems usually have hairy nodes, grow 30-200 cm tall and arise from short rhizomes. Leaf bases may be hairy and blades are 10-60 cm long and 3-14 mm wide. Flowerheads are narrow cylindrical bristly spike-like panicles to 18 cm long. Spikelets are 2-flowered and are surrounded by uniformly coloured bristles that remain after the spikelets fall; the upper glume is 40-55% of the spikelet's length. Flowers from early summer to autumn. A native of Africa, it occurs is sown as a pasture species, especially on medium to heavy soils of high fertility; it has also become naturalised on the North West Slopes and Plains. Easy to establish on heavy clays and is tolerant of drought and temporary waterlogging. Has superior production to most other tropical grasses in its first and second year after establishment. Oxalates may affect horses and cattle. Has reasonable palatability and feed quality below about 40 cm in height, but quickly runs to head and is then avoided by stock; generally preferred by cattle rather than sheep. Graze frequently to maintain quality. Heavy grazing in late summer promotes autumn germination of winter annual legumes; however its abundance will decline under heavy continuous grazing. Sufficient soil nitrogen is essential for its persistence.
Hull City FC, until last August held the dubious claim of being the largest city in Europe without a football team in the top division. For over 50 years, they called Boothferry Park their home. Although the last game was played here in December 2002, the reserves played on for a further year. Demolition started in January 2008.There was much concern at the club it would be ready for it's first game against Lincoln City here at Boothferry Park in 1946. The club had had to play the previous season at a ground on the nearby Boulevard as the ground was not ready. It was prone to waterlogging, and the repairing of tanks here during the second world war by the Home Guard hadn't helped.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted C4 grass with spreading crowns; stems are fine, hairless and to 1.5 m tall. Leaves are grey-green, 6-20 mm wide and nearly hairless. Flowerheads are subdigitate with 4-14 racemes usually in 3 whorls, about 7-17 cm long and brownish-purple when immature and brownish grey when mature. Spikelets are paired, 2-flowered, shortly-hairy and 2-4 mm long. Flowers in summer. A native of Africa, it is a sown species in the north with one variety Premier. Grows on a range of soil types, but is best suited to light-medium textured low-fertility soils. Good drought and frost tolerance, but is sensitive to waterlogging. Recruits well on light-medium textured soils. Can produce some growth in winter and commences growth in late winter-early spring, much earlier than most other tropical grasses. Very palatable, has low oxalate levels (i.e. suitable for horses) and tolerates close grazing.
Introduced warm-season perennial slender grass-like sedge, mostly 5-20 cm tall and with long rhizomes. Leaves are bright green, shiny, hairless and grasslike. Flowerheads are green, oval and 3-7 mm across; with numerous (up to 100), densely-packed spikelets. Flowering is from spring to early autumn. A native of tropical regions, it is a weed of lawns, pastures and disturbed areas. An indicator of wet, poorly drained situations. Produces little bulk and of little importance for grazing animals. Can become abundant in wet years, but becomes less common in dry years. Generally control is not required. If invasive, it can be controlled by improving drainage and sowing pasture species that are tolerant of waterlogging.
Native, yearlong-green, perennial, scrambling-climbing
legume, with stolons. Leaves have 3 leaflets, each 3-10 cm long, sparsely hairy and ovate. The central leaflet has a longer stalk than the lateral leaflets. Flowerheads are racemes of 2-12 yellow to greenish-yellow, 12-25 mm long, pea-like flowers in the leaf axils. Pods are drooping, cylindrical, hairy and 4-8 cm long. Flowering is over most of the year. Found north from the Macleay Valley in damp-wet areas where the annual rainfall exceeds 1200 mm. Tolerant of acidity, waterlogging, short-term flooding and shade, but not drought or frost. Native biodiversity. Not commonly sown as no commercial seed, even though it is one of the best legumes for wet conditions and a useful pioneer species. Easily established, very palatable, non-bloating and relatively high yielding (especially compared to other legumes in moderate to dense shade). It is preferentially grazed and can only withstand short periods of heavy grazing (appropriate rest periods are essential). Stands will persist for 3 or more years and production is maximised if soil phosphorus is maintained at moderate (or better) levels and lenient grazing is used. Remove stock when there is still plenty of vine and some leaf to maximise persistence and production. The more leaf left on the plant, the faster the
regrowth.
Hooker Andrew Flounders breaks through the Gosforth line to set up field position for Hartlepool Rovers' opening try in rugby union's Durham & Northumberland One league. Visiting Rovers went on to win 28-17, scoring four tries to three. The game was switched to the plastic pitch at Druid Park, Woolsington, one of nomadic Gosforth's former homes, owing to waterlogging at Broadway West.
Admission: £3. Programme: 20 pages (w/a). Attendance: 55.
Hartlepool Rovers (white shirts) make a right wing break in front of the Druid Park clubhouse. The visitors from County Durham outscored Gosforth four tries to three as they recorded a 27-18 victory in rugby union's Durham & Northumberland One league. Gos switched the game to the plastic pitch at the Woolsington venue, one of their many former homes, owing to waterlogging at Broadway West. The Northumberland RFU, eager to make inroads into a fixture backlog, paid the hiring costs.
