Mars' tiny moon Deimos in the skies over Arabia Terra, imaged by Viking Orbiter 1 on January 2, 1978. This image was made possible by the spacecraft's highly elongated orbit, which took it well above Deimos' orbital altitude of 23,500 km. Image sets like this helped track the long-term orbital motion of Deimos, as the exact location of the spacecraft was known at all times, allowing Deimos' position to be calculated through trigonometry.

 

This was a single-color observation, with imaging data only collected using red light. I have artificially colorized this image using a process to estimate Mars' appearance in blue and green light from the spectral properties of the light and dark and materials.

 

Image Credit: NASA / JPL / USGS / Aster Cowart

Large Size on Black at: 'My neck hurts, he mutters, quickly realizing a critical trigonometry miscalculation' On Black

From Stuck In Customs www.stuckincustoms.com

Kangchenjunga (Nepali: कञ्चनजङ्घा; Hindi: कंचनजंघा; Sikkimese: ཁང་ཅེན་ཛོཾག་), also spelled Kanchenjunga, is the third highest mountain in the world, and lies partly in Nepal and partly in Sikkim, India.[3] It rises with an elevation of 8,586 m (28,169 ft) in a section of the Himalayas called Kangchenjunga Himal that is limited in the west by the Tamur River, in the north by the Lhonak Chu and Jongsang La, and in the east by the Teesta River.[1]

 

Mount Kangchenjunga lies about 125 km (78 mi) east-south-east of Mount Everest.[4] It is the second highest mountain of the Himalayas. Three of the five peaks – Main, Central and South – are on the border between North Sikkim and Nepal.[5] Two peaks are in Nepal's Taplejung District.[6]

 

Kangchenjunga Main is the highest mountain in India, and the easternmost of the mountains higher than 8,000 m (26,000 ft). It is called Five Treasures of Snow after its five high peaks, and has always been worshipped by the people of Darjeeling and Sikkim.[7]

 

Until 1852, Kangchenjunga was assumed to be the highest mountain in the world, but calculations based on various readings and measurements made by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India in 1849 came to the conclusion that Mount Everest, known as Peak XV at the time, was the highest. Allowing for further verification of all calculations, it was officially announced in 1856 that Kangchenjunga is the third highest mountain in the world.[8]

 

Kangchenjunga was first climbed on 25 May 1955 by Joe Brown and George Band, who were part of a British expedition. They stopped short of the summit as per the promise given to the Chogyal that the top of the mountain would remain inviolate. Every climber or climbing group that has reached the summit has followed this tradition.[7] Other members of this expedition included John Angelo Jackson and Tom Mackinon.[9]

  

geometry

Warm yellow shot back from the times where snow was not an issue and the burning august sun painted shadows on a basket ball field in Hamburg Hafencity...

Leica M6 TTL 2.0/35mm Summicron (I)

Fuji Superia 200 (C-41)

Epson 700 (scan from negative)

Windsor (/ˈwɪnzər/) is a town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British Royal Family.

 

The town is situated 23 miles (37 km) west of Charing Cross, London. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with Eton. The village of Old Windsor, just over 2 miles (3 km) to the south, predates what is now called Windsor by around 300 years; in the past Windsor was formally referred to as New Windsor to distinguish the two.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

  

The Last Supper by Franz de Cleyn in the West Gallery of Windsor parish church of St John The Baptist.[3]

New Windsor was a nationally significant town in the Middle Ages, certainly one of the fifty wealthiest towns in the country by 1332. Its prosperity came from its close association with the royal household. The repeated investment in the castle brought London merchants (goldsmiths, vintners, spicers and mercers) to the town in the late 13th century and provided much employment for townsmen. The development of the castle under Edward III, between 1350–68, was the largest secular building project in England of the Middle Ages, and many Windsor people worked on this project, again bringing great wealth to the town. Although the Black Death in 1348 had reduced some towns' populations by up to 50%, in Windsor the building projects of Edward III brought money to the town, and possibly its population doubled: this was a 'boom' time for the local economy. People came to the town from every part of the country, and from continental Europe. The poet Geoffrey Chaucerheld the honorific post of 'Clerk of the Works' at Windsor Castle in 1391.

