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The original basilica was commissioned by Constantine I, after the site was visited by his mother Helena, and completed in 339. The core of the existing structure is a new basilica built by Justinian.
Patron, 1st Basilica: Constantine I (Flavius Valerius Constantinus, Constantine the Great) c.272 CE-337 CE, Roman emperor (r.306-337), and the first to convert to Christianity.
Patron, current Basilica: Justinian I, the Great (Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus) 482-565, Chalcedonian Christian Eastern Roman emperor (r.527-565); married to empress Theodora.
Doors: made by two Armenian monks, Father Abraham and Father Arakel, in the times of King Hethum I of Cilicia (1224-1269), the Emir of Damascus, and Saladin's nephew, al-Mu'azzam Isa.
Dolly and Marcel at the Forum Toga 'All White' After-Party,
124 AD.
Year Highlights, 124 AD. :
January 1 – Gaius Bellicius Torquatus and Manius Acilius Glabrio begin the year as the new consuls, but the two are replaced in April.
May – Aulus Larcius Macedo, the former Governor of Galatia; and Publius Ducenius Verres take office for four month as the suffect consuls to succeed Bellicius and Glabrio, and serve until the end of August.
September – Gaius Valerius Severus and Gaius Julius Gallus replace consuls Larcius and Ducenius and serve until the end of the year.
Emperor Hadrian begins to rebuild the Olympeion in Athens.
Antinous becomes Hadrian's beloved companion on his journeys through the Roman Empire.
During a voyage to Greece, Hadrian is initiated in the ancient rites known as the Eleusinian Mysteries.
November - Forum Toga 'All White' After-Party (men only).
Loggia del Consiglio – one of the square’s most magnificent buildings. It was built in 1476 by Fra Giocondo and is a masterpiece of the Venetian Renaissance and unique in Verona. The beautiful façade with its columned double windows and statues on the roof shine through the pastel colours of the walls even more impressively. The statues of Alberto da Milano imitate famous Italians who are thought to have been born in Verona: Gaius Valerius Catullus, Pliny the Elder, Aemilius Macer, Marcus Vitruvius Pollio and Cornelius Nepos.
Лоджия дель Консильо - одно из самых великолепных зданий на площади. Он был построен в 1476 году Фра Джокондо и является шедевром венецианского ренессанса и уникальным в Вероне. Красивый фасад с колонными двойными окнами и статуями на крыше еще более впечатляюще отражается в пастельных тонах стен. Статуи Альберто да Милано подражают знаменитым итальянцам, которые, как считается, родились в Вероне: Гай Валерий Катулл, Плиний Старший, Эмилий Мацер, Марк Витрувий Поллион и Корнелий Непос.
Vivamus mea Lesbia, atque amemus,
rumoresque senum severiorum
omnes unius aestimemus assis!
soles occidere et redire possunt:
nobis cum semel occidit brevis lux,
nox est perpetua una dormienda.
da mi basia mille, deinde centum,
dein mille altera, dein secunda centum,
deinde usque altera mille, deinde centum.
dein, cum milia multa fecerimus,
conturbabimus illa, ne sciamus,
aut ne quis malus inuidere possit,
cum tantum sciat esse basiorum
Gaius Valerius Catullus
Detail van een schilderij van Valerius De Saedeleer op de tentoonstelling Symbolisme in Vlaanderen, tot en met zondag in het Noordbrabants Museum
My dear Flickr Friends, may the Universe spread prosperity and joy in your life on this New Year 2015 and fulfil all your dreams.
Thank you very much for your presence and friendship during 2014 and the years before.
Your splendid photos feed my soul.
♔ Constantine is a Lagotto Romagnolo dog.
This is the only breed of dog that is officially recognized as specialized in truffle hunting.
Richard Gere babysitting Constantine.
He is the best babysitter ;-)
Constantine is a Lagotto Romagnolo dog.
This is the only breed of dog that is officially recognized as specialized in truffle hunting.
+ in comments below
PLEASE,invitations or self promotion in your comments, THEY WILL BE DELETED. My photos are FREE for anyone to use, just give me credit and it would be nice if you let me know, thanks - NONE OF MY PICTURES ARE HDR.
Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (AD 240 - AD 311)
Diocletian began to reign A.D. 284 and revived the declining Roman empire. His parents had been the slaves of a Roman Senator and he had risen from this low station to the highest positions in the army.
Finding the empire too large to be governed by a single ruler, Diocletian split it into East and West.
He mounted some of the fiercest Christian persecutions of the early Church in the Empire. Diocletian passed laws to force people who lived in the Roman Empire to worship the ancient gods of the Romans. The persecution of Christians began in 303 AD, and continued for nearly ten years. The laws eased in 311 when the general edict of toleration was issued.
Lena gave birth to 2 brown male puppies on March 17 2014 but only one survived.
I gave him the name of "Constantine, The Great" in honour of his strength and luck.
I confess that I expected more puppies, but it's OK anyway. The important thing is that both are doing well.
He is a Lagotto Romagnolo dog.
This is the only breed of dog that is officially recognized as specialized in truffle hunting.
+ in comments below
♰ update: Lena crossed the Rainbow Bridge on March 6, 2019
This monument, though called the "temple of Romulus" (referring not to the legendary Romulus, founder of Rome, but to the young son of the emperor Maxentius, Valerius Romulus) was probably just the office of the urban praetor, the official in charge of urban planning in ancient Rome. It still preserves the original ancient bronze doors.
Let us live, my Lesbia, let us love,
and all the words of the old, and so moral,
may they be worth less than nothing to us!
Suns may set, and suns may rise again:
but when our brief light has set,
night is one long everlasting sleep.
Give me a thousand kisses, a hundred more,
another thousand, and another hundred,
and, when we’ve counted up the many thousands,
confuse them so as not to know them all,
so that no enemy may cast an evil eye,
by knowing that there were so many kisses.
Gaius Valerius Catullus
I finally got back to Milwaukee to see my Willy. Mike the keeper had Tammy and I go back and get Willy up so he could go outside. We stood there for about 10 minutes calling him until he finally got up and came right over to the door. We were literally face to face with him! Feeling his hot breathe and that cute nose so close you wanted to reach thru and touch him. (NEVER do that) The temperature was 5F with a windchill of -15F, just a bit cold.
Torrents; deluge of rain; darkness; Noah of primeval times comes to mind. But I have a safe, dry albeit rather damp haven open to the sea, and a Palm Roof overhead. And opportunity to read ancient botanical texts when the internet works.
Just before the fierce storms yesterday I shot this brightly orange Beach Cordia, Cordia subcordata, branches hanging over the black volcanic sands come down from the Rinjani and ground by the surging seas. It's named for Valerius Cordus (1515-1544), a worthy German physician and botanist. That name is modern, supplanting a spate of other designations among which Cordia rumphii. The latter was the way of fey Carl Ludwig Blume (1786-1862), one-time director of Bogor's fine Kebun Raya, to honor Georg Eberhard Rumphius (1627-1702), great naturalist of Ambon, Indonesia.
Rumphius had used Novella nigra or ebbenniformis and waxes eloquent and enthusiastic about our Tree in his utterly readable Herbarium amboinense. He precisely describes it and details its various kinds of wood, among which the inner heartwood, which is ebony black; hence, of course, that 'nigra'. He notes its durability in the face of its lightness, and gives examples of its use by local people. It's quite clear from his description that Rumphius is also looking to Cordia as a possible source of timber for his masters of the Dutch East India Trading Company (VOC).
In his descriptions generally and specifically in this one he also makes anthropological-linguistic notes. Thus Rumphius tells his readers that a local who had traveled widely told him that it was believed that a Cordia on one of the Kei Islands had existed from the Beginning of the World. Surely that can't be the case, writes Rumphius ironically. His informant must have meant 'from the time that this place was inhabited', because the Malays often call 'the beginning of habitation of a given place, the beginnning of the world' (Malaienses enim aliquanda initium inhabitationis certi loci initium mundi vocant.).
As I look up from my writing - in the distance my Cordia still gray - Noah leaps to mind again: darkness, deluge, torrents...
De tentoonstelling over Vlaams symbolisme in het Noordbrabants Museum is stiekem voor bijna de helft een uitmuntend overzicht van de stemmige herfst- en winterlandschappen van Valerius De Saedeleer (1867-1941). Nog vier dagen te zien en WARM AANBEVOLEN.
♔ Emperor Flavius Valerius Aurelius Contantinus Augustus ♔
Constantine, (The Great) ♔
He is a Lagotto Romagnolo dog.
This is the only breed of dog that is officially recognized as specialized in truffle hunting.
Waterbuck
Ellipsen-Wasserbock
Kruger National Park is one of the largest game reserves in Africa. It covers an area of 19,485 km2 (7,523 sq mi) in the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga in northeastern South Africa, and extends 360 km (220 mi) from north to south and 65 km (40 mi) from east to west. The administrative headquarters are in Skukuza. Areas of the park were first protected by the government of the South African Republic in 1898, and it became South Africa's first national park in 1926.
To the west and south of the Kruger National Park are the two South African provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga. In the north is Zimbabwe, and to the east is Mozambique. It is now part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, a peace park that links Kruger National Park with the Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe, and with the Limpopo National Park in Mozambique.
The park is part of the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere an area designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as an International Man and Biosphere Reserve (the "Biosphere").
The park has nine main gates allowing entrance to the different camps.
(Wikipedia)
The waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) is a large antelope found widely in sub-Saharan Africa. It is placed in the genus Kobus of the family Bovidae. It was first described by Irish naturalist William Ogilby in 1833. The thirteen subspecies are grouped under two varieties: the common or Ellisprymnus waterbuck and the Defassa waterbuck. The head-and-body length is typically between 177–235 cm (70–93 in) and the average height is between 120 and 136 cm (47 and 54 in). A sexually dimorphic antelope, males are taller as well as heavier than females. Males reach approximately 127 cm (50 in) at the shoulder, while females reach 119 cm (47 in). Males typically weigh 198–262 kg (437–578 lb) and females 161–214 kg (355–472 lb). The coat colour varies from brown to grey. The long, spiral horns, present only on males, curve backward, then forward and are 55–99 cm (22–39 in) long.
Waterbuck are rather sedentary in nature. A gregarious animal, the waterbuck may form herds consisting of six to 30 individuals. These groups are either nursery herds with females and their offspring or bachelor herds. Males start showing territorial behaviour from the age of five years, but are most dominant from the age of six to nine. The waterbuck cannot tolerate dehydration in hot weather, and thus inhabits areas close to sources of water. Predominantly a grazer, the waterbuck is mostly found on grassland. In equatorial regions, breeding takes place throughout the year, but births are at their peak in the rainy season. The gestational period lasts for seven to eight months, followed by the birth of a single calf.
Waterbuck inhabit scrub and savanna areas along rivers, lakes and valleys. Due to their requirement for grasslands as well as water, the waterbuck have a sparse ecotone distribution. The IUCN lists the waterbuck as being of Least Concern. More specifically, the common waterbuck is listed as of Least Concern while the defassa waterbuck is Near Threatened. The population trend for both the common and defassa waterbuck is downwards, especially that of the latter, with large populations being eliminated from certain habitats because of poaching and human disturbance.
The scientific name of the waterbuck is Kobus ellipsiprymnus. The waterbuck is one of the six species of the genus Kobus and belongs to the family Bovidae. It was first described by Irish naturalist William Ogilby in 1833. The generic name Kobus is a New Latin word, originating from an African name, koba. The specific name ellipsiprymnus refers to the white elliptical ring on the rump, from the Greek ellipes (ellipse) and prymnos (prumnos, hind part). The animal acquired the vernacular name "waterbuck" due to its heavy dependence on water as compared to other antelopes and its ability to enter into water for defence.
The type specimen of the waterbuck was collected by South African hunter-explorer Andrew Steedman in 1832. This specimen was named Antilope ellipsiprymnus by Ogilby in 1833. This species was transferred to the genus Kobus in 1840, becoming K. ellipsiprymnus. It is usually known as the common waterbuck. In 1835, German naturalist Eduard Rüppell collected another specimen, which differed from Steedman's specimen in having a prominent white ring on its rump. Considering it a separate species, Rüppell gave it the Amharic name "defassa" waterbuck and scientific name Antilope defassa. Modern taxonomists, however, consider the common waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck a single species, K. ellipsiprymnus, given the large number of instances of hybridisation between the two. Interbreeding between the two takes place in the Nairobi National Park owing to extensive overlapping of habitats.
Not many fossils of the waterbuck have been found. Fossils were scarce in the Cradle of Humankind, occurring only in a few pockets of the Swartkrans. On the basis of Valerius Geist's theories about the relation of social evolution and dispersal in ungulates during the Pleistocene the ancestral home of the waterbuck is considered to be the eastern coast of Africa - with the Horn of Africa to the north and the East African Rift Valley to the west.
The waterbuck is the largest amongst the six species of Kobus. It is a sexually dimorphic antelope, with the males nearly 7 percent taller than females and around 8 percent longer. The head-and-body length is typically between 177–235 cm (70–93 in) and the average height is between 120 and 136 cm (47 and 54 in).[10] Males reach approximately 127 cm (50 in) at the shoulder, while females reach 119 cm (47 in). The waterbuck is one of the heaviest antelopes. a newborn typically weighs 13.6 kg (30 lb), and growth in weight is faster in males than in females. Males typically weigh 198–262 kg (437–578 lb) and females 161–214 kg (355–472 lb). The tail is 22–45 cm (8.7–17.7 in) long.
The waterbuck is of a robust build. The shaggy coat is reddish brown to grey, and becomes progressively darker with age. Males are darker than females. Though apparently thick, the hair is sparse on the coat. The hair on the neck is, however, long and shaggy. When sexually excited, the skin of the waterbuck secretes a greasy substance with the odour of musk, giving it the name "greasy kob". The odor of this is so unpleasant that it repels predators. This secretion also assists in water-proofing the body when the animal dives into water. The facial features include a white muzzle and light eyebrows and lighter insides of the ears. There is a cream-coloured patch (called "bib") on the throat. Waterbuck are characterised by a long neck and short, strong and black legs. Females have two nipples. Preorbital glands, foot glands and inguinal glands are absent.
The common waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck are remarkably different in their physical appearances. Measurements indicate greater tail length in the latter, whereas the common waterbuck stand taller than the defassa waterbuck. However, the principal differentiation between the two types is the white ring of hair surrounding the tail on the rump, which is a hollow circle in the common waterbuck but covered with white hair in the defassa waterbuck.
The long, spiral horns curve backward, then forward. Found only on males, the horns range from 55 to 99 cm (22 to 39 in) in length. To some extent, the length of the horns is related to the bull's age. A rudimentary horn in the form of a bone lump may be found on the skulls of females.
Waterbuck are rather sedentary in nature, though some migration may occur with the onset of monsoon. A gregarious animal, the waterbuck may form herds consisting of six to 30 individuals. The various groups are the nursery herds, bachelor herds and territorial males. Herd size increases in summer, whereas groups fragment in the winter months, probably under the influence of food availability. As soon as young males start developing horns (at around seven to nine months of age), they are chased out of the herd by territorial bulls. These males then form bachelor herds and may roam in female home ranges. Females have home ranges stretching over 200–600 hectares (0.77–2.32 sq mi; 490–1,480 acres). A few females may form spinster herds. Though females are seldom aggressive, minor tension may arise in herds.
Males start showing territorial behaviour from the age of five years, but are most dominant from the age of six to nine. Territorial males hold territories 4–146 hectares (0.015–0.564 sq mi; 9.9–360.8 acres) in size. Males are inclined to remain settled in their territories, though over time they may leave inferior territories for more spacious ones. Marking of territories includes no elaborate rituals - dung and urine are occasionally dropped. After the age of ten years, males lose their territorial nature and replaced by a younger bull, following which they recede to a small and unprotected area. There is another social group, that of the satellite males, which are mature bulls as yet without their own territories, who exploit resources, particularly mating opportunities, even in the presence of the dominant bull. The territorial male may allow a few satellite males into his territory, and they may contribute to its defence. However, gradually they may deprive the actual owner of his territory and seize the area for themselves. In a study in the Lake Nakuru National Park, only 7 percent of the adult males held territories, and only half of the territorial males tolerated one or more satellite males.
Territorial males may use several kinds of display. In one type of display, the white patch on the throat and between the eyes is clearly revealed, and other displays can demonstrate the thickness of the neck. These activities frighten trespassers. Lowering of the head and the body depict submission before the territorial male, who stands erect. Fights, which may last up to thirty minutes, involve threat displays typical of bovids accompanied by snorting. Fights may even become so violent that one of the opponents meets its death due to severe abdominal or thoracic wounds. A silent animal, the waterbuck makes use of flehmen response for visual communication and alarm snorts for vocal communication. Waterbuck often enter water to escape from predators which include lions, leopards, cheetahs, African wild dogs and Nile crocodiles (leopards and spotted hyenas prey on juveniles). However, it has been observed that the waterbuck does not particularly like being in water. Waterbuck may run into cover when alarmed, and males often attack predators.
Waterbuck are susceptible to ulcers, lungworm infection and kidney stones. Other diseases from which these animals suffer are foot-and-mouth disease, sindbis fever, yellow fever, bluetongue, bovine virus diarrhoea, brucellosis and anthrax. The waterbuck is more resistant to rinderpest than are other antelopes. They are unaffected by tsetse flies but ticks may introduce parasitic protozoa such as Theileria parva, Anaplasma marginale and Baberia bigemina. 27 species of ixodid tick have been found on waterbuck - a healthy waterbuck may carry a total of over 4000 ticks in their larval or nymphal stages, the most common among them being Amblyomma cohaerens and Rhipicephalus tricuspis. Internal parasites found in waterbuck include tapeworms, liverflukes, stomachflukes and several helminths.
The waterbuck exhibits great dependence on water. It can not tolerate dehydration in hot weather, and thus inhabits areas close to sources of water. However, it has been observed that unlike the other members of its genus (such as the kob and puku), the waterbuck ranges farther into the woodlands while maintaining its proximity to water. With grasses constituting a substantial 70 to 95 percent of the diet, the waterbuck is predominantly a grazer frequenting grasslands. Reeds and rushes like Typha and Phragmites may also be preferred.A study found regular consumption of three grass species round the year: Panicum anabaptistum, Echinochloa stagnina and Andropogon gayanus. Hyparrhenia involucrata, Acroceras amplectens and Oryza barthii along with annual species were the main preference in the early rainy season, while long life grasses and forage from trees constituted three-fourths of the diet in the dry season.
Though the defassa waterbuck were found to have a much greater requirement for protein than the African buffalo and the Beisa oryx, the waterbuck was found to spend much less time on browsing (eating leaves, small shoots and fruits) in comparison to the other grazers. In the dry season about 32 percent of the 24-hour day was spent in browsing, whereas no time was spent on it during the wet season. The choice of grasses varies with location rather than availability; for instance, in western Uganda, while Sporobolus pyramidalis was favoured in some places, Themeda triandra was the main choice elsewhere. The common waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck in the same area may differ in their choices; it has been observed that while the former preferred Heteropogon contortus and Cynodon dactylon, the latter showed less preference for these grasses.
Waterbuck are slower than other antelopes in terms of the rate of maturity. While males become sexually mature at the age of six years, females reach maturity within two to three years. Females may conceive by the age of two-and-a-half years, and remain reproductive for another ten years. In equatorial regions, breeding takes place throughout the year, and births are at their peak in the rainy season. However, breeding is seasonal in the Sudan (south of Sahara), with the mating season lasting four months. The season extends for even longer periods in some areas of southern Africa. Oestrus lasts for a day or less.
Mating begins after the male confirms that the female is in oestrus, which he does by sniffing her vulva and urine. A resistive female would try to bite or even fight off an advancing male. The male exhibits flehmen, and often licks the neck of the female and rubs his face and the base of his horns against her back. There are several attempts at mounting before the actual copulation. The female shifts her tail to one side, while the male clasps her sides with his forelegs and rests on her back during copulation, which may occur as many as ten times.
The gestational period lasts for seven to eight months, followed by the birth of a single calf. Twins are rare. Pregnant females isolate themselves in thickets as parturition approaches. Newborn calves can stand on their feet within a half-hour of birth. The mother eats the afterbirth. She communicates with the calf by bleating or snorting. Calves are kept hidden from two to three weeks up to two months. At about three to four weeks, the calf begins following its mother, who signals it to do so by raising her tail. Though bereft of horns, mothers will fiercely defend their offspring from predators. Calves are weaned at eight months, following which time they join groups of calves of their own age. Young females remain with their mothers in nursery herds, or may also join bachelor herds. The waterbuck lives to 18 years in the wild and 30 years in captivity.
The waterbuck is native to southern and eastern Africa (including countries such as Angola, Botswana, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda) besides a few countries of western and northern Africa such as Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal. Though formerly widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, its numbers have now decreased in most areas.
The common waterbuck is found east of the Eastern African Rift. Its southern range extends to the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve (KwaZulu Natal) and to central Namibia. By contrast, the defassa waterbuck inhabits western and central Africa. The defassa waterbuck occurs west of the Albertine Rift and ranges from Eritrea to Guinea Bissau in the southern Sahel, its most northerly point of distribution being in southern Mali. Its range also stretches east of the Congo basin through Zambia into Angola, while another branch extends to the Zaire River west of the Congo basin. While the common waterbuck is now extinct in Ethiopia, the defassa waterbuck has become extinct in Gambia.
Waterbuck inhabit scrub and savanna areas alongside rivers, lakes and valleys. Due to their requirement for grasslands as well as water, the waterbuck have a sparse distribution across ecotones (areas of interface between two different ecosystems). A study in the Ruwenzori Range showed that the mean density of waterbuck was 5.5 per square mile, and estimates in the Maasai Mara were as low as 1.3 per square mile. It has been observed that territorial size depends on the quality of the habitat, the age and health of the animal and the population density. The greater the age of the animal or the denser the populations, the smaller are the territories. In Queen Elizabeth National Park, females had home ranges 21–61 hectares (0.081–0.236 sq mi; 52–151 acres) in area whereas home ranges for bachelor males averaged between 24–38 hectares (0.093–0.147 sq mi; 59–94 acres). The oldest female (around 18 years old) had the smallest home range.
