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IT'S ALL ABOUT TRUST
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I never particularly liked being male, it didn't bother me too much at the time but in a way I felt I had been cheated as I would have prefered to be female. The thing is I never really understood was how much it affected me as I was quite lost being in the wrong place and not quite me and especially when I was a teenager I didn't know what I wanted out of life I just lived on dreams and daydreams. I've always had a lot of sexual energy too to use up and thankfully I had art as an outlet because it wasn't talked about much in our family as my parents made a big mistake and it hung over them like a curse. Once my parents died I felt much more free and partied and with no restrictions my drawings became more erotic and surreal. It was through this and the introduction of transgendered porn in french porn comics like ND and on the web that a greater understanding came to the fore and something must have clicked as I grew a deep fascination and a kind of longing which at first I denied but then once I decided to create an alter-ego I realised there was another me. ..
6D & 50/1.4
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The Smoking Popes fired up the Doubledoor in Chicago on Saturday night.
It was a great show and Riot Fest was a killer good time.
I've got another gig to do on Tuesday night at another venue and I've been busy as shit lately...
I really prefer crashing these events versus getting asked to shoot them.
I mean... it's really flattering to be asked to shoot a performance...
but it's exhilerating to crash it.
I'd really like to get out and shoot some of the protestors but I've been so tight on time.
It's time for a vacation I think.
A really quiet vacation in a very mellow place.
I need a week in the middle of nowhere.
Patagonia would be perfect.
Or a little sailboat in the carribean.
I think Viewminder needs to take some nature pictures.
© 2013, J. Felege, all rights reserved. Redistribution is prohibited.
2013-11-27: Everest, the snow leopard cub born at the Brookfield Zoo, takes a moment from playing to pose for us with cameras. Everest was born June 13th to 3-year-old mother Sarani and her mate Sabu, 3.
With taking a few days off from work this week I've been posting several photos from my trips over the past few days while waiting out the sporadic snow storms we've been having here near Erie. I want to thank everyone who stops by and visits my photos and to those who share their adventures as well - I hope everyone has a safe and enjoyable thanksgiving holiday!
Please do not copy and/or redistribute this photo without prior permission (including, and is not limited to, www.tumblr.com/ and pinterest.com as these sites download their own copy of the picture without my consent), thanks for your understanding!
Understanding ISO can help you take great low light shots and avoid grainy, poor quality photos. Find out more in Issue 31 in print ow.ly/qCh8V or digitally ow.ly/qChgS
How many roads you’ve traveled
How many dreams you’ve chased
Across sand and sky and gravel
Looking for one safe place
Will you make a smoother landing
When you break your fall from grace
Into the arms of understanding
Looking for one safe place
Oh, life is trial by fire
And love’s the sweetest taste
And I pray it lifts us higher
To one safe place
How many roads we’ve traveled
How many dreams we’ve chased
Across sand and sky and gravel
Looking for one safe place
One safe place - Mark Cohn
Disinformation – “Closed Circuit” – architectural + immersive sound installation in “Sounds & Shapes” exhibition at Drawing Matter, Somerset, curated by Matchett & Page, July 2021, poster by Denman & Gould.
“If we sit and talk in a dark room, words suddenly acquire new meanings and different textures. They become richer, even, than architecture, which Le Corbusier rightly says can best be felt at night.” – Marshall McLuhan “Understanding Media” 1964
“Architecture is the simplest means of articulating time and space, of modulating reality and [of] engendering dreams” [1], and, perhaps paradoxically, in the silo at Shatwell, a familiar architectural form is re-purposed to create a kind of strange laboratory, within which, through the manipulation of architectural acoustics, of auditory and haptic sensations, the formal aesthetics and symbolism of pure geometry, interact with (equally primal) tactile resonances and symbolism, to evoke long-forgotten reflexes, sense memories, and (arguably, to some extent) even dreams. Extrapolating the assertion that “architecture in general is frozen music” [2], the installation at Shatwell is created not only within the building, but by the building, with the building itself functioning as a massive loudspeaker, as a kinetic artwork, and as a musical instrument, generating “sound” which is heard through the fingertips, drawing visitors into an amniotic sound world of gently pulsing vibration and breath-like rhythms.
In geometric terms, the curvilinear surface of a cylinder is effectively infinite, while in projective geometry, a cylinder can be defined as a cone whose apex rests at infinity [3] – a grain silo is in effect a giant tin of beans, and every child who’s built a tin-can-telephone is familiar with at least some of the acoustic properties of plate steel. “In every art it is the most elementary and primitive means that achieve the most profound and beautiful effects” [4], and “Closed Circuit” – the sound installation by artist project Disinformation – uses simple microtonal tuning techniques to create a rhythmically active and dynamic sound mass, which oscillates around a core frequency of 40Hz. This is, in neurological terms, the exact frequency of so-called Gamma waves which is most strongly associated with the integration of visual consciousness and dreams [5][6], and is the exact frequency most used in the field of vibro-acoustic therapy [7].
“We move within a closed landscape whose landmarks constantly draw us toward the past. Certain shifting angles, certain receding perspectives, allow us to glimpse original conceptions of space, but this vision remains fragmentary. It must be sought in the magical locales of fairy tales and Surrealist writings: castles, endless walls, little forgotten bars, mammoth caverns, casino mirrors…” [1]
“Arnold began telling Alan about his recurrent childhood dream, or nightmare rather, in which he felt himself suspended in absolutely empty space while a strange noise would start, growing ever louder, until he woke up in a sweat. Alan asked what kind of noise it was, but Arnold could not describe it… Alan imagined the old hangar on the RAF camp… and made up a science fiction story… in which the hangar was itself a brain.” [8]
[1] Ivan Chtcheglov “Formulary for a New Urbanism” October 1953
[2] Friedrich von Schelling “Philosophie der Kunst” 1802
[3] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder
[4] Rudolf Arnheim “Radio” 1936
[5] Francis Crick and Christof Koch “Towards a Neurobiological Theory of Consciousness” Seminars in the Neurosciences, vol. 2, 1990
[6] Rodolfo Llinás and Urs Ribary “Coherent 40Hz Oscillation Characterizes Dream State in Humans” PNAS, vol. 90, 1993
[7] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibroacoustic_therapy
[8] Andrew Hodges “Alan Turing, The Enigma” 1983
“Closed Circuit” by Disinformation is commissioned and installed at Shatwell Farm, Somerset as part of the exhibition “Sounds & Shapes”, curated by Matchett & Page. The installation is open by appointment at weekends, 11am to 5pm, Saturday 17th July to Sunday 1st August 2021.
drawingmatter.org/disinformation-closed-circuit/
matchett.page/sounds_and_shapes
Initial site visit 22 Feb 2020, installation date 29 May 2021
Text by Joe Banks, copyright © 2 June 2021
Looking Forward to the Second Advent
Acts 1:10–11; Revelation 22:20
O Lord Jesus Christ, who by your holy angels promised that you would come again in like manner as you were taken from us,
even so come, we ask you, and fulfill the desire of your Church.
Lord, we wait for you day by day.
Give us the graces of your Holy Spirit, that we will not be unready when you appear;
watchfulness, that our loins may be girded and our lights burning;
zeal, that we will not be slothful, but followers of those who inherit your promises;
singleness of heart, that we will not be unfaithful stewards of your manifold gifts.
And thus, O Lord, may we wait for you,
not unwise, but understanding what is your will,
walking circumspectly, because the days are evil.
Amen. Even so, come, Lord Jesus.
HENRY ALFORD (1810–1871)
Elliot Ritzema, ed., 300 Quotations and Prayers for Christmas (Pastorum Series; Lexham Press, 2013).
Theme #37 Letters
52 in 2016 Challenge
Letters build powerful words.
Take note politicians - you could learn from this passage by author Gavriel Savit! Anna and the Swallow Man, is a great read for young adults and adults!
Book review: flic.kr/p/Equ7fw
Why is it called inner emptiness? There’s no way something inside you can be empty, after all. Fight or flight. I guess the inner emptiness comes from the notion that when everything around you falls to pieces, there should be some thing inside you on which to hold on to. Confidence. The k...
manwithoutfather.com/2015/06/20/how-to-deal-with-failure-...
My understanding is that when Trim Castle Hotel was constructed it was necessary to replace a wall partly owned by the church so as compensation the builders undertook to provide the ’stations of the cross’ shown in my photographs.
Because of uneven ground and the location of some trees it can be difficult to properly photograph all of the stations without introducing some distortion. This is, in fact, my third attempt.
If you are not Christian and even then the ’Stations Of The Cross’ may be a bit of a mystery to you.
I should mention that when I was young there were fourteen stations … 7 on each side of the church. When I first photographed the stations in Trim I was more than confused to discover that there were fifteen with the additional one being the Resurrection of Jesus. Further investigation resulted in the following explanation - “Some modern liturgists say the traditional Stations of the Cross are incomplete without a final scene depicting the empty tomb and/or the resurrection of Jesus, because Jesus' rising from the dead was an integral part of his salvific work on Earth. Advocates of the traditional form of the Stations ending with the body of Jesus being placed in the tomb say the Stations are intended as a meditation on the atoning death of Jesus, and not as a complete picture of his life, death, and resurrection”.
Stations of the Cross or the Way of the Cross, also known as Way of Sorrows or Via Crucis, refers to a series of images depicting Jesus Christ on the day of his crucifixion and accompanying prayers. The stations grew out of imitations of Via Dolorosa in Jerusalem which is believed to be the actual path Jesus walked to Mount Calvary. The object of the stations is to help the Christian faithful to make a spiritual pilgrimage through contemplation of the Passion of Christ. It has become one of the most popular devotions and the stations can be found in the churches of many Western Christian denominations, including Anglican, Catholic, Lutheran, Methodist and Western Orthodox parishes.
Commonly, a series of 14 images will be arranged in numbered order along a path and the faithful travel from image to image, in order, stopping at each "station to say the selected prayers and reflections. This will be done individually or in a procession most commonly during Lent, especially on Good Friday, in a spirit of reparation for the sufferings and insults that Jesus endured during his passion.
The style, form, and placement of the stations vary widely. The typical stations are small plaques with reliefs or paintings placed around a church nave. Modern minimalist stations can be simple crosses with a numeral in the centre. Occasionally the faithful might say the stations of the cross without there being any image, such as when the pope leads the stations of the cross around the Colosseum in Rome on Good Friday. The older stations can be an outdoor series of chapels in a landscape, known as a Calvary, and are sites of pilgrimage in their own right. Examples include Sacro Monte Calvario in Italy, Kalwaria Zebrzydowska in Poland, Žemaičių Kalvarija in Lithuania.
Plaza de Toros de Las Ventas. Calle de Alcalá. Leica-M6 TTL 0,72 Elmarit-M 1:2.8/21mm ASPH
Nikon super Coolscan 5000ed.
Ilford Delta 100asa. Kodak developer HC 110 1+31 (B)
🔴Leica my point of view.
Wetzlar, Deutschland.
Leica-CL 1974 Rangefinder
Leica-M 6 TTL 0.72 1998 Rangefinder
Leica-M6 TTL 0.85 2001 Rangefinder
The expression Margaret C has is totally natural, unrehearsed. I never met her before taking her picture(s) for 2 hours. A few weeks later Margaret C helped me name the technique I had been using to help strangers be courageously vulnerable. It's called "Present." It's effective because they're introduced to a deeper understanding of themselves, often in a public setting. It enables a person to transform life from a passive experience to an active journey by dealing fear a crushing blow. In this sense, it's about being introduced to yourself in a new way, to naturally form a deeper understanding to love and not fear. More photos/portraits of former strangers "Present" are on my Flickr and will be shared. Best to all! Washington D.C., 1 Oct 17.
U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Thomas Vilsack gives remarks prior to signing a memorandum of understanding between NASA and USDA, Wednesday, June 21, 2023, at the USDA’s Jamie L. Whitten Building in Washington. The agreement strengthens the collaboration between the two agencies, including efforts to improve agricultural and Earth science research, technology, and agricultural management, as well as the application of science data and models to agricultural decision making. Photo Credit: (NASA/Bill Ingalls)
The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station (habitable artificial satellite) in low Earth orbit. The ISS programme is a joint project between five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada).[6][7] The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements.[8]
The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields.[9][10][11] The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars.[12] The ISS maintains an orbit with an average altitude of 400 kilometres (250 mi) by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft.[13] It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day.[14]
The station is divided into two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), which is operated by Russia, and the United States Orbital Segment (USOS), which is shared by many nations. Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024,[15] but had previously proposed using elements of the Russian segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK.[16]As of December 2018, the station is expected to operate until 2030.[17]
The first ISS component was launched in 1998, with the first long-term residents arriving on 2 November 2000.[18] Since then, the station has been continuously occupied for 18 years and 359 days.[19] This is the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit, having surpassed the previous record of 9 years and 357 days held by Mir. The latest major pressurised module was fitted in 2011, with an experimental inflatable space habitat added in 2016. Development and assembly of the station continues, with several major new Russian elements scheduled for launch starting in 2020. The ISS is the largest human-made body in low Earth orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth.[20][21] The ISS consists of pressurised habitation modules, structural trusses, solar arrays, radiators, docking ports, experiment bays and robotic arms. Major ISS modules have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets and US Space Shuttles.[22]
The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz, and Mir stations as well as Skylab from the US. The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft: the Russian Soyuz and Progress, the US Dragon and Cygnus, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle,[6] and the European Automated Transfer Vehicle. The Dragon spacecraft allows the return of pressurised cargo to Earth (downmass), which is used for example to repatriate scientific experiments for further analysis. The Soyuz return capsule has minimal downmass capability next to the astronauts.
The ISS has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts and space tourists from 18 different nations. As of 14 March 2019, 236 people from 18 countries had visited the space station, many of them multiple times. The United States sent 149 people, Russia sent 47, nine were Japanese, eight were Canadian, five were Italian, four were French, three were German, and there were one each from Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, South Africa, United Arab Emirates, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.[23]
Contents
1 Purpose
2 Manufacturing
3 Assembly
4 Structure
5 Systems
6 Operations
7 Mission controls
8 Fleet operations
9 Life aboard
10 Crew health and safety
11 Orbital debris threats
12 End of mission
13 Cost
14 International co-operation
15 Sightings from Earth
16 See also
17 Notes
18 References
19 Further reading
20 External links
Purpose
The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a low Earth orbit staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and Roskosmos have come to fruition.[24] In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic[25] and educational purposes.[26]
Scientific research
Main article: Scientific research on the International Space Station
Comet Lovejoy photographed by Expedition 30 commander Dan Burbank
Expedition 8 Commander and Science Officer Michael Foale conducts an inspection of the Microgravity Science Glovebox
Fisheye view of several labs
CubeSats are deployed by the NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer
The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling, and crew available to support experiments. Small uncrewed spacecraft can also provide platforms for experiments, especially those involving zero gravity and exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment where studies can be performed potentially for decades, combined with ready access by human researchers.[27][28]
The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share the same launches and crew time. Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including astrobiology, astronomy, physical sciences, materials science, space weather, meteorology, and human research including space medicine and the life sciences.[9][10][11][29][30] Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew. If follow-on experiments are necessary, the routinely scheduled launches of resupply craft allows new hardware to be launched with relative ease.[28] Crews fly expeditions of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 person-hours per week of labour with a crew of 6. However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance.[9][31]
Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe and is as important as the Hubble Space Telescope according to NASA. Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs.[32][33] On 3 April 2013, scientists reported that hints of dark matter may have been detected by the AMS.[34][35][36][37][38][39] According to the scientists, "The first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays."
The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the solar wind, in addition to cosmic rays), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity.[40] Some simple forms of life called extremophiles,[41] as well as small invertebrates called tardigrades[42] can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through desiccation.
Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. This data will be used to determine whether high duration human spaceflight and space colonisation are feasible. As of 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggest that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to travel to Mars.[43][44]
Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician on board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult.[45][46][47]
Free fall
ISS crew member storing samples
A comparison between the combustion of a candle on Earth (left) and in a free fall environment, such as that found on the ISS (right)
Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of freefall, resulting in an apparent state of weightlessness.[48] This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five separate effects:[49]
Drag from the residual atmosphere.