 

The development of the castle continued in the late 15th century with the rebuilding of St George's Chapel. With this Windsor became a major pilgrimage destination, particularly for Londoners. Pilgrims came to touch the royal shrine of the murdered Henry VI, the fragment of the True Cross and other important relics. Visits to the chapel were probably combined with a visit to the important nearby Marian shrine and college at Eton, founded by Henry VI in 1440, and dedicated to the Assumption; which is now better known as Eton College. Pilgrims came with substantial sums to spend. From perhaps two or three named inns in the late 15th century, some 30 can be identified a century later. The town again grew in wealth. For London pilgrims, Windsor was probably – but briefly – of greater importance than Canterbury and the shrine of the City's patron Saint Thomas Becket. With the closures of the Reformation, however, Windsor's pilgrim traffic died out. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in 1547, next to Jane Seymour, the mother of his only legitimate son, Edward (Edward VI). Henry, the founder of the Church of England, may have wanted to benefit from the stream of Catholic pilgrims coming to the town. His will gives that impression.

 

The town began to stagnate about ten years after the Reformation. The castle was considered old-fashioned and shrines to the dead were thought to be superstitious. The early modern period formed a stark contrast to the medieval history of the town. Most accounts of Windsor in the 16th and 17th centuries talk of its poverty, badly made streets and poor housing. Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Windsor is set in Windsor and contains many references to parts of the town and the surrounding countryside. Shakespeare must have walked the town's streets, near the castle and river, much as people still do. The play may have been written in the Garter Inn, opposite the Castle, but this was destroyed by fire in the late 17th century. The long-standing – and famous – courtesan of king Charles II, Nell Gwyn, was given a house on St Albans Street: Burford House (now part of the Royal Mews). Her residence in this house, as far as it is possible to tell, was brief. Only one of her letters addressed from Burford House survives: it was probably intended as a legacy for her illegitimate son, the Earl of Burford, later the Duke of St Albans.

 

Windsor was garrisoned by Colonel Venn during the English Civil War. Later it became the home of the New Model Army when Venn had left the castle in 1645. Despite its royal dependence, like many commercial centres, Windsor was a Parliamentarian town. Charles Iwas buried without ceremony in St George's Chapel after his execution at Whitehall in 1649. The present Guildhall, built in 1680–91, replaced an earlier market house that had been built on the same site around 1580, as well as the old guildhall, which faced the castle and had been built around 1350. The contraction in the number of old public buildings speaks of a town 'clearing the decks', ready for a renewed period of prosperity with Charles II's return to the Castle. But his successors did not use the place, and as the town was short of money, the planned new civic buildings did not appear. The town continued in poverty until the mid 19th century.

 

In 1652 the largest house in Windsor Great Park was built on land which Oliver Cromwell had appropriated from the Crown. Now known as Cumberland Lodge after the Duke of Cumberland's residence there in the mid 18th century, the house was variously known as Byfield House, New Lodge, Ranger's Lodge, Windsor Lodge and Great Lodge.

 

In 1778, there was a resumption of the royal presence, with George III at the Queen's Lodge and, from 1804, at the castle. This started a period of new development in Windsor, with the building of two army barracks. However the associated large numbers of soldiers led to a major prostitution problem by 1830, in a town where the number of streets had little changed since 1530. In the 18th c. the town traded with London selling the Windsor Chair which was actually made in Buckinghamshire.

 

A number of fine houses were built in this period, including Hadleigh House on Sheet Street, which was built in 1793 by the then Mayor of Windsor, William Thomas. In 1811 it was the home of John O'Reilly, the apothecary-surgeon to George III.

 

Windsor Castle was the westernmost sighting-point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which measured the precise distance between the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory by trigonometry. Windsor was used because of its relative proximity to the base-line of the survey at Hounslow Heath.

 

The substantial redevelopment of the castle in the subsequent decade and Queen Victoria's residence from 1840, as well as the coming of two railways in 1849, signalled the most dramatic changes in the town's history. These events catapulted the town from a sleepy medieval has-been to the centre of empire – many European crowned heads of state came to Windsor to visit the Queen throughout the rest of the 19th century. Unfortunately, excessive redevelopment and 'refurbishment' of Windsor's medieval fabric at this time resulted in widespread destruction of the old town, including the demolition of the old parish church of St John the Baptist in 1820. The original had been built around 1135.

 

Most of the current town's streets date from the mid to late 19th century.[5] However the main street, Peascod Street (pronunciation: /ˈpɛskɒd/) is very ancient, predating the castle by many years, and probably of Saxon origin. It formed part of the 10th-century parish structure in east Berkshire[citation needed] and is first referred to as Peascroftstret in c. 1170. The 1000-year-old royal Castle, although the largest and longest-occupied in Europe, is a recent development in comparison. "New Windsor" was officially renamed "Windsor" in 1974.