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) lists the waterbuck as of least concern (LC). More specifically, the common waterbuck is listed as of Least Concern while the defassa waterbuck is near threatened (NT). The population trend for both the common and defassa waterbuck is decreasing, especially that of the latter, with large populations being eliminated from their habitats due to poaching and human settlement. Their own sedentary nature too is responsible for this to some extent. Numbers have fallen in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Murchison Falls National Park, Akagera National Park, Lake Nakuru National Park, and Comoé National Park. Population decrease in the Lake Nakuru National Park has been attributed to heavy metal poisoning. While cadmium and lead levels were dangerously high in the kidney and the liver, deficiencies of copper, calcium and phosphorus were noted.
Over 60 percent of the defassa waterbuck populations thrive in protected areas, most notably in Niokolo-Koba, Comoe, Mole, Bui, Pendjari, Manovo-Gounda St. Floris, Moukalaba-Doudou, Garamba, Virunga, Omo, Mago, Murchison Falls, Serengeti, and Katavi, Kafue and Queen Elizabeth National Parks, the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon), Ugalla River Forest Reserve, Nazinga Game Ranch, Rukwa Valley, Awash Valley, Murule and Arly-Singou. The common waterbuck occurs in Tsavo, Tarangire, Mikumi, Kruger and Lake Nakuru National Parks, Laikipia, Kajiado, Luangwa Valley, Selous and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi game reserves and private lands in South Africa.
(Wikipedia)
Der Kruger-Nationalpark (deutsch häufig falsch Krüger-Nationalpark) ist das größte Wildschutzgebiet Südafrikas. Er liegt im Nordosten des Landes in der Landschaft des Lowveld auf dem Gebiet der Provinz Limpopo sowie des östlichen Abschnitts von Mpumalanga. Seine Fläche erstreckt sich vom Crocodile-River im Süden bis zum Limpopo, dem Grenzfluss zu Simbabwe, im Norden. Die Nord-Süd-Ausdehnung beträgt etwa 350 km, in Ost-West-Richtung ist der Park durchschnittlich 54 km breit und umfasst eine Fläche von rund 20.000 Quadratkilometern. Damit gehört er zu den größten Nationalparks in Afrika.
Das Schutzgebiet wurde am 26. März 1898 unter dem Präsidenten Paul Kruger als Sabie Game Reserve zum Schutz der Wildnis gegründet. 1926 erhielt das Gebiet den Status Nationalpark und wurde in seinen heutigen Namen umbenannt. Im Park leben 147 Säugetierarten inklusive der „Big Five“, außerdem etwa 507 Vogelarten und 114 Reptilienarten, 49 Fischarten und 34 Amphibienarten.
(Wikipedia)
Als Wasserbock werden zwei Arten afrikanischer Antilopen aus der Gattung der Wasserböcke (Kobus) bezeichnet. Man unterscheidet den Ellipsen-Wasserbock (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) und den Defassa-Wasserbock (Kobus defassa). Beide wurden ursprünglich in einer Art zusammengefasst und zur Unterscheidung von den anderen Arten der Gattung Kobus auch unter dem Namen Gemeiner Wasserbock geführt, heute gelten sie als eigenständig.
Der Ellipsen-Wasserbock (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) ist eine große, kräftige, bis zu 270 kg schwere Antilope mit zotteligem, graubraunem Fell und einem weißen Ring um den Schwanzansatz (die namengebende Ellipse). Auch das Gesicht ist teilweise weiß, und ein weißer Streifen zieht sich von der Kehle bis zum Ohrenansatz. Nur die männlichen Tiere tragen lange, stark geringelte, weit geschwungene und nach vorne gerichtete Hörner. Die Schulterhöhe beträgt 1,30 m.
Das Verbreitungsgebiet reicht von Südafrika und Nordost-Namibia über Botswana und Mosambik und die Savannen Ostafrikas bis nach Äthiopien und Somalia.
Diese Antilopenart ist an Dauergewässer gebunden, in deren Nähe sich Wälder oder offenes Grasgelände mit Dickicht und Schilf bewachsene Gebiete befinden. Junge Männchen bilden eigene Herden, Weibchen und Jungtiere leben in Gruppen von 5 bis 10 Tieren zusammen.
Die beiden Wasserbock-Arten sind weniger stark ans Wasser gebunden als andere Vertreter ihrer Gattung. Sie können sich durchaus vom Wasser entfernen und sind dann in der offenen Savanne oder in Wäldern zu finden. Die weiblichen Wasserböcke leben in Herden von etwa fünf, in seltenen Fällen bis zu siebzig Tieren. Ebenfalls Herden bilden junge Männchen. Dagegen werden ältere Männchen zu Einzelgängern, die ein Revier gegen Artgenossen verteidigen und jedes durchziehende Weibchen für sich beanspruchen.
Wasserböcke gehören zu den häufigsten Großsäugetieren Afrikas. Schätzungsweise gibt es etwa 95.000 Defassa-Wasserböcke und 105.000 Ellipsen-Wasserböcke, von denen mehr als die Hälfte in Schutzgebieten lebt. Beide Arten werden seitens der IUCN als gering gefährdet (near threatened) klassifiziert. Die Bestände außerhalb von Schutzgebieten sind durch Jagd und Habitatzerstörung rückläufig.
(Wikipedia)
Constantine, (The Great) is Emperor Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus. He is almost 4 months old.
In the back there is Duchess Kate.
They are Lagotto Romagnolo dogs.
This is the only breed of dog that is officially recognized as specialized in truffle hunting.
Burchell's Zebra and Waterbuck
Steppenzebras und Ellipsen-Wasserbock
iSimangaliso Wetland Park (previously known as the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park) is situated on the east coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, about 275 kilometres north of Durban. It is South Africa's third-largest protected area, spanning 280 km of coastline, from the Mozambican border in the north to Mapelane south of the Lake St. Lucia estuary, and made up of around 3,280 km2 of natural ecosystems, managed by the iSimangaliso Authority. The park includes:
Lake St. Lucia
St. Lucia Game Reserve
False Bay Park
Kosi Bay
Lake Etrza Nature Reserve
Lake Sibhayi
St. Lucia Marine Reserve
St. Lucia Marine Sanctuary
Sodwana Bay National Park
Mapelane Nature Reserve
Maputaland Marine Reserve
Cape Vidal
Ozabeni
Mfabeni
Tewate Wilderness Area
Mkuze Game Reserve
The park was previously known as the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park, but was renamed effective 1 November 2007. The word isimangaliso means "a miracle" or "something wondrous" in Zulu. The name came as a result of Shaka's subject having been sent to the land of the Tsonga. When he came back he described the beauty that he saw as a miracle.
The park is dueto be integrated into a transfrontier park, the Ponta do Ouro-Kosi Bay Transfrontier Conservation Area, straddling South Africa, Mozambique, and Eswatini. This is in turn planned to become a part of the greater Greater Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area.
Until 1895, the bay had been a home of the Tsonga people and their Tsonga fish kraal. This is the original and the natural home of the Tsonga people and they have lived here for more than 1000 years. Records from early Portuguese sailors rightfully point out this area to be occupied by the Tsonga people and further down south. The area was also known as Tembeland or Thongaland but the name fell into disuse around the early 1900s. The area was ruled by a Tsonga branch of the Vahlanganu (Tembe). The Swiss Missionary, Reverend Henri Alexandra Junod (Known as HA Junod), conducted a scientific and ethnographic study of the Tsonga people during the early 1890s and produced a detailed map, showing the occupation of the bay by the Tsonga Tembe people. The Swiss Missionary, Rev Junod, illustrated in his detailed map that the area was known as Tembeland and that the Tembe capital city was located in the St Lucia bay. Rev Junod's map showed that by 1906, the Tsonga people occupied the land from St Lucia up until Valdezia in the Spelenkon district of the Transvaal province, known today as Limpopo Province. St Lucia bay and Maputo bay are one land and they belong to the Tsonga people, Tsonga villages were built from St Lucia bay until Maputo and they were not separated by any natural division. Around St Lucia, the ruling chief was the Tembe Royal Family, while around Maputo, the ruling class was the Maputo royal family, who are all of the Vahlanganu branch of the Tsonga people. In and around Maputo and St Lucia bay (Tembeland), the language spoken is Ronga, which according to the Swiss Missionary, Rev HA Junod, is not an independent language but a dialect of Xitsonga. According to Rev Junod, Ronga language is so similar to Xitsonga that it cannot be regarded an independent language but is a dialect of a major language known today as Xitsonga.
The Tsonga people were forcefully removed from the park when Britain colonised the area in 1895 and turned the place into a wildlife reserve and established the holiday town of St Lucia. Because of colonisation, the southern part of the park was handed over to the Zulu nation, while the northern part was given to the Tsonga people. Before colonisation, the Tsonga controlled the entire St Lucia bay. Despite colonisation and annexation of land, the Tsonga people still live in the northern part of the park, at Kosi Bay. The Tembe Elephant Park, run by Chief Israel Tembe, is a living history that testify to the rich Tsonga history of this wetland park. Chief Israel Tembe is the custodian of this ancient Tsonga land that was taken away during colonisation. The Tembe kingdom, one of the most powerful kingdoms in Southern Africa before colonisation, was a ruling class for more than eight centuries.
St. Lucia was first named in 1554 Rio dos Medos do Ouro (alternatively Rio dos Médãos do Ouro — River of the Gold Dunes) by the survivors of the Portuguese ship Saint Benedict. At this stage, only the Tugela River mouth was known as St. Lucia. Later, in 1575, the Tugela River was named Tugela. On 13 December 1575, the day of the feast of Saint Lucy, Manuel Peresterello renamed the mouth area to Santa Lucia.
In 1822, St. Lucia was proclaimed by the British as a township.
In 1895, St. Lucia Game Reserve, 30 km north of the town was proclaimed.
In 1971, St. Lucia Lake and the turtle beaches and coral reefs of Maputaland have been listed by the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention).
In December 1999, the park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site at an unveiling ceremony, where Nelson Mandela was the guest of honour.
The park was proclaimed a world heritage site because of the rich biodiversity, unique ecosystems and natural beauty occurring in a relatively small area. The reason for the huge diversity in fauna and flora is the great variety of different ecosystems on the park, ranging from coral reefs and sandy beaches to subtropical dune forests, savannas, and wetlands. Animals occurring on the park include elephant, African leopard, black and southern white rhino, buffalo, and in the ocean, whales, dolphins, and marine turtles including the leatherback and loggerhead turtle.
The park is also home to 1,200 Nile crocodiles and 800 hippopotami.
In December 2013, after 44 years of absence, African lions were reintroduced to iSimangaliso.
There are large outcroppings of underwater reefs which are home to brightly coloured fish and corals. Some of the most spectacular coral diversity in the world is located in Sodwana Bay. The reefs are inhabited by colour-changing octopuses and squid ready to ambush unsuspecting prey. Occasionally gigantic whale sharks can be seen gliding through the water, mouth agape to scoop up tiny plankton.
Twenty-four species of bivalve molluscs are recorded in St. Lucia Lake, which constitutes a considerable portion of the park.
(Wikipedia)
Burchell's Zebra [Equus burchelli]
Appearance
Body stripes are less numerous and broader than that of the Cape Mountain Zebra, whereas body stripes extend around the belly. Leg striping is less prominent. Measures 1.3 to 1.4 metres at the shoulder and weighs 300-320 Kg. They have rounded ears approximately 160-170 mm long. Front portion of mane forms a black tuft between the ears. Diet: Predominantly a grazer, feeding in areas with short grass. Zebra have a strong sensitive upper lip with which it gathers herbage by collecting the grass between the lip and the lower incisors before plucking the harvest.
Breeding
Non seasonal breeder, foals may be born in any month. However, under optimal conditions more foals are born during summer. After a gestation period of 360-390 days, a single foal is born, which weighs 30-35 Kg. Foals are weaned at the age of 11 months.
Behaviour
The Burchell's Zebra lives in small family units, which typically consist of one stallion and one mare with their foals. Non-breeding stallions occur in bachelor groups. Herd stallions are between four to 12 years old. Water holes in conjunction with favoured grazing areas attract family groups which collectively congregate in large numbers. They are often seen in close association with Wildebeest, other plains Antelope and Baboons.
Habitat
Short grassland areas within savanna woodland and grassland plains constitute the preferred habitat. Their dependence on water restricts the Burchell's Zebra to wander further than ten to 12 km from water. Densely vegetated areas are avoided.
Where they are found
Unmistakably a member of the horse family. This species is the largest of the two distinct species inhabiting South Africa's wild life domain. The ranges of the Burchell's Zebra and the Cape Mountain Zebra are mutually exclusive. The Cape mountain Zebra is confined to the Cape mountainous regions, whereas that of the Burchell's Zebra coincides with woodland and grassy plains.
Field Notes
The Burchell's Zebra is the closest relative to the extinct Quagga which roamed the southern plains of South Africa until the 19th century, so close in fact that scientists are using DNA from chosen individual to attempt to bring the Quagga back.
Each individual Zebra has unique markings and act in similar fashion as fingerprints in humans. It is said that newborn Zebra stay close to the mother to imprint her patterns. The southern Burchell's Zebra has a distinctive shadow brown stripe in the white stripe, a characteristic which diminishes the further north they occur.
(krugerpark.co.za)
The waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) is a large antelope found widely in sub-Saharan Africa. It is placed in the genus Kobus of the family Bovidae. It was first described by Irish naturalist William Ogilby in 1833. The thirteen subspecies are grouped under two varieties: the common or Ellisprymnus waterbuck and the Defassa waterbuck. The head-and-body length is typically between 177–235 cm (70–93 in) and the average height is between 120 and 136 cm (47 and 54 in). A sexually dimorphic antelope, males are taller as well as heavier than females. Males reach approximately 127 cm (50 in) at the shoulder, while females reach 119 cm (47 in). Males typically weigh 198–262 kg (437–578 lb) and females 161–214 kg (355–472 lb). The coat colour varies from brown to grey. The long, spiral horns, present only on males, curve backward, then forward and are 55–99 cm (22–39 in) long.
Waterbuck are rather sedentary in nature. A gregarious animal, the waterbuck may form herds consisting of six to 30 individuals. These groups are either nursery herds with females and their offspring or bachelor herds. Males start showing territorial behaviour from the age of five years, but are most dominant from the age of six to nine. The waterbuck cannot tolerate dehydration in hot weather, and thus inhabits areas close to sources of water. Predominantly a grazer, the waterbuck is mostly found on grassland. In equatorial regions, breeding takes place throughout the year, but births are at their peak in the rainy season. The gestational period lasts for seven to eight months, followed by the birth of a single calf.
Waterbuck inhabit scrub and savanna areas along rivers, lakes and valleys. Due to their requirement for grasslands as well as water, the waterbuck have a sparse ecotone distribution. The IUCN lists the waterbuck as being of Least Concern. More specifically, the common waterbuck is listed as of Least Concern while the defassa waterbuck is Near Threatened. The population trend for both the common and defassa waterbuck is downwards, especially that of the latter, with large populations being eliminated from certain habitats because of poaching and human disturbance.
The scientific name of the waterbuck is Kobus ellipsiprymnus. The waterbuck is one of the six species of the genus Kobus and belongs to the family Bovidae. It was first described by Irish naturalist William Ogilby in 1833. The generic name Kobus is a New Latin word, originating from an African name, koba. The specific name ellipsiprymnus refers to the white elliptical ring on the rump, from the Greek ellipes (ellipse) and prymnos (prumnos, hind part). The animal acquired the vernacular name "waterbuck" due to its heavy dependence on water as compared to other antelopes and its ability to enter into water for defence.
The type specimen of the waterbuck was collected by South African hunter-explorer Andrew Steedman in 1832. This specimen was named Antilope ellipsiprymnus by Ogilby in 1833. This species was transferred to the genus Kobus in 1840, becoming K. ellipsiprymnus. It is usually known as the common waterbuck. In 1835, German naturalist Eduard Rüppell collected another specimen, which differed from Steedman's specimen in having a prominent white ring on its rump. Considering it a separate species, Rüppell gave it the Amharic name "defassa" waterbuck and scientific name Antilope defassa. Modern taxonomists, however, consider the common waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck a single species, K. ellipsiprymnus, given the large number of instances of hybridisation between the two. Interbreeding between the two takes place in the Nairobi National Park owing to extensive overlapping of habitats.
Not many fossils of the waterbuck have been found. Fossils were scarce in the Cradle of Humankind, occurring only in a few pockets of the Swartkrans. On the basis of Valerius Geist's theories about the relation of social evolution and dispersal in ungulates during the Pleistocene the ancestral home of the waterbuck is considered to be the eastern coast of Africa - with the Horn of Africa to the north and the East African Rift Valley to the west.
The waterbuck is the largest amongst the six species of Kobus. It is a sexually dimorphic antelope, with the males nearly 7 percent taller than females and around 8 percent longer. The head-and-body length is typically between 177–235 cm (70–93 in) and the average height is between 120 and 136 cm (47 and 54 in).[10] Males reach approximately 127 cm (50 in) at the shoulder, while females reach 119 cm (47 in). The waterbuck is one of the heaviest antelopes. a newborn typically weighs 13.6 kg (30 lb), and growth in weight is faster in males than in females. Males typically weigh 198–262 kg (437–578 lb) and females 161–214 kg (355–472 lb). The tail is 22–45 cm (8.7–17.7 in) long.
The waterbuck is of a robust build. The shaggy coat is reddish brown to grey, and becomes progressively darker with age. Males are darker than females. Though apparently thick, the hair is sparse on the coat. The hair on the neck is, however, long and shaggy. When sexually excited, the skin of the waterbuck secretes a greasy substance with the odour of musk, giving it the name "greasy kob". The odor of this is so unpleasant that it repels predators. This secretion also assists in water-proofing the body when the animal dives into water. The facial features include a white muzzle and light eyebrows and lighter insides of the ears. There is a cream-coloured patch (called "bib") on the throat. Waterbuck are characterised by a long neck and short, strong and black legs. Females have two nipples. Preorbital glands, foot glands and inguinal glands are absent.
The common waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck are remarkably different in their physical appearances. Measurements indicate greater tail length in the latter, whereas the common waterbuck stand taller than the defassa waterbuck. However, the principal differentiation between the two types is the white ring of hair surrounding the tail on the rump, which is a hollow circle in the common waterbuck but covered with white hair in the defassa waterbuck.
The long, spiral horns curve backward, then forward. Found only on males, the horns range from 55 to 99 cm (22 to 39 in) in length. To some extent, the length of the horns is related to the bull's age. A rudimentary horn in the form of a bone lump may be found on the skulls of females.
Waterbuck are rather sedentary in nature, though some migration may occur with the onset of monsoon. A gregarious animal, the waterbuck may form herds consisting of six to 30 individuals. The various groups are the nursery herds, bachelor herds and territorial males. Herd size increases in summer, whereas groups fragment in the winter months, probably under the influence of food availability. As soon as young males start developing horns (at around seven to nine months of age), they are chased out of the herd by territorial bulls. These males then form bachelor herds and may roam in female home ranges. Females have home ranges stretching over 200–600 hectares (0.77–2.32 sq mi; 490–1,480 acres). A few females may form spinster herds. Though females are seldom aggressive, minor tension may arise in herds.
Males start showing territorial behaviour from the age of five years, but are most dominant from the age of six to nine. Territorial males hold territories 4–146 hectares (0.015–0.564 sq mi; 9.9–360.8 acres) in size. Males are inclined to remain settled in their territories, though over time they may leave inferior territories for more spacious ones. Marking of territories includes no elaborate rituals - dung and urine are occasionally dropped. After the age of ten years, males lose their territorial nature and replaced by a younger bull, following which they recede to a small and unprotected area. There is another social group, that of the satellite males, which are mature bulls as yet without their own territories, who exploit resources, particularly mating opportunities, even in the presence of the dominant bull. The territorial male may allow a few satellite males into his territory, and they may contribute to its defence. However, gradually they may deprive the actual owner of his territory and seize the area for themselves. In a study in the Lake Nakuru National Park, only 7 percent of the adult males held territories, and only half of the territorial males tolerated one or more satellite males.
Territorial males may use several kinds of display. In one type of display, the white patch on the throat and between the eyes is clearly revealed, and other displays can demonstrate the thickness of the neck. These activities frighten trespassers. Lowering of the head and the body depict submission before the territorial male, who stands erect. Fights, which may last up to thirty minutes, involve threat displays typical of bovids accompanied by snorting. Fights may even become so violent that one of the opponents meets its death due to severe abdominal or thoracic wounds. A silent animal, the waterbuck makes use of flehmen response for visual communication and alarm snorts for vocal communication. Waterbuck often enter water to escape from predators which include lions, leopards, cheetahs, African wild dogs and Nile crocodiles (leopards and spotted hyenas prey on juveniles). However, it has been observed that the waterbuck does not particularly like being in water. Waterbuck may run into cover when alarmed, and males often attack predators.
Waterbuck are susceptible to ulcers, lungworm infection and kidney stones. Other diseases from which these animals suffer are foot-and-mouth disease, sindbis fever, yellow fever, bluetongue, bovine virus diarrhoea, brucellosis and anthrax. The waterbuck is more resistant to rinderpest than are other antelopes. They are unaffected by tsetse flies but ticks may introduce parasitic protozoa such as Theileria parva, Anaplasma marginale and Baberia bigemina. 27 species of ixodid tick have been found on waterbuck - a healthy waterbuck may carry a total of over 4000 ticks in their larval or nymphal stages, the most common among them being Amblyomma cohaerens and Rhipicephalus tricuspis. Internal parasites found in waterbuck include tapeworms, liverflukes, stomachflukes and several helminths.
The waterbuck exhibits great dependence on water. It can not tolerate dehydration in hot weather, and thus inhabits areas close to sources of water. However, it has been observed that unlike the other members of its genus (such as the kob and puku), the waterbuck ranges farther into the woodlands while maintaining its proximity to water. With grasses constituting a substantial 70 to 95 percent of the diet, the waterbuck is predominantly a grazer frequenting grasslands. Reeds and rushes like Typha and Phragmites may also be preferred.A study found regular consumption of three grass species round the year: Panicum anabaptistum, Echinochloa stagnina and Andropogon gayanus. Hyparrhenia involucrata, Acroceras amplectens and Oryza barthii along with annual species were the main preference in the early rainy season, while long life grasses and forage from trees constituted three-fourths of the diet in the dry season.