Admission: £3. Programme: 20 pages (w/a). Attendance: 55.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted C4 grass with spreading crowns; stems are fine, hairless and to 1.5 m tall. Leaves are grey-green, 6-20 mm wide and nearly hairless. Flowerheads are subdigitate with 4-14 racemes usually in 3 whorls, about 7-17 cm long and brownish-purple when immature and brownish grey when mature. Spikelets are paired, 2-flowered, shortly-hairy and 2-4 mm long. Flowers in summer. A native of Africa, it is a sown species in the north with one variety Premier. Grows on a range of soil types, but is best suited to light-medium textured low-fertility soils. Good drought and frost tolerance, but is sensitive to waterlogging. Recruits well on light-medium textured soils. Can produce some growth in winter and commences growth in late winter-early spring, much earlier than most other tropical grasses. Very palatable, has low oxalate levels (i.e. suitable for horses) and tolerates close grazing.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
Native, yearlong-green, perennial, scrambling-climbing
legume, with stolons. Leaves have 3 leaflets, each 3-10 cm long, sparsely hairy and ovate. The central leaflet has a longer stalk than the lateral leaflets. Flowerheads are racemes of 2-12 yellow to greenish-yellow, 12-25 mm long, pea-like flowers in the leaf axils. Pods are drooping, cylindrical, hairy and 4-8 cm long. Flowering is over most of the year. Found north from the Macleay Valley in damp-wet areas where the annual rainfall exceeds 1200 mm. Tolerant of acidity, waterlogging, short-term flooding and shade, but not drought or frost. Native biodiversity. Not commonly sown as no commercial seed, even though it is one of the best legumes for wet conditions and a useful pioneer species. Easily established, very palatable, non-bloating and relatively high yielding (especially compared to other legumes in moderate to dense shade). It is preferentially grazed and can only withstand short periods of heavy grazing (appropriate rest periods are essential). Stands will persist for 3 or more years and production is maximised if soil phosphorus is maintained at moderate (or better) levels and lenient grazing is used. Remove stock when there is still plenty of vine and some leaf to maximise persistence and production. The more leaf left on the plant, the faster the regrowth.
Introduced warm-season perennial large tufted C4 grass; stems usually have hairy nodes, grow 30-200 cm tall and arise from short rhizomes. Leaf bases may be hairy and blades are 10-60 cm long and 3-14 mm wide. Flowerheads are narrow cylindrical bristly spike-like panicles to 18 cm long. Spikelets are 2-flowered and are surrounded by uniformly coloured bristles that remain after the spikelets fall; the upper glume is 40-55% of the spikelet's length. Flowers from early summer to autumn. A native of Africa, it occurs is sown as a pasture species, especially on medium to heavy soils of high fertility; it has also become naturalised on the North West Slopes and Plains. Easy to establish on heavy clays and is tolerant of drought and temporary waterlogging. Has superior production to most other tropical grasses in its first and second year after establishment. Oxalates may affect horses and cattle. Has reasonable palatability and feed quality below about 40 cm in height, but quickly runs to head and is then avoided by stock; generally preferred by cattle rather than sheep. Graze frequently to maintain quality. Heavy grazing in late summer promotes autumn germination of winter annual legumes; however its abundance will decline under heavy continuous grazing. Sufficient soil nitrogen is essential for its persistence.
Taken just outside of Gilgandra on the road to Dunedoo
Introduced, warm-season, perennial, erect C4 grass to 1.2 m tall; plant tufts are joined by thick stolons and stem bases are flattened. Leaf sheath-blade junctions are usually hairy. Flowerheads are digitate or subdigitate, with 6-18 thick branches (5-10 cm long) often in 2 whorls. Spikelets are 3-4-flowered, blunt-tipped, greenish brown and 2-awned. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Africa, it is widely sown as a pasture species and roadside stabilizer. Requires reasonably well-drained soils. Suited to drier and less fertile conditions than setaria or kikuyu, but persists best under fertile conditions. Doesn’t tolerate very acid soils or high exchangeable aluminium. Suited as pioneer species as it easily establishes from seed, spreads by stolons and is a good binder of soils. Very drought tolerant, moderately frost tolerant, but has poor waterlogging tolerance. Capable of high yields and has low oxalate levels. Range of varieties that range from pioneering types that are good for soil conservation but are low quality, to higher quality varieties for grazing. Persists best under fertile conditions and responds strongly to nitrogen in the presence of adequate phosphorus. To maintain good feed value, keep growth relatively short and maintain a legume component.
Native, warm season, annual, erect, shrubby legume, which grows 1-3m tall. Leaves are pinnate and 5-20cm long, with 12-30 pairs of 7-18mm long leaflets. Flowerheads are 1-6 flowered racemes in the leaf axils. Flowers are about 1cm long and yellow with purple streaks on the back. Flowering is from late spring to autumn. Pods are long, narrow and cylindrical (12-20cm long x 2-3mm wide). Seeds are long-lived and germinate in successive flushes from spring to autumn. Widespread in periodically flooded sites; most common on heavy clays of floodplains, swamps and watercourses. It is a major weed of cotton due to its prolific production of long-lived seed and abilities to withstand disturbance and waterlogging; also a weed of sorghum crops. Can form dense thickets, which may provide harbour for native and feral animals. Productive. Leaves provide a high quality feed, but the palatability and quality of the whole plant quickly declines as it rapidly becomes stemmy and hard. Very frost sensitive. Anti-nutritional factors may limit animal production (especially horses). However, some feeding trials have shown no adverse effect. Seeds are poisonous to pigs.