 

is accessible from Junction 6 of the M4 and from Slough via a 3 mile long dual carriageway. Bus services in the town are mostly provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, although a park-and-rideservice and one local route are operated by Courtney Coaches.

 

Windsor has two railway stations. Windsor & Eton Central railway station has a shuttle service to Slough. Windsor & Eton Riverside station provides a service to London Waterloo. Both stations were time in the 19th century, as the two train companies which owned the lines both wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege.[8] From 1883 to 1885, the London Underground's District line's westbound service ran as far as Windsor.

 

Windsor has frequent bus services to/from London Heathrow Airport, Victoria Coach Station in central London and Legoland Windsor Resort.

  

en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Berkshire

  

Rime ice clings to a trig beacon at Mt Holdsworth after a winter storm. At 1470 m, this is one of the higher, yet more accessible peaks in the Tararua Range. The beacon itself is about 4 m tall.

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Mount Trickett is a mountain located on the Great Dividing Range six kilometres west of Jenolan Caves and can be seen from the nearby Jenolan-Oberon Road. The 'summit' or the area generally known as Mount Trickett is topped by a high tower, and stands over 500 metres above Jenolan Caves in the valley below. The tower location (around 1349m and called "The Porcupine") is not actually Mount Trickett or indeed the highest point. The true location of Mount Trickett is approximately 800 metres further west along Edith road where it reaches an altitude of 1362 metres.

 

Snowfalls are relatively common on Mount Trickett from autumn through to spring with perhaps ten to fifteen falls per season. Five or six of these snowfalls are typically heavy enough to close the roads near the summit. Icy roads during the colder months can also make travel in the area hazardous although it is usually navigable by 2WD vehicles. Particularly strong cold outbreaks make an approach from the Jenolan Caves side quite risky and the Oberon road is preferred. There is a non-descript gravel turnoff that leads you to a brick building at the summit with a sign that says "Navigational Facility".

 

Mount Trickett may have been named after Oliver Trickett, as he visited Jenolan Caves and was a surveyor for the NSW Department of Lands. There are no survey control marks (including trigonometrical stations) located at the summit of Mount Trickett.

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Wilpena Pound.

For this northern latitude Wilpena Pound has good rainfall and a microclimate because of the surrounding hills. It was always a special place for Aboriginal people and a prized location for sheep pastoralists. At Cradock they average 250 mms annually, Hawker rises to 300 mm and Wilpena has 390 mms (15 inches in the old rainfall). Further north at Marree the average is just 136 mm a year. Wilpena Creek flows out of the Pound which covers 80 square kilometres (20,000 acres). It is 6 kms wide and 16 kms long and its highest surrounding peak is Mt Mary at 1,171 m or 3,842 feet. In 1840 Edward John Eyre and others explored parts of the Flinders Ranges but they did not discover Wilpena Pound. That was achieved by C Bagot in 1851. Bagot said in the press that there was only one ingress or egress to flat land with a permanent running creek suitable for depasturing 500 cattle. This plain was surrounded by steep rocky walls up to 1,000 feet high. The government responded by immediately sending Mr Burr of the Survey Office to the Pound for a trigonometrical survey in June 1851. Bagot gave it its Aboriginal name. The furthest north leasehold run in 1851 was at Kanyaka between Quorn and Hawker. The Wilpena run was also taken out in 1851 and originally covered 850 square miles but that was soon reduced into other leaseholds. Drs William and John Browne took over the Wilpena leasehold and by 1853 the pine slab homestead was built (demolished 1931) and shearing sheds and workers cottages soon followed. George Marchant got a 14 year lease of 85 square miles on 1 January 1855. In 1857 he employed a manager Charles Powell, whose father had planted the first mulberry tree at Kingscote in 1836, and he stayed at Wilpena station until 1882 but with various owners. By 1860 Dr William Browne held Wilpena run and he sold off the Arkaba section in 1863 before the big drought. By 1861 Henry Strong Price owned the leasehold which he tried to sell but could find no buyer. A report on Wilpena in 1865 says it covered 154 square miles and employed 19 married men and their wives, 24 single men and 41 children making a total of 101 people. Later in the 19th century Dr William Browne owned Wilpena again and the government resumed most of it in January 1880. Tourism came to Wilpena Pound in 1920 when the Wilpena Forest Reserve was created but the run was leased to graziers until 1945. At that time the Rasheed family established the chalet and all grazing in the Pound ceased. In 1970 the adjoining Orraparinna station was purchased by the government to create Flinders Ranges National Park. Finally in 1985 the government bought the leasehold to Wilpena station to add to the park. Its name was changed from Flinders National Park to Ikara Flinders National Park in 2016 thus incorporating, an Adnyamathanha word from the traditional land occupiers, into the title. The Adnyamathanha people and their sub clans have been in the area for around 15,000 years.