Vibration from the movements of mechanical systems and the crew.
Actuation of the on-board attitude control moment gyroscopes.
Thruster firings for attitude or orbital changes.
Gravity-gradient effects, also known as tidal effects. Items at different locations within the ISS would, if not attached to the station, follow slightly different orbits. Being mechanically interconnected these items experience small forces that keep the station moving as a rigid body.
Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of this data, NASA wants to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues, and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space.[10]
Investigating the physics of fluids in microgravity will provide better models of the behaviour of fluids. Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth. In addition, examining reactions that are slowed by low gravity and low temperatures will improve our understanding of superconductivity.[10]
The study of materials science is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on the ground.[50] Other areas of interest include the effect of the low gravity environment on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants. These findings may improve current knowledge about energy production, and lead to economic and environmental benefits. Future plans are for the researchers aboard the ISS to examine aerosols, ozone, water vapour, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark matter in the universe.[10]
Exploration
A 3D plan of the Russia-based MARS-500 complex, used for ground-based experiments which complement ISS-based preparations for a human mission to Mars
The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of Low Earth Orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in operations, maintenance as well as repair and replacement activities on-orbit, which will be essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, mission risks can be reduced and the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft advanced.[12] Referring to the MARS-500 experiment, ESA states that "Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations".[51] Sergey Krasnov, the head of human space flight programmes for Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a "shorter version" of MARS-500 may be carried out on the ISS.[52]
In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, "When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration. The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exploration and realisation of prospective programmes of research and exploration of the Solar system, including the Moon and Mars."[53] A crewed mission to Mars may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other four partners that China, India and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership.[54] NASA chief Charlie Bolden stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort".[55] Currently, US federal legislation prevents NASA co-operation with China on space projects.[56]
Education and cultural outreach
Original Jules Verne manuscripts displayed by crew inside Jules Verne ATV
The ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, videolink and email.[6][57] ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms.[58] In one lesson, students can navigate a 3-D model of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time.[59]
JAXA aims to inspire children to "pursue craftsmanship" and to heighten their "awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society."[60] Through a series of education guides, a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life, will be learned.[61][62] In the JAXA Seeds in Space experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS is explored. Students grow sunflower seeds which flew on the ISS for about nine months. In the first phase of Kibō utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields.[63]
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ESA Astronaut Paolo Nespoli's spoken voice, recorded about the ISS in November 2017, for Wikipedia
Cultural activities are another major objective. Tetsuo Tanaka, director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, says "There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science."[64]
Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) is a volunteer programme which encourages students worldwide to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics through amateur radio communications opportunities with the ISS crew. ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from nine countries including several countries in Europe as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio equipment cannot be used, speakerphones connect students to ground stations which then connect the calls to the station.[65]
First Orbit is a feature-length documentary film about Vostok 1, the first crewed space flight around the Earth. By matching the orbit of the International Space Station to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground path and time of day, documentary filmmaker Christopher Riley and ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli were able to film the view that Yuri Gagarin saw on his pioneering orbital space flight. This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli, during Expedition 26/27, filmed the majority of the footage for this documentary film, and as a result is credited as its director of photography.[66] The film was streamed through the website firstorbit.org in a global YouTube premiere in 2011, under a free licence.[67]
In May 2013, commander Chris Hadfield shot a music video of David Bowie's "Space Oddity" on board the station; the film was released on YouTube.[68] It was the first music video ever to be filmed in space.[69]
In November 2017, while participating in Expedition 52/53 on the ISS, Paolo Nespoli made two recordings (one in English the other in his native Italian) of his spoken voice, for use on Wikipedia articles. These were the first content made specifically for Wikipedia, in space.[70][71]
Manufacturing
Main article: Manufacturing of the International Space Station
ISS module Node 2 manufacturing and processing in the SSPF
Since the International Space Station is a multi-national collaborative project, the components for in-orbit assembly were manufactured in various countries around the world. Beginning in the mid 1990s, the U.S. components Destiny, Unity, the Integrated Truss Structure, and the solar arrays were fabricated at the Marshall Space Flight Center and the Michoud Assembly Facility. These modules were delivered to the Operations and Checkout Building and the Space Station Processing Facility for final assembly and processing for launch.[72]
The Russian modules, including Zarya and Zvezda, were manufactured at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center in Moscow. Zvezda was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component for Mir-2, but was never launched and instead became the ISS Service Module.[73]
The European Space Agency Columbus module was manufactured at the European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC) in the Netherlands, along with many other contractors throughout Europe.[74] The other ESA-built modules - Harmony, Tranquility, the Leonardo MPLM, and the Cupola - were initially manufactured at the Thales Alenia Space factory located at the Cannes Mandelieu Space Center. The structural steel hulls of the modules were transported by aircraft to the Kennedy Space Center SSPF for launch processing.[75]
The Japanese Experiment Module Kibō, was fabricated in various technology manufacturing facilities in Japan, at the NASDA (now JAXA) Tanegashima Space Center, and the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. The Kibo module was transported by ship and flown by aircraft to the KSC Space Station Processing Facility.[76]
The Mobile Servicing System, consisting of the Canadarm2 and the Dextre grapple fixture, was manufactured at various factories in Canada and the United States under contract by the Canadian Space Agency. The mobile base system, a connecting framework for Canadarm2 mounted on rails, was built by Northrop Grumman.
Assembly
Main articles: Assembly of the International Space Station and List of ISS spacewalks
The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in space architecture, began in November 1998.[3] Russian modules launched and docked robotically, with the exception of Rassvet. All other modules were delivered by the Space Shuttle, which required installation by ISS and shuttle crewmembers using the Canadarm2 (SSRMS) and extra-vehicular activities (EVAs); as of 5 June 2011, they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA (see List of ISS spacewalks). 127 of these spacewalks originated from the station, and the remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles.[77] The beta angle of the station had to be considered at all times during construction.[78]
The first module of the ISS, Zarya, was launched on 20 November 1998 on an autonomous Russian Proton rocket. It provided propulsion, attitude control, communications, electrical power, but lacked long-term life support functions. Two weeks later, a passive NASA module Unity was launched aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-88 and attached to Zarya by astronauts during EVAs. This module has two Pressurised Mating Adapter (PMAs), one connects permanently to Zarya, the other allowed the Space Shuttle to dock to the space station. At that time, the Russian station Mir was still inhabited, and the ISS remained uncrewed for two years. On 12 July 2000, Zvezda was launched into orbit. Preprogrammed commands on board deployed its solar arrays and communications antenna. It then became the passive target for a rendezvous with Zarya and Unity: it maintained a station-keeping orbit while the Zarya-Unity vehicle performed the rendezvous and docking via ground control and the Russian automated rendezvous and docking system. Zarya's computer transferred control of the station to Zvezda's computer soon after docking. Zvezda added sleeping quarters, a toilet, kitchen, CO2 scrubbers, dehumidifier, oxygen generators, exercise equipment, plus data, voice and television communications with mission control. This enabled permanent habitation of the station.[79][80]
The first resident crew, Expedition 1, arrived in November 2000 on Soyuz TM-31. At the end of the first day on the station, astronaut Bill Shepherd requested the use of the radio call sign "Alpha", which he and cosmonaut Krikalev preferred to the more cumbersome "International Space Station".[81] The name "Alpha" had previously been used for the station in the early 1990s,[82] and its use was authorised for the whole of Expedition 1.[83] Shepherd had been advocating the use of a new name to project managers for some time. Referencing a naval tradition in a pre-launch news conference he had said: "For thousands of years, humans have been going to sea in ships. People have designed and built these vessels, launched them with a good feeling that a name will bring good fortune to the crew and success to their voyage."[84] Yuri Semenov, the President of Russian Space Corporation Energia at the time, disapproved of the name "Alpha" as he felt that Mir was the first modular space station, so the names "Beta" or "Mir 2" for the ISS would have been more fitting.[83][85][86]
Expedition 1 arrived midway between the flights of STS-92 and STS-97. These two Space Shuttle flights each added segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, which provided the station with Ku-band communication for US television, additional attitude support needed for the additional mass of the USOS, and substantial solar arrays supplementing the station's existing 4 solar arrays.[87]
Over the next two year, the station continued to expand. A Soyuz-U rocket delivered the Pirs docking compartment. The Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour delivered the Destiny laboratory and Quest airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure.
The expansion schedule was interrupted by the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003 and a resulting hiatus in flights. The Space Shuttle was grounded until 2005 with STS-114 flown by Discovery.[88]
Assembly resumed in 2006 with the arrival of STS-115 with Atlantis, which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118. As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and the Harmony node and Columbus European laboratory were added. These were soon followed by the first two components of Kibō. In March 2009, STS-119 completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of Kibō was delivered in July 2009 on STS-127, followed by the Russian Poisk module. The third node, Tranquility, was delivered in February 2010 during STS-130 by the Space Shuttle Endeavour, alongside the Cupola, followed in May 2010 by the penultimate Russian module, Rassvet. Rassvet was delivered by Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-132 in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded Zarya module in 1998.[89] The last pressurised module of the USOS, Leonardo, was brought to the station in February 2011 on the final flight of Discovery, STS-133.[90] The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer was delivered by Endeavour on STS-134 the same year.[91]
As of June 2011, the station consisted of 15 pressurised modules and the Integrated Truss Structure. Five modules are still to be launched, including the Nauka with the European Robotic Arm, the Prichal module, and two power modules called NEM-1 and NEM-2.[92] As of March 2019, Russia's future primary research module Nauka is set to launch in the summer of 2020, along with the European Robotic Arm which will be able to relocate itself to different parts of the Russian modules of the station.[93]
The gross mass of the station changes over time. The total launch mass of the modules on orbit is about 417,289 kg (919,965 lb) (as of 3 September 2011).[94] The mass of experiments, spare parts, personal effects, crew, foodstuff, clothing, propellants, water supplies, gas supplies, docked spacecraft, and other items add to the total mass of the station. Hydrogen gas is constantly vented overboard by the oxygen generators.
The ISS is a third generation[95] modular space station.[96] Modular stations can allow modules to be added to or removed from the existing structure, allowing greater flexibility.
Below is a diagram of major station components. The blue areas are pressurised sections accessible by the crew without using spacesuits. The station's unpressurised superstructure is indicated in red. Other unpressurised components are yellow. The Unity node joins directly to the Destiny laboratory. For clarity, they are shown apart.
Zarya
Zarya as seen by Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-88
Zarya (Russian: Заря́, lit. 'Dawn'), also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (from the Russian: "Функционально-грузовой блок", lit. 'Funktsionalno-gruzovoy blok' or ФГБ), is the first module of the ISS to be launched.[97] The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance to the ISS during the initial stage of assembly. With the launch and assembly in orbit of other modules with more specialized functionality, Zarya is now[when?] primarily used for storage, both inside the pressurized section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks. The Zarya is a descendant of the TKS spacecraft designed for the Russian Salyut program. The name Zarya, which means sunrise,[97] was given to the FGB because it signified the dawn of a new era of international cooperation in space. Although it was built by a Russian company, it is owned by the United States.[98]
Zarya was built from December 1994 to January 1998 at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center (KhSC) in Moscow.[97]
Zarya was launched on 20 November 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 81 in Kazakhstan to a 400 km (250 mi) high orbit with a designed lifetime of at least 15 years. After Zarya reached orbit, STS-88 launched on 4 December 1998 to attach the Unity module.
Unity
Unity as seen by Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-88
Main article: Unity (ISS module)
The Unity connecting module, also known as Node 1, is the first U.S.-built component of the ISS. It connects the Russian and United States segments of the station, and is where crew eat meals together.
The module is cylindrical in shape, with six berthing locations (forward, aft, port, starboard, zenith, and nadir) facilitating connections to other modules. Unity measures 4.57 metres (15.0 ft) in diameter, is 5.47 metres (17.9 ft) long, made of steel, and was built for NASA by Boeing in a manufacturing facility at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Unity is the first of the three connecting modules; the other two are Harmony and Tranquility.
Unity was carried into orbit as the primary cargo of the Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS-88, the first Space Shuttle mission dedicated to assembly of the station. On 6 December 1998, the STS-88 crew mated the aft berthing port of Unity with the forward hatch of the already orbiting Zarya module. This was the first connection made between two station modules.
Zvezda
Zvezda as seen by Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-97
Main article: Zvezda (ISS module)
Zvezda (Russian: Звезда́, meaning "star"), Salyut DOS-8, also known as the Zvezda Service Module, is a module of the ISS. It was the third module launched to the station, and provides all of the station's life support systems, some of which are supplemented in the USOS, as well as living quarters for two crew members. It is the structural and functional center of the Russian Orbital Segment, which is the Russian part of the ISS. Crew assemble here to deal with emergencies on the station.[99][100][101]
The basic structural frame of Zvezda, known as "DOS-8", was initially built in the mid-1980s to be the core of the Mir-2 space station. This means that Zvezda is similar in layout to the core module (DOS-7) of the Mir space station. It was in fact labeled as Mir-2 for quite some time in the factory. Its design lineage thus extends back to the original Salyut stations. The space frame was completed in February 1985 and major internal equipment was installed by October 1986.
The rocket used for launch to the ISS carried advertising; it was emblazoned with the logo of Pizza Hut restaurants,[102][103][104] for which they are reported to have paid more than US$1 million.[105] The money helped support Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center and the Russian advertising agencies that orchestrated the event.[106]
On 26 July 2000, Zvezda became the third component of the ISS when it docked at the aft port of Zarya. (U.S. Unity module had already been attached to the Zarya.) Later in July, the computers aboard Zarya handed over ISS commanding functions to computers on Zvezda.[107]
Destiny
The Destiny module being installed on the ISS
Main article: Destiny (ISS module)
The Destiny module, also known as the U.S. Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the International Space Station (ISS).[108][109] It was berthed to the Unity module and activated over a period of five days in February, 2001.[110] Destiny is NASA's first permanent operating orbital research station since Skylab was vacated in February 1974.
The Boeing Company began construction of the 14.5-tonne (32,000 lb) research laboratory in 1995 at the Michoud Assembly Facility and then the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.[108] Destiny was shipped to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in 1998, and was turned over to NASA for pre-launch preparations in August 2000. It launched on 7 February 2001 aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-98.[110]
Quest
Quest Joint Airlock Module
Main article: Quest Joint Airlock
The Quest Joint Airlock, previously known as the Joint Airlock Module, is the primary airlock for the ISS. Quest was designed to host spacewalks with both Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) spacesuits and Orlan space suits. The airlock was launched on STS-104 on 14 July 2001. Before Quest was attached, Russian spacewalks using Orlan suits could only be done from the Zvezda service module, and American spacewalks using EMUs were only possible when a Space Shuttle was docked. The arrival of Pirs docking compartment on September 16, 2001 provided another airlock from which Orlan spacewalks can be conducted.[citation needed]
Pirs and Poisk
The Pirs module attached to the ISS.
Poisk after arriving at the ISS on 12 November 2009.
Main articles: Pirs (ISS module) and Poisk (ISS module)
Pirs (Russian: Пирс, lit. 'pier') and Poisk (Russian: По́иск, lit. 'search') are Russian airlock modules, each having 2 identical hatches. An outward-opening hatch on the Mir space station failed after it swung open too fast after unlatching, because of a small amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock.[111] All EVA hatches on the ISS open inwards and are pressure-sealing. Pirs was used to store, service, and refurbish Russian Orlan suits and provided contingency entry for crew using the slightly bulkier American suits. The outermost docking ports on both airlocks allow docking of Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and the automatic transfer of propellants to and from storage on the ROS.[112]
Pirs was launched on 14 September 2001, as ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified Progress spacecraft, Progress M-SO1, as an upper stage. Poisk was launched on 10 November 2009[113][114] attached to a modified Progress spacecraft, called Progress M-MIM2, on a Soyuz-U rocket from Launch Pad 1 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.
Harmony
Harmony shown connected to Columbus, Kibo, and Destiny. PMA-2 faces. The nadir and zenith locations are open.