Introduced warm-season perennial large tufted C4 grass; stems usually have hairy nodes, grow 30-200 cm tall and arise from short rhizomes. Leaf bases may be hairy and blades are 10-60 cm long and 3-14 mm wide. Flowerheads are narrow cylindrical bristly spike-like panicles to 18 cm long. Spikelets are 2-flowered and are surrounded by uniformly coloured bristles that remain after the spikelets fall; the upper glume is 40-55% of the spikelet's length. Flowers from early summer to autumn. A native of Africa, it occurs is sown as a pasture species, especially on medium to heavy soils of high fertility; it has also become naturalised on the North West Slopes and Plains. Easy to establish on heavy clays and is tolerant of drought and temporary waterlogging. Has superior production to most other tropical grasses in its first and second year after establishment. Oxalates may affect horses and cattle. Has reasonable palatability and feed quality below about 40 cm in height, but quickly runs to head and is then avoided by stock; generally preferred by cattle rather than sheep. Graze frequently to maintain quality. Heavy grazing in late summer promotes autumn germination of winter annual legumes; however its abundance will decline under heavy continuous grazing. Sufficient soil nitrogen is essential for its persistence.
Incessant rains coinciding with high tide led to waterlogging in many areas of Mumbai on June 30, 2007. The rains , although much lesser in magnitude, were a reminder to the city of the horrors of the floods of July 26, 2005.
Native, warm season, annual, erect, shrubby legume, which grows 1-3m tall. Leaves are pinnate and 5-20cm long, with 12-30 pairs of 7-18mm long leaflets. Flowerheads are 1-6 flowered racemes in the leaf axils. Flowers are about 1cm long and yellow with purple streaks on the back. Flowering is from late spring to autumn. Pods are long, narrow and cylindrical (12-20cm long x 2-3mm wide). Seeds are long-lived and germinate in successive flushes from spring to autumn. Widespread in periodically flooded sites; most common on heavy clays of floodplains, swamps and watercourses. It is a major weed of cotton due to its prolific production of long-lived seed and abilities to withstand disturbance and waterlogging; also a weed of sorghum crops. Can form dense thickets, which may provide harbour for native and feral animals. Productive. Leaves provide a high quality feed, but the palatability and quality of the whole plant quickly declines as it rapidly becomes stemmy and hard. Very frost sensitive. Anti-nutritional factors may limit animal production (especially horses). However, some feeding trials have shown no adverse effect. Seeds are poisonous to pigs.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted C4 grass with spreading crowns; stems are fine, hairless and to 1.5 m tall. Leaves are grey-green, 6-20 mm wide and nearly hairless. Flowerheads are subdigitate with 4-14 racemes usually in 3 whorls, about 7-17 cm long and brownish-purple when immature and brownish grey when mature. Spikelets are paired, 2-flowered, shortly-hairy and 2-4 mm long. Flowers in summer. A native of Africa, it is a sown species in the north with one variety Premier. Grows on a range of soil types, but is best suited to light-medium textured low-fertility soils. Good drought and frost tolerance, but is sensitive to waterlogging. Recruits well on light-medium textured soils. Can produce some growth in winter and commences growth in late winter-early spring, much earlier than most other tropical grasses. Very palatable, has low oxalate levels (i.e. suitable for horses) and tolerates close grazing.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
Soil profile: A representative soil profile of the Compton series (Clayic Fluvic Eutric Gleysols) in England. (Cranfield University 2021. The Soils Guide. Available: www.landis.org.uk. Cranfield University, UK.)
Soils classified and described by the World Reference Base for England and Wales:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/wrb_list.cfm
Landscape: Compton soils occupy low-lying flat ground along the floodplains of rivers and streams draining Triassic mudstone outcrops and is most common in the Midlands and South West England. Small areas are also mapped in south Wales and east of Wrexham.
Mapped areas of Compton soils contain clayey, severely waterlogged soils developed in reddish and greyish river alluvium subject to seasonal flooding. The association is dominated by reddish clayey alluvial gley soils of the Compton series, which have prominently mottled reddish and greyish subsoils which usually pass downwards into permanently waterlogged, greyish clay within 1 m depth. The reddish colours come from nearby reddish rocks, primarily of Triassic age. Along narrow valleys cut in Triassic mudstone, the association consists almost entirely of Compton soils. On broader river floodplains however, greyish clayey alluvial gley soils of the Fladbury series are found in backland areas and hollows. Here, prolonged waterlogging at shallow depth has produced a predominantly grey subsoil.