The Pound is a natural amphitheatre with Rawnsley Bluff at the southern end (he was the surveyor of runs in the 1850s). The Pound has a fascinating geomorphological structure. The landscape here was deeply folded with synclines and anticlines. Synclines are downward folds of earth layers with a trough at the bottom i.e. Wilpena Pound. Anticlines are the peaks of the layers but in the Flinders Ranges the anticlines have been eroded away over vast geological eras leaving rugged edges above the synclines or troughs. The trough of Wilpena Pound has a layer of quartzite, then other layers beneath that. The end of the anticline from the western side of the Pound is the Elder Range. The true shape of the formation reveals itself from the air.

 

Narayanganj, Bangladesh.

  

You are invited....

Far from the urban chaos....deep inside the rustic rhythm.

 

Captured from Boidder bazar, Narayanganj, Bangladesh.

  

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Calais (/ˈkæleɪ/ cal-ay, traditionally /ˈkælɨs/; French pronunciation: ​[kaˈlɛ]; Picard: Calés; Dutch: Kales) is a town and major ferry port in northern France in the department of Pas-de-Calais, of which it is a sub-prefecture. Although Calais is by far the largest city in Pas-de-Calais, the department's prefecture is its third-largest city of Arras. The population of the metropolitan area at the 2010 census was 126,395. Calais overlooks the Strait of Dover, the narrowest point in the English Channel, which is only 34 km (21 mi) wide here, and is the closest French town to England. The White Cliffs of Dover can easily be seen on a clear day from Calais. Calais is a major port for ferries between France and England, and since 1994, the Channel Tunnel has linked nearby Coquelles to Folkestone by rail.

 

Due to its position, Calais since the Middle Ages has been a major port and a very important centre for transport and trading with England. It was annexed by Edward III of England in 1347 and grew into a thriving centre for wool production. Calais was a territorial possession of England until its capture by France in 1558. The town came to be called the "brightest jewel in the English crown" owing to its great importance as the gateway for the tin, lead, lace and wool trades (or "staples"). In 1805 it was a staging area for Napoleon's troops for several months during his planned invasion of the United Kingdom. The town was virtually razed to the ground during World War II, when in May 1940, it was a strategic bombing target of the invading German forces who took the town during the Siege of Calais. During World War II, the Germans built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on England.

 

The old part of the town, Calais proper (known as Calais-Nord), is situated on an artificial island surrounded by canals and harbours. The modern part of the town, St-Pierre, lies to the south and south-east. In the centre of the old town is the Place d'Armes, in which stands the Tour du Guet, or watch-tower, a structure built in the 13th century, which was used as a lighthouse until 1848 when a new lighthouse was built by the port. South east of the Place is the church of Notre-Dame, built during the English occupancy of Calais. It is arguably the only church built in the English perpendicular style in all of France. In this church former French President Charles de Gaulle married his wife Yvonne Vendroux. South of the Place and opposite the Parc St Pierre is the Hôtel-de-ville (the town hall), and the belfry from the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today, Calais is visited by more than 10 million annually. Aside from being a key transport hub, Calais is also a notable fishing port and a centre for fish marketing, and some 3,000 people are still employed in the lace industry for which the town is also famed.

 

History

Early history

Although the early history of habitation in the area is limited, the Romans called the settlement Caletum. Julius Caesar mustered 800 to 1,000 sailing boats, five legions and some 2,000 horses at Calais due to its strategic position to attack Britannia.[1] At some time prior to the 10th century, it would have been a fishing village on a sandy beach backed by pebbles and a creek,[2] with a natural harbour[3] located at the western edge of the early medieval estuary of the River Aa. As the pebble and sand ridge extended eastward from Calais, the haven behind it developed into fen, as the estuary progressively filled with silt and peat. Subsequently, canals were cut between Saint-Omer, the trading centre formerly at the head of the estuary, and three places to the west, centre and east on the newly formed coast: respectively Calais, Gravelines and Dunkirk.[4] Calais was improved by the Count of Flanders in 997 and fortified by the Count of Boulogne in 1224.[1][3]

 

The first document mentioning the existence of this community is the town charter granted by Mathieu d'Alsace in 1181 to Gerard de Guelders, Count of Boulogne; Calais thus became part of the county of Boulogne.[1][5] In 1189, Richard the Lionheart is documented to have landed at Calais on his journey to the Third Crusade.[1] In medieval times, the settlement was inhabited by people who spoke Dutch, and who called it Kales.[citation needed] It is mentioned in Welsh documents as Caled, in Irish documents as Calad and in Breton documents as Kaled.