Main article: Harmony (ISS module)
Harmony, also known as Node 2, is the "utility hub" of the ISS. It connects the laboratory modules of the United States, Europe and Japan, as well as providing electrical power and electronic data. Sleeping cabins for four of the six crew are housed here.[115]
Harmony was successfully launched into space aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-120 on October 23, 2007.[116][117] After temporarily being attached to the port side of the Unity node,[118][119] it was moved to its permanent location on the forward end of the Destiny laboratory on November 14, 2007.[120] Harmony added 2,666 cubic feet (75.5 m3) to the station's living volume, an increase of almost 20 percent, from 15,000 cu ft (420 m3) to 17,666 cu ft (500.2 m3). Its successful installation meant that from NASA's perspective, the station was "U.S. Core Complete".
Tranquility
Tranquility in 2011
Main article: Tranquility (ISS module)
Tranquility, also known as Node 3, is a module of the ISS. It contains environmental control systems, life support systems, a toilet, exercise equipment, and an observation cupola.
ESA and the Italian Space Agency had Tranquility built by Thales Alenia Space. A ceremony on November 20, 2009 transferred ownership of the module to NASA.[121] On February 8, 2010, NASA launched the module on the Space Shuttle's STS-130 mission.
Columbus
The Columbus module on the ISS
Main article: Columbus (ISS module)
Columbus is a science laboratory that is part of the ISS and is the largest single contribution to the ISS made by the European Space Agency (ESA).
Like the Harmony and Tranquility modules, the Columbus laboratory was constructed in Turin, Italy by Thales Alenia Space. The functional equipment and software of the lab was designed by EADS in Bremen, Germany. It was also integrated in Bremen before being flown to the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida in an Airbus Beluga. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on 7 February 2008 on flight STS-122. It is designed for ten years of operation. The module is controlled by the Columbus Control Centre, located at the German Space Operations Centre, part of the German Aerospace Center in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany.
The European Space Agency has spent €1.4 billion (about US$2 billion) on building Columbus, including the experiments that will fly in it and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate them.[122]
Kibō
Kibō Exposed Facility on the right
Main article: Kibo (ISS module)
The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), nicknamed Kibo (きぼう Kibō, Hope), is a Japanese science module for the ISS developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module, and is attached to the Harmony module. The first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124. The third and final components were launched on STS-127.[123]
Pressurised Module
Experiment Logistics Module
Exposed Facility
Experiment Logistics Module
Remote Manipulator System
Cupola
The Cupola's windows with shutters open.
Main article: Cupola (ISS module)
The Cupola is an ESA-built observatory module of the ISS. Its name derives from the Italian word cupola, which means "dome". Its seven windows are used to conduct experiments, dockings and observations of Earth. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on 8 February 2010 and attached to the Tranquility (Node 3) module. With the Cupola attached, ISS assembly reached 85 percent completion. The Cupola's central window has a diameter of 80 cm (31 in).[124]
Rassvet
Rassvet as seen from the Cupola module during STS-132 with a Progress in the lower right
Main article: Rassvet (ISS module)
Rassvet (Russian: Рассве́т; lit. "dawn"), also known as the Mini-Research Module 1 (MRM-1) (Russian: Малый исследовательский модуль, МИМ 1) and formerly known as the Docking Cargo Module (DCM), is a component of the ISS. The module's design is similar to the Mir Docking Module launched on STS-74 in 1995. Rassvet is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. It was flown to the ISS aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on the STS-132 mission on May 14, 2010,[125] and was connected to the ISS on May 18.[126] The hatch connecting Rassvet with the ISS was first opened on May 20.[127] On 28 June 2010, the Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft performed the first docking with the module.[128]
Leonardo
Leonardo Permanent Multipurpose Module
Main article: Leonardo (ISS module)
The Leonardo Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) is a module of the ISS. It was flown into space aboard the Space Shuttle on STS-133 on 24 February 2011 and installed on 1 March. Leonardo is primarily used for storage of spares, supplies and waste on the ISS, which was until then stored in many different places within the space station. The Leonardo PMM was a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) before 2011, but was modified into its current configuration. It was formerly one of three MPLM used for bringing cargo to and from the ISS with the Space Shuttle. The module was named for Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci.
Bigelow Expandable Activity Module
Progression of expansion of BEAM
Main article: Bigelow Expandable Activity Module
The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an experimental expandable space station module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the ISS from 2016 to at least 2020. It arrived at the ISS on 10 April 2016,[129] was berthed to the station on 16 April, and was expanded and pressurized on 28 May 2016.
International Docking Adapter
IDA-1 upright
Main article: International Docking Adapter
The International Docking Adapter (IDA) is a spacecraft docking system adapter developed to convert APAS-95 to the NASA Docking System (NDS)/International Docking System Standard (IDSS). An IDA is placed on each of the ISS' two open Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs), both of which are connected to the Harmony module.
IDA-1 was lost during the launch failure of SpaceX CRS-7 on 28 June 2015.[130][131][132]
IDA-2 was launched on SpaceX CRS-9 on 18 July 2016.[133] It was attached and connected to PMA-2 during a spacewalk on 19 August 2016.[134] First docking was achieved with the arrival of Crew Dragon Demo-1 on 3 March 2019. [135]
IDA-3 was launched on the SpaceX CRS-18 mission in July 2019.[136] IDA-3 is constructed mostly from spare parts to speed construction.[137] It was attached and connected to PMA-3 during a spacewalk on 21 August 2019. [138]
Unpressurised elements
ISS Truss Components breakdown showing Trusses and all ORUs in situ
The ISS has a large number of external components that do not require pressurisation. The largest of these is the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS), to which the station's main solar arrays and thermal radiators are mounted.[139] The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure 108.5 m (356 ft) long.[3]
The station was intended to have several smaller external components, such as six robotic arms, three External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) and four ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs).[140][141] While these platforms allow experiments (including MISSE, the STP-H3 and the Robotic Refueling Mission) to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space by providing electricity and processing experimental data locally, their primary function is to store spare Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs). ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or pass their design life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas, and battery units. Such units are replaced either by astronauts during EVA or by robotic arms.[142] Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including STS-129,[143] STS-133[144] and STS-134.[145] As of January 2011, only one other mode of transportation of ORUs had been utilised – the Japanese cargo vessel HTV-2 – which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed Pallet (EP).[146][needs update]
Construction of the Integrated Truss Structure over New Zealand.
There are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the Kibō Exposed Facility serves as an external 'porch' for the Kibō complex,[147] and a facility on the European Columbus laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility[148][149] and the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.[150] A remote sensing instrument, SAGE III-ISS, was delivered to the station in February 2017 aboard CRS-10,[151] and the NICER experiment was delivered aboard CRS-11 in June 2017.[152] The largest scientific payload externally mounted to the ISS is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment launched on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the ITS. The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter.[153][154]
The commercial Bartolomeo External Payload Hosting Platform, manufactured by Airbus, is due to launch in May 2019 aboard a commercial ISS resupply vehicle and be attached to the European Columbus module. It will provide a further 12 external payload slots, supplementing the eight on the ExPRESS Logistics Carriers, ten on Kibō, and four on Columbus. The system is designed to be robotically serviced and will require no astronaut intervention. It is named after Christopher Columbus's younger brother.[155][156][157]
Robotic arms and cargo cranes
Commander Volkov stands on Pirs with his back to the Soyuz whilst operating the manual Strela crane holding photographer Kononenko.
Dextre, like many of the station's experiments and robotic arms, can be operated from Earth and perform tasks while the crew sleeps.
The Integrated Truss Structure serves as a base for the station's primary remote manipulator system, called the Mobile Servicing System (MSS), which is composed of three main components. Canadarm2, the largest robotic arm on the ISS, has a mass of 1,800 kilograms (4,000 lb) and is used to dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS, hold crew members and equipment in place during EVAs and move Dextre around to perform tasks.[158] Dextre is a 1,560 kg (3,440 lb) robotic manipulator with two arms, a rotating torso and has power tools, lights and video for replacing orbital replacement units (ORUs) and performing other tasks requiring fine control.[159] The Mobile Base System (MBS) is a platform which rides on rails along the length of the station's main truss. It serves as a mobile base for Canadarm2 and Dextre, allowing the robotic arms to reach all parts of the USOS.[160] To gain access to the Russian Segment a grapple fixture was added to Zarya on STS-134, so that Canadarm2 can inchworm itself onto the ROS.[161] Also installed during STS-134 was the 15 m (50 ft) Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS), which had been used to inspect heat shield tiles on Space Shuttle missions and can be used on station to increase the reach of the MSS.[161] Staff on Earth or the station can operate the MSS components via remote control, performing work outside the station without space walks.
Japan's Remote Manipulator System, which services the Kibō Exposed Facility,[162] was launched on STS-124 and is attached to the Kibō Pressurised Module.[163] The arm is similar to the Space Shuttle arm as it is permanently attached at one end and has a latching end effector for standard grapple fixtures at the other.
The European Robotic Arm, which will service the Russian Orbital Segment, will be launched alongside the Multipurpose Laboratory Module in 2017.[164] The ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically and may be discarded the same way. Crew use the two Strela (Russian: Стрела́; lit. Arrow) cargo cranes during EVAs for moving crew and equipment around the ROS. Each Strela crane has a mass of 45 kg (99 lb).
Planned componments
Nauka
Artist's rendering of the Nauka module docked to Zvezda.
Main article: Nauka (ISS module)
Nauka (Russian: Нау́ка; lit. Science), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM), (Russian: Многофункциональный лабораторный модуль, or МЛМ), is a component of the ISS which has not yet been launched into space. The MLM is funded by the Roscosmos State Corporation. In the original ISS plans, Nauka was to use the location of the Docking and Stowage Module. Later, the DSM was replaced by the Rassvet module and it was moved to Zarya's nadir port. Planners anticipate Nauka will dock at Zvezda's nadir port, replacing Pirs.[165]
The launch of Nauka, initially planned for 2007, has been repeatedly delayed for various reasons. As of September 2019, the launch to the ISS is assigned to no earlier than December 2020.[166] After this date, the warranties of some of Nauka's systems will expire.
Prichal
Mockup of the Prichal module at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center
Main article: Prichal (ISS module)
Prichal, also known as Uzlovoy Module or UM (Russian: Узловой Модуль "Причал", Nodal Module Berth),[167] is a 4-tonne (8,800 lb)[168] ball-shaped module that will allow docking of two scientific and power modules during the final stage of the station assembly, and provide the Russian segment additional docking ports to receive Soyuz MS and Progress MS spacecraft. UM is due to be launched in 2022.[169] It will be integrated with a special version of the Progress cargo ship and launched by a standard Soyuz rocket, docking to the nadir port of the Nauka module. One port is equipped with an active hybrid docking port, which enables docking with the MLM module. The remaining five ports are passive hybrids, enabling docking of Soyuz and Progress vehicles, as well as heavier modules and future spacecraft with modified docking systems. The node module was intended to serve as the only permanent element of the cancelled OPSEK.[170][171]
Science Power Modules 1 and 2
Science Power Module 1 (SPM-1, also known as NEM-1) Science Power Module 2 (SPM-2, also known as NEM-2) are modules planned to arrive at the ISS in 2022.[169][172][173] It is going to dock to the Prichal module, which is planned to be attached to the Nauka module.[173] If Nauka is cancelled, then the Prichal, SPM-1, and SPM-2 would dock at the zenith port of Zvezda. SPM-1 and SPM-2 would also be required components for the OPSEK space station.[174]
Bishop Airlock Module
Main article: Bishop Airlock Module
The NanoRacks Bishop Airlock Module is a commercially-funded airlock module intended to be launched to the ISS on SpaceX CRS-21 in August 2020.[175][176] The module is being built by NanoRacks, Thales Alenia Space, and Boeing.[177] It will be used to deploy CubeSats, small satellites, and other external payloads for NASA, CASIS, and other commercial and governmental customers.[178]
Cancelled componments
The cancelled Habitation module under construction at Michoud in 1997
Several modules planned for the station were cancelled over the course of the ISS programme. Reasons include budgetary constraints, the modules becoming unnecessary, and station redesigns after the 2003 Columbia disaster. The US Centrifuge Accommodations Module would have hosted science experiments in varying levels of artificial gravity.[179] The US Habitation Module would have served as the station's living quarters. Instead, the sleep stations are now spread throughout the station.[180] The US Interim Control Module and ISS Propulsion Module would have replaced the functions of Zvezda in case of a launch failure.[181] Two Russian Research Modules were planned for scientific research.[182] They would have docked to a Russian Universal Docking Module.[183] The Russian Science Power Platform would have supplied power to the Russian Orbital Segment independent of the ITS solar arrays.
Systems
Life support
Main articles: ISS ECLSS and Chemical oxygen generator
The critical systems are the atmosphere control system, the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The Russian Orbital Segment's life support systems are contained in the Zvezda service module. Some of these systems are supplemented by equipment in the USOS. The MLM Nauka laboratory has a complete set of life support systems.
Atmospheric control systems
A flowchart diagram showing the components of the ISS life support system.
The interactions between the components of the ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS)
The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to the Earth's.[184] Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.69 psi);[185] the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew.[186] Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft.[187]
The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station.[188] The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a chemical oxygen generator system.[189] Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in Zvezda. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by activated charcoal filters.[189]
Part of the ROS atmosphere control system is the oxygen supply. Triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen. The primary supply of oxygen is the Elektron unit which produces O
2 and H
2 by electrolysis of water and vents H2 overboard. The 1 kW (1.3 hp) system uses approximately one litre of water per crew member per day. This water is either brought from Earth or recycled from other systems. Mir was the first spacecraft to use recycled water for oxygen production. The secondary oxygen supply is provided by burning O
2-producing Vika cartridges (see also ISS ECLSS). Each 'candle' takes 5–20 minutes to decompose at 450–500 °C (842–932 °F), producing 600 litres (130 imp gal; 160 US gal) of O
2. This unit is manually operated.[190]
The US Orbital Segment has redundant supplies of oxygen, from a pressurised storage tank on the Quest airlock module delivered in 2001, supplemented ten years later by ESA-built Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) in the Tranquility module (Node 3), which produces O
2 by electrolysis.[191] Hydrogen produced is combined with carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere and converted to water and methane.
Power and thermal control
Main articles: Electrical system of the International Space Station and External Active Thermal Control System
Russian solar arrays, backlit by sunset
One of the eight truss mounted pairs of USOS solar arrays
Double-sided solar arrays provide electrical power to the ISS. These bifacial cells collect direct sunlight on one side and light reflected off from the Earth on the other, and are more efficient and operate at a lower temperature than single-sided cells commonly used on Earth.[192]
The Russian segment of the station, like most spacecraft, uses 28 volt low voltage DC from four rotating solar arrays mounted on Zarya and Zvezda. The USOS uses 130–180 V DC from the USOS PV array, power is stabilised and distributed at 160 V DC and converted to the user-required 124 V DC. The higher distribution voltage allows smaller, lighter conductors, at the expense of crew safety. The two station segments share power with converters.
The USOS solar arrays are arranged as four wing pairs, for a total production of 75 to 90 kilowatts.[193] These arrays normally track the sun to maximise power generation. Each array is about 375 m2 (4,036 sq ft) in area and 58 m (190 ft) long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the sun by rotating the alpha gimbal once per orbit; the beta gimbal follows slower changes in the angle of the sun to the orbital plane. The Night Glider mode aligns the solar arrays parallel to the ground at night to reduce the significant aerodynamic drag at the station's relatively low orbital altitude.[194]
The station originally used rechargeable nickel–hydrogen batteries (NiH
2) for continuous power during the 35 minutes of every 90-minute orbit that it is eclipsed by the Earth. The batteries are recharged on the day side of the orbit. They had a 6.5-year lifetime (over 37,000 charge/discharge cycles) and were regularly replaced over the anticipated 20-year life of the station.[195] Starting in 2016, the nickel–hydrogen batteries were replaced by lithium-ion batteries, which are expected to last until the end of the ISS program.[196]
The station's large solar panels generate a high potential voltage difference between the station and the ionosphere. This could cause arcing through insulating surfaces and sputtering of conductive surfaces as ions are accelerated by the spacecraft plasma sheath. To mitigate this, plasma contactor units (PCU)s create current paths between the station and the ambient plasma field.[197]
ISS External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) diagram
The station's systems and experiments consume a large amount of electrical power, almost all of which is converted to heat. To keep the internal temperature within workable limits, a passive thermal control system (PTCS) is made of external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, and heat pipes. If the PTCS cannot keep up with the heat load, an External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains the temperature. The EATCS consists of an internal, non-toxic, water coolant loop used to cool and dehumidify the atmosphere, which transfers collected heat into an external liquid ammonia loop. From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then back to the station.[198] The EATCS provides cooling for all the US pressurised modules, including Kibō and Columbus, as well as the main power distribution electronics of the S0, S1 and P1 trusses. It can reject up to 70 kW. This is much more than the 14 kW of the Early External Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on STS-105 and installed onto the P6 Truss.[199]
Communications and computers
Main articles: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite and Luch (satellite)
See also: ThinkPad § Use in space
Diagram showing communications links between the ISS and other elements.