Compton soils suffer occasional damaging floods which can be extensive and protracted during the winter. When drained, both Compton soils can be improved to Wetness Class III or Wetness Class IV depending on their height above the river level. Underdrainage treatment is often impractical, however, because of the lack of adequate fall and in such cases the soils are severely waterlogged (Wetness Class V). Subsoil waterlogging caused by rising groundwater is accentuated by seasonal surface wetness. Although the soils have moderate or strong structure under old pasture, there are few pores within peds and excess water percolates through profiles mainly along fissures and earthworm channels. For most of the summer, when they are slightly moist or dry, soils are well fissured and relatively permeable, but because of their clayey nature, peds swell quickly as they become wetter during the autumn. As a result fissures and cracks quickly close, making the soils slowly permeable and subject to severe waterlogging in the autumn, winter and spring.
The soils are mostly under permanent grass or rough grazing. Prolonged waterlogging at shallow depths and the risk of damaging seasonal floods preclude arable crops in all but the highest parts of the floodplain. Grassland is used mainly for stock rearing because waterlogging, winter floods and the large amounts of moisture retained by topsoils, make cattle grazing safe only in summer. In most places the soils have an appreciable risk of poaching, but in the driest areas of eastern Nottinghamshire the risk is only slight. In Wales all the soils have a serious poaching risk and grassland needs to be very carefully managed to achieve consistent growth.
For additional information about the soil association, visit:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/mapunit.cfm?mu=81305
For more information on the World Reference Base soil classification system, visit:
The tea plant can grow between 900 and 2000 m above sea level. Because the plant can`t stand waterlogging the plantation has to be situated on a slope between 30 and 45 degrees. If you don´t cut the tea plant it would grow up to a tree of six meter height.
Munnar is a beautiful hill station, and was the summer resort of the British. Tourists come here to see the vast tea plantations of the area. The town itself is typically Indian with the usual shops, guest houses and is really beautiful and traditional. It is a good place to stay to see the surrounding countryside. It is also a popular place for Indian honeymooners.
The town is divided into two parts, Old Munnar, where the tourist information office is, and Munnar, where the bus station and most guest houses are located.
Munnar is famous for its tea plantations, many of them started by the British. The "Kannan Devan" brand of Tea from the Tata is cultivated and processed here.
There are more than 30 tea estates in and around Munnar. Among them, most of the plantations are taken over by the Tata's Group Kannan Devan Tea Estate. Some of the major tea estates in Munnar include Harrison Malayalam, AVT Tea, Michael's tea, Brooke Bond and Tata Tea. It is one of the biggest centers of tea trade in India.
Until 1790, Munnar and the surrounding area were forests covered, when they were first recognized by the European known as Duke of Wellington. Later in the year 1870, a subordinate of the ruler of Travancore, leased 588 sq. km of land to a Scottish tea planter named J.D. Munro, who was the lawyer in the employee of the Travancore Government. The first tea sapling was planted by A.H. Sharp at Parvathi, which is currently the part of Sevenmullay estate. Presently the whole area is covered by the mile and miles of lush tea gardens, owned by the various private companies.
For the tourists information, Munnar itself is the most popular and picturesque hill stations of Kerala, located 1600 to 1800meters above the sea level. It is popularly known as the 'Kashmir of South India'. The peaceful environment and perfect serenity makes it a famous hot spot among the tourists from all around the globe. Along with the valleys, mountain streams and tea plantations there is lot more to discover in its surrounding area.
Tourists can make a visit to the famous tea museum opened by the Tata Tea group. The museum puts light on the important fact and figures about the growth of the tea plantations in Munnar. It contains curios, old photographs, machineries and other things which have been used since long time. It provides the first hand experience to the tourists about the tea processing and the operations that go into the making of black tea. Some of the major items that are displayed at the museum are the original tea roller, used in earlier time around 1905, than the 'Pelton Wheel', which was used in the power generation plant in the 1920's, a rail engine wheel of the Kumdale Valley Light Railway.
Introduced cool-season annual herbaceous C3 legume forming dense swards. Stems are semi-erect to erect, branched and to 50 cm tall. Leaves have 3 leaflets; leaflets are hairless, 1-2 cm long, rounded becoming more elongated with age; margins are finely toothed and contain glands. Stipules are green. Flowerheads are many-flowered rounded heads. Flowers are pea-shaped with light to dark pink petals. Fruits are 2-3-seeded pods. Flowers in spring and early summer. A native of Eurasia, it is sown for hay and grazing on neutral to mildly acid soils. Best suited to 375-600 mm regions with a cool-season rainfall dominance, little summer rainfall and only light frosts. A moderately palatable high-quality forage with a growth pattern similar to early maturing Subterranean Clovers, but not as productive as Serradella and Biserrula. Resistant to red-legged earth mites, aphids and scorch, moderately tolerant to waterlogging and has low coumarin levels. Compatible with other temperate legumes, but susceptible to competition during establishment. Has excellent regeneration, as it has high levels of hard seed and seed yields. Can be grazed heavily in winter, but there is a need to restrict grazing during flowering, especially in the first year, to allow it to set large amounts of seed.
Soil profile: A representative soil profile of the Winter Hill series (Ombric Fibric Histosols) in England. (Cranfield University 2021. The Soils Guide. Available: www.landis.org.uk. Cranfield University, UK.)