 

English wool trade interests and King Edward III's claims to be heir to the Kingdom of France led to the Battle of Crécy between England and France in 1346,[6] followed by Edward's siege and capture of Calais in 1347.[7] Angered, the English king demanded reprisals against the town's citizens for holding out for so long and ordered that the town's population be killed en masse. He agreed, however, to spare them, on condition that six of the principal citizens would come to him, bareheaded and barefooted and with ropes around their necks, and give themselves up to death.[8] On their arrival he ordered their execution, but pardoned them when his queen, Philippa of Hainault, begged him to spare their lives.[9][10] This event is commemorated in The Burghers of Calais (Les Bourgeois de Calais), one of the most famous sculptures by Auguste Rodin, erected in the city in 1895.[11] Though sparing the lives of the delegation members, King Edward drove out most of the French inhabitants, and settled the town with English. The municipal charter of Calais, previously granted by the Countess of Artois, was reconfirmed by Edward that year (1347).[12]

  

In 1360 the Treaty of Brétigny assigned Guînes, Marck and Calais—collectively the "Pale of Calais"—to English rule in perpetuity, but this assignment was informally and only partially implemented.[13] On 9 February 1363 the town was made a staple port.[14] It had by 1372 become a parliamentary borough sending burgesses to the House of Commons of the Parliament of England.[15] It remained part of the Diocese of Thérouanne from 1379, keeping an ecclesiastical tie with France.[16]

 

The town came to be called the "brightest jewel in the English crown" owing to its great importance as the gateway for the tin, lead, cloth and wool trades (or "staples").[17] Its customs revenues amounted at times to a third of the English government's revenue, with wool being the most important element by far. Of its population of about 12,000 people, as many as 5,400 were recorded as having been connected with the wool trade. The governorship or Captaincy of Calais was a lucrative and highly prized public office; the famous Dick Whittington was simultaneously Lord Mayor of the City of London and Mayor of the Staple in 1407.[18]

  

Calais was regarded for many years as being an integral part of the Kingdom of England, with its representatives sitting in the English Parliament. The continued English hold on Calais however depended on expensively maintained fortifications, as the town lacked any natural defences. Maintaining Calais was a costly business that was frequently tested by the forces of France and the Duchy of Burgundy, with the Franco-Burgundian border running nearby.[19] The British historian Geoffrey Elton once remarked "Calais—expensive and useless—was better lost than kept".[20] The duration of the English hold over Calais was, to a large extent, the result of the feud between Burgundy and France, under which both sides coveted the town, but preferred to see it in the hands of the English rather than their domestic rivals. The stalemate was broken by the victory of the French crown over Burgundy following Joan of Arc's final battle in the Siege of Compiègne in 1430, and the later incorporation of the duchy into France.[21]

 

16th century

In 1532, English king Henry VIII visited Calais and his men calculated that the town had about 2400 beds and stabling to keep some 2000 horses.[22] In September 1552, the English adventurer Thomas Stukley, who had been for some time in the French service, betrayed to the authorities in London some French plans for the capture of Calais, to be followed by a descent upon England.[23] Stukley himself might have been the author of these plans.

 

On 7 January 1558, king Henry II of France sent forces led by Francis, Duke of Guise, who laid siege to Calais.[24] When the French attacked, they were able to surprise the English at the critical strongpoint of Fort Nieulay and the sluice gates, which could have flooded the attackers, remained unopened.[25] The loss was regarded by Queen Mary I of England as a dreadful misfortune. When she heard the news, she reportedly said, "When I am dead and opened, you shall find 'Philip' [her husband] and 'Calais' lying in my heart."[26] The region around Calais, then-known as the Calaisis, was renamed the Pays Reconquis ("Reconquered Country") in commemoration of its recovery by the French.[27] Use of the term is reminiscent of the Spanish Reconquista, with which the French were certainly familiar—and, since it occurred in the context of a war with Spain (Philip II of Spain was at the time Queen Mary's consort), might have been intended as a deliberate snub.[28] After that time the Dutch-speaking population was forced to speak French.

 

The town was captured by the Spanish on 24 April 1596 in an invasion mounted from the nearby Spanish Netherlands by Archduke Albert of Austria, but it was returned to France under the Treaty of Vervins in May 1598.[29][30]

 

17th century to World War I

Calais remained an important maritime city and smuggling center throughout the 17th century. However, during the next century the port of Calais began to stagnate gradually, as the nearby ports of Boulogne and Dunkirk began to rise and compete.