The communications systems used by the ISS
* Luch satellite and the Space Shuttle are not currently[when?] in use
Radio communications provide telemetry and scientific data links between the station and Mission Control Centres. Radio links are also used during rendezvous and docking procedures and for audio and video communication between crew members, flight controllers and family members. As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal and external communication systems used for different purposes.[200]
The Russian Orbital Segment communicates directly with the ground via the Lira antenna mounted to Zvezda.[6][201] The Lira antenna also has the capability to use the Luch data relay satellite system.[6] This system fell into disrepair during the 1990s, and so was not used during the early years of the ISS,[6][202][203] although two new Luch satellites—Luch-5A and Luch-5B—were launched in 2011 and 2012 respectively to restore the operational capability of the system.[204] Another Russian communications system is the Voskhod-M, which enables internal telephone communications between Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk, and the USOS and provides a VHF radio link to ground control centres via antennas on Zvezda's exterior.[205]
The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two separate radio links mounted in the Z1 truss structure: the S band (audio) and Ku band (audio, video and data) systems. These transmissions are routed via the United States Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in geostationary orbit, allowing for almost continuous real-time communications with NASA's Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston.[22][6][200] Data channels for the Canadarm2, European Columbus laboratory and Japanese Kibō modules were originally also routed via the S band and Ku band systems, with the European Data Relay System and a similar Japanese system intended to eventually complement the TDRSS in this role.[22][206] Communications between modules are carried on an internal wireless network.[207]
An array of laptops in the US lab
Laptop computers surround the Canadarm2 console
UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs and other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station.[6] Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV uses a laser attached to the spacecraft and the Proximity Communications Equipment attached to Zvezda to accurately dock with the station.[208][209]
The ISS is equipped with about 100 IBM/Lenovo ThinkPad and HP ZBook 15 laptop computers. The laptops have run Windows 95, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 10 and Linux operating systems.[210] Each computer is a commercial off-the-shelf purchase which is then modified for safety and operation including updates to connectors, cooling and power to accommodate the station's 28V DC power system and weightless environment. Heat generated by the laptops does not rise but stagnates around the laptop, so additional forced ventilation is required. Laptops aboard the ISS are connected to the station's wireless LAN via Wi-Fi, which connects to the ground via Ku band. This provides speeds of 10 Mbit/s download and 3 Mbit/s upload from the station, comparable to home DSL connection speeds.[211][212] Laptop hard drives occasionally fail and must be replaced.[213] Other computer hardware failures include instances in 2001, 2007 and 2017; some of these failures have required EVAs to replace computer modules in externally mounted devices.[214][215][216][217]
The operating system used for key station functions is the Debian Linux distribution.[218] The migration from Microsoft Windows was made in May 2013 for reasons of reliability, stability and flexibility.[219]
In 2017, an SG100 Cloud Computer was launched to the ISS as part of OA-7 mission.[220] It was manufactured by NCSIST and designed in collaboration with Academia Sinica, and National Central University under contract for NASA.[221]
Operations
Expeditions and private flights
See also the list of International Space Station expeditions (professional crew), space tourism (private travellers), and the list of human spaceflights to the ISS (both).
Zarya and Unity were entered for the first time on 10 December 1998.
Soyuz TM-31 being prepared to bring the first resident crew to the station in October 2000
ISS was slowly assembled over a decade of spaceflights and crews
Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo ships and all activities. Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of 3 person crews, Expeditions 7 to 12 were reduced to the safe minimum of two following the destruction of the NASA Shuttle Columbia. From Expedition 13 the crew gradually increased to 6 around 2010.[222][223] With the arrival of the US Commercial Crew vehicles in the late 2010s, expedition size may be increased to seven crew members, the number ISS is designed for.[224][225]
Gennady Padalka, member of Expeditions 9, 19/20, 31/32, and 43/44, and Commander of Expedition 11, has spent more time in space than anyone else, a total of 878 days, 11 hours, and 29 minutes.[226] Peggy Whitson has spent the most time in space of any American, totalling 665 days, 22 hours, and 22 minutes during her time on Expeditions 5, 16, and 50/51/52.[227]
Travellers who pay for their own passage into space are termed spaceflight participants by Roscosmos and NASA, and are sometimes referred to as space tourists, a term they generally dislike.[note 1] All seven were transported to the ISS on Russian Soyuz spacecraft. When professional crews change over in numbers not divisible by the three seats in a Soyuz, and a short-stay crewmember is not sent, the spare seat is sold by MirCorp through Space Adventures. When the space shuttle retired in 2011, and the station's crew size was reduced to 6, space tourism was halted, as the partners relied on Russian transport seats for access to the station. Soyuz flight schedules increase after 2013, allowing 5 Soyuz flights (15 seats) with only two expeditions (12 seats) required.[233] The remaining seats are sold for around US$40 million to members of the public who can pass a medical exam. ESA and NASA criticised private spaceflight at the beginning of the ISS, and NASA initially resisted training Dennis Tito, the first person to pay for his own passage to the ISS.[note 2]
Anousheh Ansari became the first Iranian in space and the first self-funded woman to fly to the station. Officials reported that her education and experience make her much more than a tourist, and her performance in training had been "excellent."[234] Ansari herself dismisses the idea that she is a tourist. She did Russian and European studies involving medicine and microbiology during her 10-day stay. The documentary Space Tourists follows her journey to the station, where she fulfilled "an age-old dream of man: to leave our planet as a "normal person" and travel into outer space."[235]
In 2008, spaceflight participant Richard Garriott placed a geocache aboard the ISS during his flight.[236] This is currently the only non-terrestrial geocache in existence.[237] At the same time, the Immortality Drive, an electronic record of eight digitised human DNA sequences, was placed aboard the ISS.[238]
Orbit
Graph showing the changing altitude of the ISS from November 1998 until November 2018
Animation of ISS orbit from 14 September 2018 to 14 November 2018. Earth is not shown.
The ISS is maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of 330 km (205 mi) and a maximum of 410 km (255 mi), in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator. This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas.[239][240] It travels at an average speed of 27,724 kilometres per hour (17,227 mph), and completes 15.54 orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit).[2][14] The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude.[241][242] Other, more frequent supply ships do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles.[28][243]
Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the Zvezda service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to Zvezda's aft port. The ATV is constructed with the possibility of adding a second docking port to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed.[243] Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum[244] at an annual cost of about $210 million.[245]
Orbits of the ISS, shown in April 2013
The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station.[246] Initially, Zarya, the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module Zvezda docked and was transferred control. Zvezda contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System.[247] Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), Zvezda computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors, Solar
I found this heart-wrenching poem while surfing on youtube. It was written by Roger Valentine and posted for a friend with autism. Beneath the surface of the words is a very human journey that many of us have taken and still take. Silence and suffering paralyzes us in darkest chaos. In helplessness all seems to be lost and pointless. Eventually wisdom rejuvenates us with kindness and understanding. In this light we find our voice and our uniqueness. In joy we overflow with who we are meant to be. This poem is eloquently recited by Rajesh Vedprakash whose silk laden vocals really add emotion to this superb piece. Thank-you kindly Mukhtarze for posting this.
Listening to the clip inspired this digital art piece.
Listen: www.youtube.com/profile?user=mukhtarze#p/u/17/cq45qrxczmQ
Text for Poem: Click Here
What else is love but understanding and rejoicing in the fact that another person lives, acts, and experiences otherwise than we do…?
Friedrich Nietzsche
German philosopher (1844 - 1900)
Fox Lake, Wisconsin
062413
© Copyright 2013 MEA Images, Merle E. Arbeen, All Rights Reserved. If you would like to copy this, please feel free to contact me through my FlickrMail, Facebook, or Yahoo email account. Thank you.
***************
This photograph has earned the following highest awards:
Super Six, The Academy
Leipzig Book Fair 2013
Leipziger Buchmesse 2013
2013_034 2013#036
Cosplayers
-Lenalee- (Selina) 540129 as Poison Ivy from Batman
Photos posted are 1024x768 pixels in size. Higher resolution (3000x2000) for models only, sorry.
Thank you for any group invites which I will gladly accept. However, if I can't check the content of such groups ("This group is not available to you") I'd rather not add any of my photos. Thank you for your understanding.
Shuttle358
Book :
New Order
Retro
London Records
2008
Photography . Nick Knight
Art Direction . Peter Saville
CD :
Pinkcourtesyphone
Elegant & Detached
ROOM40
RM451
Music & Design . Richard Chartier
iTunes :
New Order
Sub Vulture
Factory
FAC133
Sir GMAttenborough ...
When fear turns to
excepting your fear
it becomes understanding
of your fear
and then, there is no fear
there is just knowledge.
By AlyssaDawnw
Okay here is something I learned last night from my friend.
Its from the book of "Effortless Mastery" my friend was telling me about it.
So the book is talking about soloing and how people are timid to solo because they believe they will hit the wrong note.
think to yourself right before you play your solo "the first note I play will be the most beautiful note I, or anyone has ever heard". And by thinking and believing this, no matter what note you play, the beauty of that frequency will surface, and not only that, but will guide you to the next note.
Here is what I said, after he told me this.
Its like, going on, with the idea in mind, Im just going to do, what I do, be me, and even though when I take that plunge, it may seem totally off at first to me, it will be absolutely beautiful, because it is me. Okay now I am crying. Thanks
( sorry, this conversation was over FB )
It is absolutely beautiful! And the cool thing is that even if it seems kind of off, that's okay, because the more dissonant something is, the more beautiful the reslease or resolve is! I love it!
my off tune uniqueness, lol
I suppose
ha ha, exactly!
We talked about it for quite a while, thats just snippet.
An answered prayer, thats what you are..
The Skudae have always had an uneasy peace with Loreos, more of an understanding. An independent people whose agenda often lines up with their host nation, but they have a mind of their own. They follow only their great Khans. Ignoring artificial boundaries between the nations, they roam where their horses lead them and take what they will.
Here they are pouncing on a small Lenfaldian column heading to port or reinforcing a garrison.
A letter from a student is seen during a meeting with NASA Administrator Bill Nelson meets and Secretary of Education Miguel Cardona, prior to a memorandum of understanding (MOU) signing ceremony, Wednesday, May 24, 2023, at the Mary W. Jackson NASA Headquarters building in Washington. The NASA and Department of Education MOU is focused on strengthening the collaboration between the two agencies, including efforts that advance STEM education across the nation. Photo Credit: (NASA/Keegan Barber)
Researchers at the Northwestern University Center of Cancer Nanotechnology Excellence are studying the ways in which cancer cells migrate from existing tumors to create new, metastatic tumors in different regions of the body. By creating micrometer scaled adhesive islands on gold surfaces, they have allowed individual metastatic cells to take on shapes, such as the star depicted above. These shapes provide cues to cancer cells, which respond in the above image by concentrating their motility machinery at the star’s tips. This assay lends itself to large scale screening of cell populations—a problem that has stymied past efforts to find a drug that targets metastatic motility.
This image is part of the Nanotechnology Image Library collection.
Credit: Bartosz Grzybowski, Ph.D., National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health
Educational Classroom Poster for teaching elementary math. This one help students understand the concepts and units of Metric Lengths.
Available in letter size and now 11"x17".
I know the feeling one gets when you find that place where rocks totally against all odds "click" together and defy our limited understanding of gravity/balance and the way of this world.......try it sometime. If not check out Bills stream and see what a master excels in with rocks and other interesting items, and is quite happy to show you how. Keep on ROCKIN'
My thanks to Bill Dan for permission to use his images for this mosaic.
1. video clip - bill dan balancing rocks - sausalito . . ., 2. Sweet Nature . . . ., 3. Balance - Mixed Doubles, 4. i told you dude . . . it is my turn now . . ., 5. The Bird landed on this . . ., 6. Wooooooowie . . ., 7. Packman . . . ., 8. FH000040, 9. WE the NATURE . . ., 10. Bill Dan Balancing Rocks . . ., 11. Bill Dan in Studio, 12. Smooth . . ., 13. Hey . . . We are Fits together . . ., 14. Between a Rock & a hard Place . . ., 15. dude . . . it is my turn now . . ., 16. rocks on again . . ., 17. i am the boss . . ., 18. on the chain . . ., 19. rocks on again . . ., 20. Double Up . . ., 21. Very Sweet Collaborations . . ., 22. New Visitor . . ., 23. Moonlight Serenade . . ., 24. Boulder Ballet . . ., 25. Hot Rocks . . ., 26. "Magically Eyed", 27. Couples . . . ., 28. The Sailing Rocks . . ., 29. Earth Face, 30. Absolutely Balancing Rocks . . ., 31. My Little Friend . . ., 32. balancing rocks again . . ., 33. don't touch me . . ., 34. blue moon . . ., 35. i am the real boss . . ., 36. friendly sky . . .
Created with fd's Flickr Toys.
7 star strategies for your child's future
How can you put a price on the expression of pure bliss on your four-year-old's face
as she enjoys an ice-cream? When your 17-year-old whoops on hearing the news that
he has secured admission to his dream college, would your brain tick away at the
amount of money this is going to cost you?
These are non-questions to any parent. Parental love is unconditional and largely
unaccountable. It's heartless and clinical to count your child as a cost centre, and we
are not suggesting you do that.
Understanding expenses does not imply condemning them. On the contrary, it is only a
first step towards gaining an advantage over them. In fact, if you do manage to chip
away at the warm, fuzzy feeling of pride and accomplishment and examine the costs
of raising a child, you would be able to do a far better job of being the provider.
The dichotomy of spending on your children is a conflict between the present and the
future. Should you cave in and buy the Rs 25,000 Playstation 3 that your son has
been nagging you for? Will it come from the money you have been saving for his
graduation? Will that Barbie-themed Rs 50,000 party you threw on your daughter's
birthday be the reason she will have to do her hotel management in Goa instead of
Geneva? The only way to solve these dilemmas is to plan ahead and start investing.
Now.
Two big-ticket costs that all parents have to provide for fall under the heads
education and marriage. Post-graduate education is expensive, and in this globalised
world, if you want to give your child the advantage of an international education,
multiply the cost by 10 times, often even more. A grand celebration to mark your
child's wedding is a great Indian dream and something that all parents would like to
put some money away for.
1. Second baby
Most couples can afford one child and want to do the best for him or her. As financial
decisions go, the second child is usually one that swings the balances. The thought of
having to keep away double the amount of what you need for a child can be daunting.
Often, when the kids are young, one plus one does not add up to two - you could
re-use and recycle and keep your expenses slightly lower. But, as they grow older,
two children can be a real strain on finances. Guitar lessons for one, football coaching
for the other, science tuitions for one and mathematics for the other can add up to a
tidy sum every month.
A second child had always featured in Jayant Bhadauria and Kamalika Nandi's life
plans. It's just that they did not really have the time to have one. Jayant works in a
multinational software company in Mumbai and Kamalika looks after marketing for an
outsourcing company.
Between work, their travelling schedules and looking after Kamini, their four-year-old
daughter, the second child remained something to be done sometime in the future.
Which was why, in September, when Kamalika discovered she was pregnant, for a
minute she didn't know whether to be happy or sad.