Soils classified and described by the World Reference Base for England and Wales:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/wrb_list.cfm
Winter Hill soils are found on peat-covered hillsides, ridge tops and summit plateaux between 190 and 893 m O.D. Peat develops here because the climate is cold, wet and exposed, inhibiting the organisms which decompose plant remains and incorporate them into mineral soil. The ground is flat or gently sloping, the peat having filled in the hollows and produced a smooth undulating land surface.
Winter Hill soils are very extensive on the Pennines and common in Northumberland, the Lake District and on Dartmoor. It also occurs on the North York Moors, Bodmin Moor and Exmoor. The peat is usually between 2 and 4 m thick but can be up to 6 m (Conway 1954), and in the wettest sites has been accumulating at an average rate of 5 cm per century (Tallis and Switsur 1973). As it thickens, the soft and almost permanently waterlogged peat becomes increasingly vulnerable to gully erosion and, less commonly, to mass flow. The landscape thus varies according to the degree of erosion, from uneroded ground covered mainly by cotton-grass, to bare ground affected by wind erosion. Between these extremes are several stages of land degradation, the more spectacular consisting of parallel or reticulate patterns of gullies up to 6 m deep with peat haggs.
The peats have formed in areas of considerable winter rainfall and thus extend to lower elevations in western districts than in the drier east. The maximum potential soil moisture deficit is small, often less than 25 mm. Because of the almost permanent waterlogging, (Wetness Class VI) the soils do not absorb excess rainwater. Run-off is therefore rapid.
Winter Hill soils have little agricultural value because of wetness, unpalatable vegetation and short growing season. The tussock-forming cotton-grass (Eriophorum vaginatum) dominates the most characteristic plant community with Molinia and deer-grass (Trichophorum cespitosum) common locally. In the wettest places the multiple headed cotton-grass (Eriophorum angustifolium) and species of Sphagnum moss predominate, the former often colonizing bare peat that has been deposited by streams issuing from peat gullies. Heather, cross-leaved heath and bilberry occur in less rainy districts and where the soil becomes drier along the edges of gullies. The land is grazed by sheep, and also red grouse for which heather is the staple food. Rawes (1983) has shown that sheep grazing can greatly influence the composition of the vegetation.
he blanket bog vegetation is dominated by bog-mosses and cotton-grasses often with abundant purple moor-grass and deer-grass. Ling and cross-leaved heath are confined to tussocks. The poor grazing value of the vegetation, combined with prolonged wetness and severe climate, restricts agricultural use to summer grazing for sheep, cattle and ponies. The association forms part of the conserved moorland of the Dartmoor and Exmoor National Parks and serves as water gathering ground. On Dartmoor some land is used as army firing ranges.
For additional information about the soil association, visit:
www.landis.org.uk/services/soilsguide/mapunit.cfm?mu=101102
For more information on the World Reference Base soil classification system, visit:
Introduced warm-season perennial large tufted C4 grass; stems usually have hairy nodes, grow 30-200 cm tall and arise from short rhizomes. Leaf bases may be hairy and blades are 10-60 cm long and 3-14 mm wide. Flowerheads are narrow cylindrical bristly spike-like panicles to 18 cm long. Spikelets are 2-flowered and are surrounded by uniformly coloured bristles that remain after the spikelets fall; the upper glume is 40-55% of the spikelet's length. Flowers from early summer to autumn. A native of Africa, it occurs is sown as a pasture species, especially on medium to heavy soils of high fertility; it has also become naturalised on the North West Slopes and Plains. Easy to establish on heavy clays and is tolerant of drought and temporary waterlogging. Has superior production to most other tropical grasses in its first and second year after establishment. Oxalates may affect horses and cattle. Has reasonable palatability and feed quality below about 40 cm in height, but quickly runs to head and is then avoided by stock; generally preferred by cattle rather than sheep. Graze frequently to maintain quality. Heavy grazing in late summer promotes autumn germination of winter annual legumes; however its abundance will decline under heavy continuous grazing. Sufficient soil nitrogen is essential for its persistence.
Introduced warm-season perennial tufted to shortly rhizomatous C4 grass; stems are branching, ascending to erect and to 100 cm tall. Leaves are 2-13 mm wide, 3-30 cm long and green to blue-green. Flowerheads are cylindrical spike-like contracted panicles up to 15 cm long and usually purplish when young. Spikelets are surrounded by bristles that form a soft burr and which fall with the spikelets at maturity. Burrs are 12 mm long, with one bristle longer than the others and bristles are antrorsely barbed; inner bristles are hairy in the lower part and fused only at the base forming a short disc. Flowers from late spring to autumn. A native of the northern hemisphere, it is sometimes sown as a pasture and is commonly a weed of sandy areas; also occurs on sandy loams to clay loams. Most common on the Plains and western edges of the Slopes. Seeds are difficult to sow and but it is very persistent summer-growing species which is not suited to short-term pastures as it is difficult to remove. Prefers well-drained soils and does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. Very drought tolerant and responds quickly to rain, but requires fertile soils for production and is frost sensitive. Moderately palatable, but causes big head in horses. May out compete native pastures and is a weed of roadsides.