 

The French revolution at the end of the 18th century did not disturb Calais and no executions took place.[31]

  

World War II bunkers at Calais

In 1805, Calais hosted part of Napoleon's army and invasion fleet for several months before his aborted invasion of Britain.[32] From October to December 1818, the British army used Calais as their departing port to return home after occupying post-Waterloo France. General Murray appointed Sir Manley Power to oversee the evacuation of British troops from France. Cordial relations had been restored by that time and on 3 December the mayor of Calais wrote a letter to Power to express thanks for his "considerate treatment of the French and of the town of Calais during the embarkation."[33]

  

Debris from the Siege of Calais

The British Expeditionary Force or BEF arrived in Calais on its way to the nearby frontline cutting through Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Flanders. Calais was a key port for the supply of arms and reinforcements to the Western Front.[34] In the 1930s, the town was known for being a politically socialist stronghold.[35]

 

World War II

Calais was virtually razed to the ground during World War II.[36] In May 1940, it was a key objective of the invading German forces and became the scene of a last-ditch defence—the Siege of Calais—which diverted a sizable amount of German forces for several days immediately prior to the Battle of Dunkirk. 3,000 British and 800 French troops, assisted by Royal Navy warships, held out from 22 to 27 May 1940 against the 10th Panzer Division. The town was flattened by artillery and precision dive bombing and only 30 of the 3800-strong defending force were evacuated before the town fell. This may have helped Operation Dynamo, the evacuation of Allied forces at Dunkirk, as 10th Panzer would have been involved on the Dunkirk perimeter had it not been busy at Calais.[37] Between 26 May and 4 June 1940, some 330,000 Allied troops escaped from the Germans at Dunkirk.[38]

 

During the ensuing German occupation, it became the command post for German forces in the Pas-de-Calais/Flanders region and was very heavily fortified, as it was generally believed by the Germans that the Allies would invade at that point.[39] It was also used as a launch site for V1 flying bombs and for much of the war, the Germans used the region as the site for railway guns used to bombard the south-eastern corner of England. In 1943 they built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on the southeast of England.[40] Despite heavy preparations for defence against an amphibious assault, the Allied invasion took place well to the west in Normandy on D-Day. Calais was very heavily bombed and shelled in a successful effort to disrupt German communications and persuade them that the Allies would target the Pas-de-Calais for invasion (rather than Normandy). The town, by then largely in ruins, was liberated by General Daniel Spry's 3rd Canadian Infantry Division between 25 September and 1 October 1944.[41] On 27 February 1945 Calais suffered a last bombing raid—this time by British bombers who mistook the town for Dunkirk, which was at that time still occupied by German forces.[42] After the war there was little rebuilding of the historic city and most buildings were modern ones.

 

21st century - migration issues

 

Since 1999 or earlier, an increasingly large number of migrants and refugees have started to arrive in the vicinity of Calais, where they remain living in the Calais jungle, the nickname given to a series of makeshift camps. The people live there while they attempt to enter the United Kingdom by stowing away on lorries, ferries, cars, or trains travelling through the Port of Calais or the Eurotunnel Calais Terminal.[43] The people are a mix of refugees, asylum seekers and economic migrants from Darfur, Afghanistan, Syria, Iraq, Eritrea and other troubled areas of the world.

 

The Calais migrant crisis[44] led to escalating tension between the UK and France in the summer of 2015.[45] The UK blamed France for not doing enough to stop migrants from entering the tunnel or making attempts to scale fences built along the border. The British Prime Minister David Cameron released a statement saying that illegal immigrants would be removed from the UK even if they reach the island.[46] To discourage migrants and refugees from jumping on train shuttles at Calais, the UK government supplied fencing to be installed in the Eurotunnel where the vehicles are loaded on to train shuttles in Calais.

 

Geography and climate

 

Calais is located on the Pas de Calais, which marks the boundary between the English Channel and North Sea and located at the opposite end of the Channel Tunnel, 34 kilometres (21 miles) from Dover. On a clear day the White cliffs of Dover can be viewed across the channel.[47] Aside from being an important port and boarding point between France and England, it is at the nucleus of many major railway and highway networks and connected by road to Arras, Lens, Béthune and St. Omer. Dunkirk is located about 47 km (29 mi) by road to the east.[48] Calais is located 288 km (179 mi) north by road from the French capital of Paris, roughly a 3-hour 15 minute journey.[48] The commune of Calais is bordered by the English channel to the north, Sangatte and Coquelles to the west, Coulogne to the south and Marck to the east. The core area of the city is divided into the Old Town area within the old city walls, and the younger suburbs of St. Pierre, which are connected by a boulevard.