Though the defassa waterbuck were found to have a much greater requirement for protein than the African buffalo and the Beisa oryx, the waterbuck was found to spend much less time on browsing (eating leaves, small shoots and fruits) in comparison to the other grazers. In the dry season about 32 percent of the 24-hour day was spent in browsing, whereas no time was spent on it during the wet season. The choice of grasses varies with location rather than availability; for instance, in western Uganda, while Sporobolus pyramidalis was favoured in some places, Themeda triandra was the main choice elsewhere. The common waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck in the same area may differ in their choices; it has been observed that while the former preferred Heteropogon contortus and Cynodon dactylon, the latter showed less preference for these grasses.
Waterbuck are slower than other antelopes in terms of the rate of maturity. While males become sexually mature at the age of six years, females reach maturity within two to three years. Females may conceive by the age of two-and-a-half years, and remain reproductive for another ten years. In equatorial regions, breeding takes place throughout the year, and births are at their peak in the rainy season. However, breeding is seasonal in the Sudan (south of Sahara), with the mating season lasting four months. The season extends for even longer periods in some areas of southern Africa. Oestrus lasts for a day or less.
Mating begins after the male confirms that the female is in oestrus, which he does by sniffing her vulva and urine. A resistive female would try to bite or even fight off an advancing male. The male exhibits flehmen, and often licks the neck of the female and rubs his face and the base of his horns against her back. There are several attempts at mounting before the actual copulation. The female shifts her tail to one side, while the male clasps her sides with his forelegs and rests on her back during copulation, which may occur as many as ten times.
The gestational period lasts for seven to eight months, followed by the birth of a single calf. Twins are rare. Pregnant females isolate themselves in thickets as parturition approaches. Newborn calves can stand on their feet within a half-hour of birth. The mother eats the afterbirth. She communicates with the calf by bleating or snorting. Calves are kept hidden from two to three weeks up to two months. At about three to four weeks, the calf begins following its mother, who signals it to do so by raising her tail. Though bereft of horns, mothers will fiercely defend their offspring from predators. Calves are weaned at eight months, following which time they join groups of calves of their own age. Young females remain with their mothers in nursery herds, or may also join bachelor herds. The waterbuck lives to 18 years in the wild and 30 years in captivity.
The waterbuck is native to southern and eastern Africa (including countries such as Angola, Botswana, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda) besides a few countries of western and northern Africa such as Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal. Though formerly widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, its numbers have now decreased in most areas.
The common waterbuck is found east of the Eastern African Rift. Its southern range extends to the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve (KwaZulu Natal) and to central Namibia. By contrast, the defassa waterbuck inhabits western and central Africa. The defassa waterbuck occurs west of the Albertine Rift and ranges from Eritrea to Guinea Bissau in the southern Sahel, its most northerly point of distribution being in southern Mali. Its range also stretches east of the Congo basin through Zambia into Angola, while another branch extends to the Zaire River west of the Congo basin. While the common waterbuck is now extinct in Ethiopia, the defassa waterbuck has become extinct in Gambia.
Waterbuck inhabit scrub and savanna areas alongside rivers, lakes and valleys. Due to their requirement for grasslands as well as water, the waterbuck have a sparse distribution across ecotones (areas of interface between two different ecosystems). A study in the Ruwenzori Range showed that the mean density of waterbuck was 5.5 per square mile, and estimates in the Maasai Mara were as low as 1.3 per square mile. It has been observed that territorial size depends on the quality of the habitat, the age and health of the animal and the population density. The greater the age of the animal or the denser the populations, the smaller are the territories. In Queen Elizabeth National Park, females had home ranges 21–61 hectares (0.081–0.236 sq mi; 52–151 acres) in area whereas home ranges for bachelor males averaged between 24–38 hectares (0.093–0.147 sq mi; 59–94 acres). The oldest female (around 18 years old) had the smallest home range.
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) lists the waterbuck as of least concern (LC). More specifically, the common waterbuck is listed as of Least Concern while the defassa waterbuck is near threatened (NT). The population trend for both the common and defassa waterbuck is decreasing, especially that of the latter, with large populations being eliminated from their habitats due to poaching and human settlement. Their own sedentary nature too is responsible for this to some extent. Numbers have fallen in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Murchison Falls National Park, Akagera National Park, Lake Nakuru National Park, and Comoé National Park. Population decrease in the Lake Nakuru National Park has been attributed to heavy metal poisoning. While cadmium and lead levels were dangerously high in the kidney and the liver, deficiencies of copper, calcium and phosphorus were noted.
Over 60 percent of the defassa waterbuck populations thrive in protected areas, most notably in Niokolo-Koba, Comoe, Mole, Bui, Pendjari, Manovo-Gounda St. Floris, Moukalaba-Doudou, Garamba, Virunga, Omo, Mago, Murchison Falls, Serengeti, and Katavi, Kafue and Queen Elizabeth National Parks, the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon), Ugalla River Forest Reserve, Nazinga Game Ranch, Rukwa Valley, Awash Valley, Murule and Arly-Singou. The common waterbuck occurs in Tsavo, Tarangire, Mikumi, Kruger and Lake Nakuru National Parks, Laikipia, Kajiado, Luangwa Valley, Selous and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi game reserves and private lands in South Africa.
(Wikipedia)
Der iSimangaliso Wetland Park (bis Oktober 2007 Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park, danach iSimangaliso Wetland Park) ist ein Nationalpark an der Ostküste der südafrikanischen Provinz KwaZulu-Natal. Der Eingang zum Park befindet sich nahe der Kleinstadt St. Lucia.
Der Nationalpark umfasst die Feucht- und Küstengebiete von Mapelane im Süden bis hinauf zur Sodwana-Bucht im Norden und besteht aus vielen kleinen Schutzgebieten mit subtropischer bis tropischer Vegetation. Im Norden liegen die Mkuze-Sümpfe, während sich im Westen trockene Dornensavannen befinden.
Im Zentrum des Parks befindet sich der St.-Lucia-See, nach dem der Park benannt wurde. Mit einer Länge von 40 Kilometern und einer Breite von bis zu 21 Kilometern beträgt seine Fläche rund 300 km²; damit ist er der größte See Südafrikas. In dem 200 Kilometer langen Küstenstreifen finden sich die zweithöchsten bewaldeten Sanddünen der Welt.
In den Feuchtgebieten leben die größten Krokodil- und Flusspferdbestände Südafrikas. In den Savannen im Westen leben Meerkatzen, Nashörner, Büffel und Leoparden. Zwischen den Seen und Sümpfen brüten Reiher, Pelikane und Störche. Der Park verfügt über die höchste Dichte an Amphibien, darunter viele geschützte Arten. Außerdem kann man auf der Meeresseite Buckelwale sehen.
In der Nähe des Nationalparks befindet sich der Ort St. Lucia, in dem es Übernachtungs-, Freizeit- und Einkaufsmöglichkeiten gibt. St. Lucia ist zudem Ausgangspunkt für Walbeobachtungen und Fahrten auf dem St.-Lucia-See zu den Flusspferden.
Der iSimangaliso Wetland Park wurde 1999 in die Liste des Weltnaturerbes der UNESCO aufgenommen.
2004 wurde die Mündung des Feuchtgebietes durch eine Sanddüne gesperrt, um eine Ölpest nach der Havarie des Frachters Jolly Rubino abzuwehren. Seitdem ist der Wasserspiegel erheblich unter Meeresniveau gesunken, so dass die Maßnahme noch nicht rückgängig gemacht werden konnte.
Bis 2007 hieß der Nationalpark Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park. Seit November 2007 wird er iSimangaliso Wetland Park genannt. isimangaliso bedeutet „Wunder“ und verweist auf ein Zulu-Sprichwort über Ujeqe, einem Hofbeamten des Zulu-König Shaka: Ubone isimanga esabonwa uJeqe kwelama Thonga. – „Wenn Du Wunder gesehen hast, dann hast Du dasselbe gesehen wie Ujeqe in Thonga.“ Thonga oder Tongaland ist ein historischer Name für die Region Maputaland, zu der der Park gehört.
(Wikipedia)
Das Steppenzebra (Equus quagga) oder Pferdezebra ist ein Zebra aus der Familie der Pferde (Equidae) und gehört zur Ordnung der Unpaarhufer (Perissodactyla). Es stellt heute die häufigste Zebra-Art in Afrika dar und ist vom Nordosten bis in den Süden des Kontinents verbreitet. Es lebt gesellig in kleinen Herdenverbänden und ernährt sich hauptsächlich von Gräsern. Im Gegensatz zu den anderen heutigen Pferdearten kommt es auch in teilweise geschlossenen Landschaften vor. Der Bestand, dessen größte Population heute in der Serengeti lebt, gilt als nicht gefährdet. Es werden sechs rezente Unterarten unterschieden, die sich meistens deutlich in der Streifenzeichnung voneinander abheben.
(Wikipedia)
Als Wasserbock werden zwei Arten afrikanischer Antilopen aus der Gattung der Wasserböcke (Kobus) bezeichnet. Man unterscheidet den Ellipsen-Wasserbock (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) und den Defassa-Wasserbock (Kobus defassa). Beide wurden ursprünglich in einer Art zusammengefasst und zur Unterscheidung von den anderen Arten der Gattung Kobus auch unter dem Namen Gemeiner Wasserbock geführt, heute gelten sie als eigenständig.
Der Ellipsen-Wasserbock (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) ist eine große, kräftige, bis zu 270 kg schwere Antilope mit zotteligem, graubraunem Fell und einem weißen Ring um den Schwanzansatz (die namengebende Ellipse). Auch das Gesicht ist teilweise weiß, und ein weißer Streifen zieht sich von der Kehle bis zum Ohrenansatz. Nur die männlichen Tiere tragen lange, stark geringelte, weit geschwungene und nach vorne gerichtete Hörner. Die Schulterhöhe beträgt 1,30 m.
Das Verbreitungsgebiet reicht von Südafrika und Nordost-Namibia über Botswana und Mosambik und die Savannen Ostafrikas bis nach Äthiopien und Somalia.
Diese Antilopenart ist an Dauergewässer gebunden, in deren Nähe sich Wälder oder offenes Grasgelände mit Dickicht und Schilf bewachsene Gebiete befinden. Junge Männchen bilden eigene Herden, Weibchen und Jungtiere leben in Gruppen von 5 bis 10 Tieren zusammen.
Die beiden Wasserbock-Arten sind weniger stark ans Wasser gebunden als andere Vertreter ihrer Gattung. Sie können sich durchaus vom Wasser entfernen und sind dann in der offenen Savanne oder in Wäldern zu finden. Die weiblichen Wasserböcke leben in Herden von etwa fünf, in seltenen Fällen bis zu siebzig Tieren. Ebenfalls Herden bilden junge Männchen. Dagegen werden ältere Männchen zu Einzelgängern, die ein Revier gegen Artgenossen verteidigen und jedes durchziehende Weibchen für sich beanspruchen.
Wasserböcke gehören zu den häufigsten Großsäugetieren Afrikas. Schätzungsweise gibt es etwa 95.000 Defassa-Wasserböcke und 105.000 Ellipsen-Wasserböcke, von denen mehr als die Hälfte in Schutzgebieten lebt. Beide Arten werden seitens der IUCN als gering gefährdet (near threatened) klassifiziert. Die Bestände außerhalb von Schutzgebieten sind durch Jagd und Habitatzerstörung rückläufig.
(Wikipedia)
Variant names: The Serpent Column; Three-headed Serpent; Yılanlı Sütun, Serpentine Column; Plataean Tripod; Delphi Tripod.
A sacrificial tripod, built to commemorate the Greeks who defeated the Persian Empire at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE. It was removed by Constantine I in 324 and re-erected in Sultanahmet Square, Constantinople (Istanbul). See: www.flickr.com/photos/gballardice/52003530431 & www.flickr.com/photos/gballardice/52003783889
Constantine I (Flavius Valerius Constantinus, Constantine the Great) c.272 CE-337 CE, Roman emperor (r.306-337), and the first to convert to Christianity.
Constantine, (The Great) at right & Lampo having loads of fun!
They are Lagotto Romagnolo dogs.
This is the only breed of dog that is officially recognized as specialized in truffle hunting.
Italien / Lombardei - Sirmione
Scaligero Castle
Scaligerburg
Sirmione (Brescian: Sirmiù; Venetian: Sirmion) is a comune in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy (northern Italy). It is bounded by Desenzano del Garda (Lombardy) and Peschiera del Garda in the province of Verona and the region of Veneto. It has a historical centre which is located on the Sirmio peninsula that divides the lower part of Lake Garda.
History
The first traces of human presence in the area of Sirmione date from the 6th–5th millennia BC. Settlements on palafitte existed in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC.
Starting from the 1st century BC, the area of the Garda, including what is now Sirmione, became a favourite resort for rich families coming from Verona, then the main Roman city in north-eastern Italy. The poet Catullus praised the beauties of the city and spoke of a villa he had in the area.
In the late Roman era (4th–5th centuries AD) the city became a fortified strongpoint defending the southern shore of the lake. A settlement existed also after the Lombard conquest of northern Italy: in the late years of the Lombard kingdom, the city was capital of a judiciary district directly subordinated to the king. Ansa, wife of King Desiderius, founded a monastery and a church in the city.
Around the year 1000, Sirmione was probably a free comune, but fell into the hands of the Scaliger in the early 13th century. Mastino I della Scala was probably the founder of the castle. In the same period, Sirmione was refuge for Patarines hereticals. The military role of the city continued until the 16th century, but a garrison remained in the castle until the 19th century.
Sirmione was a possession of the Venetian Republic from 1405 until 1797, when it was acquired by the Habsburg Empire. It became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860.
World heritage site
The prehistoric settlement at Lugana Vecchia is part of the Prehistoric Pile dwellings around the Alps a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Notable people
The poet Gaius Valerius Catullus lived in the 1st century BC. His family owned a villa in Sirmione.
Alfred Tennyson described his impressions of Sirmione in the summer of 1880 in his poem Frater Ave atque Vale.
Italian writers who wrote about Sirmione include Giosuè Carducci, Antonio Fogazzaro and Gabriele D'Annunzio.
Ezra Pound and James Joyce met in the city in 1920.
Maria Callas had a villa in Sirmione.
English writer Naomi Jacob lived in Sirmione until her death in 1964. A small plaque in Sirmione commemorates her.
Blessed Benedetta Bianchi Porro lived in Sirmione, when her family moved in the 1940s, where her father, Guido was in charge of the hot spring aqueducts. She died on January 23, 1964, and a small plaque is placed in the town to commemorate her presence, especially that she is now closer to becoming a Saint of the Catholic Church.
(Wikipedia)
The Scaligero Castle is a fortress from the Scaliger era, access point to the historical centre of Sirmione, on Lake Garda. It's one of Italy's best preserved castles. In 2019 it was the 22nd most visited attraction in Italy, with 308,459 visitors.
History
Built in the latter half of the 14th Century on the southernmost part of Lake Garda in Northern Italy. Construction was initiated on behalf of the Della Scala family of Verona, who are known as the Scaligeri from which it takes it name. The family ruled Verona and a large part of the Venetian area from the years 1259 to 1387.
The castle was later controlled by the Republic of Venice from the 15th Century after the Della Scala family submitted to Venice in 1405. It continued to be an important fortification in the area. Its decline in importance began with the completion of the nearby fortress in Perchiera del Garda in the 16th Century.
It continued to be used as an armory and fortification until the Unification of Italy when it became the office of the local government of Sirmione.[4] Restoration began after World War I in 1919, when it became a museum and tourist attraction. However it was not fully restored until 2018 when the internal waters of the castle were cleared. The internal docks are the only surviving example of a 14th Century fortified port.
(Wikipedia)
Sirmione ist eine italienische Gemeinde (comune) mit 8336 Einwohnern (Stand 31. Dezember 2019) in der Provinz Brescia, Region Lombardei.
Geografie
Lage
Sirmione liegt am Südufer des Gardasees etwa 31 km südöstlich von Brescia und etwa 30 km nordwestlich von Verona auf einer Halbinsel, die etwa vier Kilometer in den See hineinragt. Der historische Ortskern erstreckt sich an der schmalsten Stelle der Halbinsel etwa drei Kilometer vom Südufer entfernt. In diesem oberen Bereich hat die Landzunge die Form eines Dreiecks mit der größten Seitenlänge von 1250 m und einer Breite von 750 m und besteht aus drei Hügeln: „Cortine“, „San Pietro in Mavino“ und den „Grotten des Catull“. Im Altertum war das Südufer des Gardasees von einem dichten Wald bewachsen. Heute ist die Vegetation mediterran geprägt und besteht zu großen Teilen aus Olivenbäumen.
Zur Gemeinde Sirmione gehören auch die Ortsteile Colombare di Sirmione, Lugana und Rovizza. Das Gemeindegebiet grenzt an die Region Venetien mit den zur Provinz Verona gehörenden Gemeinden Castelnuovo del Garda, Lazise und Peschiera del Garda sowie an die lombardischen Gemeinden Desenzano del Garda und Padenghe sul Garda.
Geschichte
Die Geschichte der Halbinsel reicht bis in die Steinzeit im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. zurück. Bereits im 17. Jahrhundert v. Chr. entstanden im flachen Wasser Ansiedlungen von Pfahlbauten, die sich von Salò bis Garda ausdehnten. Nach und nach wurde auch das Festland besiedelt, wenngleich keine Dokumentation über die Besiedlung vor der Zeit der Römer existiert. Es wird vermutet, dass auf der Halbinsel dank ihrer einzigartigen, Schutz bietenden Form schon sehr früh Ansiedlungen entstanden sind.
Zur Zeit der Römer war die Halbinsel ein Ferienort höhergestellter Familien. Von den in dieser Zeit entstandenen drei Villen sind heute nur die „Grotten des Catull“ auf dem letzten der drei Hügel erhalten. Der Poet Gaius Valerius Catullus, der im 1. Jahrhundert v. Chr. in Rom gelebt hat, hat diesen Ort gelegentlich besucht und so der Villa ihren Namen gegeben.
Sirmione erlangte große Bedeutung durch seine Lage an wichtigen Verkehrswegen. Im „Itinerarium Antonini“, einem Verzeichnis der Römischen Reichsstraßen aus dem 3. Jahrhundert, wird bereits die Existenz eines Ortes erwähnt, wo die Reisenden anhalten konnten, dem „mansino Sermione“, der in der Mitte der Straße zwischen Brescia und Verona lag.
Unter der Herrschaft der Langobarden, die sich im Jahre 568 in Oberitalien verbreiteten, entstanden verschiedene Klöster und Kirchen, von denen heute fast nichts erhalten ist.
Nach den Geschehnissen der Inquisition in den 1250er Jahren in Südfrankreich zogen sich die überlebenden Katharer und Patariner nach Norditalien zurück. Sie konnten die Festung Sirmione als letzte Zufluchtsstätte halten. Im 13. Jahrhundert dehnte die Familie della Scala ihr Herrschaftsgebiet bis zum Gardasee aus und übernahm 1262 in Verona und Sirmione die Regierungsgeschäfte. 1276 ging Mastino I. della Scala gegen die tiefreligiösen Patariner vor, die sich über den Reichtum und die Macht der Kirche empörten. Die Burg wurde eingenommen und von denen, die auch schon 1244 in Montségur gelitten hatten, blieben 200 übrig, die zwei Jahre später als Ketzer auf dem Scheiterhaufen in der Arena von Verona verbrannt wurden.
Unter den Scaligern und während der Herrschaft der Venezianer wurden die römischen Befestigungsanlagen um- und ausgebaut.
Wirtschaft und Tourismus
Heute hat Sirmione besonders als gehobener Ferienort mit seinen zahlreichen Hotels und sonstigen Ferienunterkünften, gastronomischen Einrichtungen und Geschäften mit weit gefächertem Angebot Bedeutung erlangt. Der Ausflugstourismus, in Form von tausenden von Tagesausflüglern, hat den Ort das ganze Jahr tagsüber fest im Griff. Mit seinen hochmodernen Kureinrichtungen verfügt Sirmione über das größte private Thermalzentrum Italiens.
Persönlichkeiten
Maria Callas (1923–1977) lebte mit Giovanni Battista Meneghini (1896–1981) zwischen 1950 und 1959 in Sirmione
Catull – Die Grotte di Catullo in Sirmione hielt man lange für die Villa des Catull, sie entstanden aber wohl erst nach seinem Tod
Kurt von Koseritz (1838–1916), anhaltischer Staatsmann und Erbauer der Villa von Koseritz (enteignet 1915), heute das Hotel Villa Cortine, auf einem der drei Hügel der Halbinsel
Hellmut Wolff (1906–1986), deutscher Astrologe und Mystiker, wurde hier geboren
(Wikpedia)
Die Scaligerburg (italienisch Castello Scaligero) in Sirmione ist eine Wasserburg in der gleichnamigen italienischen Gemeinde am Südufer des Gardasees in der Provinz Brescia. Sie ist eine der außergewöhnlichsten militärarchitektonischen Anlagen des 14. Jahrhunderts in Italien, die relativ unverändert erhalten geblieben ist.
Lage
Die Burg liegt auf der etwa vier Kilometer in den Gardasee ragenden Halbinsel von Sirmione an einer leicht zu verteidigenden Stelle. Sie wurde an einer etwas mehr als 200 m breiten Stelle an der Ostseite der Halbinsel errichtet und liegt, vom Südufer des Sees kommend, am Beginn des historischen Ortskerns von Sirmione. Die Lage am Ortsrand wurde dabei bewusst gewählt und ist Charakteristikum für Burgen, die unter den verschiedenen Signorie in Ober- und Mittelitalien im 14. Jahrhundert errichtet wurden. Die Randlage unterstreicht das Misstrauen des herrschenden Adels vor dem einfachen Volk, so dass der Burg in Sirmione die doppelte Aufgabe zukam, ihre Burgherrn vor Angriffen von außen und zugleich vor Übergriffen aus der Bevölkerung zu schützen.