"Of course, money was not the first thing I thought about," says Kamalika. "Once the
news sank in, I did realise that we would have to start looking at our expenses. So
far, if I have seen something and liked it, I have ended up buying it if I felt the price
was fair. Now, I feel, there would be a little bit of a compromise there. I do want the
best for my kids, but that does not necessarily mean the most expensive."
7 star strategies for your child's future
The baby is due in May and, for now, they are figuring out the expenses related to
having him - delivery and hospitalisation are just two of the heads. A normal delivery
in a reasonably good hospital costs about Rs 35,000. If there are complications, the
fee could be substantially higher. Kamalika reckons their monthly expenditure would
increase by at least Rs 7,000 for the first year of the new baby.
A substantial portion of the large expenses they incurred for Kamini would not have to
be repeated. Expensive baby paraphernalia like the cot, stroller, rocker and high chair
can be reused for the second baby.
Jayant has a couple of insurance policies. The rest of his investments are all in equity.
He has an employee stock option in his company. Besides this, he has also opted to
buy the equity of his employer, listed in the US, with a certain percentage of his
salary every month.
The rest of his portfolio is in various Indian companies. While equity investment is the
ideal route to create wealth for his young family, Jayant should also look at
diversifying his portfolio. A major chunk of his money is invested in one stock - that of
his employer.
Jayant is also evaluating a couple of child policies from insurance companies. He
wants to use these as vehicles to save for his kids' higher education and marriages.
He is confident that as the expenses of the kids increase, so will his wife's and his
own salaries and that there will not be a situation of having to face a financial crunch.
Kamalika plans to return to work once her maternity benefits expire. When she was
expecting Kamini, she had given up her job and stayed home till her daughter turned
two. "I will try and enjoy the baby more since this is the last one I will have, but it
might be difficult because I plan to go back to work," she says.
"My career has suffered because of the break I took the last time and I don't want to
do it again. But, my company is employee-friendly and I feel that I would be able to
get leave in case I need to spend more time at home."
For now, they are not thinking about late night feeds and diaper changes. They have
chosen to focus instead on Tahitian weddings and exotic holidays for their kids.
2. Nascent dreams
When Simran Kumar thinks about her kids' future, she is not worried about which
school they will secure admission in or how big a wedding they will have. But, as a
modern, aware mother, she does get anxious about the world they will occupy, what
with environmental pollution, global warming and the rest. "I am concerned about
security issues, about violence against women, childhood respiratory diseases from
living in a polluted and crowded city," she says.
Simran and her husband, Zafar Baig, have two children under the age of two -
daughter Ananya is 22 months, and son Vivan is four months old.
Simran is an anchor for a television channel and Zafar works for an export house. With
two well paying jobs, they have not been worried about spending on the luxuries, so
far. But as their young family grows, they want to make sure they get started on
laying the foundation for a sound financial future.
"Now, we do not spend carelessly and have cut out a little bit of our frivolous
expenses. I want the best for my kids," she says.
One of the dreams Simran and Zafar have for their children is to offer them an
opportunity to follow in their footsteps and study abroad. "We are not very
money-savvy, but now want to invest in our kids' future. We do not really know
where to start," says Simran.
7 star strategies for your child's future
They have, however, opened bank accounts in both kids' names and all the money
they have received as gifts has gone into them. Zafar has bought a couple of
insurance policies and invested a bit directly in equity, as well as in some mutual
funds.
He recently invested Rs 50,000 in HDFC Standard Life's Young Star Plan. Even as they
try and cope with the 'now and here' expenses of a family of four, as well as investing
in their dreams for their kids, Simran and Zafar would also like to buy a house.
They are not alone in wanting to do several things at once. Most couples are in the
early stages of their careers when they start their families. Often, the need to put
away for a rainy day is lost in the euphoria of youth and its maxim of living for the
day.
When the kids come, several priorities tumble out of the financial closet -- a house,
some means of protecting income and insurance against unforeseeable events, buying
things for the baby, hiring someone to help look after them. Often, with this, also
comes a drastic drop in income levels if the mother chooses to stay back home and
look after the kids for a few years.
The key here is in being able to prioritise and not trying to do everything at once. The
important goals of higher education and marriage of children are quite far away and
even putting away a little sum of money starting right away would be enough.
What is key is getting into the discipline of saving, the amounts can be large or small.
As the goals are far away, most investments can be directed into equities. Systematic
investment plans (SIPs) of good funds, with a long-term view, are ideal here.
Short-term expenditure can be rationalised and reduced if there are opportunities.
Simran reckons she spends about Rs 10,000-15,000 a month now on the kids. This
includes diapers (about Rs 500 for a pack of 50), food and household help.
Simran works three days a week, and that leaves her with enough time to spend with
her children. Once they start school, she can go back to working full time. Simran is
optimistic about her future. "It's all there somewhere, I am a positive person in that
sense," she says. "For now, I want to focus on enjoying my babies," she adds.
3. Wonder years
The five years when the child has started school but is not yet in a higher class that
warrants private tuitions is the ramp up stage for the finances of parents. The goals
of higher education and marriage are some distance away, yet well within view.
Even though the primary schooler's ambitions vary widely from day to day, you could
still get a sense of the direction in which he is likely to head. This is the stage where
you could build your savings. If you have SIPs, you could increase the amount you
invest every month.
On the expense side, this is perhaps the easiest stage. You do not have the
heavy-duty everyday requirements of diapers and baby food, nor have you reached
the stage where you have to spend Rs 300 for one hour of mathematics tuition.
School fees, books, birthday parties and expenses on outings and excursions would be
areas of high spends. A birthday party can cost anywhere between Rs 3,000 and Rs
20,000.
In Kolkata, nine-year-old Arkatapa wants to be an archaeologist one day and a
teacher the next. She attends classes on ancient mathematics, Bharatnatyam, singing
and drawing. But her mother, Arpita Roy, feels when it comes to choosing a career,
Arkatapa will pick an academically-oriented one.
7 star strategies for your child's future
Arkatapa's father, Barun Kumar Roy, is an officer in the West Bengal government. His
money mantra is that investments should be made for the short term and loans should
be taken for the long term. He spends 60 per cent of his salary and saves the
remaining 40 per cent.
Barun invests with a three-to-four-year view. His first priority is insurance policies, so
that in case anything happens to him, his family does not suffer financially. He has life
insurance policies and Ulips with accident covers. He also has some investments in
Prudential ICICI Mutual Fund. These are in both equity and debt funds. Child plans do
not attract him, he has not taken any for Arkatapa.
An ideal asset allocation at this stage of your child's life is to have 75 per cent of your
investments in equity. This implies that in the intervening years between 0-4 and
5-10, you move some part of your money from pure equity to balanced or debt funds.
Arpita never wanted a career, she was always keen on staying home and looking after
her family. But her advice to her daughter would be to be self-reliant and have the
financial ability to look after herself.
Arpita finds her joy in her daughter's accomplishments. "When she scores 15 out of 15
in a test, I feel very happy. Even though it is a little silly, I do feel happy," she says.
"My daughter is not a very brilliant student, but she is still young. I am not worried
about her career now, water will flow where it will."
Her husband agrees that it is too early to predict what their daughter will grow up to
be, but he is certain that he must invest in her future. "Whenever she makes her
choice of education or career, it should not get stuck because there is no money for
it," he says emphatically.
"Every moment as a father has been a proud one." His dream for his daughter is that
she grows up to be honest, respectful and a good human being. "Everything else is
extra," he says.
4. Early teenage mayhem
As Rishab Nanda grows tall and lanky, his parents, Manisha and Manish, are beginning
to anticipate the mood swings and door slamming that will start as their
soon-to-be-12-year-old grapples with adolescence. Already, there are arguments and
high drama about pretty much everything -- from walking the dog to going on trips
with friends.
Although Rishab is yet unsure of exactly what he wants to grow up to be, the options
are getting clearer by the day. His parents do not want to get caught on the wrong
foot at the last moment and are now quickly squirrelling away as much money as
possible to fund his dreams.
Rishab's school offers the International Baccalaureate (IB) programme and his parents
expect that once he finishes his class 10, he would opt for this. Not only is the IB
course more expensive than a regular school, the chance that a child going for it
would ultimately pursue his graduate programmes abroad is also high. A two-year IB
course costs about Rs 4 lakh, compared to Rs 1 lakh that you would pay for a regular
CBSE or ISC school.
Manisha and Manish know that this would be an expensive proposition. They would like
to save enough to fund the full cost of his foreign degree, but are not entirely sure
they would be able to. The actual amounts they would need would depend on the
course, college and country.
When the child is between the ages of 10 and 14, regular day-to-day expenses are
also high. School fees in secondary classes are higher than those in primary, and
children also need a lot of academic and non-academic stimulation outside school.
This would mean a mixture of tuitions and lessons. Rishab takes lessons in playing the
drums, speech and drama. These add up to Rs 18,000 a year.
7 star strategies for your child's future
February 26, 2008
This is also the age of having to make large-ticket purchases. Gameboys,
Playstations, the latest skating boards and other 'toys' cost quite a packet, some
starting upwards of Rs 25,000. You can manage to spin some yarn and convince your
eight-year-old that the Barbie she has is better than the Barbie she wants, but there
is no talking reason, logic or threat to a 13-year-old.
The Nandas have made several investments in equity mutual funds. They also have
two child-specific plans -- one from LIC and the other from UTI. Ideally, the Nandas
should move their portfolio more towards debt and balanced funds. One, they would
need a large sum of money to pay the IB fees after Rishab completes his 10th
standard.
Also, since he is likely to go abroad for his undergraduate studies, their requirements
of funds would be sooner than usual. In case the stockmarket enters a lull phase after
four years, the largely equity portfolio of the couple could prove a problem.
Right now, Rishab is keen on pursuing his athletics and art. The Nandas know that
these are unconventional choices, but if Rishab does stick to either of these and
decides to pursue a career in it, they would encourage his choice.
Manisha was an advertising executive who switched careers to become a teacher.
She wants Rishab to have the guidance that enables him to discover his aptitudes so
that he doesn't waste years working in a profession he does not really want to be in.
"But," she says proudly, "at the end of the day, I think he is a survivor. Like me."
5. Terrible teens
In Delhi, Priyanka Verma is one busy 16-year-old. She is in her 12th standard and
preparing for her board exams pretty much takes up all her time now. She has opted
for the science stream and is studying physics, chemistry, mathematics and computer
science at Shriram School in Gurgaon.
Her mother, Sarika Verma, is an arts teacher and had noticed, very early, Priyanka's
creative bent of mind. "But," she says, "my husband had the foresight to advise her
that even if she wanted to subsequently pursue a career in arts, it would benefit her
to opt for the science stream at this level." Priyanka's father, Ashutosh Verma, works
in the Indian Trade Promotion Organisation.
Priyanka has now found a career that will allow an artistic expression of her science
education - she wants to be an architect. Not only that, Priyanka also decided on a
foreign language early on, and now she is learning French at an advanced level. This
means that she could opt to study architecture at a good college in France, where
the cost of education would be lower than in the US or the UK.
The Vermas are self-confessedly not very money-savvy. They decided early on that
Priyanka's education would have the first claim on their finances; everything else
would be secondary. Right now, these education expenses are high. Priyanka takes
tuitions in a couple of subjects and these cost Rs 300-400 an hour. This, added to
school fees, the bus charges of going to school and coming back home and other
expenses aggregate to a neat Rs 20,000 a month.
"There was no room to splurge or go on binges. We knew we had limited resources
and, for us, spending was not a way of living. We set our priorities and refused to
worry about anything else," Sarika says.
The Vermas have left what they managed to save in their saving bank account. They
will have to drum up the funds once Priyanka secures admission in a college of her
choice. They are looking at the option of taking an educational loan to augment their
reserves.
7 star strategies for your child's future
When the child is between 14 and 18, the first big goal draws close. The money
needed for higher education should be ready and ideally, a large chunk of it should be
moved into debt and balanced funds. A 50 per cent exposure to equity is sufficient at
this stage.
Those sending their children abroad - for undergraduate or post-graduate studies -
should be in a position to provide for at least the first couple of years. If you do not
have enough saved up, you can seek an educational loan from a bank. Usually, kids
find part-time work that helps fund a part of their education or, in the least, provides
for their living expenses once they settle down in their new country and campus.
Ideally, earmark your investments for your needs. If the monthly SIP of Rs 7,000 is
going into junior's college fund, the Rs 4,000 one could be the marriage resource. As
the event draws close, you could switch the investment from an equity to a debt
fund. This would allow it to continue earning higher returns than a bank account while
being absolutely liquid.
Sarika is certain that her daughter is a bright spark. "My only dream is that in her life
she should be able to get opportunities to use her many talents," she says.
As for her marriage, it is still far away. "Even if I am rich, I wouldn't splurge on her
wedding; I am totally against that kind of fanfare," she says.
6. Action!
It all comes to pass now, the years of swinging between anticipation and hope. Now
is when your constant refrain of "go to your room and study" goes through its test.
And the money you have put away finally finds its purpose.
Bina Sharma's older son Prabhat is doing his electronics and communications
engineering in Bangalore. As he prepares to finish this and zone in on an area of
specialisation for his post-graduate course, Bina feels a mixture of relief and anxiety.
For one, Prabhat is bright enough to have got through a better college. But, she did
not want him to stay home for a whole year and prepare for the engineering entrance
exam. So, he joined the college where he got admission. This means that if he does
not get through to an IIT for his post-graduate degree, it is best that he go abroad
for it. By the time that would be happening, the younger son would be starting his
first year of college, seeking a medical degree in all likelihood. Bina is remarkably calm
for someone who is juggling so much.
"Prabhat is in two minds and has not decided whether he wants to do a Master's in
Engineering or an MBA," she says. "My sense is that he'll stick to the technical line. If
he does, he might choose to pursue his Master's in aeronautical engineering or
continue in electronics and communications. Either way, if he does not make it to a
top rung college in India, he would go abroad."
A postgraduate degree abroad is much easier to manage compared to an
undergraduate one. All said, it would cost about Rs 40 lakh (Rs 4 million) a year to
study in the US. This means an outlay of Rs 80 lakh (Rs 8 million) for a postgraduate
course, compared to Rs 1.6 crore (Rs 16 million) for an undergraduate degree. Bina
has started planning and has put away a part of this. By the time Prabhat finishes his
degree, she should have the rest of the money on board. If her resources fall short,
the Sharmas may have to take an educational loan.
The Sharmas have been forecasting their finances towards these goals. While they
meet their monthly expenses from the money generated by the business of Bina's
husband, Vipin, her salary is saved in its entirety. They have invested in equities,
mutual funds, fixed deposits and provident funds. They also have bought some real
estate with the express purpose of liquidating it to meet the kids' college expenses.
7 star strategies for your child's future
February 26, 2008
A 25 per cent equity allocation is ideal at this stage. While the remaining money is
invested in lower-risk debt instruments, this 25 per cent would give the kicker of
higher returns.
College expenses cannot be calculated to the last rupee in advance as various factors
come into play on securing admission. Prabhat is planning to pursue a technical
degree, so the possibility of getting sponsorships and fee waivers is higher. However,
the couple needs to peg a basic minimum and work towards it.
The current expenses of the family are also high. Bina paid Rs 150,000 for the first
year of Prabhat's engineering. Over this, he incurs a monthly expense of Rs 8,000.
Bina is focused on her kids having a sound base in education. Once they graduate,
they are free to choose any career they want. She feels that Prabhat's rational
expectations would hold him in good stead through his education and career.
After the stress of steering two boys through their teens, Bina is looking forward to
the final satisfaction of seeing them settle down. "I will then put up my feet and
finally relax," she crystal gazes.
7. The last mile
Sumona Gupta did not want to make the career decisions of her daughters for them.
Snigdha, 23, works in advertising in Google for Hyderabad, and Shaila, 16, is an
aspiring fashion designer. Now that Snigdha is 'settled' professionally, Sumona is
certain that like her choice of an occupation, she would also let her daughter choose
who she wants to marry.