 

Calais is part of the Côte d'Opale (Opal Coast), a cliff-lined section of northern French coast that parallels the white cliffs on the British coast and is part of the same geological formation. It is known for its scenic cliffs such as Cape Blanc Nez and Cape Gris Nez and for its wide area of dunes. Many artists have been inspired by its landscapes, among them the composer Henri Dutilleux, the writers Victor Hugo and Charles Dickens, and the painters J. M. W. Turner, Carolus-Duran, Maurice Boitel and Eugène Boudin. It was the painter Édouard Lévêque who coined the name for this area in 1911 to describe the distinctive quality of its light.[49]

 

The climate is temperate oceanic in Calais. Temperature ranges are moderate and the winters are mild with unstable weather. It rains on average about 700 to 800 mm (28 to 31 in) per year.

 

Economy

 

Town centre

 

The city's proximity to England has made it a major port for centuries. It is the principal ferry crossing point between England and France, with the vast majority of Channel crossings being made between Dover and Calais. Companies operating from Calais include SeaFrance (currently in liquidation[57]), DFDS Seaways,[58] and P&O Ferries.[59] The French end of the Channel Tunnel is situated in the vicinity of Calais, in Coquelles some 4 miles (6.4 km) to the west of the town. Calais possesses direct rail links to Paris, 148 miles (238 km) to the south. More than 10 million people visit Calais annually.[32]

 

From medieval times, English companies thrived in Calais. Calais was a particularly important centre in the production and trade of wool and cloth, which outweighed the costs of maintaining the town as part of England. In 1830 some 113 manufacturers were based in Calais and the St Pierre suburbs, the majority of which were English.[60] There are still two major lace factories in Calais with around 700 looms and 3000 employees.[60] The town exports in the early 20th century were lace, chemicals, paper, wines, especially champagne, spirits, hay, straw, wool, potatoes, woven goods, fruit, glass-ware, lace and metal-ware.[61] Principal imports in the early 20th century included cotton and silk goods, coal, iron and steel, petroleum, timber, raw wool, cotton yarn and cork.[61] During the five years 1901–1905 the average annual value of exports was £8,388,000 (£6,363,000 in the years 1896–1900), of imports £4,145,000 (£3,759,000 in 1896–1900).[61]

 

As a fishing port, Calais has several notable fishing markets including Les Délices de la Mer and Huîtrière Calaisenne on the Boulevard La Fayette, the latter of which is noted for its oysters, lobster and crabs from Brittany. The Emile Fournier et Fils market on the Rue Mouron sells mainly smoked fish including salmon, trout, herring and halibut.[62]

 

Notable landmarks

 

Place d'Armes

 

Place d'Armes is one of the largest squares in the city of Calais, adjoins the watchtower, and during medieval times was once the heart of the city. During the English occupation (1347–1558), it became known as Market Square (place du Marché). Only at the end of English occupation did it take the name of Place d'Armes. After the reconquest of Calais in 1558 by Francis, Duke of Guise, Francis II gave Calais the right to hold a fair twice a year on the square, which still exists today, as well as a bustling Wednesday and Saturday market.[63]

 

Hôtel de Ville

The town centre, which has seen significant regeneration over the past decade, is dominated by its distinctive town hall (Hôtel de Ville) at Place du Soldat Inconnu. It was built in the Flemish Renaissance style between 1911 and 1925 to commemorate the unification of the cities of Calais and Saint Pierre in 1885.[64] A previous town hall had been erected in 1818.[65] One of the most elegant landmarks in the city, its ornate 74 metre (246 ft) high clock tower and belfry can be seen from out to sea and chimes throughout the day and has been protected by UNESCO since 2005 as part of a series of belfries across the region.[66] The building parts have also been listed as a series of historic monuments by government decree of 26 June 2003, including its roofs and belfry, main hall, glass roof, the staircase, corridor serving the first floor, the rooms on the first floor (including decoration): the wedding room, the VIP lounge, the lounge of the council and the cabinet room. The hall has stained glass windows and numerous paintings and exquisite decor.[64] It houses police offices.[35]

 

Église Notre-Dame

 