Hồng hay hường là tên gọi chung cho các loài thực vật có hoa dạng cây bụi hoặc cây leo lâu năm thuộc chi Rosa, họ Rosaceae, với hơn 100 loài với màu hoa đa dạng, phân bố từ miền ôn đới đến nhiệt đới. Các loài này nổi tiếng vì hoa đẹp nên thường gọi là hoa hồng. Đa phần có nguồn gốc bản địa châu Á, số ít còn lại có nguồn gốc bản địa châu Âu, Bắc Mỹ, và Tây Bắc Phi. Các loài bản địa, giống cây trồng và cây lai ghép đều được trồng làm cảnh và lấy hương thơm.. Đôi khi các loài này được gọi theo tiếng Trung là tường vi (薔薇).
Hình thái
Đây là các cây bụi mọc đứng hoặc mọc leo, thân và cành có gai. Lá kép lông chim lẻ, lá chét khía răng, có lá kèm. Hoa thơm, màu sắc đa dạng: hồng, trắng, vàng hay đỏ... Hoa thường có nhiều cánh do nhị đực biến thành. Đế hoa hình chén. Quả bế, tụ nhau trong đế hoa dày lên thành quả.
Các loài
Dưới đây là một số loài hồng tiêu biểu
•Rosa beauvaisii: hồng Beauvais
•Rosa californica: hồng California
•Rosa canina: tầm xuân
•Rosa chinensis: hồng, hường, nguyệt quý hoa
•Rosa cymosa: hồng roi, tầm xuân
•Rosa gallica: hồng Pháp
•Rosa glauca (đồng nghĩa R. rubrifolia): hồng lá đỏ
•Rosa laevigata (đồng nghĩa R. sinica): hồng vụng, kim anh
•Rosa leschenaultiana: hồng Leschenault
•Rosa longicuspis: hồng mũi dài
•Rosa multiflora: tầm xuân nhiều hoa
•Rosa pimpinellifolia: hồng Scotch
•Rosa rubus: hồng đum
•Rosa rugosa: hồng Nhật, hồng Rugosa Rose
•Rosa transmorissonensis: hồng choắt
•Rosa tunquinensis: tầm xuân Bắc, quầng quầng
•Rosa virginiana (đồng nghĩa R. lucida): hồng Virginia
•Rosa yunnanensis: hồng Vân Nam
Hoa hồng trong văn hóa
Với vẻ đẹp, hình dáng và hương thơm nổi bật, hoa hồng là hoa biểu trưng hay được dùng nhất ở phương Tây, tương ứng trong tổng thể với hình tượng hoa sen ở châu Á, cả hai đều gần gũi với biểu tượng bánh xe. Trong văn hóa Ấn Độ, bông hồng vũ trụ Triparasundari được dùng làm vật đối chiếu với vẻ đẹp của người Mẹ thánh thần, biểu thị một sự hoàn mĩ trọn vẹn và không có thiếu sót. Bên cạnh đó, hoa hồng còn tượng trưng cho phần thưởng cuộc sống, tâm hồn, trái tim, tình yêu, và có thể được chiêm ngưỡng như một mandala.
Trong hệ tranh tượng Kitô giáo, hoa hồng hoặc là cái chén hứng máu của Chúa Kitô, hoặc là sự hóa thân của những giọt máu này và thậm chí, là chính vết thương của Chúa.
Hình hoa hồng gô-thích và hoa hồng hướng gió (hình hoa hồng 32 cánh ứng với 32 hướng gió) đánh dấu bước chuyển của xu hướng biểu trưng của hoa hồng sang xu hướng biểu trưng bánh xe.
Saadi de Chiraz trong đạo Hồi quan niệm vườn hoa hồng là vườn của sự quán tưởng.
Trong văn hóa phương Tây, hoa hồng, bởi sự tương hợp với màu máu chảy, thường xuất hiện như là biểu tượng của sự phục sinh huyền bí. Abd Ul Kadir Gilani so sánh hoa hồng với những vết sẹo trên cơ thể sống, trong khi đó F. Portal quan niệm hoa hồng vào màu hồng hợp thành một biểu tượng của sự tái sinh do có quan hệ gần gũi ngữ nghĩa của từ latinh rosa (hoa hồng) với ros (mưa, sương). Với người Hy Lạp hoa hồng vốn là một loài hoa màu trắng, nhưng khi Adonis bị tử thương, nữ thần Aphorodite chạy đến cứu chàng đã bị đâm phải một cái gai và máu đã nhuộm thẫm những bông hồng cung tiến nàng. Chính ý nghĩa biểu trưng về sự tái sinh đã khiến con người, từ thời cổ đại, đặt những bông hồng lên các nấm mộ, và Hecate, nữ thần âm phủ đôi khi được thể hiện với hình ảnh đầu quấn một vòng hoa hồng có 5 lá.
Theo Bède, ở thế kỷ VII mộ của Chúa Giêxu được sơn một màu pha lẫn trắng và đỏ. Hai yếu tố tạo thành màu của hoa hồng này, màu trắng và màu đỏ, với giá trị biểu trưng truyền thống của chúng phản ánh các bình diện từ trần tục đến thiêng liêng, trong sự khác nhau ứng với sự dâng tặng những bông hồng trắng hay đỏ[4].