Sumona exudes the confidence of a successful parent -- one who has done the right
thing for her daughters and who can now take it easy and enjoy their success.
Sumona freelances in real estate, helping in renting, buying and selling of property.
Her husband, Sumit, has a shore-based job in a marine operations company in Dubai.
Together, they have set aside some money for their daughters. Most of this is in the
form of equities.
"When my daughter does get married, I would like it to be a big wedding; not overtly
so, but within our budget," Sumona says. A wedding dress for a bride would cost
between Rs 5,000 and Rs 60,000. Of course, if you have the resources you can even
spend a couple of lakh for an outfit. Food for guests sets you back by Rs 50-2,000 a
plate. Ideally, the funds for the kids should be moved out of equity at this stage.
If you have set aside enough, you could leave a small portion, about 5 per cent of the
portfolio, in equity to improve your returns. Investments in gold, ideally in bars and
coins or units of a gold exchange - traded fund, would also come into use now. There
are hardly any expenses you have to incur on behalf of the child now, they have their
own salaries to pay for most of their needs.
Sumona would rather worry about her daughters' financial stability than who they
would marry and when. "There is nothing very secure in a married life," she says. In
fact, she would like Snigdha to go for a postgraduate course, such as an MBA, than
find a man and settle down immediately.
Parenting is full of paradoxes. Even as we wait for the child to cross her next
milestone, we begin to miss the precociousness of the earlier stage. As they wean
themselves away, all we can do is gather all the special moments we have had and air
out their warmth every now and then.
When they grow into adults - people with careers, aspirations and points of view - we
can only wonder how they were ever so small that they fitted into the crook of our
arm. If we have planned ahead and made our children's journey to adulthood that
much easier, that is a job well done, a life well lived
the Ireland Glass Biennale 2023, an exhibition of work from some of the world’s most innovative glass artists, designers and craft practitioners. The Ireland Glass Biennale exhibition will be on show in the Coach House Gallery, Dublin Castle from 28 April to 20 August 2023. Through showcasing the excellence of contemporary glass practice, the Irish Glass Biennale (IGB) aspires to further the public’s understanding of the creative potential of glass and to act as a catalyst for cultural activities which centre around glass.
Portrait on London streets, a street worker looks back to me with understanding. This looks of human understanding remain so important for me.
I asked him, almost as I arrived in London, they were having a pause, "may I take a photo of you?" and he answered "Why? I am old" then I pointed to myself and said "And me? I am not still interesting, because of my age? I am older then you."
That is the look, telling me, "yes, take a photo"!
We were not so different after all and he felt also interesting.
I do remember, looking at these photos again, when Judy Carter told us "SEE the others" around you, tell them you see them.
Photo taken less then a month after my arrival in UK.
During my first photo stroll in London centre.
My set "no more a stranger" of photos of people I did not know
Old Vieux Öreg set
Hindou Ibrahim, from the International Indigenous People Forum on Climate Change, addresses the Security Council meeting on maintenance of international peace and security, with a focus on understanding and addressing climate-related security risks.
UN Photo/Eskinder Debebe
11 July 2018
United Nations, New York
Photo # 768653
Colonnaded footpath with sloping columns, carrying the road above, in Parc Güell (Park Güell), Barcelona, autonomous community Catalonia, Spain.
---quotation from en.wikipedia.org about Park Güell:---
Park Güell (Catalan: Parc Güell...) is a garden complex with architectural elements situated on the hill of El Carmel in the Gràcia district of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It was designed by the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí and built in the years 1900 to 1914. It has an extension of 17.18 ha (0.1718 km²), which makes it one of the largest architectural works in south Europe. It is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Works of Antoni Gaudí".
---end of quotation---
---quotation from en.wikipedia.org about Antoni Gaudí:---
Antoni Gaudí i Cornet (...25 June 1852 – 10 June 1926) was a Spanish Catalan architect and figurehead of Catalan Modernism. Gaudí's works reflect his highly individual and distinctive style and are largely concentrated in the Catalan capital of Barcelona, notably his magnum opus, the Sagrada Família.
Much of Gaudí's work was marked by his big passions in life: architecture, nature, religion. Gaudí studied every detail of his creations, integrating into his architecture a series of crafts in which he was skilled: ceramics, stained glass, wrought ironwork forging and carpentry. He introduced new techniques in the treatment of materials, such as trencadís, made of waste ceramic pieces.
After a few years under the influence of neo-Gothic art and Oriental techniques, Gaudí became part of the Catalan Modernista movement which was reaching its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His work transcended mainstream Modernisme, culminating in an organic style inspired by nature. Gaudí rarely drew detailed plans of his works, instead preferring to create them as three-dimensional scale models and molding the details as he was conceiving them.
Gaudí’s work enjoys widespread international appeal and many studies are devoted to understanding his architecture. Today, his work finds admirers among architects and the general public alike. His masterpiece, the still-uncompleted Sagrada Família, is one of the most visited monuments in Spain. Between 1984 and 2005, seven of his works were declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.
---end of quotation---
---quotation from en.wikipedia.org about Barcelona:---
Barcelona (...) is the capital of Catalonia and the second largest city in Spain, after Madrid, with a population of 1,620,943 within its administrative limits on a land area of 101.4 km² (39 sq mi). The urban area of Barcelona extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 4.5 million within an area of 803 km² (310 sq mi), being the sixth-most populous urban area in the European Union after Paris, London, the Ruhr, Madrid and Milan. About five million people live in the Barcelona metropolitan area. It is also the largest metropolis on the Mediterranean Sea. It is located on the Mediterranean coast between the mouths of the rivers Llobregat and Besòs and is bounded to the west by the Serra de Collserola ridge (512 metres (1,680 ft)).
Founded as a Roman city, Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona. After merging with the Kingdom of Aragon, Barcelona became the most important city of the Crown of Aragon. Besieged several times during its history, Barcelona has a rich cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre and a major tourist destination. Particularly renowned are the architectural works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner, which have been designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean is located in Barcelona. The city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions and also many international sport tournaments.
---end of quotation---
Costa Brava holiday April 2009.
In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith.[3] The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience (infinite knowledge), omnipotence (unlimited power), omnipresence (present everywhere), divine simplicity, and as having an eternal and necessary existence. Many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent (perfectly good), and all loving.
God is most often held to be non-corporeal,[3] and to be without any human biological sex,[4][5] yet the concept of God actively creating the universe (as opposed to passively)[6] has caused many religions to describe God using masculine terminology, using such terms as "Him" or "Father". Furthermore, some religions (such as Judaism) attribute only a purely grammatical "gender" to God.[7]
In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, but not the sustainer, of the universe. In pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism. God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[3] Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God.[8]
There are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about God's identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten,[9] premised on being the one "true" Supreme Being and Creator of the Universe.[10] In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, "He Who Is", "I Am that I Am", and the tetragrammaton YHWH (Hebrew: יהוה, which means: "I am who I am"; "He Who Exists") are used as names of God, while Yahweh and Jehovah are sometimes used in Christianity as vocalizations of YHWH. In the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, the latter of which is believed by some scholars to descend from the Egyptian Aten.[11][12][13][14][15] In Islam, the name Allah, "Al-El", or "Al-Elah" ("the God") is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a monistic deity.[16] Other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Bahá'í Faith,[17] Waheguru in Sikhism,[18] and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.[19]
The many different conceptions of God, and competing claims as to God's characteristics, aims, and actions, have led to the development of ideas of omnitheism, pandeism,[20][21] or a perennial philosophy, which postulates that there is one underlying theological truth, of which all religions express a partial understanding, and as to which "the devout in the various great world religions are in fact worshipping that one God, but through different, overlapping concepts or mental images of Him."[22]
Contents [hide]
1Etymology and usage
2General conceptions
2.1Oneness
2.2Theism, deism and pantheism
2.3Other concepts
3Non-theistic views
3.1Agnosticism and atheism
3.2Anthropomorphism
4Existence
5Specific attributes
5.1Names
5.2Gender
5.3Relationship with creation
6Depiction
6.1Zoroastrianism
6.2Islam
6.3Judaism
6.4Christianity
7Theological approaches
8Distribution of belief
9See also
9.1In specific religions
10References
11Further reading
12External links
Etymology and usage
The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to the Israelite God Yahweh.
Main article: God (word)
The earliest written form of the Germanic word God (always, in this usage, capitalized[23]) comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau(ə)-, which meant either "to call" or "to invoke".[24] The Germanic words for God were originally neuter—applying to both genders—but during the process of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic paganism, the words became a masculine syntactic form.[25]
The word 'Allah' in Arabic calligraphy
In the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic "God" and "gods" in polytheism.[26][27] The English word God and its counterparts in other languages are normally used for any and all conceptions and, in spite of significant differences between religions, the term remains an English translation common to all. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, the tetragrammaton YHWH, in origin possibly the name of an Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh. In many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton.[28]
Allāh (Arabic: الله) is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning "The God" (with a capital G), while "ʾilāh" (Arabic: إله) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[29][30][31] God may also be given a proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which emphasize the personal nature of God, with early references to his name as Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or later Vishnu and Hari.[32]
Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. "Mazda", or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå, reflects Proto-Iranian *Mazdāh (female). It is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning "placing (dʰeh1) one's mind (*mn̩-s)", hence "wise".[33]
Waheguru (Punjabi: vāhigurū) is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God. It means "Wonderful Teacher" in the Punjabi language. Vāhi (a Middle Persian borrowing) means "wonderful" and guru (Sanskrit: guru) is a term denoting "teacher". Waheguru is also described by some as an experience of ecstasy which is beyond all descriptions. The most common usage of the word "Waheguru" is in the greeting Sikhs use with each other:
Waheguru Ji Ka Khalsa, Waheguru Ji Ki Fateh
Wonderful Lord's Khalsa, Victory is to the Wonderful Lord.
Baha, the "greatest" name for God in the Baha'i faith, is Arabic for "All-Glorious".
General conceptions
Main article: Conceptions of God
There is no clear consensus on the nature or even the existence of God.[34] The Abrahamic conceptions of God include the monotheistic definition of God in Judaism, the trinitarian view of Christians, and the Islamic concept of God. The dharmic religions differ in their view of the divine: views of God in Hinduism vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging from monotheistic to polytheistic. Divinity was recognized by the historical Buddha, particularly Śakra and Brahma. However, other sentient beings, including gods, can at best only play a supportive role in one's personal path to salvation. Conceptions of God in the latter developments of the Mahayana tradition give a more prominent place to notions of the divine.[citation needed]
Oneness
Main articles: Monotheism and Henotheism
The Trinity is the belief that God is composed of The Father, The Son (embodied metaphysically in the physical realm by Jesus), and The Holy Spirit.
Monotheists hold that there is only one god, and may claim that the one true god is worshiped in different religions under different names. The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they know it or not, is especially emphasized in Hinduism[35] and Sikhism.[36] In Christianity, the doctrine of the Trinity describes God as one God in three persons. The Trinity comprises The Father, The Son (embodied metaphysically by Jesus), and The Holy Spirit.[37] Islam's most fundamental concept is tawhid (meaning "oneness" or "uniqueness"). God is described in the Quran as: "Say: He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."[38][39] Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of his creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules, and are not expected to visualize God.[40]
Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities.[41]
Theism, deism and pantheism
Main articles: Theism, Deism, and Pantheism
Theism generally holds that God exists realistically, objectively, and independently of human thought; that God created and sustains everything; that God is omnipotent and eternal; and that God is personal and interacting with the universe through, for example, religious experience and the prayers of humans.[42] Theism holds that God is both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world.[43] Not all theists subscribe to all of these propositions, but each usually subscribes to some of them (see, by way of comparison, family resemblance).[42] Catholic theology holds that God is infinitely simple and is not involuntarily subject to time. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. Open Theism, by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God's omniscience does not mean the deity can predict the future. Theism is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.[44][45]
"God blessing the seventh day", a watercolor painting depicting God, by William Blake (1757 – 1827)
Deism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary to create it.[43] In this view, God is not anthropomorphic, and neither answers prayers nor produces miracles. Common in Deism is a belief that God has no interest in humanity and may not even be aware of humanity. Pandeism and Panendeism, respectively, combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panentheistic beliefs.[21][46][47] Pandeism is proposed to explain as to Deism why God would create a universe and then abandon it,[48] and as to Pantheism, the origin and purpose of the universe.[48][49]
Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God, whereas Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe.[50] It is also the view of the Liberal Catholic Church; Theosophy; some views of Hinduism except Vaishnavism, which believes in panentheism; Sikhism; some divisions of Neopaganism and Taoism, along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God—which has wide acceptance in Hasidic Judaism, particularly from their founder The Baal Shem Tov—but only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.[citation needed]
Other concepts
Dystheism, which is related to theodicy, is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is fully malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil. One such example comes from Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on the grounds that he allows children to suffer.[51]
In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been developed, such as process theology and open theism. The contemporaneous French philosopher Michel Henry has however proposed a phenomenological approach and definition of God as phenomenological essence of Life.[52]
God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[3] These attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim theologian philosophers, including Maimonides,[53] Augustine of Hippo,[53] and Al-Ghazali,[8] respectively.
Non-theistic views
See also: Evolutionary origin of religions and Evolutionary psychology of religion
Non-theist views about God also vary. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is significant to many; other non-theists understand God as a symbol of human values and aspirations. The nineteenth-century English atheist Charles Bradlaugh declared that he refused to say "There is no God", because "the word 'God' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation";[54] he said more specifically that he disbelieved in the Christian god. Stephen Jay Gould proposed an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called "non-overlapping magisteria" (NOMA). In this view, questions of the supernatural, such as those relating to the existence and nature of God, are non-empirical and are the proper domain of theology. The methods of science should then be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world, and theology should be used to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this view, the perceived lack of any empirical footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events makes science the sole player in the natural world.[55]
Another view, advanced by Richard Dawkins, is that the existence of God is an empirical question, on the grounds that "a universe with a god would be a completely different kind of universe from one without, and it would be a scientific difference."[56] Carl Sagan argued that the doctrine of a Creator of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could disprove the existence of a Creator (not necessarily a God) would be the discovery that the universe is infinitely old.[57]
Stephen Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow state in their book, The Grand Design, that it is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God, then the question has merely been deflected to that of who created God. Both authors claim however, that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divine beings.[58] Neuroscientist Michael Nikoletseas has proposed that questions of the existence of God are no different from questions of natural sciences. Following a biological comparative approach, he concludes that it is highly probable that God exists, and, although not visible, it is possible that we know some of his attributes.[59]
Agnosticism and atheism
Agnosticism is the view that, the truth values of certain claims – especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether God, the divine or the supernatural exist – are unknown and perhaps unknowable.[60][61][62]
Atheism is, in a broad sense, the rejection of belief in the existence of deities, or a God.[63][64] In a narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities.[65]
Anthropomorphism
Main article: Anthropomorphism
Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world, in general, supernatural beings tend to behave much like people. The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples from Greek mythology, which is, in his opinion, more like a modern soap opera than other religious systems.[66] Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate through formalization that Boyer's explanatory model matches physics' epistemology in positing not directly observable entities as intermediaries.[67] Anthropologist Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features onto non-human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud also suggested that god concepts are projections of one's father.[68]
Likewise, Émile Durkheim was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans began living in larger groups, they may have created gods as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation. However, it is much harder to enforce morality using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano indicates that by including ever-watchful gods and spirits, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.[69]
Existence
Main article: Existence of God
St. Thomas Aquinas summed up five main arguments as proofs for God's existence.
Isaac Newton saw the existence of a Creator necessary in the movement of astronomical objects.