Geschichte
Die Burg wurde 1409 erstmals als roche Sirmione urkundlich erwähnt, als der Doge Michele Steno die Einwohner Sirmiones aufforderte zum finanziellen Unterhalt der Burg mit beizutragen. Der Begriff Rocca bezeichnet im Italienischen eine auf einem Felsvorsprung errichtete Höhenburg. Auch wenn die Bezeichnung für die in Sirmione errichtete Anlage nicht zutreffend ist, wurde sie insbesondere zwischen dem 14. und 15. Jahrhundert als Rocca scaligera bezeichnet.
Über die Entstehungszeit der Burg liegen keine historischen Dokumente vor. Das im Frühmittelalter im 8. Jahrhundert urkundlich erwähnte Castrum Sermioni bezieht sich, wie es damals üblich war, auf den befestigten Ort und beweist nicht die Existenz einer schon zu dieser Zeit bestehenden Burganlage. Umstritten ist, ob die Burg auf den Resten des römischen Hafens von Sirmione errichtet wurde oder nicht.
Die Entstehung wird je nach Autor unterschiedlich datiert. Einige führen die Errichtung der Burg infolge des von Mastino I. della Scala unterstützten und von seinem Bruder Alberto I. della Scala 1276 angeführten Feldzuges gegen die in Sirmione ansässigen Mitglieder der Katharer zurück und legen die Grundsteinlegung auf das Jahr 1277 zurück. Die gängigste Annahme ist, dass die Burg zwischen dem 13. und 14. Jahrhundert entstanden ist. Dabei wird davon ausgegangen, dass die Burg in mehreren Bauphasen beginnend unter Mastino I. und mit dem abschließenden Bau des Hafens im späten 14. Jahrhundert, womöglich bereits unter venezianischer Herrschaft, entstanden ist.
Die glaubhafteste Hypothese ist, dass die Burg in der zweiten Hälfte des 14. Jahrhunderts entstanden ist, was anhand der Bauelemente und der Bautechnik den größten Rückhalt findet. So sind beispielsweise die in der Scaligerburg eingesetzten Zugbrücken in Italien erst seit dem 14. Jahrhundert geläufig. Der Bau des Burghafens kann zwischen 1351 und 1375 angesiedelt werden. In diesem Zeitrahmen erhielten die Scaliger das Reichsvikariat über den Gardasee (1351) und kann das fast baugleiche Hafenbecken der Scaligerburg in Lazise (1375) datiert werden, was den Schluss zulässt, dass der Hafen unter der Herrschaft von Cansignorio della Scala oder seinem Nachfolger Antonio della Scala errichtet wurde. Auf Letzteren weisen auch die unkenntlich gemachten Steinwappen hin, die an den beiden Burgtoren, am Bergfried und an einigen Wehrtürmen angebracht sind. Das einzige eindeutig leserliche Wappen am westlichen Burgtor ist eine 1890 entstandene Nachbildung, wie sie im Original noch an der Scaligerburg in Torri del Benaco zu sehen ist. Dementsprechend kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass mit dem Bau der Bau möglicherweise bereits unter Cansignorio della Scala († 1375) begonnen, sie aber sicherlich unter Antonio della Scala (1363–1388) fertiggestellt wurde, wie es für die Scaligerburgen in Torri del Benaco, Lazise und Valeggio sul Mincio dokumentiert ist. Dabei kann nicht ausgeschlossen werden, dass innerhalb des in Frage kommenden Zeitraums der Bau in mehreren Bauphasen und unter verschiedener Bauleitung ausgeführt wurde.
Wenige Jahre nach Fertigstellung gelangte die Scaligerburg in den Besitz der Visconti, nachdem Gian Galeazzo Visconti 1387 die Herrschaft über Verona an sich gerissen und Antonio della Scala vertrieben hatte. Aber bereits 1405 wechselte die Burg, nach einem kurzen Restaurationsversuch der Scaliger durch Guglielmo della Scala 1404, erneut den Besitzer und wurde Teil der Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia. Nach der Niederlage Venedigs in der Schlacht von Agnadello 1509 fiel Sirmione für einige Jahre unter die Herrschaft der Gonzaga. Bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt dürfte die Scaligerburg keine wesentlichen baulichen Veränderungen erlitten haben. Erst unter den Gonzaga fanden Arbeiten an Zinnen und Mauern statt. Überliefert ist der Besuch von Isabella d’Este 1514 auf der Burg, die aber aufgrund der spartanischen Ausstattung eine Übernachtung außerhalb der Scaligerburg vorzog.
Bereits 1515 kehrten die Venezianer nach Sirmione zurück und bestimmten bis zum Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts das Geschehen. Mit der Rückkehr Venedigs verlor die Scaligerburg endgültig ihre militärische Bedeutung, da die Serenissima Peschiera del Garda als militärischen Stützpunkt ausbaute. In der Folge wurde die Burg vor allem als Lager genutzt. Ein Dokument von 1600 zählt zwölf Büchsen, zwölf Hakenbüchsen und eine Kanone sowie eine Besatzung von 20 Soldaten auf.
Der Dornröschenschlaf in den die Burg verfiel, bewahrte sie vor wesentlichen baulichen Veränderungen und Anpassungen. Infolge des Friedens von Lunéville 1801 gelangte Sirmione zur Provinz Brescia, so dass die Scaligerburg in Sirmione heute die einzige Scaligerburg ist, die in der Provinz Brescia liegt. Während der napoleonischen Epoche wurde der Zwinger überdacht, der in den 1860er Jahren noch mit zwei Fenstern durchbrochen wurde, und unter den ab 1815 herrschenden Habsburgern der Palas aufgestockt. Nach dem Zweiten Italienischen Unabhängigkeitskrieges und dem Fall der Lombardei an das im Entstehen begriffene Königreich Italien 1859 wurde die Burg als Stützpunkt der italienischen Gardaseeflottille genutzt. Zwischen 1861 und 1917 wechselten sich Gemeinde und Staat mehrmals als Besitzer ab, da die Gemeinde zwar das Bauwerk nutzen wollte, aber immer Schwierigkeiten mit dem finanziellen Unterhalt hatte. Der verwahrloste Zustand und die von der Gemeinde unter anderem als Postamt, Gefängnis sowie als Unterkunft, der in Sirmione stationierten Carabinieri genutzten Anlage, ließen bei den staatlichen Denkmalschutzbehörden den Entschluss reifen, die Burg zu enteignen. Bestärkt wurden sie dabei auch von dem kommunalen Plan, das mittlerweile verlandete Hafenbecken der Burg in einen Garten zu verwandeln. Die 1911 eingeleitete Enteignung konnte 1917 abgeschlossen werden. Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg begannen die ersten bedeutenden Restaurierungsarbeiten. Dabei wurde die in den 1860er Jahren vorgenommenen baulichen Änderungen wieder rückgängig gemacht, das Hafenbecken erneut ausgehoben und geflutet sowie die Brustwehren und Zinnen rekonstruiert.
Im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde sie nach der deutschen Besetzung Italiens im September 1943 von deutschen Truppen beschlagnahmt. Nach dem Krieg diente sie erneut verschiedenen Zwecken. Zeitweise waren in der Burg das Gemeindearchiv und die Gemeindebibliothek untergebracht. 1975 fanden weitere umfangreiche Restaurierungsarbeiten statt, bei denen unter anderem die Zugbrücke am südlichen Burgeingang rekonstruiert wurde. 1976 übernahm die Soprintendenza in Brescia die Leitung der Burg. Ende der 1990er Jahre wurde die Westfassade restauriert, wobei die neue Verputzung auch Kritik hervorrief. 2015 übernahm der neu eingerichtete regionale Museumsverbund der Lombardei (it. Polo Museale Regionale della Lombardia) die Leitung der Scaligerburg. Unter dem Museumsverbund wurde die Scaligerburg umfangreich restauriert, so dass 2018 das Hafenbecken der Burg erstmals für Besucher zugänglich gemacht werden konnte.
Beschreibung
Die von einem unbekannt gebliebenen Festungsbauingenieur im 14. Jahrhundert errichtete Scaligerburg besteht aus zwei Hauptelementen, der Hauptburg mit dem Bergfried und dem Hafen. Sie ist auf drei Seiten von einem mit Wasser gefüllten Burggraben umgeben, der mit dem Gardasee verbunden ist. An der Ostseite grenzt die Burg mit dem Hafenbecken direkt an den See. Die Burg war Eckpunkt des von den Scaligern um Sirmione angelegten Verteidigungssystems, bestehend aus der Stadtmauer, Wehrtürmen und Stadttoren. Im Gegensatz zur Burg ist der Großteil dieser Befestigung nicht mehr vorhanden. Erhalten geblieben ist das neben der Burg liegende Stadttor, das den Zugang von Süden abriegelte und eine ähnliche Bauweise aufweist, wie das nur wenige Meter weiter östlich gelegene südliche Burgtor. Das Stadttor wurde später abgeflacht und in Richtung Ortskern verlängert, die Zugbrücke 1876 durch eine Steinbrücke ersetzt. Ein anderes nach Norden hinausführende Stadttor ist baulich so verändert worden, dass es im Ortsbild fast nicht mehr auffällt. Die auffälligsten Reste der Scaliger-Mauer mit einem erhaltenen Wehrturm liegen an der Ostküste der Halbinsel, etwas nördlich der Burg in der Nähe der Pfarrkirche Santa Maria Maggiore, die selbst zum Teil in die Stadtmauer eingebettet ist.
Die Burg weist ohne den ummauerten Hafen eine Fläche von 4172 m² auf. Der westliche und nördliche Wassergraben ist zwischen 12 und 15 m breit, während er im Süden eine Weite von bis zu 25 m aufweist.
Burgtore und Zwinger
Die Scaligerburg von Sirmione besitzt zwei Eingänge. Das westliche Burgtor an der Piazza Castello liegt hinter der Stadtmauer und bildet heute den einzigen Zugang zur Burg. An der Südseite liegt das besser erhalten aber für Besucher geschlossene Südtor. Hier ist der Zugbrückenvorbau an dem die Zugbrücke aufliegt ebenso noch vorhanden, wie auch die Zugbrücke, die nicht durch eine Steinbrücke, wie am Westtor ersetzt worden ist. Geschützt werden beide Eingänge von einem etwa 15 m hohen Ravelin, wobei das Ravelin am Südtor noch zusätzlich überdacht ist. An den Außenwänden der beiden Ravelins sind einige Steinwappen angebracht. Am Westtor findet sich das einzige noch erkennbare Wappen von Antonio della Scala, das allerdings eine Nachbildung von 1890 ist. Im gleichen Jahr wurde auch die steinerne Figur des Markuslöwen am Westtor angebracht.
Beide Eingänge verfügen über einen kleineren Nebeneingang mit einer eigenen Zugbrückenkonstruktion, der Fußgängern vorbehalten war. Da das Stadttor über keinen separaten Eingang für Fußgänger verfügt, kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass Fußgänger über die Burg in den Ort geführt wurden.
Während der westliche Ravelin direkt an die Hauptburg anschließt und von zwei der insgesamt drei Wehrtürme flankiert wird, liegt zwischen dem Ravelin am Südtor und der Hauptburg der Zwinger. Letzterer kann noch in eine Burg- und einen Hafenzwinger untergliedert werden, da der größere, östlich des Südtors liegende Zwinger, die Hauptburg vom ummauerten Hafen der Burg trennt. Die Außenmauern des Zwingers sind zwischen 7 und 8 m hoch und haben im Schnitt eine Stärke von 1,3 m. Sie sind von Brustwehren mit flachen sogenannten Guelfenzinnen umgeben. Zwischen dem Ravelin des Südtors und der Hauptburg trennt ein relativ schmaler und mit hohen Mauern umgebener Durchgang die beiden Zwinger ab, die über jeweils einen Durchgang links und rechts zu erreichen sind. Vor der Hauptburg liegt ein zweites Ravelin mit einem Haupt- und Nebendurchgang, die wiederum mit Zugbrücken abgeriegelt werden können.
Hafen
Der Hafen der Burg hat einen trapezförmigen Grundriss und ist 2050 m² groß. Er ist ein in Italien einzigartiges Beispiel für einen im Mittelalter entstandenen militärisch genutzten Hafen, der in seiner ursprünglichen Form erhalten geblieben ist. Der bau- und in etwa zeitgleich errichtete Hafen der Scaligerburg in Lazise ist dagegen nur noch in Teilen als solcher zu erkennen. Unklar ist, wie der Hafen entstanden ist. Entweder wurde das Becken ausgegraben und dann geflutet oder der Bereich lag bereits im Wasser und Mauern und Türme wurde in Pfahlbauweise errichtet. Archäologische Sondierungen konnten bislang keinen Aufschluss darüber geben.
Der Hafen ist mit dem östlichen der beiden Zwinger mit der Hauptburg verbunden. Zwei getrennte Durchgänge vom Zwinger führen jeweils zur nördlichen und südlichen Hafenmauer. Die 8 m hohen und 90 cm starken Hafenmauern können auf drei Seiten auf Brustwehren oder auf den auf Seehöhe gelegenen Anlegestellen begangen werden. Lediglich die am Zwinger gelegene Westseite ist nicht begehbar. Ob dies auf eine später erfolgte bauliche Veränderung zurückzuführen ist oder bereits von Anfang so geplant war, lässt sich nicht sagen. Die 9 m breite Hafenöffnung liegt am südwestlichen Eckpunkt und ist durch einen Wehrturm geschützt. Letzterer ist der einzige Turm der gesamten Burg, der nicht als Schalenturm errichtet wurde. Weitere Türme zum Schutz des Hafens befinden sich am nordwestlichen Eck sowie in der Mitte der nördlichen und südlichen Hafenmauer. Die flachen Guelfenzinnen auf den Kurtinen weisen zum Teil Schießscharten für Bogenschützen auf.
Der Hafen hat im Laufe der Jahrhunderte keine größeren baulichen Veränderungen erfahren, verlandete allerdings und wurde 1919 wieder freigelegt. Im 20. Jahrhundert wurde er mehrmals restauriert. Seit 2018 ist er auch für Besucher wieder geöffnet und kann im Rahmen der Burgbesichtigung besichtigt werden.
(Wikipedia)
Not a very exciting wallpaper, but I had to make myself one using pics of my concert.
ALLSIZES - 1280x1024
If you feel like reading how it was, here a little - very detailed - story about this joyful day.
13 november 2009, a day I would like to call the best day of my life.
I woke up at 7am, you expect me to be tired.. but not today, I was wide awake. The weather decided to be an ass today, so it was raining. ALL DAY. But again, that could not stop me today. So I ate some breakfast, got ready and left to go to the busstop at 8.45am.. At 9.30 I arrived at the venue, already seeing a few people outside. Still I had a good chance of getting front row from my place in the line. So then I sat there, in the FREEZING cold. Then, at 2pm we saw a bus. A black bus, going the direction of the venue. The screaming started, it was crazy. An hour later ANOTHER bus arrived, again.. screams.
As you know, I won soundcheck passes.. that meant I had to go to the meet up place at 3.30pm. At 3pm my friend who I decided to take with me to the soundcheck party arrived. I got out of the line, and we both went to the place we had to meet up. (yes, I stood in line for nothing, but that was only because we expected that we had to get back in line after sound check) When we arrived at the place we got yellow wristbands. It was only 3.30pm and the sound check wasn't until 5pm.. so, we being smart girls went to the Merchandise stand, since no one was there because they can't leave their spot in the line. We both got a necklace that says 'JB world tour 2009' and we got the LVATT shirt that Nick wore. We decided to wear it right away, so we did. Then it was time for us to go back to the place where someone would pick us up to go to the sound check party. There were about 20/30 people. Then some dude came out and told us we should make a line standing in pairs.
So we did. Then we started walking... let me tell you, only thinking about that moment gives me goosebumps. I was so nervous. I was 1 minute away from seeing my heroes, and that thought was making me insaanely excited. We arrived at this big black door, which led to
the stage. We heard someone drumming, and my heartbeat went up another 2389423 beats per minute. The black door opened. The man told us to stay calm, and follow him to the stage. So there I went, the moment I had been waiting for 3 years. When we saw the stage, I was just in awe for a second. Not to mention JOHN TAYLOR was on it. Me and my friend went to look for a spot to stand, we ended up in front of Jack, who was killing it on the drums btw. We were front row. Then, I saw the tip of 'someones' hair on the other end of the stage, disappearing under the stage. My face right then was something like :O, only after seeing the tip of someones hair, pretty pathetic if you ask me. haha. I told my friend but she didn't see it in time. Then, THEY walked up on stage as if it is the most casual thing to do (ok, so it is for them). Now, you would have expected me to go nuts or something, but I didn't.. I was just amazed. Seriously, the are such beautiful men. I'm not even kidding. Then it hit me, and I could produce sound again.. it was something like a repeated - gah, look at them! GOSH they are so amazing! They started to sing BB Good, and they nailed it. They are such good live performers, and I'm not just saying that because I love them.. they really are. After this song we could ask some questions. A girl asked if Kevin named his guitars, he said he didn't. Joe told him he should name the guitar he was using right now. It was a gold glitter guitar. Kevin named it 'Sparkleface' hahha. Perfect. Then a Girl asked if she could get a hug, Joe told her she could. I didn't mind, she was not some crazy ass teenie or anything, just a nice girl hah. So she came on stage, and hugged them all. Then Joe decided he was gonna sing 'I gotta find you' while she was on stage. Nick shook his head in a 'Oh, Joe' way. It was hilarious. So, they sang I gotta Find You, again.. they nailed it. Now it was time for Nick to drum. -yay for the drumfaces!- They sang Video Girl. After this it was time for them to leave already.. they are the cutest things, they were smiling at all of us the whole time. So they left the stage, and the same dude that brought us here took us back to the lobby. It was now 6pm. Then it REALLY hit us, we were running down that lobby like idiots realizing we just saw them. I still get a smile on my face thinking of that moment. Here some photos of the sound check, just so you get an idea how close we were :
We asked the security dude if we had to go back outside to stand in the line, but he told us we could enter through the back door when the doors outside opened too.
So that was pretty amazing, it meant we had a bigger chance to get front row again! We decided to just stay by the same black door as where we went to the sound check before. After waiting for 30 minutes the security guys opened the door, but we couldn't pass them yet. They were waiting for the signal that the doors outside were open too. We were all holding our tickets in our hands so that we could pass them quick so we could run to the stage. There were only two girls on front of me and my friend. So our chances were BIG. All of the sudden the guys started to let us pass. They got our tickets and of we were. Running like a couple of crazy people to get in front. But, it payed of. We were FRONT ROW. On the exact same spot we were standing during sound check, so in front of Jack. At that moment I could not believe we were front row.
I mean, you hope you get there but you don't really expect that you will. It was now 6.45pm, and we were standing there for 5 minutes when we saw the outside doors open.. then the mania began. Everyone wanted to get as close as possible, which is understandable. The arena started to get full. At 7.45pm it looked like everyone who was inside. At 8pm the support act took the stage, Valerius. They were pretty good and seemed like nice guys.The lead singer and guitarist are brothers, thought that was a fun fact to share haha. Anyway, here a quick shot of them:
I chose that picture basically because their photographer was hot. He is the dude in the lower corner obviously haha. Now, I know you couldn't care less about the support act, so on the the main act now. At 8.30pm Valerius left the stage.. The crew took the stage quickly to get their stuff of etc. The crowd was getting pumped now and started doing the wave and whatnot. Lots of screams going like 'Jonas Jonas Jonas!'..
At 9pm the moment was there. We heard a school bell. And we all know what that means, BOUNCE. Everyone sang along, the security guard in front of me had a big 'wtf' face on.. like, THIS is the kind of music a band called 'The Jonas Brothers' make? It was quite funny haha. After Bounce Queens 'We Will Rock You' started playing, so the intro. And everyone went nuts. The lights went out. The screams got louder. And sadly, the pushing got worse, but I couldn't care less..as if they could get any closer then they were? We heard guitars playing, and then the big moment was there, they came on. The Jonas Brothers, Kevin, Nick and Joe were on stage and the crowd went even crazier then before. Now I'm not gonna describe how EVERY song went, I'll just pick out a few things that stood out. After they finished Paranoid they introduced themselves, I still wonder WHY they do that.. as if there is a single person in that room that does NOT know who they are. I would also like to point out that I touched Big Rob, and exchanged smiles with Rob Hoffman, also known as the kick ass photographer.
Then Joe had some exciting news, they were chose Holland to film their whole concert for 'Living The Dream' AND he said we were the loudest crowd so far. That made me pretty proud hahah. During Poison Ivy Joe thought it was necessary to wear bunny ears, I'm not gonna stop him from doing that.. so, yes, he was wearing bunny ears. He also wore shutter shades during another song, not sure which haha. Kevin was smiling throughout the WHOLE concert, not kidding.. there wasn't a moment where he wasn't smiling. He is the most precious thing. Joe danced with the horn section during WWIII and Year 3000. Also I would like to point out that. Nick did his little jump thingie during Year 3000, pretty awesome. Also, they are so sweet to each other.. even on stage. After pretty much every song they highfived each other haha. Joe felt like introducing 'Fly With Me' like 'Me Fly With You'..well, if that makes him happy he should do that hahah. Then before some song he said that there were so many beautiful women/girls out here today, that he might even find his wife. Nick had another 'Oh, Joe..' moments. Kevin told Joe that he DID need a date for his wedding. Of course the crowd went nuts again, like they did the whole evening. One thing that did surprise me was how quiet the crowd was during Black Keys/ ALBL.. I really liked that, its good to show some respect.