Hoa hồng đã trở thành biểu tượng của tình yêu và còn hơn thế, của sự dâng hiến tình yêu, của tình yêu trong trắng, tương tự ý nghĩa của hoa sen Ai Cập và cây thủy tiên Hy Lạp[4].
Dù là màu trắng hay màu đỏ, hoa hồng cũng đều được các nhà luyện đan ưa chuộng hơn cả, mà những chuyên luận của họ thường mang những tiêu đề như "Những cây hồng của các nhà triết học". Trong khi đó, hoa hồng màu lam lại biểu tượng của cái bất khả, cái không thể đạt tới.
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A rose is a perennial plant of the genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae. There are over 100 species. They form a group of erect shrubs, and climbing or trailing plants, with stems that are often armed with sharp prickles. Flowers are large and showy, in a number of colours from white through yellows and reds. Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, and northwest Africa. Species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and fragrance. Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach 7 meters in height. Species from different parts of the world easily hybridize, which has given rise to the many types of garden roses.[1]
The name rose comes from French, itself from Latin rosa, which was perhaps borrowed from Oscan, from Greek ρόδον rhodon (Aeolic βρόδον wrodon), related to Old Persian wrd-, Avestan varəda, Sogdian ward, Parthian wâr, Armenian vard.[2][3]
Botany
The leaves are borne alternately on the stem. In most species they are 5 to 15 centimetres (2.0 to 5.9 in) long, pinnate, with (3–) 5–9 (–13) leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. Most roses are deciduous but a few (particularly from South east Asia) are evergreen or nearly so.
The flowers of most species have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, which usually has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals (or in the case of some Rosa sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. The ovary is inferior, developing below the petals and sepals. Roses are insect-pollinated in nature.
The aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Many of the domestic cultivars do not produce hips, as the flowers are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination. The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g. Rosa pimpinellifolia) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer, the hypanthium, which contains 5–160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits called achenes) embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species, especially the Dog Rose (Rosa canina) and Rugosa Rose (Rosa rugosa), are very rich in vitamin C, among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. Some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds.
While the sharp objects along a rose stem are commonly called "thorns", they are technically prickles — outgrowths of the epidermis (the outer layer of tissue of the stem). (True thorns, as produced by e.g. Citrus or Pyracantha, are modified stems, which always originate at a node and which have nodes and internodes along the length of the thorn itself.) Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as Rosa rugosa and Rosa pimpinellifolia have densely packed straight spines, probably an adaptation to reduce browsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind-blown sand and so reduce erosion and protect their roots (both of these species grow naturally on coastal sand dunes). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer. A few species of roses have only vestigial prickles that have no points.
Species
Further information: List of Rosa species
The genus Rosa is subdivided into four subgenera:
•Hulthemia (formerly Simplicifoliae, meaning "with single leaves") containing one or two species from southwest Asia, R. persica and Rosa berberifolia which are the only roses without compound leaves or stipules.
•Hesperrhodos (from the Greek for "western rose") contains Rosa minutifolia and Rosa stellata, from North America.
•Platyrhodon (from the Greek for "flaky rose", referring to flaky bark) with one species from east Asia, Rosa roxburghii.
•Rosa (the type subgenus) containing all the other roses. This subgenus is subdivided into 11 sections.
oBanksianae - white and yellow flowered roses from China.
oBracteatae - three species, two from China and one from India.
oCaninae - pink and white flowered species from Asia, Europe and North Africa.
oCarolinae - white, pink, and bright pink flowered species all from North America.
oChinensis - white, pink, yellow, red and mixed-color roses from China and Burma.
oGallicanae - pink to crimson and striped flowered roses from western Asia and Europe.
oGymnocarpae - one species in western North America (Rosa gymnocarpa), others in east Asia.
oLaevigatae - a single white flowered species from China
oPimpinellifoliae - white, pink, bright yellow, mauve and striped roses from Asia and Europe.
oRosa (syn. sect. Cinnamomeae) - white, pink, lilac, mulberry and red roses from everywhere but North Africa.
oSynstylae - white, pink, and crimson flowered roses from all areas.
Uses
Roses are best known as ornamental plants grown for their flowers in the garden and sometimes indoors. They have been also used for commercial perfumery and commercial cut flower crops. Some are used as landscape plants, for hedging and for other utilitarian purposes such as game cover. They also have minor medicinal uses.
Ornamental plants
The majority of ornamental roses are hybrids that were bred for their flowers. A few, mostly species roses are grown for attractive or scented foliage (such as Rosa glauca and Rosa rubiginosa), ornamental thorns (such as Rosa sericea) or for their showy fruit (such as Rosa moyesii).
Ornamental roses have been cultivated for millennia, with the earliest known cultivation known to date from at least 500 BC in Mediterranean countries, Persia, and China.[4] Many thousands of rose hybrids and cultivars have been bred and selected for garden use as flowering plants. Most are double-flowered with many or all of the stamens having mutated into additional petals.
In the early 19th century the Empress Josephine of France patronized the development of rose breeding at her gardens at Malmaison. As long ago as 1840 a collection numbering over one thousand different cultivars, varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted by Loddiges nursery for Abney Park Cemetery, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England.