Arguments about the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Different views include that: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost certainly does not exist" (de facto atheism); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism[70]);"God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (de facto theism); and that "God exists and this can be proven" (strong theism).[55]
Countless arguments have been proposed to prove the existence of God.[71] Some of the most notable arguments are the Five Ways of Aquinas, the Argument from Desire proposed by C.S. Lewis, and the Ontological Argument formulated both by St. Anselm and René Descartes.[72]
St. Anselm's approach was to define God as, "that than which nothing greater can be conceived". Famed pantheist philosopher Baruch Spinoza would later carry this idea to its extreme: "By God I understand a being absolutely infinite, i.e., a substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each one expresses an eternal and infinite essence." For Spinoza, the whole of the natural universe is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent, Nature.[73] His proof for the existence of God was a variation of the Ontological argument.[74]
Scientist Isaac Newton saw God as the masterful creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation.[75] Nevertheless, he rejected polymath Leibniz' thesis that God would necessarily make a perfect world which requires no intervention from the creator. In Query 31 of the Opticks, Newton simultaneously made an argument from design and for the necessity of intervention:
For while comets move in very eccentric orbs in all manner of positions, blind fate could never make all the planets move one and the same way in orbs concentric, some inconsiderable irregularities excepted which may have arisen from the mutual actions of comets and planets on one another, and which will be apt to increase, till this system wants a reformation.[76]
St. Thomas believed that the existence of God is self-evident in itself, but not to us. "Therefore I say that this proposition, "God exists", of itself is self-evident, for the predicate is the same as the subject.... Now because we do not know the essence of God, the proposition is not self-evident to us; but needs to be demonstrated by things that are more known to us, though less known in their nature—namely, by effects."[77] St. Thomas believed that the existence of God can be demonstrated. Briefly in the Summa theologiae and more extensively in the Summa contra Gentiles, he considered in great detail five arguments for the existence of God, widely known as the quinque viae (Five Ways).
For the original text of the five proofs, see quinque viae
Motion: Some things undoubtedly move, though cannot cause their own motion. Since there can be no infinite chain of causes of motion, there must be a First Mover not moved by anything else, and this is what everyone understands by God.
Causation: As in the case of motion, nothing can cause itself, and an infinite chain of causation is impossible, so there must be a First Cause, called God.
Existence of necessary and the unnecessary: Our experience includes things certainly existing but apparently unnecessary. Not everything can be unnecessary, for then once there was nothing and there would still be nothing. Therefore, we are compelled to suppose something that exists necessarily, having this necessity only from itself; in fact itself the cause for other things to exist.
Gradation: If we can notice a gradation in things in the sense that some things are more hot, good, etc., there must be a superlative that is the truest and noblest thing, and so most fully existing. This then, we call God (Note: Thomas does not ascribe actual qualities to God Himself).
Ordered tendencies of nature: A direction of actions to an end is noticed in all bodies following natural laws. Anything without awareness tends to a goal under the guidance of one who is aware. This we call God (Note that even when we guide objects, in Thomas's view, the source of all our knowledge comes from God as well).[78]
Alister McGrath, a formerly atheistic scientist and theologian who has been highly critical of Richard Dawkins' version of atheism
Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of God is not a question that can be answered using the scientific method.[79][80] Agnostic Stephen Jay Gould argues that science and religion are not in conflict and do not overlap.[81]
Some findings in the fields of cosmology, evolutionary biology and neuroscience are interpreted by some atheists (including Lawrence M. Krauss and Sam Harris) as evidence that God is an imaginary entity only, with no basis in reality.[82][83][84] These atheists claim that a single, omniscient God who is imagined to have created the universe and is particularly attentive to the lives of humans has been imagined, embellished and promulgated in a trans-generational manner.[85] Richard Dawkins interprets such findings not only as a lack of evidence for the material existence of such a God, but as extensive evidence to the contrary.[55] However, his views are opposed by some theologians and scientists including Alister McGrath, who argues that existence of God is compatible with science.[86]
Neuroscientist Michael Nikoletseas has proposed that questions of the existence of God are no different from questions of natural sciences. Following a biological comparative approach, he concludes that it is highly probable that God exists, and, although not visible, it is possible that we know some of his attributes.[59]
Specific attributes
Different religious traditions assign differing (though often similar) attributes and characteristics to God, including expansive powers and abilities, psychological characteristics, gender characteristics, and preferred nomenclature. The assignment of these attributes often differs according to the conceptions of God in the culture from which they arise. For example, attributes of God in Christianity, attributes of God in Islam, and the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy in Judaism share certain similarities arising from their common roots.
Names
Main article: Names of God
99 names of Allah, in Chinese Sini (script)
The word God is "one of the most complex and difficult in the English language." In the Judeo-Christian tradition, "the Bible has been the principal source of the conceptions of God". That the Bible "includes many different images, concepts, and ways of thinking about" God has resulted in perpetual "disagreements about how God is to be conceived and understood".[87]
Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bibles there are many names for God. One of them is Elohim. Another one is El Shaddai, meaning "God Almighty".[88] A third notable name is El Elyon, which means "The Most High God".[89]
God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahman, meaning "Most Compassionate" and Al-Rahim, meaning "Most Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[90]
Supreme soul
The Brahma Kumaris use the term "Supreme Soul" to refer to God. They see God as incorporeal and eternal, and regard him as a point of living light like human souls, but without a physical body, as he does not enter the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. God is seen as the perfect and constant embodiment of all virtues, powers and values and that He is the unconditionally loving Father of all souls, irrespective of their religion, gender, or culture.[91]
Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has list of titles and names of Krishna.
Gender
Main article: Gender of God
The gender of God may be viewed as either a literal or an allegorical aspect of a deity who, in classical western philosophy, transcends bodily form.[92][93] Polytheistic religions commonly attribute to each of the gods a gender, allowing each to interact with any of the others, and perhaps with humans, sexually. In most monotheistic religions, God has no counterpart with which to relate sexually. Thus, in classical western philosophy the gender of this one-and-only deity is most likely to be an analogical statement of how humans and God address, and relate to, each other. Namely, God is seen as begetter of the world and revelation which corresponds to the active (as opposed to the receptive) role in sexual intercourse.[6]
Biblical sources usually refer to God using male words, except Genesis 1:26-27,[94][95] Psalm 123:2-3, and Luke 15:8-10 (female); Hosea 11:3-4, Deuteronomy 32:18, Isaiah 66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah 42:14, Psalm 131:2 (a mother); Deuteronomy 32:11-12 (a mother eagle); and Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34 (a mother hen).
Relationship with creation
See also: Creator deity, Prayer, and Worship
And Elohim Created Adam by William Blake, c.1795
Prayer plays a significant role among many believers. Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[96][97] He is viewed as a personal God and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Prayer often also includes supplication and asking forgiveness. God is often believed to be forgiving. For example, a hadith states God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance.[98] Christian theologian Alister McGrath writes that there are good reasons to suggest that a "personal god" is integral to the Christian outlook, but that one has to understand it is an analogy. "To say that God is like a person is to affirm the divine ability and willingness to relate to others. This does not imply that God is human, or located at a specific point in the universe."[99]
Adherents of different religions generally disagree as to how to best worship God and what is God's plan for mankind, if there is one. There are different approaches to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe they are the chosen people or have exclusive access to absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is religious pluralism. A pluralist typically believes that his religion is the right one, but does not deny the partial truth of other religions. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e., the belief that one's religion is the fulfillment of previous religions. A third approach is relativistic inclusivism, where everybody is seen as equally right; an example being universalism: the doctrine that salvation is eventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is syncretism, mixing different elements from different religions. An example of syncretism is the New Age movement.
Jews and Christians believe that humans are created in the likeness of God, and are the center, crown and key to God's creation, stewards for God, supreme over everything else God had made (Gen 1:26); for this reason, humans are in Christianity called the "Children of God".[100]
Depiction
God is defined as incorporeal,[3] and invisible from direct sight, and thus cannot be portrayed in a literal visual image.
The respective principles of religions may or may not permit them to use images (which are entirely symbolic) to represent God in art or in worship .
Zoroastrianism
Ahura Mazda (depiction is on the right, with high crown) presents Ardashir I (left) with the ring of kingship. (Relief at Naqsh-e Rustam, 3rd century CE)
During the early Parthian Empire, Ahura Mazda was visually represented for worship. This practice ended during the beginning of the Sassanid empire. Zoroastrian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship. However, Ahura Mazda continued to be symbolized by a dignified male figure, standing or on horseback which is found in Sassanian investiture.[101]
Islam
Further information: God in Islam
Muslims believe that God (Allah) is beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of His creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules, are not expected to visualize God.[40]
Judaism
At least some Jews do not use any image for God, since God is the unimageable Being who cannot be represented in material forms.[102] In some samples of Jewish Art, however, sometimes God, or at least His Intervention, is indicated by a Hand Of God symbol, which represents the bath Kol (literally "daughter of a voice") or Voice of God;[103] this use of the Hand Of God is carried over to Christian Art.
Christianity
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Early Christians believed that the words of the Gospel of John 1:18: "No man has seen God at any time" and numerous other statements were meant to apply not only to God, but to all attempts at the depiction of God.[104]
Use of the symbolic Hand of God in the Ascension from the Drogo Sacramentary, c. 850
However, later on the Hand of God symbol is found several times in the only ancient synagogue with a large surviving decorative scheme, the Dura Europos Synagogue of the mid-3rd century, and was probably adopted into Early Christian art from Jewish art. It was common in Late Antique art in both East and West, and remained the main way of symbolizing the actions or approval of God the Father in the West until about the end of the Romanesque period. It also represents the bath Kol (literally "daughter of a voice") or voice of God,[103] just like in Jewish Art.
In situations, such as the Baptism of Christ, where a specific representation of God the Father was indicated, the Hand of God was used, with increasing freedom from the Carolingian period until the end of the Romanesque. This motif now, since the discovery of the 3rd century Dura Europos synagogue, seems to have been borrowed from Jewish art, and is found in Christian art almost from its beginnings.
The use of religious images in general continued to increase up to the end of the 7th century, to the point that in 695, upon assuming the throne, Byzantine emperor Justinian II put an image of Christ on the obverse side of his gold coins, resulting in a rift which ended the use of Byzantine coin types in the Islamic world.[105] However, the increase in religious imagery did not include depictions of God the Father. For instance, while the eighty second canon of the Council of Trullo in 692 did not specifically condemn images of The Father, it suggested that icons of Christ were preferred over Old Testament shadows and figures.[106]
The beginning of the 8th century witnessed the suppression and destruction of religious icons as the period of Byzantine iconoclasm (literally image-breaking) started. Emperor Leo III (717–741), suppressed the use of icons by imperial edict of the Byzantine Empire, presumably due to a military loss which he attributed to the undue veneration of icons.[107] The edict (which was issued without consulting the Church) forbade the veneration of religious images but did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or religious symbols such as the cross.[108] Theological arguments against icons then began to appear with iconoclasts arguing that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of Jesus at the same time. In this atmosphere, no public depictions of God the Father were even attempted and such depictions only began to appear two centuries later.
The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 effectively ended the first period of Byzantine iconoclasm and restored the honouring of icons and holy images in general.[109] However, this did not immediately translate into large scale depictions of God the Father. Even supporters of the use of icons in the 8th century, such as Saint John of Damascus, drew a distinction between images of God the Father and those of Christ.
In his treatise On the Divine Images John of Damascus wrote: "In former times, God who is without form or body, could never be depicted. But now when God is seen in the flesh conversing with men, I make an image of the God whom I see".[110] The implication here is that insofar as God the Father or the Spirit did not become man, visible and tangible, images and portrait icons can not be depicted. So what was true for the whole Trinity before Christ remains true for the Father and the Spirit but not for the Word. John of Damascus wrote:[111]
"If we attempt to make an image of the invisible God, this would be sinful indeed. It is impossible to portray one who is without body:invisible, uncircumscribed and without form."
Around 790 Charlemagne ordered a set of four books that became known as the Libri Carolini (i.e. "Charles' books") to refute what his court mistakenly understood to be the iconoclast decrees of the Byzantine Second Council of Nicaea regarding sacred images. Although not well known during the Middle Ages, these books describe the key elements of the Catholic theological position on sacred images. To the Western Church, images were just objects made by craftsmen, to be utilized for stimulating the senses of the faithful, and to be respected for the sake of the subject represented, not in themselves. The Council of Constantinople (869) (considered ecumenical by the Western Church, but not the Eastern Church) reaffirmed the decisions of the Second Council of Nicaea and helped stamp out any remaining coals of iconoclasm. Specifically, its third canon required the image of Christ to have veneration equal with that of a Gospel book:[112]
We decree that the sacred image of our Lord Jesus Christ, the liberator and Savior of all people, must be venerated with the same honor as is given the book of the holy Gospels. For as through the language of the words contained in this book all can reach salvation, so, due to the action which these images exercise by their colors, all wise and simple alike, can derive profit from them.
But images of God the Father were not directly addressed in Constantinople in 869. A list of permitted icons was enumerated at this Council, but symbols of God the Father were not among them.[113] However, the general acceptance of icons and holy images began to create an atmosphere in which God the Father could be symbolized.
Prior to the 10th century no attempt was made to use a human to symbolize God the Father in Western art.[104] Yet, Western art eventually required some way to illustrate the presence of the Father, so through successive representations a set of artistic styles for symbolizing the Father using a man gradually emerged around the 10th century AD. A rationale for the use of a human is the belief that God created the soul of Man in the image of His own (thus allowing Human to transcend the other animals).
It appears that when early artists designed to represent God the Father, fear and awe restrained them from a usage of the whole human figure. Typically only a small part would be used as the image, usually the hand, or sometimes the face, but rarely a whole human. In many images, the figure of the Son supplants the Father, so a smaller portion of the person of the Father is depicted.[114]
By the 12th century depictions of God the Father had started to appear in French illuminated manuscripts, which as a less public form could often be more adventurous in their iconography, and in stained glass church windows in England. Initially the head or bust was usually shown in some form of frame of clouds in the top of the picture space, where the Hand of God had formerly appeared; the Baptism of Christ on the famous baptismal font in Liège of Rainer of Huy is an example from 1118 (a Hand of God is used in another scene). Gradually the amount of the human symbol shown can increase to a half-length figure, then a full-length, usually enthroned, as in Giotto's fresco of c. 1305 in Padua.[115] In the 14th century the Naples Bible carried a depiction of God the Father in the Burning bush. By the early 15th century, the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry has a considerable number of symbols, including an elderly but tall and elegant full-length figure walking in the Garden of Eden, which show a considerable diversity of apparent ages and dress. The "Gates of Paradise" of the Florence Baptistry by Lorenzo Ghiberti, begun in 1425 use a similar tall full-length symbol for the Father. The Rohan Book of Hours of about 1430 also included depictions of God the Father in half-length human form, which were now becoming standard, and the Hand of God becoming rarer. At the same period other works, like the large Genesis altarpiece by the Hamburg painter Meister Bertram, continued to use the old depiction of Christ as Logos in Genesis scenes. In the 15th century there was a brief fashion for depicting all three persons of the Trinity as similar or identical figures with the usual appearance of Christ.