When Nick did his speech, I got goosebumps, what an inspiration that boy is. He is freaking 17 years old, it is unbelievable. Joe introduced Video Girl like this : 'Now, how about we sing a song that is NOT about you? This is a song about the girls we don't
like, and we love you all! But not these girls, this is VIDEO GIRL!' I thought that was pretty cute haha. Still In Love With You is the best song ever when they perform it live, such high energy during that song. Now, a highlight for me of the night. You know how
you have that one slow-ish part in World War III that Joe sings? During that part he was on his knees, in front of me. Like, IN my face. But me being an ass didn't have my camera on anymore.. I wanted to enjoy the concert with my eyes instead of seeing it through my camera, I'm kind of happy I did that. Kevin did two spins, one of them was SO fast that he unplugged himself haha. Joe highfived him for that. He also said he thought we were so much fun that they should come back here, which was ofcourse answered with screams. Then he said maybe they should come back every week? Guess what, more screams! I could go on and on, but the bottom line is that it was the most amazing night I could have had. They looked like they were having fun, so automaticly it became more fun for us. I have a new level of respect for them for being such amazing performers. I could not thank them enough for this amazing night.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=EkSLcN9Hd8M - Video of the bunny ears (not my video)
Now, that is a LITTLE story hahah.
I promise to follow you back :)
Lapidation de Saint Etienne, fresque de la série des supplices des protomartyrs commandée par Grégoire XIII Boncompagni, 16ème siècle, Niccolo Circignani, église Santo Stefano Rotondo, Rome
Costantine & Shelly-Ann having a special dialogue ;-))
Today Nov 7th we woke up without rain but with the mist.
Constantine is a Lagotto Romagnolo dog.
This is the only breed of dog that is officially recognized as specialized in truffle hunting.
Bologna (/bəˈloʊnjə/, UK also /bəˈlɒnjə/, Italian: [boˈloɲɲa]; Emilian: Bulåggna [buˈlʌɲːa]; Latin: Bononia) is a city in and the capital of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy, of which it is also its largest. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different nationalities. Its metropolitan area is home to more than 1,000,000 people. It is known as the Fat City for its rich cuisine, and the Red City for its Spanish-style red tiled rooftops and, more recently, its leftist politics. It is also called the Learned City because it is home to the oldest university in the world.
Originally Etruscan, the city has been an important urban center for centuries, first under the Etruscans (who called it Felsina), then under the Celts as Bona, later under the Romans (Bonōnia), then again in the Middle Ages, as a free municipality and later signoria, when it was among the largest European cities by population. Famous for its towers, churches and lengthy porticoes, Bologna has a well-preserved historical centre, thanks to a careful restoration and conservation policy which began at the end of the 1970s. Home to the oldest university in continuous operation, the University of Bologna, established in AD 1088, the city has a large student population that gives it a cosmopolitan character. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, a UNESCO "City of Music" and became part of the Creative Cities Network. In 2021 UNESCO recognized the lengthy porticoes of the city as a World Heritage Site.
Bologna is an important agricultural, industrial, financial and transport hub, where many large mechanical, electronic and food companies have their headquarters as well as one of the largest permanent trade fairs in Europe. According to recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index (E-REGI) of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city and the 47th European city in terms of its economic growth rate; in 2022 Il Sole 24 Ore named Bologna the best city in Italy for overall quality of life.
History
Antiquity and Middle Ages
Traces of human habitation in the area of Bologna go back to the 3rd millennium BCE, with significant settlements from about the 9th century BCE (Villanovan culture). The influence of Etruscan civilization reached the area in the 7th to 6th centuries, and the Etruscan city of Felsina was established at the site of Bologna by the end of the 6th century. By the 4th century BCE, the site was occupied by the Gaulish Boii, and it became a Roman colony and municipium with the name of Bonōnia in 196 BCE. During the waning years of the Western Roman Empire Bologna was repeatedly sacked by the Goths. It is in this period that legendary Bishop Petronius, according to ancient chronicles, rebuilt the ruined town and founded the basilica of Saint Stephen. Petronius is still revered as the patron saint of Bologna.
In 727–28, the city was sacked and captured by the Lombards under King Liutprand, becoming part of that kingdom. These Germanic conquerors built an important new quarter, called "addizione longobarda" (Italian meaning "Longobard addition") near the complex of St. Stephen.[20] In the last quarter of the 8th century, Charlemagne, at the request of Pope Adrian I, invaded the Lombard Kingdom, causing its eventual demise. Occupied by Frankish troops in 774 on behalf of the papacy, Bologna remained under imperial authority and prospered as a frontier mark of the Carolingian empire.
Bologna was the center of a revived study of law, including the scholar Irnerius (c 1050 – after 1125) and his famous students, the Four Doctors of Bologna.
After the death of Matilda of Tuscany in 1115, Bologna obtained substantial concessions from Emperor Henry V. However, when Frederick Barbarossa subsequently attempted to strike down the deal, Bologna joined the Lombard League, which then defeated the imperial armies at the Battle of Legnano and established an effective autonomy at the Peace of Constance in 1183. Subsequently, the town began to expand rapidly and became one of the main commercial trade centres of northern Italy thanks to a system of canals that allowed barges and ships to come and go. Believed to have been established in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered the world's oldest university in continuous operation. The university originated as a centre for the study of medieval Roman law under major glossators, including Irnerius. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarch among its students. The medical school was especially renowned. By 1200, Bologna was a thriving commercial and artisanal centre of about 10,000 people.
During a campaign to support the imperial cities of Modena and Cremona against Bologna, Frederick II's son, King Enzo of Sardinia, was defeated and captured on 26 May 1249 at the Battle of Fossalta. Though the emperor demanded his release, Enzo was thenceforth kept a knightly prisoner in Bologna, in a palace that came to be named Palazzo Re Enzo after him. Every attempt to escape or to rescue him failed, and he died after more than 22 years in captivity. After the death of his half-brothers Conrad IV in 1254, Frederick of Antioch in 1256 and Manfred in 1266, as well as the execution of his nephew Conradin in 1268, he was the last of the Hohenstaufen heirs.
During the late 1200s, Bologna was affected by political instability when the most prominent families incessantly fought for the control of the town. The free commune was severely weakened by decades of infighting, allowing the Pope to impose the rule of his envoy Cardinal Bertrand du Pouget in 1327. Du Pouget was eventually ousted by a popular rebellion and Bologna became a signoria under Taddeo Pepoli in 1334. By the arrival of the Black Death in 1348, Bologna had 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants, reduced to just 20,000 to 25,000 after the plague.
In 1350, Bologna was conquered by archbishop Giovanni Visconti, the new lord of Milan. But following a rebellion by the town's governor, a renegade member of the Visconti family, Bologna was recuperated to the papacy in 1363 by Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz after a long negotiation involving a huge indemnity paid to Bernabò Visconti, Giovanni's heir, who died in 1354. In 1376, Bologna again revolted against Papal rule and joined Florence in the unsuccessful War of the Eight Saints. However, extreme infighting inside the Holy See after the Western Schism prevented the papacy from restoring its domination over Bologna, so it remained relatively independent for some decades as an oligarchic republic. In 1401, Giovanni I Bentivoglio took power in a coup with the support of Milan, but the Milanese, having turned his back on them and allied with Florence, marched on Bologna and had Giovanni killed the following year. In 1442, Hannibal I Bentivoglio, Giovanni's nephew, recovered Bologna from the Milanese, only to be assassinated in a conspiracy plotted by Pope Eugene IV three years later. But the signoria of the Bentivoglio family was then firmly established, and the power passed to his cousin Sante Bentivoglio, who ruled until 1462, followed by Giovanni II. Giovanni II managed to resist the expansionist designs of Cesare Borgia for some time, but on 7 October 1506, Pope Julius II issued a bull deposing and excommunicating Bentivoglio and placing the city under interdict. When the papal troops, along with a contingent sent by Louis XII of France, marched against Bologna, Bentivoglio and his family fled. Julius II entered the city triumphantly on 10 November.
Early modern
The period of Papal rule over Bologna (1506–1796) has been generally evaluated by historians as one of severe decline. However, this was not evident in the 1500s, which were marked by some major developments in Bologna. In 1530, Emperor Charles V was crowned in Bologna, the last of the Holy Roman Emperors to be crowned by the pope. In 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the main building of the university. The period of Papal rule saw also the construction of many churches and other religious establishments, and the restoration of older ones. At this time, Bologna had ninety-six convents, more than any other Italian city. Painters working in Bologna during this period established the Bolognese School which includes Annibale Carracci, Domenichino, Guercino, and others of European fame.
It was only towards the end of the 16th century that severe signs of decline began to manifest. A series of plagues in the late 16th to early 17th century reduced the population of the city from some 72,000 in the mid-16th century to about 47,000 by 1630. During the 1629–1631 Italian plague alone, Bologna lost up to a third of its population] In the mid-17th century, the population stabilized at roughly 60,000, slowly increasing to some 70,000 by the mid-18th century. The economy of Bologna started to show signs of severe decline as the global centres of trade shifted towards the Atlantic. The traditional silk industry was in a critical state. The university was losing students, who once came from all over Europe, because of the illiberal attitudes of the Church towards culture (especially after the trial of Galileo). Bologna continued to suffer a progressive deindustrialisation also in the 18th century.
In the mid-1700s, Pope Benedict XIV, a Bolognese, tried to reverse the decline of the city with a series of reforms intended to stimulate the economy and promote the arts. However, these reforms achieved only mixed results. The pope's efforts to stimulate the decaying textile industry had little success, while he was more successful in reforming the tax system, liberalising trade and relaxing the oppressive system of censorship.
The economic and demographic decline of Bologna became even more noticeable starting in the second half of the 18th century. In 1790, the city had 72,000 inhabitants, ranking as the second largest in the Papal States; however, this figure had remained unchanged for decades.
During this period, Papal economic policies included heavy customs duties and concessions of monopolies to single manufacturers.
Modern history
Napoleon entered Bologna on 19 June 1796. Napoleon briefly reinstated the ancient mode of government, giving power to the Senate, which however had to swear fealty to the short-lived Cispadane Republic, created as a client state of the French First Republic at the congress of Reggio (27 December 1796 – 9 January 1797) but succeeded by the Cisalpine Republic on 9 July 1797, later by the Italian Republic and finally the Kingdom of Italy. After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored Bologna to the Papal States. Papal rule was contested in the uprisings of 1831. The insurrected provinces planned to unite as the Province Italiane Unite with Bologna as the capital. Pope Gregory XVI asked for Austrian help against the rebels. Metternich warned French king Louis Philippe I against intervention in Italian affairs, and in the spring of 1831, Austrian forces marched across the Italian peninsula, defeating the rebellion by 26 April.
By the mid-1840s, unemployment levels were very high and traditional industries continued to languish or disappear; Bologna became a city of economic disparity with the top 10 percent of the population living off rent, another 20 percent exercising professions or commerce and 70 percent working in low-paid, often insecure manual jobs. The Papal census of 1841 reported 10,000 permanent beggars and another 30,000 (out of a total population of 70,000) who lived in poverty. In the revolutions of 1848 the Austrian garrisons which controlled the city on behalf of the Pope were temporarily expelled, but eventually came back and crushed the revolutionaries.
Papal rule finally ended in the aftermath of Second War of Italian Independence, when the French and Piedmontese troops expelled the Austrians from Italian lands, on 11 and 12 March 1860, Bologna voted to join the new Kingdom of Italy. In the last decades of the 19th century, Bologna once again thrived economically and socially. In 1863 Naples was linked to Rome by railway, and the following year Bologna to Florence. Bolognese moderate agrarian elites, that supported liberal insurgencies against the papacy and were admirers of the British political system and of free trade, envisioned a unified national state that would open a bigger market for the massive agricultural production of the Emilian plains. Indeed, Bologna gave Italy one of its first prime ministers, Marco Minghetti.
After World War I, Bologna was heavily involved in the Biennio Rosso socialist uprisings. As a consequence, the traditionally moderate elites of the city turned their back on the progressive faction and gave their support to the rising Fascist movement of Benito Mussolini. Dino Grandi, a high-ranking Fascist party official and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, remembered for being an Anglophile, was from Bologna. During the interwar years, Bologna developed into an important manufacturing centre for food processing, agricultural machinery and metalworking. The Fascist regime poured in massive investments, for example with the setting up of a giant tobacco manufacturing plant in 1937.
World War II
Bologna suffered extensive damage during World War II. The strategic importance of the city as an industrial and railway hub connecting northern and central Italy made it a target for the Allied forces. On 24 July 1943, a massive aerial bombardment destroyed a significant part of the historic city centre and killed about 200 people. The main railway station and adjoining areas were severely hit, and 44% of the buildings in the centre were listed as having been destroyed or severely damaged. The city was heavily bombed again on 25 September. The raids, which this time were not confined to the city centre, left 2,481 people dead and 2,000 injured. By the end of the war, 43% of all buildings in Bologna had been destroyed or damaged.
After the armistice of 1943, the city became a key centre of the Italian resistance movement. On 7 November 1944, a pitched battle around Porta Lame, waged by partisans of the 7th Brigade of the Gruppi d'Azione Patriottica against Fascist and Nazi occupation forces, did not succeed in triggering a general uprising, despite being one of the largest resistance-led urban conflicts in the European theatre. Resistance forces entered Bologna on the morning of 21 April 1945. By this time, the Germans had already largely left the city in the face of the Allied advance, spearheaded by Polish forces advancing from the east during the Battle of Bologna which had been fought since 9 April. First to arrive in the centre was the 87th Infantry Regiment of the Friuli Combat Group under general Arturo Scattini, who entered the centre from Porta Maggiore to the south. Since the soldiers were dressed in British outfits, they were initially thought to be part of the allied forces; when the local inhabitants heard the soldiers were speaking Italian, they poured out onto the streets to celebrate.
Cold War period
In the post-war years, Bologna became a thriving industrial centre as well as a political stronghold of the Italian Communist Party. Between 1945 and 1999, the city was helmed by an uninterrupted succession of mayors from the PCI and its successors, the Democratic Party of the Left and Democrats of the Left, the first of whom was Giuseppe Dozza. At the end of the 1960s the city authorities, worried by massive gentrification and suburbanisation, asked Japanese starchitect Kenzo Tange to sketch a master plan for a new town north of Bologna; however, the project that came out in 1970 was evaluated as too ambitious and expensive. Eventually the city council, in spite of vetoing Tange's master plan, decided to keep his project for a new exhibition centre and business district. At the end of 1978 the construction of a tower block and several diverse buildings and structures started. In 1985 the headquarters of the regional government of Emilia-Romagna moved in the new district.
In 1977, Bologna was the scene of rioting linked to the Movement of 1977, a spontaneous political movement of the time. The police shooting of a far-left activist, Francesco Lorusso, sparked two days of street clashes. On 2 August 1980, at the height of the "years of lead", a terrorist bomb was set off in the central railway station of Bologna killing 85 people and wounding 200, an event which is known in Italy as the Bologna massacre. In 1995, members of the neo-fascist group Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari were convicted for carrying out the attack, while Licio Gelli—Grand Master of the underground Freemason lodge Propaganda Due (P2)—was convicted for hampering the investigation, together with three agents of the secret military intelligence service SISMI (including Francesco Pazienza and Pietro Musumeci). Commemorations take place in Bologna on 2 August each year, culminating in a concert in the main square.
21st century
In 1999, the long tradition of left-wing mayors was interrupted by the victory of independent centre-right candidate Giorgio Guazzaloca. However, Bologna reverted to form in 2004 when Sergio Cofferati, a former trade union leader, unseated Guazzaloca. The next centre-left mayor, Flavio Delbono, elected in June 2009, resigned in January 2010 after being involved in a corruption scandal. After a 15-month period in which the city was administered under Anna Maria Cancellieri (as a state-appointed prefect), Virginio Merola was elected as mayor, leading a left-wing coalition comprising the Democratic Party, Left Ecology Freedom and Italy of Values. In 2016, Merola was confirmed mayor, defeating the conservative candidate, Lucia Borgonzoni. In 2021, after ten years of Merola's mayorship, one of his closest allies, Matteo Lepore, was elected mayor with 61.9% of votes, becoming the most voted mayor of Bologna since the introduction of the direct elections in 1995.
Geography
Territory
Bologna is situated on the edge of the Po Plain at the foot of the Apennine Mountains, at the meeting of the Reno and Savena river valleys. As Bologna's two main watercourses flow directly to the sea, the town lies outside of the drainage basin of the River Po. The Province of Bologna stretches from the western edge of the Po Plain on the border with Ferrara to the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines. The centre of the town is 54 metres (177 ft) above sea level (while elevation within the municipality ranges from 29 metres (95 ft) in the suburb of Corticella to 300 metres (980 ft) in Sabbiuno and the Colle della Guardia). The Province of Bologna stretches from the Po Plain into the Apennines; the highest point in the province is the peak of Corno alle Scale (in Lizzano in Belvedere) at 1,945 metres (6,381 ft) above sea level.
Cityscape
Until the late 19th century, when a large-scale urban renewal project was undertaken, Bologna was one of the few remaining large walled cities in Europe; to this day and despite having suffered considerable bombing damage in 1944, Bologna's 142 hectares (350 acres) historic centre is Europe's second largest, containing an immense wealth of important medieval, renaissance, and baroque artistic monuments.
Bologna developed along the Via Emilia as an Etruscan and later Roman colony; the Via Emilia still runs straight through the city under the changing names of Strada Maggiore, Rizzoli, Ugo Bassi, and San Felice. Due to its Roman heritage, the central streets of Bologna, today largely pedestrianized, follow the grid pattern of the Roman settlement. The original Roman ramparts were supplanted by a high medieval system of fortifications, remains of which are still visible, and finally by a third and final set of ramparts built in the 13th century, of which numerous sections survive. No more than twenty medieval defensive towers remain out of up to 180 that were built in the 12th and 13th centuries before the arrival of unified civic government. The most famous of the towers of Bologna are the central "Due Torri" (Asinelli and Garisenda), whose iconic leaning forms provide a popular symbol of the town.
The cityscape is further enriched by its elegant and extensive porticoes, for which the city is famous. In total, there are some 38 kilometres (24 miles) of porticoes in the city's historical centre (over 45 km (28 mi) in the city proper), which make it possible to walk for long distances sheltered from the elements.
The Portico di San Luca is possibly the world's longest. It connects Porta Saragozza (one of the twelve gates of the ancient walls built in the Middle Ages, which circled a 7.5 km (4.7 mi) part of the city) with the Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca, a church begun in 1723 on the site of an 11th-century edifice which had already been enlarged in the 14th century, prominently located on a hill (289 metres (948 feet)) overlooking the town, which is one of Bologna's main landmarks. The windy 666 vault arcades, almost four kilometres (3,796 m or 12,454 ft) long, effectively links San Luca, as the church is commonly called, to the city centre. Its porticos provide shelter for the traditional procession which every year since 1433 has carried a Byzantine icon of the Madonna with Child attributed to Luke the Evangelist down to the Bologna Cathedral during the Feast of the Ascension.
In 2021, the porticoes were named as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
San Petronio Basilica, built between 1388 and 1479 (but still unfinished), is the tenth-largest church in the world by volume, 132 metres long and 66 metres wide, while the vault reaches 45 metres inside and 51 metres in the facade. With its volume of 258,000 m3, it is the largest (Gothic or otherwise) church built of bricks of the world. The Basilica of Saint Stephen and its sanctuary are among the oldest structures in Bologna, having been built starting from the 8th century, according to the tradition on the site of an ancient temple dedicated to Egyptian goddess Isis. The Basilica of Saint Dominic is an example of Romanic architecture from the 13th century, enriched by the monumental tombs of great Bolognese glossators Rolandino de'Passeggeri and Egidio Foscherari. Basilicas of St Francis, Santa Maria dei Servi and San Giacomo Maggiore are other magnificent examples of 14th-century architecture, the latter also featuring Renaissance artworks such as the Bentivoglio Altarpiece by Lorenzo Costa. Finally, the Church of San Michele in Bosco is a 15th-century religious complex located on a hill not far from the city's historical center.
(Wikipedia)
Bologna [boˈlɔnja, italienisch boˈloɲːa] ist eine italienische Universitätsstadt und die Hauptstadt der Metropolitanstadt Bologna sowie der Region Emilia-Romagna. Die Großstadt ist mit 390.625 Einwohnern (Stand: 31. Dezember 2019) die siebtgrößte italienische Stadt und ein bedeutender nationaler Verkehrsknotenpunkt.
Geografie
Allgemein
Bologna liegt am südlichen Rand der Po-Ebene am Fuße des Apennin, zwischen den Flüssen Reno und Savena in Norditalien. Die Flussläufe und Kanäle in der Stadt wurden im Verlaufe der Stadtentwicklung aus sanitären Gründen fast vollständig überbaut. Die durch Bologna fließenden Gewässer sind der Canale di Reno, der Canale di Savena und der Aposa; sie werden nördlich des Stadtzentrums zum Navile zusammengefasst. Damit wird dem Canale di Savena ein Teil des Wassers entzogen; der nachfolgende Flussarm heißt entsprechend Savena abbandonato („aufgegebener Savena“). In den westlichen Stadtteilen verläuft zudem der Ravone, der sich weiter östlich mit dem Reno vereint. Das Adriatische Meer befindet sich ca. 60 Kilometer östlich der Stadt.
Geschichte
Antike
Die Geschichte der Stadt beginnt als etruskische Gründung mit dem Namen Felsina vermutlich im 6. Jahrhundert v. Chr., Spuren älterer dörflicher Siedlungen der Villanovakultur in der Gegend reichen bis ins 11./10. Jahrhundert v. Chr. zurück. Die etruskische Stadt wuchs um ein Heiligtum auf einem Hügel und war von einer Nekropole umgeben.
Im 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. eroberten die keltischen Boier Felsina. 191 v. Chr. wurde die Stadt von den Römern erobert, 189 v. Chr. wurde sie als Bononia römische Colonia. 3000 latinische Familien siedelten sich dort an, wobei den ehemaligen Konsuln Lucius Valerius Flaccus, Marcus Atilius Seranus und Lucius Valerius Tappo die Organisation der Stadt(neu)gründung übertragen wurde.[3] Der Bau der Via Aemilia 187 v. Chr. machte Bononia zum Verkehrsknotenpunkt: Hier kreuzte sich die Hauptverkehrsstraße der Poebene mit der Via Flaminia minor nach Arretium (Arezzo). 88 v. Chr. erhielt Bononia über die Lex municipalis wie alle Landstädte Italiens volles römisches Bürgerrecht. Nach einem Brand wurde sie im 1. Jahrhundert unter Kaiser Nero wieder aufgebaut.