A few species and hybrids are grown for non-floral ornamental use. Among these are those grown for prominent hips, such as the flagon shaped hips of Rosa moyesii. Sometimes even the thorns can be treated as an attraction or curiosity, such as with Rosa sericea.
Cut flowers
Bouquet of pink roses
Roses are a popular crop for both domestic and commercial cut flowers. Generally they are harvested and cut when in bud, and held in refrigerated conditions until ready for display at their point of sale.
In temperate climates, cut roses are often grown in glasshouses, and in warmer countries they may also be grown under cover in order to ensure that the flowers are not damaged by weather and that pests and disease control can be carried out effectively. Significant quantities are grown in some tropical countries, and these are shipped by air to markets across the world.[5]
Perfume
Main article: Rose oil
Rose perfumes are made from attar of roses or rose oil, which is a mixture of volatile essential oils obtained by steam distilling the crushed petals of roses. An associated product is rose water which is used for cooking, cosmetics, medicine and in religious practices. The production technique originated in Persia then spread through Arabia and India, but nowadays about 70% to 80% of production is in the Rose Valley near Kazanluk in Bulgaria, with some production in Qamsar in Iran and Germany.[citation needed] The Kaaba in Mecca is annually washed by the Iranian rose water from Qamsar[citation needed]. In Bulgaria, Iran and Germany, damask roses (Rosa damascena 'Trigintipetala') are used. In the French rose oil industry Rosa centifolia is used. The oil is transparent pale yellow or yellow-grey in colour. 'Rose Absolute' is solvent-extracted with hexane and produces a darker oil, dark yellow to orange in colour. The weight of oil extracted is about one three-thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of the flowers; for example, about two thousand flowers are required to produce one gram of oil.
Geraniol (C10H18O)
The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrant alcohols geraniol and l-citronellol; and rose camphor, an odourless paraffin. β-Damascenone is also a significant contributor to the scent.
Rose water, made as a byproduct of rose oil production, is widely used in Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine. The French are known for their rose syrup, most commonly made from an extract of rose petals. In the United States, this French rose syrup is used to make rose scones and marshmallows.
Rose hips
The rose hip, the fruit of some species, is used as a minor source of Vitamin C.
Rose hips are occasionally made into jam, jelly, and marmalade, or are brewed for tea, primarily for their high vitamin C content. They are also pressed and filtered to make rose hip syrup. Rose hips are also used to produce Rose hip seed oil, which is used in skin products and some makeup products.
Medicine
The fruits of many species have significant levels of vitamins and have been used as a food supplement (see previous section). Many roses have been used in herbal and folk medicines. Rosa chinensis has long been used in Chinese traditional medicine. This and other species have been used for stomach problems, and are being investigated for controlling cancer growth.[6]
Culture
Art
Roses are a favored subject in art and therefore used in various artistic disciplines. They appear in portraits, illustrations, on stamps, as ornaments or as architectural elements. The Luxembourg born Belgian artist and botanist Pierre-Joseph Redouté is known for his detailed watercolours of flowers, particularly roses.
Renoir's painting of cabbage roses, Roses in a vase
Henri Fantin-Latour was also a prolific painter of still life, particularly flowers including roses. The Rose 'Fantin-Latour' was named after the artist.
Other impressionists including Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne and Pierre-Auguste Renoir have paintings of roses among their works.
Symbolism
Further information: Rose (symbolism)
The long cultural history of the rose has led to it being used often as a symbol.
Pests and diseases
Main articles: Pests and diseases of roses and List of rose diseases
Roses are subject to several diseases. The main fungal diseases affecting the leaves are rose black spot (Diplocarpon rosae), rose rust (Phragmidium mucronatum), rose powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa) and rose downy mildew (Peronospora sparsa). Stems can be affected by several canker diseases, the most commonly seen of which is stem canker (Leptosphaeria coniothyrium). Diseases of the root zone include honey fungus (Armillaria spp.), verticillium wilt, and various species of phytophthora.
Fungal leaf diseases affecting roses are best prevented by choosing to grow cultivars and species known to be less susceptible to attack, and by using a preventative fungicidal spray program (rather than by trying to cure an infection after it emerges on the plant). After disease is visible, spread can be minimized through pruning and the use of fungicides, although the actual infection cannot be reversed. Stem cankers are best treated by pruning out infection as soon as it is noticed. Root diseases are not usually possible to treat, once infection has occurred; the most practical line of defence is to ensure that growing conditions maximise plant health and thereby prevent infection. Phytophthora species are waterborne and therefore improving drainage and reducing waterlogging can help reduce infection.
The main pest affecting roses is the aphid (greenfly), which sucks the sap and weakens the plant. (Ladybugs are a predator of aphids and should be encouraged in the rose garden.) In areas where they are endemic Japanese beetles (Popillia japonica) take a heavy toll on rose flowers and foliage; rose blooms can also be destroyed by infestations of thrips (Thysanoptera spp). Roses are also used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species; see list of Lepidoptera that feed on roses. The spraying with insecticide of roses is often recommended but should be done with care to minimize the loss of beneficial insects.