In an early Venetian school Coronation of the Virgin by Giovanni d'Alemagna and Antonio Vivarini, (c. 1443) The Father is depicted using the symbol consistently used by other artists later, namely a patriarch, with benign, yet powerful countenance and with long white hair and a beard, a depiction largely derived from, and justified by, the near-physical, but still figurative, description of the Ancient of Days.[116]
. ...the Ancient of Days did sit, whose garment was white as snow, and the hair of his head like the pure wool: his throne was like the fiery flame, and his wheels as burning fire. (Daniel 7:9)
Usage of two Hands of God"(relatively unusual) and the Holy Spirit as a dove in Baptism of Christ, by Verrocchio, 1472
In the Annunciation by Benvenuto di Giovanni in 1470, God the Father is portrayed in the red robe and a hat that resembles that of a Cardinal. However, even in the later part of the 15th century, the symbolic representation of the Father and the Holy Spirit as "hands and dove" continued, e.g. in Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ in 1472.[117]
God the Father with His Right Hand Raised in Blessing, with a triangular halo representing the Trinity, Girolamo dai Libri c. 1555
In Renaissance paintings of the adoration of the Trinity, God may be depicted in two ways, either with emphasis on The Father, or the three elements of the Trinity. The most usual depiction of the Trinity in Renaissance art depicts God the Father using an old man, usually with a long beard and patriarchal in appearance, sometimes with a triangular halo (as a reference to the Trinity), or with a papal crown, specially in Northern Renaissance painting. In these depictions The Father may hold a globe or book (to symbolize God's knowledge and as a reference to how knowledge is deemed divine). He is behind and above Christ on the Cross in the Throne of Mercy iconography. A dove, the symbol of the Holy Spirit may hover above. Various people from different classes of society, e.g. kings, popes or martyrs may be present in the picture. In a Trinitarian Pietà, God the Father is often symbolized using a man wearing a papal dress and a papal crown, supporting the dead Christ in his arms. They are depicted as floating in heaven with angels who carry the instruments of the Passion.[118]
Representations of God the Father and the Trinity were attacked both by Protestants and within Catholicism, by the Jansenist and Baianist movements as well as more orthodox theologians. As with other attacks on Catholic imagery, this had the effect both of reducing Church support for the less central depictions, and strengthening it for the core ones. In the Western Church, the pressure to restrain religious imagery resulted in the highly influential decrees of the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563. The Council of Trent decrees confirmed the traditional Catholic doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person, not the image.[119]
Artistic depictions of God the Father were uncontroversial in Catholic art thereafter, but less common depictions of the Trinity were condemned. In 1745 Pope Benedict XIV explicitly supported the Throne of Mercy depiction, referring to the "Ancient of Days", but in 1786 it was still necessary for Pope Pius VI to issue a papal bull condemning the decision of an Italian church council to remove all images of the Trinity from churches.[120]
The famous The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo, c.1512
God the Father is symbolized in several Genesis scenes in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling, most famously The Creation of Adam (whose image of near touching hands of God and Adam is iconic of humanity, being a reminder that Man is created in the Image and Likeness of God (Gen 1:26)).God the Father is depicted as a powerful figure, floating in the clouds in Titian's Assumption of the Virgin in the Frari of Venice, long admired as a masterpiece of High Renaissance art.[121] The Church of the Gesù in Rome includes a number of 16th century depictions of God the Father. In some of these paintings the Trinity is still alluded to in terms of three angels, but Giovanni Battista Fiammeri also depicted God the Father as a man riding on a cloud, above the scenes.[122]
In both the Last Judgment and the Coronation of the Virgin paintings by Rubens he depicted God the Father using the image that by then had become widely accepted, a bearded patriarchal figure above the fray. In the 17th century, the two Spanish artists Velázquez (whose father-in-law Francisco Pacheco was in charge of the approval of new images for the Inquisition) and Murillo both depicted God the Father using a patriarchal figure with a white beard in a purple robe.
The Ancient of Days (1794) Watercolor etching by William Blake
While representations of God the Father were growing in Italy, Spain, Germany and the Low Countries, there was resistance elsewhere in Europe, even during the 17th century. In 1632 most members of the Star Chamber court in England (except the Archbishop of York) condemned the use of the images of the Trinity in church windows, and some considered them illegal.[123] Later in the 17th century Sir Thomas Browne wrote that he considered the representation of God the Father using an old man "a dangerous act" that might lead to Egyptian symbolism.[124] In 1847, Charles Winston was still critical of such images as a "Romish trend" (a term used to refer to Roman Catholics) that he considered best avoided in England.[125]
In 1667 the 43rd chapter of the Great Moscow Council specifically included a ban on a number of symbolic depictions of God the Father and the Holy Spirit, which then also resulted in a whole range of other icons being placed on the forbidden list,[126][127] mostly affecting Western-style depictions which had been gaining ground in Orthodox icons. The Council also declared that the person of the Trinity who was the "Ancient of Days" was Christ, as Logos, not God the Father. However some icons continued to be produced in Russia, as well as Greece, Romania, and other Orthodox countries.
Theological approaches
Theologians and philosophers have attributed to God such characteristics as omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, perfect goodness, divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. God has been described as incorporeal, a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable being existent.[3] These attributes were all claimed to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars, including Maimonides,[53] St Augustine,[53] and Al-Ghazali.[128]
Many philosophers developed arguments for the existence of God,[8] while attempting to comprehend the precise implications of God's attributes. Reconciling some of those attributes generated important philosophical problems and debates. For example, God's omniscience may seem to imply that God knows how free agents will choose to act. If God does know this, their ostensible free will might be illusory, or foreknowledge does not imply predestination, and if God does not know it, God may not be omniscient.[129]
However, if by its essential nature, free will is not predetermined, then the effect of its will can never be perfectly predicted by anyone, regardless of intelligence and knowledge. Although knowledge of the options presented to that will, combined with perfectly infinite intelligence, could be said to provide God with omniscience if omniscience is defined as knowledge or understanding of all that is.
The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous questions regarding the arguments for God's existence raised by such philosophers as Immanuel Kant, David Hume and Antony Flew, although Kant held that the argument from morality was valid. The theist response has been either to contend, as does Alvin Plantinga, that faith is "properly basic", or to take, as does Richard Swinburne, the evidentialist position.[130] Some theists agree that only some of the arguments for God's existence are compelling, but argue that faith is not a product of reason, but requires risk. There would be no risk, they say, if the arguments for God's existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position summed up by Pascal as "the heart has reasons of which reason does not know."[131] A recent theory using concepts from physics and neurophysiology proposes that God can be conceptualized within the theory of integrative level.[132]
Many religious believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings such as angels, saints, jinn, demons, and devas.[133][134][135][136][137]
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Johnny played to the crowds for laughs. It was a totally spontaneous characteristic, never rehearsed or forced, he had a natural talent for gaining a person's confidence and reeling them in, a devine gift for making observations and spitting them back out like a spent force. Everyone loved Johnny, they couldn't help but fall for his cheeky face and smiling eyes, the bold bravado and sense of assurance and self confidence that won over hearts and minds with consummate ease. I don't think I ever really hated him. Fear is separate from hatred, don't you think? I guess I always looked up to him being my older brother and all. Seven years the difference between us, he the strong one, me the ghost. Everybody loved Johnny.
In the summer of sixty four I entered the world, a tiny bundle of unplanned flesh and bones, pissing and screaming as the midwife handed me to my tired and emotional mother, laying me across her chest, beneath her sweaty facial features and red eyes, exhausted from all of the pushing and cursing that accompanied my less than text book birth. I don't think my mother ever truly forgave me for the scalpel blade that ripped at her flesh, the stitches that scarred her delicate abdomen or the invasive hands and suction cup that pulled for all it's worth to spin me around and retrieve me from her womb. It was raining when I was born. Five twenty five in the afternoon on January fourteenth, a violent storm lashing the pretty little village and it's cowering inhabitants as my father stayed away, preferring instead the comfort of the four walls of his workplace. Men were different back then, times were too. Childbirth was women's work, and husbands didn't need to be holding their wives hands and sobbing like a baby down at the business end of things, in touch with heir feminine sides as perhaps they need to be these days. At least hat's what my father would have me believe back then. Naturally I don't recall the events of my birth, I mean who would, these are the details that were subsequently given to me as I progressed through my happy childhood in the countryside that was to shape and protect me through my formative years.
My parents only wanted the one child, and in Johnny they had found the perfect son to mould into a mini-me of my proud and studious father. An heir to the family business, a gold painted addition to the 'J.S Lane & son' sign writing above my fathers humble little watch and clock repair empire, he was doted on, loved and adored. Then I guess I had to come along and throw a spanner in the proverbial works. A vacation to Paris, family unity, love in the air and a little caution thrown to the wind. or else some rogue birth control pills that were ineffectual. My childhood was normal enough, and my parents never once uttered a single word of disappointment in me, it was more in their actions and glances exchanged, my father never a man for any form of bodily contact being old school, army type, stiff upper lip and arms tucked behind his back as he faced the wall, his stern words rebounding off the garish wallpaper when he admonished me. And that seemed to happen a lot as I recall. You know, I can honestly say that I don't recall a single occasion that my father kissed me as a child, nor held me in a chance embrace, or called me 'son'. A second child just was not on the agenda, plans altered, the harmony unbalanced, the sibling rivalry to the fore.
Johnny hated me with a passion, though I always looked up to him and hoped that one day we would become good friends and myself something more than a punch bag both physically and emotionally. I was the butt of his jokes and a source for constant humiliation at school when he'd be sent to collect me each afternoon. I was his little puppet, and try as I might, I never quite managed to alter his, or my parents feelings towards me. I never wanted any part of the family business. If the truth be told I couldn't stand the musty smell of the old shop front, all those antique cuckoo clocks and Seiko watches that lined the cabinets like an army of soldiers and my father sitting at his desk beneath the light, looking old before his time as he sucked on a pipe filled with Old Holborn tobacco that rose into the air in plumes of chocking smoke. I'd be taken there after school and made to wait until closing time before we could al head home for tea, my brother full of life and cracking jokes, the bond between he and my father so evident and unbreakable. Was I jealous? I don't know that I'd describe my feelings as such. I felt left out, an outsider to the family, as though it was my fault that I had been born, a threat to the macho understanding of a father and his first born son. I was almost a rival to their love and Johnny always made sure that I was kept at arms length.
My only comfort was living life by the seafront that captivated my eyes and soul, seduced me with it's beauty and magnificence and offered me a safe haven in the form of a giant cave that only I knew existed. Accessible at high tide with my little wooden rowing boat, the soft sand welcomed me inside to a further stretch of dark seawater into which one day I dived headlong in the name of curiosity, taken to an underwater world of spider crabs and seaweed and up into a recessed cavern that became the focal point of my childhood pleasure. Away from Jonny I was king to rule, my own secret hideaway that even he could not contaminate nor destroy. The seventies were fun for me, safer days, less red tape and warning signs, protocol and health and safety doctrines to prevent me from having some fun. Gawdy tank tops that were worse than something your own grandmother would knit, seventeen and twenty one inch flared jeans and platform shoes. I didn't ask for much from life. I was truly happy there in my cave capturing seashells, writing my name on the walls, being free of the stigma and shackles of my family life. Seventy three and David Bowie was in the charts with 'Life on Mars' reissued on orange labelled RCA vinyl from 'Hunky Dory' a couple of years earlier. I can recall the excitement of each new single he released and the aroma of the freshly cut vinyl. I used to grab the Hoover and sing into the handle, miming badly, just a stupid nine year old doing dumb assed things. Johnny, aged sixteen, now spent most of his time at he shop, attending to the jobs that my father gave to him whilst Mother worked part time at the local Infant school to break the tedium of her monotonous existence, taking crafty G&T's each afternoon from the Gordon's bottle hidden oh so neatly behind the front room book cabinet in the little darkened recess, and flirting for attention with the PE teacher at the school.
The beatings continued along with the humiliation and name calling and Johnny always came out of any shit he landed in, smelling sweetly of roses, whilst I could do no right, it seemed at the time. But I had my cave and my little boat, and trinkets that I had moved there in sealed plastic bags that made my cave feel personal and home. But things can change in the blink of an eye I guess. What once seemed rock solid and so exquisitely personal can be laid bare, ruined, broken up in front of you in the blink of an eye, and I should have know that my big brother would seek to dominate and destroy all that I held secret and dear even though he had everything in life that he could possibly desire, including a stupid sibling as his fall guy.
Standing here now, almost forty years after the events of that fateful day, eyes surveying the confines of the outer section of my little cave with the same wonderment and wide eyes excitement as back then when I was no more than a snotty kid, I feel a certain numbness to the whole sequence of events, a detachment from reality almost as deep and abiding as the attachment I felt with my own family as I grew to dislike and despise them for how they treated me. Resigned acceptance, belligerent disregard, blatant indifference and the turning of the cheek to my requests to be heard, to be loved, to be wanted. I'm transported back to August 25th nineteen seventy three, me in my polkadot swimming trunks, standing here with Johnny ahead of me laughing and teasing me, aggressive stance and hands that slapped my face so hard I think I can still feel the sting, even now. He'd followed me and discovered my secret and now sought to destroy everything that was precious to me. I screamed in pain, tears streaming down my face, yelling that he'd never get to my comfort spot as I dived into the water and began to navigate the precarious channel through the rocks that lead to my personal Utopia of sand and memories.
Precarious, yes. But not to the sinuous flesh of a nine year old who had made that perilous journey through the seaweed that grappled and grabbed at my ankles each and every time, and the sharp bend in the jagged rocks where I almost turned back on myself and down through a gulley to the light of the cave end. The as larger framed and older boy with a lack of navigational skills, such distractions might snag and obscure, a t-shirt might perhaps snag on a jutting rock, and air and water mingle and mix in lungs that were ill prepared for being immersed so long as limbs flailed and tried desperately to free themselves.
I never really meant to cause Johnny any real harm. Nor did I actually kill him. The water did that as his lungs filled and he swallowed more than he could expel, nostrils drowning as his eyes bulged and his body became lifeless as it was impaled upon the gulley, a host of spider crabs witness to his final demise, the final crowd of crustaceans that he played out to. A terrible accident, a fluke as two brothers played in a cave, a distraught father who's entire world came crashing down around him that glorious August day and a mother too drunk and scented in sex as she lay in the arms of her lover to comprehend the death of her beloved eldest son until she'd sobered up well enough to grieve and realise just how little she liked this mess of a life.
Forty seven and lined with life's journey on these feature both physically and emotionally. This homecoming is of pleasure and pain as I retrace the footsteps of my childhood to this little cave that saved me from the madness and delivered me from the pain of life itself. The little shop has long since gone, changed hands, façade repainted, wood replaced with double glazing and plastic and now a boutique selling hand mad flower power bags that hark back to the era of my birth. My parents are marked by respectful headstones though I only visited once, maybe twice. Flowers for the dead seems such a waste of beauty and life to me, and it's not as though they get the benefit of the damn things, is it. The water still sits in the rear of the cave, and I have half a mind to dive in and swim through that gulley to remember my past, but I know that these old limbs would struggle somewhat these days. Times change, memories soften and the bitterness and acrimonious feelings are eroded like the sea to jagged rock faces, all smoothed and appealing.
I smile wryly as I recount the events that fateful day. Yeah, sure, fate played her part all right, and I'm grateful to her for my salvation. You know, Johnny played to the crowds, and then some. He could have had it all if not for his greed and insecurities, his hatred of the runt created in the heat of a passion that was a lie, so shallow and unworthy of his cruellest intentions. And me? I'm all grown up and doing just fine now with the money salvaged from the sale of the family business, a wife and kids who love me and I love back in oceans of touch and words. Just look at that little runt now.........
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Written April 11th 2011
Photograph taken on April 10th 2011 in Botany Bay, Broadstairs, Kent, England
Nikon D700 14mm 1/100s f/16.0 iso200
Nikkor AF-S 14-24mm f/2.8G ED IF, UV filter
Merton begins this transitional section by clearly indicating that while vows are an essential element of religious profession, they are not the only or even the most important dimension of that profession. First in significance is the commitment to ongoing conversion, to “putting on” Christ, to following Christ, to sharing in the mystery of Christ. Then comes incorporation into the religious community, to be understood not just in a juridical context, as a contractual arrangement, but as participation in a supernatural family that is a manifestation of Trinitarian mutual love. “In this society of love,” Merton writes, “what matters is not the assertion of rights and the enforcement of obligations, but mutual trust and love” (157), which should then radiate out from the community to embrace the entire Church. Without this family spirit, religious life is reduced to “organized hypocrisy” (158). Consecration to God by vow is thus “but the third in importance of the three essential elements of religious profession” (158).
Merton then goes on to consider the nature of religious profession in general and of making vows in particular from both canonical and theological perspectives. The validity of profession depends on the fulfillment of various external factors (age, valid novitiate, explicit public declaration, etc.) but most fundamentally on free and full consent. The theological foundation of profession, traced through the successive diverse acts that constitute consent according to Thomistic analysis, is the will to obligate oneself, the free decision of the entire person, involving intelligence, senses and emotions, and the will. Thus to make a vow is not to renounce one’s freedom but to exercise it in an act of worship, the definitive offering of oneself to God. “Only to such a One can we give our liberty without debasing it. Only to such a One can we give our liberty and become yet more free by doing so” (185).
-The life of the vows : initiation into the monastic tradition 6 / by Thomas Merton ; edited with an introduction by Patrick F. O’Connell ; preface by Augustine Roberts.