Wie für eine römische Stadt typisch, war Bononia schachbrettartig um die zentrale Kreuzung zweier Hauptstraßen angelegt, des Cardo mit dem Decumanus. Sechs Nord-Süd- und acht Ost-West-Straßen teilten die Stadt in einzelne Quartiere und sind bis heute erhalten. Während der römischen Kaiserzeit hatte Bononia mindestens 12.000, möglicherweise jedoch bis 30.000 Einwohner. Bei Ausgrabungen rund um das Forum der antiken Stadt in den Jahren 1989–1994 wurden zwei Tempel, Verwaltungsgebäude, Markthallen und das Tagungsgebäude des Stadtrates gefunden; im südlichen Teil des ursprünglichen Stadtgebietes ist ein Theater freigelegt worden. Die Stadt scheint jedoch deutlich über ihre ursprüngliche Befestigung hinausgewachsen zu sein, beispielsweise sind außerhalb der Stadtmauer ein Amphitheater, ein Aquädukt und ein Thermenareal entdeckt worden. Der Geograph Pomponius Mela zählte die Stadt im 1. Jahrhundert n. Chr. zu den fünf üppigsten (opulentissimae) Städten Italiens.
Mittelalter
Nach einem langen Niedergang wurde Bologna im 5. Jahrhundert unter dem Bischof Petronius wiedergeboren, der nach dem Vorbild der Jerusalemer Grabeskirche den Kirchenkomplex von Santo Stefano errichtet haben soll. Nach dem Ende des Römischen Reiches war Bologna ein vorgeschobenes Bollwerk des Exarchats von Ravenna, geschützt von mehreren Wallringen, die jedoch den größten Teil der verfallenen römischen Stadt nicht einschlossen. 728 wurde die Stadt von dem Langobardenkönig Liutprand erobert und damit Teil des Langobardenreichs. Die Langobarden schufen in Bologna einen neuen Stadtteil nahe Santo Stefano, bis heute Addizione Longobarda genannt, in dem Karl der Große bei seinem Besuch 786 unterkam.
Im 11. Jahrhundert wuchs der Ort als freie Kommune erneut. 1088 wurde der Studio gegründet – heute die älteste Universität Europas –, an der zahlreiche bedeutende Gelehrte des Mittelalters lehrten, unter anderem Irnerius, woraus dann im 12. Jahrhundert die Universität Bologna[4] entstand. Da sich die Stadt weiter ausdehnte, erhielt sie im 12. Jahrhundert einen neuen Wallring, ein weiterer wurde im 14. Jahrhundert fertiggestellt.
1164 trat Bologna in den Lombardenbund gegen Friedrich I. Barbarossa ein, 1256 verkündete die Stadt die Legge del Paradiso (Paradiesgesetz), das Leibeigenschaft und Sklaverei abschaffte und die verbleibenden Sklaven mit öffentlichem Geld freikaufte. 50.000 bis 70.000 Menschen lebten zu dieser Zeit in Bologna und machten die Stadt zur sechst- oder siebtgrößten Europas nach Konstantinopel, Córdoba, Paris, Venedig, Florenz und möglicherweise Mailand. Das Stadtzentrum war ein Wald von Türmen: Schätzungsweise um die 100 Geschlechtertürme der führenden Familien, Kirchtürme und Türme öffentlicher Gebäude bestimmten das Stadtbild.
Bologna entschied sich 1248, die Weizenausfuhr zu verbieten, um die Lebensmittelversorgung seiner schnell wachsenden Bevölkerung zu sichern. Das kam einer Enteignung der venezianischen Grundbesitzer, vor allem der Klöster gleich. 1234 ging die Stadt noch einen Schritt weiter und besetzte Cervia, womit es in direkte Konkurrenz zu Venedig trat, das das Salzmonopol in der Adria beanspruchte. 1248 dehnte Bologna seine Herrschaft auf die Grafschaft Imola, 1252–1254 sogar auf Ravenna aus. Dazu kamen 1256 Bagnacavallo, Faenza und Forlì.
Doch der schwelende Konflikt zwischen Venedig und Bologna wurde 1240 durch die Besetzung der Stadt durch Kaiser Friedrich II. unterbrochen. Nachdem sich Cervia 1252 jedoch wieder Venedig unterstellt hatte, wurde es von einer gemeinsamen ravennatisch-bolognesischen Armee im Oktober 1254 zurückerobert. Venedig errichtete im Gegenzug 1258 am Po di Primaro eine Sperrfestung. Etsch, Po und der für die Versorgung Bolognas lebenswichtige Reno wurden damit blockiert – wobei letzterer von der See aus wiederum nur über den Po erreichbar war, und die Etsch bereits seit langer Zeit durch Cavarzere von Venedig kontrolliert wurde. Mit Hilfe dieser Blockade, vor allem an der Sperrfestung Marcamò – Bologna riegelte Marcamò vergebens durch ein eigenes Kastell ab – zwang Venedig das ausgehungerte Bologna zu einem Abkommen, das die Venezianer diktierten. Das bolognesische Kastell wurde geschleift. Ravenna stand Venedigs Händlern wieder offen, Venedigs Monopol war durchgesetzt.
Im Jahre 1272 starb in Bologna nach mehr als 22-jähriger Haft im Palazzo Nuovo (dem heutigen Palazzo di re Enzo) der König Enzio von Sardinien, ein unehelicher Sohn des Staufer-Kaisers Friedrich II.
Wie die meisten Kommunen Italiens war Bologna damals zusätzlich zu den äußeren Konflikten von inneren Streitigkeiten zwischen Ghibellinen und Guelfen (Staufer- bzw. Welfen-Partei, Kaiser gegen Papst) zerrissen. So wurde 1274 die einflussreiche ghibellinische Familie Lambertazzi aus der Stadt vertrieben.
Als Bologna 1297 verstärkt gegen die Ghibellinen der mittleren Romagna vorging, fürchtete Venedig das erneute Aufkommen einer konkurrierenden Festlandsmacht. Das betraf vor allem Ravenna. Venedig drohte der Stadt wegen Nichteinhaltung seiner Verträge und Bevorzugung Bolognas. Doch der Streit konnte beigelegt werden. Zu einer erneuten Handelssperre seitens Venedigs (wohl wegen der Ernennung Baiamonte Tiepolos zum Capitano von Bologna) kam es Ende 1326. Bologna hatte sich dem Schutz des Papstes unterstellt, nachdem es 1325 von Modena in der Schlacht von Zappolino vernichtend geschlagen worden war. Im Mai 1327 wurden alle Bologneser aufgefordert, Venedig innerhalb eines Monats zu verlassen. 1328–1332 kam es zu Handelssperren und Repressalien. Ravenna blieb dabei der wichtigste Importhafen der Region, den z. B. Bologna für größere Importe aus Apulien weiterhin nutzte. Zwischen 1325 und 1337 kam es zum Eimerkrieg von Bologna. Während der Pest-Epidemie von 1348 starben etwa 30.000 der Einwohner.
Nach der Regierungszeit Taddeo Pepolis (1337–1347) fiel Bologna an die Visconti Mailands, kehrte aber 1360 auf Betreiben von Kardinal Gil Álvarez Carillo de Albornoz durch Kauf wieder in den Machtbereich des Papstes zurück. Die folgenden Jahre waren bestimmt von einer Reihe republikanischer Regierungen (so z. B. die von 1377, die die Basilica di San Petronio und die Loggia dei Mercanti errichten ließ), wechselnder Zugehörigkeit zum päpstlichen oder Viscontischen Machtbereich und andauernder, verlustreicher Familienfehden.
1402 fiel die Stadt an Gian Galeazzo Visconti, der zum Signore von Bologna avancierte. Nachdem 1433 Bologna und Imola gefallen waren (bis 1435), verhalf Venedig dem Papst 1440/41 endgültig zur Stadtherrschaft. Bei der Gelegenheit nahm Venedig 1441–1509 Ravenna in Besitz.
Um diese Zeit erlangte die Familie der Bentivoglio mit Sante (1445–1462) und Giovanni II. (1462–1506) die Herrschaft in Bologna. Während ihrer Regierungszeit blühte die Stadt auf, angesehene Architekten und Maler gaben Bologna das Gesicht einer klassischen italienischen Renaissance-Stadt, die allerdings ihre Ambitionen auf Eroberung endgültig aufgeben musste.
Neuzeit
Giovannis Herrschaft endete 1506, als die Truppen Papst Julius' II. Bologna belagerten und die Kunstschätze seines Palastes plünderten. Im Anschluss gehörte Bologna bis zum 18. Jahrhundert zum Kirchenstaat und wurde von einem päpstlichen Legaten und einem Senat regiert, der alle zwei Monate einen gonfaloniere (Richter) wählte, der von acht Konsuln unterstützt wurde. Am 24. Februar 1530 wurde Karl V. von Papst Clemens VII. in Bologna zum Kaiser gekrönt. Es war die letzte vom Papst durchgeführte Kaiserkrönung. Der Wohlstand der Stadt dauerte an, doch eine Seuche am Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts verringerte die Zahl der Einwohner von 72.000 auf 59.000, eine weitere 1630 ließ sie auf 47.000 schrumpfen, bevor sie sich wieder auf 60.000 bis 65.000 einpendelte.
1564 wurden die Piazza del Nettuno, der Palazzo dei Banchi und der Archiginnasio erbaut, der Sitz der Universität. Zahlreiche Kirchen und andere religiöse Einrichtungen wurden während der päpstlichen Herrschaft neu errichtet, ältere renoviert – Bolognas 96 Klöster waren italienischer Rekord. Bedeutende Maler wie Annibale Carracci, Domenichino und Guercino, die in dieser Periode in Bologna tätig waren, formten die Bologneser Schule der Malerei.
Im napoleonischen Europa wurde Bologna 1796 – seit dem Ersten Koalitionskrieg vom Kirchenstaat unabhängig – zunächst Hauptstadt der kurzlebigen Cispadanischen Republik und später die nach Mailand bedeutendste Stadt in der Cisalpinischen Republik und des napoleonischen Königreichs Italien. Am 28. Januar 1814 eroberten die Österreicher die Stadt kurzzeitig zurück, mussten am 2. April 1815 dem Einmarsch französischer Truppen weichen, um am 16. April 1815 Bologna endgültig einzunehmen. Nach dem Fall Napoleons schlug der Wiener Kongress 1815 Bologna wieder dem Kirchenstaat zu, worauf dies am 18. Juli 1816 zur Ausführung kam.
Die Bevölkerung rebellierte im Frühjahr 1831 gegen die päpstliche Restauration. Durch eine neuerliche österreichische Besatzung ab dem 21. März 1831 wurde dem ein Ende gemacht. Die Besatzung dauerte mit einer kurzen Unterbrechung (Juli 1831 bis Januar 1832) bis zum 30. November 1838. Die Macht war damit erneut in der Hand des Papstes. Dagegen erhob sich im August 1843 der Aufstand der Moti di Savigno. Erneut kam es 1848/1849 zu Volksaufständen, als es vom 8. August 1848 bis 16. Mai 1849 gelang, die Truppen der österreichischen Garnison zu vertreiben, die danach erneut bis 1860 die Befehlsgewalt über die Stadt innehatten. Nach einem Besuch von Papst Pius IX. 1857 stimmte Bologna am 12. Juni 1859 für seine Annexion durch das Königreich Sardinien, wodurch die Stadt Teil des vereinten Italien wurde.
Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts wurden die Mauern der Stadt bis auf wenige Reste abgerissen, um der schnell wachsenden Bevölkerung Platz zu schaffen. In den Wahlen am 28. Juni 1914 errang der Sozialist Francesco Zanardi zum ersten Mal das Stadtpräsidium (sindaco) für die Linke. Mit der Unterbrechung des Faschismus wird Bologna seitdem überwiegend von linken Stadtregierungen verwaltet.
1940 zählte Bologna 320.000 Einwohner. Im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde Bologna in den Kämpfen der untergehenden NS-Diktatur mit amerikanischen, britischen und polnischen Invasionstruppen der Alliierten bombardiert und beschädigt, wobei in der Stadt 2.481 Zivilisten ums Leben kamen. Am 21. April 1945 wurde die Stadt von Einheiten des II. polnischen Korps befreit. Nach dem Krieg erholte sich Bologna schnell und ist heute eine der wohlhabendsten und stadtplanerisch gelungensten Städte Italiens.
Anschlag von Bologna 1980
Am 2. August 1980 verübte eine Gruppe von Rechtsextremisten einen Bombenanschlag auf den Hauptbahnhof der Stadt. 85 Menschen starben, mindestens 200 wurden verletzt. 1995 wurden für diesen Anschlag zwei Mitglieder der faschistischen Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari und Mitarbeiter des italienischen Geheimdienstes zu langjährigen Haftstrafen verurteilt.
Kulinarisches
Bologna ist die Heimat der Tortellini – mit Hackfleisch gefüllte, kleine ringförmige Teigwaren, die in einer Hühnerbrühe (brodo) oder mit Sahnesoße serviert werden. Einer Legende nach sollen die Tortellini den Nabel der römischen Liebesgöttin Venus nachbilden.
Eine weitere klassische Pasta aus Bologna sind Tagliatelle, mit Ei hergestellte Bandnudeln, die traditionell mit Ragù alla bolognese, einer Soße mit Hackfleisch und Tomaten, serviert werden. Von den bolognesischen Tagliatelle al ragù wurden die Spaghetti bolognese inspiriert, die aber nicht zur Küche Bolognas gehören, sondern vermutlich aus Nordamerika stammen.
Eine weitere aus Bologna stammende Spezialität ist die Mortadella, eine Aufschnittwurst vom Schwein, die in hauchdünne Scheiben geschnitten verzehrt wird.
Bologna ist außerdem für seine grüne Lasagne bekannt.
Bildung
Die 1088 gegründete Universität Bologna ist die älteste Institution dieser Art in Europa. Die etwa 80.000 Studenten stellen bei einer Gesamtbevölkerung von um die 400.000 einen bedeutenden Teil der Stadtbevölkerung und prägen die Stadt, vor allem innerhalb der historischen Stadtmauern. Die Stadt ist nicht nur bei Studenten aus allen Teilen Italiens beliebt, sondern auch bei ausländischen Studenten. Neben Erasmus-Studenten sind das vor allem Studenten aus den USA.
Außerdem gibt es in der Stadt die Akademie der Bildenden Künste, an der unter anderem Giorgio Morandi lehrte und Enrico Marconi eine Ausbildung absolvierte. Das SAIS Bologna Center ist eine Außenstelle der School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) der Johns Hopkins University. Bologna war Ort der Bolognaerklärung im Jahr 1999 und Namensgeber des Bologna-Prozesses zur Reformierung und Vereinheitlichung des Europäischen Hochschulraums.
(Wikipedia)
Valeriusplein 31/05/2021 18h38
The Valeriusplein is a square in Amsterdam South, between the Koninginneweg and the Lyceumbrug. It is named after the Dutch songwriter (and notary) Adriaen Valerius. North of the square, on the other side of Koninginneweg, are Emmalaan and Emmaplein. On the north side, Valeriusstraat runs along the square.
De Lairessestraat is located on the southeast side of the square, and Cornelis Krusemanstraat is an extension of this street to the southwest of the square.
In 1960, the concrete sculpture Vertical composition by the sculptor Henk Zweerus, which was inspired by the Belgian artist Georges Vantongerloo, was placed in the middle of the park.
VERTICALE COMPOSITIE
Henk Zweerus (1920 - 2005)
1960
Concrete
Henk Zweerus was commissioned by the municipality of Amsterdam to make this standing column, a composition of stacked concrete blocks of various sizes. An image he made for this work is the 'Horizontal composition' for the Leidsebosje.
Henk Zweerus (1920–2005) was a student of the artist Jan Bronner. He taught at the Technical University in Delft.
[ Wikipedia | Kunstwacht Amsterdam ]
Constantine, (The Great) born on March 17th 2014.
He is a Lagotto Romagnolo dog.
This is the only breed of dog that is officially recognized as specialized in truffle hunting.
Lucan Valerius
- - -
Just some random Skyrim portraiture, sadly at the moment I don't have time/inspiration for the other projects I have, but we'll see.
V6 Gabberized/Kyo .155 BLEAK, Custom DoF, free camera, custom FoV, no-HUD, SweetFX. Editing - None
Constantine, (The Great) born on March 17th 2014.
He is a Lagotto Romagnolo dog.
This is the only breed of dog that is officially recognized as specialized in truffle hunting.
Waterbuck
Ellipsen-Wasserbock
Kruger National Park is one of the largest game reserves in Africa. It covers an area of 19,485 km2 (7,523 sq mi) in the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga in northeastern South Africa, and extends 360 km (220 mi) from north to south and 65 km (40 mi) from east to west. The administrative headquarters are in Skukuza. Areas of the park were first protected by the government of the South African Republic in 1898, and it became South Africa's first national park in 1926.
To the west and south of the Kruger National Park are the two South African provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga. In the north is Zimbabwe, and to the east is Mozambique. It is now part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, a peace park that links Kruger National Park with the Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe, and with the Limpopo National Park in Mozambique.
The park is part of the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere an area designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as an International Man and Biosphere Reserve (the "Biosphere").
The park has nine main gates allowing entrance to the different camps.
(Wikipedia)
The waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) is a large antelope found widely in sub-Saharan Africa. It is placed in the genus Kobus of the family Bovidae. It was first described by Irish naturalist William Ogilby in 1833. The thirteen subspecies are grouped under two varieties: the common or Ellisprymnus waterbuck and the Defassa waterbuck. The head-and-body length is typically between 177–235 cm (70–93 in) and the average height is between 120 and 136 cm (47 and 54 in). A sexually dimorphic antelope, males are taller as well as heavier than females. Males reach approximately 127 cm (50 in) at the shoulder, while females reach 119 cm (47 in). Males typically weigh 198–262 kg (437–578 lb) and females 161–214 kg (355–472 lb). The coat colour varies from brown to grey. The long, spiral horns, present only on males, curve backward, then forward and are 55–99 cm (22–39 in) long.
Waterbuck are rather sedentary in nature. A gregarious animal, the waterbuck may form herds consisting of six to 30 individuals. These groups are either nursery herds with females and their offspring or bachelor herds. Males start showing territorial behaviour from the age of five years, but are most dominant from the age of six to nine. The waterbuck cannot tolerate dehydration in hot weather, and thus inhabits areas close to sources of water. Predominantly a grazer, the waterbuck is mostly found on grassland. In equatorial regions, breeding takes place throughout the year, but births are at their peak in the rainy season. The gestational period lasts for seven to eight months, followed by the birth of a single calf.
Waterbuck inhabit scrub and savanna areas along rivers, lakes and valleys. Due to their requirement for grasslands as well as water, the waterbuck have a sparse ecotone distribution. The IUCN lists the waterbuck as being of Least Concern. More specifically, the common waterbuck is listed as of Least Concern while the defassa waterbuck is Near Threatened. The population trend for both the common and defassa waterbuck is downwards, especially that of the latter, with large populations being eliminated from certain habitats because of poaching and human disturbance.
The scientific name of the waterbuck is Kobus ellipsiprymnus. The waterbuck is one of the six species of the genus Kobus and belongs to the family Bovidae. It was first described by Irish naturalist William Ogilby in 1833. The generic name Kobus is a New Latin word, originating from an African name, koba. The specific name ellipsiprymnus refers to the white elliptical ring on the rump, from the Greek ellipes (ellipse) and prymnos (prumnos, hind part). The animal acquired the vernacular name "waterbuck" due to its heavy dependence on water as compared to other antelopes and its ability to enter into water for defence.
The type specimen of the waterbuck was collected by South African hunter-explorer Andrew Steedman in 1832. This specimen was named Antilope ellipsiprymnus by Ogilby in 1833. This species was transferred to the genus Kobus in 1840, becoming K. ellipsiprymnus. It is usually known as the common waterbuck. In 1835, German naturalist Eduard Rüppell collected another specimen, which differed from Steedman's specimen in having a prominent white ring on its rump. Considering it a separate species, Rüppell gave it the Amharic name "defassa" waterbuck and scientific name Antilope defassa. Modern taxonomists, however, consider the common waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck a single species, K. ellipsiprymnus, given the large number of instances of hybridisation between the two. Interbreeding between the two takes place in the Nairobi National Park owing to extensive overlapping of habitats.
Not many fossils of the waterbuck have been found. Fossils were scarce in the Cradle of Humankind, occurring only in a few pockets of the Swartkrans. On the basis of Valerius Geist's theories about the relation of social evolution and dispersal in ungulates during the Pleistocene the ancestral home of the waterbuck is considered to be the eastern coast of Africa - with the Horn of Africa to the north and the East African Rift Valley to the west.
The waterbuck is the largest amongst the six species of Kobus. It is a sexually dimorphic antelope, with the males nearly 7 percent taller than females and around 8 percent longer. The head-and-body length is typically between 177–235 cm (70–93 in) and the average height is between 120 and 136 cm (47 and 54 in).[10] Males reach approximately 127 cm (50 in) at the shoulder, while females reach 119 cm (47 in). The waterbuck is one of the heaviest antelopes. a newborn typically weighs 13.6 kg (30 lb), and growth in weight is faster in males than in females. Males typically weigh 198–262 kg (437–578 lb) and females 161–214 kg (355–472 lb). The tail is 22–45 cm (8.7–17.7 in) long.
The waterbuck is of a robust build. The shaggy coat is reddish brown to grey, and becomes progressively darker with age. Males are darker than females. Though apparently thick, the hair is sparse on the coat. The hair on the neck is, however, long and shaggy. When sexually excited, the skin of the waterbuck secretes a greasy substance with the odour of musk, giving it the name "greasy kob". The odor of this is so unpleasant that it repels predators. This secretion also assists in water-proofing the body when the animal dives into water. The facial features include a white muzzle and light eyebrows and lighter insides of the ears. There is a cream-coloured patch (called "bib") on the throat. Waterbuck are characterised by a long neck and short, strong and black legs. Females have two nipples. Preorbital glands, foot glands and inguinal glands are absent.
The common waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck are remarkably different in their physical appearances. Measurements indicate greater tail length in the latter, whereas the common waterbuck stand taller than the defassa waterbuck. However, the principal differentiation between the two types is the white ring of hair surrounding the tail on the rump, which is a hollow circle in the common waterbuck but covered with white hair in the defassa waterbuck.
The long, spiral horns curve backward, then forward. Found only on males, the horns range from 55 to 99 cm (22 to 39 in) in length. To some extent, the length of the horns is related to the bull's age. A rudimentary horn in the form of a bone lump may be found on the skulls of females.
Waterbuck are rather sedentary in nature, though some migration may occur with the onset of monsoon. A gregarious animal, the waterbuck may form herds consisting of six to 30 individuals. The various groups are the nursery herds, bachelor herds and territorial males. Herd size increases in summer, whereas groups fragment in the winter months, probably under the influence of food availability. As soon as young males start developing horns (at around seven to nine months of age), they are chased out of the herd by territorial bulls. These males then form bachelor herds and may roam in female home ranges. Females have home ranges stretching over 200–600 hectares (0.77–2.32 sq mi; 490–1,480 acres). A few females may form spinster herds. Though females are seldom aggressive, minor tension may arise in herds.
Males start showing territorial behaviour from the age of five years, but are most dominant from the age of six to nine. Territorial males hold territories 4–146 hectares (0.015–0.564 sq mi; 9.9–360.8 acres) in size. Males are inclined to remain settled in their territories, though over time they may leave inferior territories for more spacious ones. Marking of territories includes no elaborate rituals - dung and urine are occasionally dropped. After the age of ten years, males lose their territorial nature and replaced by a younger bull, following which they recede to a small and unprotected area. There is another social group, that of the satellite males, which are mature bulls as yet without their own territories, who exploit resources, particularly mating opportunities, even in the presence of the dominant bull. The territorial male may allow a few satellite males into his territory, and they may contribute to its defence. However, gradually they may deprive the actual owner of his territory and seize the area for themselves. In a study in the Lake Nakuru National Park, only 7 percent of the adult males held territories, and only half of the territorial males tolerated one or more satellite males.
Territorial males may use several kinds of display. In one type of display, the white patch on the throat and between the eyes is clearly revealed, and other displays can demonstrate the thickness of the neck. These activities frighten trespassers. Lowering of the head and the body depict submission before the territorial male, who stands erect. Fights, which may last up to thirty minutes, involve threat displays typical of bovids accompanied by snorting. Fights may even become so violent that one of the opponents meets its death due to severe abdominal or thoracic wounds. A silent animal, the waterbuck makes use of flehmen response for visual communication and alarm snorts for vocal communication. Waterbuck often enter water to escape from predators which include lions, leopards, cheetahs, African wild dogs and Nile crocodiles (leopards and spotted hyenas prey on juveniles). However, it has been observed that the waterbuck does not particularly like being in water. Waterbuck may run into cover when alarmed, and males often attack predators.
Waterbuck are susceptible to ulcers, lungworm infection and kidney stones. Other diseases from which these animals suffer are foot-and-mouth disease, sindbis fever, yellow fever, bluetongue, bovine virus diarrhoea, brucellosis and anthrax. The waterbuck is more resistant to rinderpest than are other antelopes. They are unaffected by tsetse flies but ticks may introduce parasitic protozoa such as Theileria parva, Anaplasma marginale and Baberia bigemina. 27 species of ixodid tick have been found on waterbuck - a healthy waterbuck may carry a total of over 4000 ticks in their larval or nymphal stages, the most common among them being Amblyomma cohaerens and Rhipicephalus tricuspis. Internal parasites found in waterbuck include tapeworms, liverflukes, stomachflukes and several helminths.
The waterbuck exhibits great dependence on water. It can not tolerate dehydration in hot weather, and thus inhabits areas close to sources of water. However, it has been observed that unlike the other members of its genus (such as the kob and puku), the waterbuck ranges farther into the woodlands while maintaining its proximity to water. With grasses constituting a substantial 70 to 95 percent of the diet, the waterbuck is predominantly a grazer frequenting grasslands. Reeds and rushes like Typha and Phragmites may also be preferred.A study found regular consumption of three grass species round the year: Panicum anabaptistum, Echinochloa stagnina and Andropogon gayanus. Hyparrhenia involucrata, Acroceras amplectens and Oryza barthii along with annual species were the main preference in the early rainy season, while long life grasses and forage from trees constituted three-fourths of the diet in the dry season.
Though the defassa waterbuck were found to have a much greater requirement for protein than the African buffalo and the Beisa oryx, the waterbuck was found to spend much less time on browsing (eating leaves, small shoots and fruits) in comparison to the other grazers. In the dry season about 32 percent of the 24-hour day was spent in browsing, whereas no time was spent on it during the wet season. The choice of grasses varies with location rather than availability; for instance, in western Uganda, while Sporobolus pyramidalis was favoured in some places, Themeda triandra was the main choice elsewhere. The common waterbuck and the defassa waterbuck in the same area may differ in their choices; it has been observed that while the former preferred Heteropogon contortus and Cynodon dactylon, the latter showed less preference for these grasses.
Waterbuck are slower than other antelopes in terms of the rate of maturity. While males become sexually mature at the age of six years, females reach maturity within two to three years. Females may conceive by the age of two-and-a-half years, and remain reproductive for another ten years. In equatorial regions, breeding takes place throughout the year, and births are at their peak in the rainy season. However, breeding is seasonal in the Sudan (south of Sahara), with the mating season lasting four months. The season extends for even longer periods in some areas of southern Africa. Oestrus lasts for a day or less.
Mating begins after the male confirms that the female is in oestrus, which he does by sniffing her vulva and urine. A resistive female would try to bite or even fight off an advancing male. The male exhibits flehmen, and often licks the neck of the female and rubs his face and the base of his horns against her back. There are several attempts at mounting before the actual copulation. The female shifts her tail to one side, while the male clasps her sides with his forelegs and rests on her back during copulation, which may occur as many as ten times.
The gestational period lasts for seven to eight months, followed by the birth of a single calf. Twins are rare. Pregnant females isolate themselves in thickets as parturition approaches. Newborn calves can stand on their feet within a half-hour of birth. The mother eats the afterbirth. She communicates with the calf by bleating or snorting. Calves are kept hidden from two to three weeks up to two months. At about three to four weeks, the calf begins following its mother, who signals it to do so by raising her tail. Though bereft of horns, mothers will fiercely defend their offspring from predators. Calves are weaned at eight months, following which time they join groups of calves of their own age. Young females remain with their mothers in nursery herds, or may also join bachelor herds. The waterbuck lives to 18 years in the wild and 30 years in captivity.
The waterbuck is native to southern and eastern Africa (including countries such as Angola, Botswana, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda) besides a few countries of western and northern Africa such as Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal. Though formerly widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, its numbers have now decreased in most areas.
The common waterbuck is found east of the Eastern African Rift. Its southern range extends to the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve (KwaZulu Natal) and to central Namibia. By contrast, the defassa waterbuck inhabits western and central Africa. The defassa waterbuck occurs west of the Albertine Rift and ranges from Eritrea to Guinea Bissau in the southern Sahel, its most northerly point of distribution being in southern Mali. Its range also stretches east of the Congo basin through Zambia into Angola, while another branch extends to the Zaire River west of the Congo basin. While the common waterbuck is now extinct in Ethiopia, the defassa waterbuck has become extinct in Gambia.
Waterbuck inhabit scrub and savanna areas alongside rivers, lakes and valleys. Due to their requirement for grasslands as well as water, the waterbuck have a sparse distribution across ecotones (areas of interface between two different ecosystems). A study in the Ruwenzori Range showed that the mean density of waterbuck was 5.5 per square mile, and estimates in the Maasai Mara were as low as 1.3 per square mile. It has been observed that territorial size depends on the quality of the habitat, the age and health of the animal and the population density. The greater the age of the animal or the denser the populations, the smaller are the territories. In Queen Elizabeth National Park, females had home ranges 21–61 hectares (0.081–0.236 sq mi; 52–151 acres) in area whereas home ranges for bachelor males averaged between 24–38 hectares (0.093–0.147 sq mi; 59–94 acres). The oldest female (around 18 years old) had the smallest home range.
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) lists the waterbuck as of least concern (LC). More specifically, the common waterbuck is listed as of Least Concern while the defassa waterbuck is near threatened (NT). The population trend for both the common and defassa waterbuck is decreasing, especially that of the latter, with large populations being eliminated from their habitats due to poaching and human settlement. Their own sedentary nature too is responsible for this to some extent. Numbers have fallen in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Murchison Falls National Park, Akagera National Park, Lake Nakuru National Park, and Comoé National Park. Population decrease in the Lake Nakuru National Park has been attributed to heavy metal poisoning. While cadmium and lead levels were dangerously high in the kidney and the liver, deficiencies of copper, calcium and phosphorus were noted.
Over 60 percent of the defassa waterbuck populations thrive in protected areas, most notably in Niokolo-Koba, Comoe, Mole, Bui, Pendjari, Manovo-Gounda St. Floris, Moukalaba-Doudou, Garamba, Virunga, Omo, Mago, Murchison Falls, Serengeti, and Katavi, Kafue and Queen Elizabeth National Parks, the national parks and hunting zones of North Province (Cameroon), Ugalla River Forest Reserve, Nazinga Game Ranch, Rukwa Valley, Awash Valley, Murule and Arly-Singou. The common waterbuck occurs in Tsavo, Tarangire, Mikumi, Kruger and Lake Nakuru National Parks, Laikipia, Kajiado, Luangwa Valley, Selous and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi game reserves and private lands in South Africa.
(Wikipedia)
Der Kruger-Nationalpark (deutsch häufig falsch Krüger-Nationalpark) ist das größte Wildschutzgebiet Südafrikas. Er liegt im Nordosten des Landes in der Landschaft des Lowveld auf dem Gebiet der Provinz Limpopo sowie des östlichen Abschnitts von Mpumalanga. Seine Fläche erstreckt sich vom Crocodile-River im Süden bis zum Limpopo, dem Grenzfluss zu Simbabwe, im Norden. Die Nord-Süd-Ausdehnung beträgt etwa 350 km, in Ost-West-Richtung ist der Park durchschnittlich 54 km breit und umfasst eine Fläche von rund 20.000 Quadratkilometern. Damit gehört er zu den größten Nationalparks in Afrika.
Das Schutzgebiet wurde am 26. März 1898 unter dem Präsidenten Paul Kruger als Sabie Game Reserve zum Schutz der Wildnis gegründet. 1926 erhielt das Gebiet den Status Nationalpark und wurde in seinen heutigen Namen umbenannt. Im Park leben 147 Säugetierarten inklusive der „Big Five“, außerdem etwa 507 Vogelarten und 114 Reptilienarten, 49 Fischarten und 34 Amphibienarten.
(Wikipedia)
Als Wasserbock werden zwei Arten afrikanischer Antilopen aus der Gattung der Wasserböcke (Kobus) bezeichnet. Man unterscheidet den Ellipsen-Wasserbock (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) und den Defassa-Wasserbock (Kobus defassa). Beide wurden ursprünglich in einer Art zusammengefasst und zur Unterscheidung von den anderen Arten der Gattung Kobus auch unter dem Namen Gemeiner Wasserbock geführt, heute gelten sie als eigenständig.
Der Ellipsen-Wasserbock (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) ist eine große, kräftige, bis zu 270 kg schwere Antilope mit zotteligem, graubraunem Fell und einem weißen Ring um den Schwanzansatz (die namengebende Ellipse). Auch das Gesicht ist teilweise weiß, und ein weißer Streifen zieht sich von der Kehle bis zum Ohrenansatz. Nur die männlichen Tiere tragen lange, stark geringelte, weit geschwungene und nach vorne gerichtete Hörner. Die Schulterhöhe beträgt 1,30 m.
Das Verbreitungsgebiet reicht von Südafrika und Nordost-Namibia über Botswana und Mosambik und die Savannen Ostafrikas bis nach Äthiopien und Somalia.
Diese Antilopenart ist an Dauergewässer gebunden, in deren Nähe sich Wälder oder offenes Grasgelände mit Dickicht und Schilf bewachsene Gebiete befinden. Junge Männchen bilden eigene Herden, Weibchen und Jungtiere leben in Gruppen von 5 bis 10 Tieren zusammen.
Die beiden Wasserbock-Arten sind weniger stark ans Wasser gebunden als andere Vertreter ihrer Gattung. Sie können sich durchaus vom Wasser entfernen und sind dann in der offenen Savanne oder in Wäldern zu finden. Die weiblichen Wasserböcke leben in Herden von etwa fünf, in seltenen Fällen bis zu siebzig Tieren. Ebenfalls Herden bilden junge Männchen. Dagegen werden ältere Männchen zu Einzelgängern, die ein Revier gegen Artgenossen verteidigen und jedes durchziehende Weibchen für sich beanspruchen.
Wasserböcke gehören zu den häufigsten Großsäugetieren Afrikas. Schätzungsweise gibt es etwa 95.000 Defassa-Wasserböcke und 105.000 Ellipsen-Wasserböcke, von denen mehr als die Hälfte in Schutzgebieten lebt. Beide Arten werden seitens der IUCN als gering gefährdet (near threatened) klassifiziert. Die Bestände außerhalb von Schutzgebieten sind durch Jagd und Habitatzerstörung rückläufig.
(Wikipedia)
In the Platonic, Neopythagorean, Middle Platonic, and Neoplatonic schools of philosophy, the demiurge (/ˈdɛmi.ɜːrdʒ/) is an artisan-like figure responsible for fashioning and maintaining the physical universe. The Gnostics adopted the term demiurge. Although a fashioner, the demiurge is not necessarily the same as the creator figure in the monotheistic sense, because the demiurge itself and the material from which the demiurge fashions the universe are both considered consequences of something else. Depending on the system, they may be considered either uncreated and eternal or the product of some other entity.
The word demiurge is an English word derived from demiurgus, a Latinised form of the Greek δημιουργός or dēmiurgós. It was originally a common noun meaning "craftsman" or "artisan", but gradually came to mean "producer", and eventually "creator". The philosophical usage and the proper noun derive from Plato's Timaeus, written c. 360 BC, where the demiurge is presented as the creator of the universe. The demiurge is also described as a creator in the Platonic (c. 310–90 BC) and Middle Platonic (c. 90 BC – AD 300) philosophical traditions. In the various branches of the Neoplatonic school (third century onwards), the demiurge is the fashioner of the real, perceptible world after the model of the Ideas, but (in most Neoplatonic systems) is still not itself "the One". In the arch-dualist ideology of the various Gnostic systems, the material universe is evil, while the non-material world is good. According to some strains of Gnosticism, the demiurge is malevolent, as it is linked to the material world. In others, including the teaching of Valentinus, the demiurge is simply ignorant or misguided.
Contents
1Platonism and neoplatonism
1.1Plato and the Timaeus
1.2Middle Platonism
1.3Neoplatonism
1.3.1Henology
1.3.2Iamblichus
2Gnosticism
2.1Mythos
2.2Angels
2.3Yaldabaoth
2.3.1Names
2.4Marcion
2.5Valentinus
2.6The devil
2.7Cathars
3Neoplatonism and Gnosticism
3.1Plotinus
4See also
5References
5.1Notes
5.2Sources
6External links
Platonism and neoplatonism[edit]
Plato and the Timaeus[edit]
Plato, as the speaker Timaeus, refers to the Demiurge frequently in the Socratic dialogue Timaeus (28a ff.), c. 360 BC. The main character refers to the Demiurge as the entity who "fashioned and shaped" the material world. Timaeus describes the Demiurge as unreservedly benevolent, and so it desires a world as good as possible. Plato's work Timaeus is a philosophical reconciliation of Hesiod's cosmology in his Theogony, syncretically reconciling Hesiod to Homer.[1][2][3]
Middle Platonism[edit]
In Numenius's Neo-Pythagorean and Middle Platonist cosmogony, the Demiurge is second God as the nous or thought of intelligibles and sensibles.[4]
Neoplatonism[edit]
Plotinus and the later Platonists worked to clarify the Demiurge. To Plotinus, the second emanation represents an uncreated second cause (see Pythagoras' Dyad). Plotinus sought to reconcile Aristotle's energeia with Plato's Demiurge,[5] which, as Demiurge and mind (nous), is a critical component in the ontological construct of human consciousness used to explain and clarify substance theory within Platonic realism (also called idealism). In order to reconcile Aristotelian with Platonian philosophy,[5] Plotinus metaphorically identified the demiurge (or nous) within the pantheon of the Greek Gods as Zeus.[6]
Henology[edit]
The first and highest aspect of God is described by Plato as the One (Τὸ Ἕν, 'To Hen'), the source, or the Monad.[7] This is the God above the Demiurge, and manifests through the actions of the Demiurge. The Monad emanated the demiurge or Nous (consciousness) from its "indeterminate" vitality due to the monad being so abundant that it overflowed back onto itself, causing self-reflection.[8] This self-reflection of the indeterminate vitality was referred to by Plotinus as the "Demiurge" or creator. The second principle is organization in its reflection of the nonsentient force or dynamis, also called the one or the Monad. The dyad is energeia emanated by the one that is then the work, process or activity called nous, Demiurge, mind, consciousness that organizes the indeterminate vitality into the experience called the material world, universe, cosmos. Plotinus also elucidates the equation of matter with nothing or non-being in The Enneads[9] which more correctly is to express the concept of idealism or that there is not anything or anywhere outside of the "mind" or nous (c.f. pantheism).
Plotinus' form of Platonic idealism is to treat the Demiurge, nous as the contemplative faculty (ergon) within man which orders the force (dynamis) into conscious reality.[10] In this, he claimed to reveal Plato's true meaning: a doctrine he learned from Platonic tradition that did not appear outside the academy or in Plato's text. This tradition of creator God as nous (the manifestation of consciousness), can be validated in the works of pre-Plotinus philosophers such as Numenius, as well as a connection between Hebrew and Platonic cosmology (see also Philo).[11]
The Demiurge of Neoplatonism is the Nous (mind of God), and is one of the three ordering principles:
Arche (Gr. 'beginning') – the source of all things,
Logos (Gr. 'reason/cause') – the underlying order that is hidden beneath appearances,
Harmonia (Gr. 'harmony') – numerical ratios in mathematics.
Before Numenius of Apamea and Plotinus' Enneads, no Platonic works ontologically clarified the Demiurge from the allegory in Plato's Timaeus. The idea of Demiurge was, however, addressed before Plotinus in the works of Christian writer Justin Martyr who built his understanding of the Demiurge on the works of Numenius.[citation needed]
Iamblichus[edit]
See also: Panentheism
Later, the Neoplatonist Iamblichus changed the role of the "One", effectively altering the role of the Demiurge as second cause or dyad, which was one of the reasons that Iamblichus and his teacher Porphyry came into conflict.
The figure of the Demiurge emerges in the theoretic of Iamblichus, which conjoins the transcendent, incommunicable “One,” or Source. Here, at the summit of this system, the Source and Demiurge (material realm) coexist via the process of henosis.[12] Iamblichus describes the One as a monad whose first principle or emanation is intellect (nous), while among "the many" that follow it there is a second, super-existent "One" that is the producer of intellect or soul (psyche).
The "One" is further separated into spheres of intelligence; the first and superior sphere is objects of thought, while the latter sphere is the domain of thought. Thus, a triad is formed of the intelligible nous, the intellective nous, and the psyche in order to reconcile further the various Hellenistic philosophical schools of Aristotle's actus and potentia (actuality and potentiality) of the unmoved mover and Plato's Demiurge.
Then within this intellectual triad Iamblichus assigns the third rank to the Demiurge, identifying it with the perfect or Divine nous with the intellectual triad being promoted to a hebdomad (pure intellect).
In the theoretic of Plotinus, nous produces nature through intellectual mediation, thus the intellectualizing gods are followed by a triad of psychic gods.
Gnosticism[edit]
It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled Yaldabaoth. (Discuss) (November 2018)
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Gnosticism presents a distinction between the highest, unknowable God or Supreme Being and the demiurgic "creator" of the material. Several systems of Gnostic thought present the Demiurge as antagonistic to the will of the Supreme Being: his act of creation occurs in an unconscious semblance of the divine model, and thus is fundamentally flawed, or else is formed with the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine in materiality. Thus, in such systems, the Demiurge acts as a solution to (or, at least possibly, the problem or cause that gives rise to)[citation needed] the problem of evil.
Mythos[edit]
One Gnostic mythos describes the declination of aspects of the divine into human form. Sophia (Greek: Σοφία, lit. 'wisdom'), the Demiurge's mother and partial aspect of the divine Pleroma or "Fullness," desired to create something apart from the divine totality, without the receipt of divine assent. In this act of separate creation, she gave birth to the monstrous Demiurge and, being ashamed of her deed, wrapped him in a cloud and created a throne for him within it. The Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his mother, nor anyone else, and concluded that only he existed, ignorant of the superior levels of reality.
The Demiurge, having received a portion of power from his mother, sets about a work of creation in unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm: He frames the seven heavens, as well as all material and animal things, according to forms furnished by his mother; working, however, blindly and ignorant even of the existence of the mother who is the source of all his energy. He is blind to all that is spiritual, but he is king over the other two provinces. The word dēmiurgos properly describes his relation to the material; he is the father of that which is animal like himself.[13]
Thus Sophia's power becomes enclosed within the material forms of humanity, themselves entrapped within the material universe: the goal of Gnostic movements was typically the awakening of this spark, which permitted a return by the subject to the superior, non-material realities which were its primal source.
Angels[edit]
Psalm 82 begins (verse 1), "God stands in the assembly of El [LXX: assembly of gods], in the midst of the gods he renders judgment", indicating a plurality of gods, although it does not indicate that these gods were co-actors in creation. Philo had inferred from the expression "Let us make man" of the Book of Genesis that God had used other beings as assistants in the creation of man, and he explains in this way why man is capable of vice as well as virtue, ascribing the origin of the latter to God, of the former to his helpers in the work of creation.[14]
The earliest Gnostic sects ascribe the work of creation to angels, some of them using the same passage in Genesis.[15] So Irenaeus tells[16] of the system of Simon Magus,[17] of the system of Menander,[18] of the system of Saturninus, in which the number of these angels is reckoned as seven, and[19] of the system of Carpocrates. In the report of the system of Basilides,[20] we are told that our world was made by the angels who occupy the lowest heaven; but special mention is made of their chief, who is said to have been the God of the Jews, to have led that people out of the land of Egypt, and to have given them their law. The prophecies are ascribed not to the chief but to the other world-making angels.
The Latin translation, confirmed by Hippolytus of Rome,[21] makes Irenaeus state that according to Cerinthus (who shows Ebionite influence), creation was made by a power quite separate from the Supreme God and ignorant of him. Theodoret,[22] who here copies Irenaeus, turns this into the plural number "powers", and so Epiphanius of Salamis[23] represents Cerinthus as agreeing with Carpocrates in the doctrine that the world was made by angels.
Yaldabaoth[edit]
A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge.
In the Ophite and Sethian systems, which have many affinities with the teachings of Valentinus, the making of the world is ascribed to a company of seven archons, whose names are given, but still more prominent is their chief, "Yaldabaoth" (also known as "Yaltabaoth" or "Ialdabaoth").
In the Apocryphon of John c. AD 120–180, the demiurge arrogantly declares that he has made the world by himself:
Now the archon ["ruler"] who is weak has three names. The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is Saklas ["fool"], and the third is Samael. And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him. For he said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside me,' for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he had come.[24]
He is Demiurge and maker of man, but as a ray of light from above enters the body of man and gives him a soul, Yaldabaoth is filled with envy; he tries to limit man's knowledge by forbidding him the fruit of knowledge in paradise. At the consummation of all things, all light will return to the Pleroma. But Yaldabaoth, the Demiurge, with the material world, will be cast into the lower depths.[25]
Yaldabaoth is frequently called "the Lion-faced", leontoeides, and is said to have the body of a serpent. The demiurge is also[26] described as having a fiery nature, applying the words of Moses to him: "the Lord our God is a burning and consuming fire". Hippolytus claims that Simon used a similar description.[27]
In Pistis Sophia, Yaldabaoth has already sunk from his high estate and resides in Chaos, where, with his forty-nine demons, he tortures wicked souls in boiling rivers of pitch, and with other punishments (pp. 257, 382). He is an archon with the face of a lion, half flame, and half darkness.
Under the name of Nebro (rebel), Yaldabaoth is called an angel in the apocryphal Gospel of Judas. He is first mentioned in "The Cosmos, Chaos, and the Underworld" as one of the twelve angels to come "into being [to] rule over chaos and the [underworld]". He comes from heaven, and it is said his "face flashed with fire and [his] appearance was defiled with blood". Nebro creates six angels in addition to the angel Saklas to be his assistants. These six, in turn, create another twelve angels "with each one receiving a portion in the heavens".
Names[edit]
Drawing of the lion-headed figure found at the Mithraeum of C. Valerius Heracles and sons, dedicated 190 CE at Ostia Antica, Italy (CIMRM 312).
The most probable derivation of the name "Yaldabaoth" was that given by Johann Karl Ludwig Gieseler. Gieseler believed the name was derived from the Aramaic yaldā bahuth, ילדאבהות, meaning "Son of Chaos". However, Gilles Quispel notes:
Gershom Scholem, the third genius in this field, more specifically the genius of precision, has taught us that some of us were wrong when they believed that Jaldabaoth means "son of chaos", because the Aramaic word bahutha in the sense of chaos only existed in the imagination of the author of a well-known dictionary. This is a pity because this name would suit the demiurge risen from chaos to a nicety. And perhaps the author of the Untitled Document did not know Aramaic and also supposed as we did once, that baoth had something to do with tohuwabohu, one of the few Hebrew words that everybody knows. ... It would seem then that the Orphic view of the demiurge was integrated into Jewish Gnosticism even before the redaction of the myth contained in the original Apocryphon of John. ... Phanes is represented with the mask of a lion's head on his breast, while from his sides the heads of a ram and a buck are budding forth: his body is encircled by a snake. This type was accepted by the Mithras mysteries, to indicate Aion, the new year, and Mithras, whose numerical value is 365. Sometimes he is also identified with Jao Adonai, the creator of the Hebrews. His hieratic attitude indicates Egyptian origin. The same is true of the monstrous figure with the head of a lion, which symbolises Time, Chronos, in Mithraism; Alexandrian origin of this type is probable.[28]
"Samael" literally means "Blind God" or "God of the Blind" in Hebrew (סמאל). This being is considered not only blind, or ignorant of its own origins, but may, in addition, be evil; its name is also found in Judaism as the Angel of Death and in Christian demonology. This link to Judeo-Christian tradition leads to a further comparison with Satan. Another alternative title for the demiurge is "Saklas", Aramaic for "fool".
The angelic name "Ariel" (Hebrew: 'the lion of God')[29] has also been used to refer to the Demiurge and is called his "perfect" name;[30] in some Gnostic lore, Ariel has been called an ancient or original name for Ialdabaoth.[31] The name has also been inscribed on amulets as "Ariel Ialdabaoth",[32][33] and the figure of the archon inscribed with "Aariel".[34]
Marcion[edit]
According to Marcion, the title God was given to the Demiurge, who was to be sharply distinguished from the higher Good God. The former was díkaios, severely just, the latter agathós, or loving-kind; the former was the "god of this world" (2 Corinthians 4:4), the God of the Old Testament, the latter the true God of the New Testament. Christ, in reality, is the Son of the Good God. The true believer in Christ entered into God's kingdom, the unbeliever remained forever the slave of the Demiurge.[25]
Valentinus[edit]
It is in the system of Valentinus that the name Dēmiurgos is used, which occurs nowhere in Irenaeus except in connection with the Valentinian system; we may reasonably conclude that it was Valentinus who adopted from Platonism the use of this word. When it is employed by other Gnostics either it is not used in a technical sense, or its use has been borrowed from Valentinus. But it is only the name that can be said to be specially Valentinian; the personage intended by it corresponds more or less closely with the Yaldabaoth of the Ophites, the great Archon of Basilides, the Elohim of Justinus, etc.
The Valentinian theory elaborates that from Achamoth (he kátō sophía or lower wisdom) three kinds of substance take their origin, the spiritual (pneumatikoí), the animal (psychikoí) and the material (hylikoí). The Demiurge belongs to the second kind, as he was the offspring of a union of Achamoth with matter.[25][35] And as Achamoth herself was only the daughter of Sophía the last of the thirty Aeons, the Demiurge was distant by many emanations from the Propatôr, or Supreme God.[25]
In creating this world out of Chaos the Demiurge was unconsciously influenced for good; and the universe, to the surprise even of its Maker, became almost perfect. The Demiurge regretted even its slight imperfection, and as he thought himself the Supreme God, he attempted to remedy this by sending a Messiah. To this Messiah, however, was actually united with Jesus the Saviour, Who redeemed men. These are either hylikoí or pneumatikoí.[25]
The first, or material men, will return to the grossness of matter and finally be consumed by fire; the second, or animal men, together with the Demiurge, will enter a middle state, neither Pleroma nor hyle; the purely spiritual men will be completely freed from the influence of the Demiurge and together with the Saviour and Achamoth, his spouse, will enter the Pleroma divested of body (hyle) and soul (psyché).[25][36] In this most common form of Gnosticism the Demiurge had an inferior though not intrinsically evil function in the universe as the head of the animal, or psychic world.[25]
The devil[edit]
Opinions on the devil, and his relationship to the Demiurge, varied. The Ophites held that he and his demons constantly oppose and thwart the human race, as it was on their account the devil was cast down into this world.[37] According to one variant of the Valentinian system, the Demiurge is also the maker, out of the appropriate substance, of an order of spiritual beings, the devil, the prince of this world, and his angels. But the devil, as being a spirit of wickedness, is able to recognise the higher spiritual world, of which his maker the Demiurge, who is only animal, has no real knowledge. The devil resides in this lower world, of which he is the prince, the Demiurge in the heavens; his mother Sophia in the middle region, above the heavens and below the Pleroma.[38]
The Valentinian Heracleon[39] interpreted the devil as the principle of evil, that of hyle (matter). As he writes in his commentary on John 4:21,
The mountain represents the Devil, or his world, since the Devil was one part of the whole of matter, but the world is the total mountain of evil, a deserted dwelling place of beasts, to which all who lived before the law and all Gentiles render worship. But Jerusalem represents the creation or the Creator whom the Jews worship. ... You then who are spiritual should worship neither the creation nor the Craftsman, but the Father of Truth.
This vilification of the creator was held to be inimical to Christianity by the early fathers of the church. In refuting the beliefs of the gnostics, Irenaeus stated that "Plato is proved to be more religious than these men, for he allowed that the same God was both just and good, having power over all things, and himself executing judgment."[40]
Cathars[edit]
Catharism apparently inherited their idea of Satan as the creator of the evil world from Gnosticism. Quispel writes,
There is a direct link between ancient Gnosticism and Catharism. The Cathars held that the creator of the world, Satanael, had usurped the name of God, but that he had subsequently been unmasked and told that he was not really God.[41]
Neoplatonism and Gnosticism[edit]
Main article: Neoplatonism and Gnosticism
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Against the Gnostics; or, Against Those that Affirm the Creator of the Cosmos and the Cosmos Itself to be Evil
Gnosticism attributed falsehood or evil to the concept of the Demiurge or creator, though in some Gnostic traditions the creator is from a fallen, ignorant, or lesser—rather than evil—perspective, such as that of Valentinius.
Plotinus[edit]
The Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus addressed within his works Gnosticism's conception of the Demiurge, which he saw as un-Hellenic and blasphemous to the Demiurge or creator of Plato. Plotinus, along with his teacher Ammonius Saccas, was the founder of Neoplatonism.[42] In the ninth tractate of the second of his Enneads, Plotinus criticizes his opponents for their appropriation of ideas from Plato:
From Plato come their punishments, their rivers of the underworld and the changing from body to body; as for the plurality they assert in the Intellectual Realm—the Authentic Existent, the Intellectual-Principle, the Second Creator and the Soul—all this is taken over from the Timaeus.
— Ennead 2.9.vi; emphasis added from A. H. Armstrong's introduction to Ennead 2.9
Of note here is the remark concerning the second hypostasis or Creator and third hypostasis or World Soul. Plotinus criticizes his opponents for "all the novelties through which they seek to establish a philosophy of their own" which, he declares, "have been picked up outside of the truth";[43] they attempt to conceal rather than admit their indebtedness to ancient philosophy, which they have corrupted by their extraneous and misguided embellishments. Thus their understanding of the Demiurge is similarly flawed in comparison to Plato’s original intentions.
Whereas Plato's Demiurge is good wishing good on his creation, Gnosticism contends that the Demiurge is not only the originator of evil but is evil as well. Hence the title of Plotinus' refutation: "Against Those That Affirm the Creator of the Kosmos and the Kosmos Itself to be Evil" (generally quoted as "Against the Gnostics"). Plotinus argues of the disconnect or great barrier that is created between the nous or mind's noumenon (see Heraclitus) and the material world (phenomenon) by believing the material world is evil.
The majority of scholars tend[44] to understand Plotinus' opponents as being a Gnostic sect—certainly (specifically Sethian), several such groups were present in Alexandria and elsewhere about the Mediterranean during Plotinus' lifetime. Plotinus specifically points to the Gnostic doctrine of Sophia and her emission of the Demiurge.
Though the former understanding certainly enjoys the greatest popularity, the identification of Plotinus' opponents as Gnostic is not without some contention. Christos Evangeliou has contended[45] that Plotinus' opponents might be better described as simply "Christian Gnostics", arguing that several of Plotinus' criticisms are as applicable to orthodox Christian doctrine as well. Also, considering the evidence from the time, Evangeliou thought the definition of the term "Gnostics" was unclear. Of note here is that while Plotinus' student Porphyry names Christianity specifically in Porphyry's own works, and Plotinus is to have been a known associate of the Christian Origen, none of Plotinus' works mention Christ or Christianity—whereas Plotinus specifically addresses his target in the Enneads as the Gnostics.
A. H. Armstrong identified the so-called "Gnostics" that Plotinus was attacking as Jewish and Pagan, in his introduction to the tract in his translation of the Enneads. Armstrong alluding to Gnosticism being a Hellenic philosophical heresy of sorts, which later engaged Christianity and Neoplatonism.[46][47]
John D. Turner, professor of religious studies at the University of Nebraska, and famed translator and editor of the Nag Hammadi library, stated[48] that the text Plotinus and his students read was Sethian Gnosticism, which predates Christianity. It appears that Plotinus attempted to clarify how the philosophers of the academy had not arrived at the same conclusions (such as dystheism or misotheism for the creator God as an answer to the problem of evil) as the targets of his criticism.
Emil Cioran also wrote his Le mauvais démiurge ("The Evil Demiurge"), published in 1969, influenced by Gnosticism and Schopenhauerian interpretation of Platonic ontology, as well as that of Plotinus.
See also[edit]
iconReligion portal
Albinus (philosopher)
Azazil
Emil Cioran
Devil in Christianity
Gnosticism
Mara (demon)
Mayasura
Narasimha
Problem of the creator of God
Ptah
Simulated reality
Tenth Intellect (Isma'ilism)
Urizen
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
^ Fontenrose, Joseph (1974). Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origin. Biblo & Tannen Publishers. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-8196-0285-5.
^ Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's Timaeus. Indiana University Press. p. 86. ISBN 0-253-21308-8.
^ Keightley, Thomas (1838). The mythology of ancient Greece and Italy. Oxford University. p. 44. theogony timaeus.
^ Kahn, Charles (2001). Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans. Indianapolis: Hacket Publishing. pp. 124. ISBN 978-0-872205758.
^ Jump up to: a b Karamanolis, George (2006). Plato and Aristotle in Agreement?: Platonists on Aristotle from Antiochus to Porphyry. Oxford University Press. p. 240. ISBN 0-19-926456-2.
^ The ordering principle is twofold; there is a principle known as the Demiurge, and there is the Soul of the All; the appellation "Zeus" is sometimes applied to the Demiurge and sometimes to the principle conducting the universe.[citation needed]
^ Wear, Sarah; Dillon, John (2013). Dionysius the Areopagite and the Neoplatonist Tradition: Despoiling the Hellenes. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 15. ISBN 9780754603856.
^ Wallis, Richard T.; Bregman, Jay, eds. (1992). Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. International Society for Neoplatonic Studies. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1337-1.
^ "Matter is therefore a non-existent"; Plotinus, Ennead 2, Tractate 4 Section 16.
^ Schopenhauer wrote of this Neoplatonist philosopher: "With Plotinus there even appears, probably for the first time in Western philosophy, idealism that had long been current in the East even at that time, for it taught (Enneads, iii, lib. vii, c.10) that the soul has made the world by stepping from eternity into time, with the explanation: 'For there is for this universe no other place than the soul or mind' (neque est alter hujus universi locus quam anima), indeed the ideality of time is expressed in the words: 'We should not accept time outside the soul or mind' (oportet autem nequaquam extra animam tempus accipere)." (Parerga and Paralipomena, Volume I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy", § 7) Similarly, Professor Ludwig Noiré wrote: "For the first time in Western philosophy we find idealism proper in Plotinus (Enneads, iii, 7, 10), where he says, 'The only space or place of the world is the soul', and 'Time must not be assumed to exist outside the soul'." [5] It is worth noting, however, that like Plato but unlike Schopenhauer and other modern philosophers, Plotinus does not worry about whether or how we can get beyond our ideas in order to know external objects.
^ Numenius of Apamea was reported to have asked, "What else is Plato than Moses speaking Greek?" Fr. 8 Des Places.
^ See Theurgy, Iamblichus and henosis Archived 2010-01-09 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, i. 5, 1.
^
It is on this account that Moses says, at the creation of man alone that God said, "Let us make man," which expression shows an assumption of other beings to himself as assistants, in order that God, the governor of all things, might have all the blameless intentions and actions of man, when he does right attributed to him; and that his other assistants might bear the imputation of his contrary actions.
— "Philo: On the Creation, XXIV". www.earlyjewishwritings.com.
^ Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho. c. 67.
^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, i. 23, 1.
^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, i. 23, 5.
^ Irenaeus, i. 24, 1.
^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, i. 25.
^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, i. 24, 4.
^ Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies. vii. 33.
^ Theodoret, Haer. Fab. ii. 3.
^ Epiphanius, Panarion, 28.
^ "Apocryphon of John," translation by Frederik Wisse in The Nag Hammadi Library. Accessed online at gnosis.org
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Demiurge". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ Hipp. Ref. vi. 32, p. 191.
^ Hipp. Ref. vi. 9.
^ Quispel, Gilles (2008). Van Oort, Johannes (ed.). Gnostica, Judaica, Catholica: Collected Essays of Gilles Quispel. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. p. 64. ISBN 978-90-04-13945-9.
^ Scholem, Gershom (1965). Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and Talmudic Tradition. Jewish Theological Seminary of America. p. 72.
^ Robert McLachlan Wilson (1976). Nag Hammadi and gnosis: Papers read at the First International Congress of Coptology. BRILL. pp. 21–23. Therefore his esoteric name is Jaldabaoth, whereas the perfect call him Ariel, because he has the appearance of a lion.
^ Gustav Davidson (1994). A dictionary of angels: including the fallen angels. Scrollhouse. p. 54.
^ David M Gwynn (2010). Religious Diversity in Late Antiquity. BRILL. p. 448.
^ Campbell Bonner (1949). "An Amulet of the Ophite Gnostics". The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Hesperia Supplements, Vol. 8: 43–46.
^ Gilles Quispel; R. van den Broek; Maarten Jozef Vermaseren (1981). Studies in gnosticism and hellenistic religions. BRILL. pp. 40–41.
^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, i. 5.
^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, i. 6.
^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, i. 30, 8.
^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, i. 5, 4.
^ Heracleon, Frag. 20.
^ Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, iii. 25.
^ Quispel, Gilles and Van Oort, Johannes (2008), p. 143.
^ John D. Turner. Neoplatonism.
^ "For, in sum, a part of their doctrine comes from Plato; all the novelties through which they seek to establish a philosophy of their own have been picked up outside of the truth." Plotinus, "Against the Gnostics", Ennead II, 9, 6.
^ Plotinus, Arthur Hilary Armstrong (trans.) (1966). Plotinus: Enneads II (Loeb Classical Library ed.). Harvard University Press. From this point to the end of ch. 12 Plotinus is attacking a Gnostic myth known to us best at present in the form it took in the system of Valentinus. The Mother, Sophia-Achamoth, produced as a result of the complicated sequence of events which followed the fall of the higher Sophia, and her offspring the Demiurge, the inferier and ignorant maker of the material universe, are Valentinian figures; cp. Irenaeus, Adversus haereses 1.4 and 5. Valentinius had been in Rome, and there is nothing improbable in the presence of Valentinians there in the time of Plotinus. But the evidence in the Life ch. 16 suggests that the Gnostics in Plotinus's circle belonged rather to the older group called Sethians or Archontics, related to the Ophites or Barbelognostics: they probably called themselves simply 'Gnostics'. Gnostic sects borrowed freely from each other, and it is likely that Valentinius took some of his ideas about Sophia from older Gnostic sources, and that his ideas in turn influenced other Gnostics.
^ Evangeliou, "Plotinus's Anti-Gnostic Polemic and Porphyry's Against the Christians", in Wallis & Bregman, p. 111.
^ From "Introduction to Against the Gnostics", Plotinus' Enneads as translated by A. H. Armstrong, pp. 220–222: "The treatise as it stands in the Enneads is a most powerful protest on behalf of Hellenic philosophy against the un-Hellenic heresy (as it was from the Platonist as well as the orthodox Christian point of view) of Gnosticism. There were Gnostics among Plotinus's own friends, whom he had not succeeded in converting (Enneads ch. 10 of this treatise) and he and his pupils devoted considerable time and energy to anti-Gnostic controversy (Life of Plotinus ch. 16). He obviously considered Gnosticism an extremely dangerous influence, likely to pervert the minds even of members of his own circle. It is impossible to attempt to give an account of Gnosticism here. By far the best discussion of what the particular group of Gnostics Plotinus knew believed is M. Puech's admirable contribution to Entretiens Hardt V (Les Sources de Plotin). But it is important for the understanding of this treatise to be clear about the reasons why Plotinus disliked them so intensely and thought their influence so harmful."
^ Armstrong, pp. 220–22: "Short statement of the doctrine of the three hypostasis, the One, Intellect and Soul; there cannot be more or fewer than these three. Criticism of the attempts to multiply the hypostasis, and especially of the idea of two intellects, one which thinks and that other which thinks that it thinks. (ch. 1). The true doctrine of Soul (ch. 2). The law of necessary procession and the eternity of the universe (ch.3). Attack on the Gnostic doctrine of the making of the universe by a fallen soul, and on their despising of the universe and the heavenly bodies (chs. 4–5). The senseless jargon of the Gnostics, their plagiarism from and perversion of Plato, and their insolent arrogance (ch. 6). The true doctrine about Universal Soul and the goodness of the universe which it forms and rules (chs. 7–8). Refutation of objections from the inequalities and injustices of human life (ch. 9). Ridiculous arrogance of the Gnostics who refuse to acknowledge the hierarchy of created gods and spirits and say that they alone are sons of God and superior to the heavens (ch. 9). The absurdities of the Gnostic doctrine of the fall of "Wisdom" (Sophia) and of the generation and activities of the Demiurge, maker of the visible universe (chs. 10–12). False and melodramatic Gnostic teaching about the cosmic spheres and their influence (ch. 13). The blasphemous falsity of the Gnostic claim to control the higher powers by magic and the absurdity of their claim to cure diseases by casting out demons (ch. 14). The false other-worldliness of the Gnostics leads to immorality (ch. 15). The true Platonic other-worldliness, which love and venerates the material universe in all its goodness and beauty as the most perfect possible image of the intelligible, contracted at length with the false, Gnostic, other-worldliness which hates and despises the material universe and its beauties (chs. 16–18)."
^ Turner, "Gnosticism and Platonism", in Wallis & Bregman.
Sources[edit]
This article incorporates text from the entry Demiurgus in A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines by William Smith and Henry Wace (1877), a publication now in the public domain.