Église Notre-Dame is a cathedral which was originally built in the late 13th century and its tower was added in the late 14th or early 15th century. Like the town hall it is one of the city's most prominent landmarks. It was arguably the only church in the English perpendicular style in France.[67] Much of the current 1400 capacity church dates to 1631–1635.[67] It contains elements of Flemish, Gothic, Anglo-Norman and Tudor architecture. In 1691, an 1800 cubic metre cistern was added to the church under orders by Vauban.[68] The church is dedicated to the Virgin, and built in the form of a cross, consisting of a nave and four aisles—[69] The old grand altar dated to 1628 and was built from Carrara marble wrecked on the coast, during its transit from Genoa to Antwerp. It contained eighteen figures, the two standing on either side of the altar-piece—representing St. Louis and Charlemagne.[69] The organ—of a deep and mellow tone, and highly ornamented by figures in relief—was built at Canterbury sometime around 1700. The pulpit and reading-desk, richly sculptured in oak, is another well-executed piece of ecclesiastical workmanship from St. Omers. The altar-piece, the Assumption, was often attributed to Anthony van Dyck, though in reality it is by Van Sulden; whilst the painting over the side altar, believed to be by Peter Paul Rubens.[69] A high and strongly built wall, partaking more of the fortress than a cathedral in its aspect, flanks the building, and protects it from the street where formerly ran the old river, in its course through Calais to the sea.[69]

 

The square, massive Norman tower has three-arched belfry windows on each face, surmounted by corner turrets, and a conically-shaped tower of octagonal proportions, topped again by a short steeple. The tower was a main viewing point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790) which linked the Paris Observatory with the Royal Greenwich Observatory using trigonometry. Cross-channel sightings were made of signal lights at Dover Castle and Fairlight, East Sussex.

 

The church was assigned as a historic monument by decree of 10 September 1913, only to have its stained glass smashed during a Zeppelin bombardment on 15 January 1915, falling through the roof.[70][71] General de Gaulle married Yvonne Vendroux on 6 April 1921 at the cathedral.[68] The building experienced extensive damage during World War II, and was partially rebuilt, although much of the old altar and furnishings were not replaced.

 

Towers

 

Tour de Guet

The Tour du Guet (Watch Tower), situated in Calais Nord on the Places d'Armes, is one of the few surviving pre-war buildings. Dating from 1229, when Philip I, Count of Boulogne, built the fortifications of Calais, it is one of the oldest monuments of Calais, although the oldest remaining traces date to 1302.[72] It has a height of 35–39 metres (sources differ). An earthquake in 1580 split the tower in two, and at one time it threatened to collapse completely.[73] The tower was repaired in 1606, and then had the purpose of serving as a hall to accommodate the merchants of Calais.[73] It was damaged in 1658 when a young stable boy set fire to it, while it was temporarily being used as royal stables during a visit of King Louis XIV.[74] It was not repaired for some 30 years. In 1770,[39] a bell identical to the original bell of 1348 was cast. Due to its height, from the late 17th century it became an important watchout post for the city for centuries until 1905;[72] the last keeper of the tower was forced to leave in 1926. Abraham Chappe, (a brother of Ignace Chappe) installed a telegraph office in the tower in 1816 and operated for 32 years.[65] It was this office which announced the death of Napoleon I to the French public in 1821. It also had the dual function as lighthouse with a rotating beacon fuelled by oil from 1818.[72] The lantern was finally replaced by a new lighthouse on 15 October 1848. During the First World War, it served as a military observation post and narrowly missed destruction during World War II.[73] This tower has been classified as a historic monument since 6 November 1931.[73]

 

The Calais Lighthouse (Le phare de Calais) was built in 1848, replacing the old watch tower as the lighthouse of the port. The 55 metre high tower was electrified in 1883 and automated in 1992. The staircase has 271 steps leading up to the lantern. By day it is easily distinguishable from other coastal lighthouses by its white color and black lantern. The lighthouse was classified as a historical monument on 22 November 2010.

 

Forts

 

The Citadel of Calais

The Citadel, located on the Avenue Roger Salengro, was built between 1560 and 1571 on the site of a former medieval castle which was built in 1229 by Philippe de Hureprel.[29] Its purpose of its construction was to fend off would-be invaders, but it wasn't long until the city was successfully invaded by Archduke Albert of Austria on 24 April 1596. Both Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu at one time considered expanding the citadel and Calais into a great walled city for military harbour purposes but the proposals came to nothing.[29]

  

Fort Risban

Fort Risban, located on the coast on the Avenue Raymond Poincaré at the port entrance, was besieged by the English in November 1346 and was used by them until 1558 when Calais was restored to France. In 1596, the fort was captured by the Spanish Netherlands until May 1598 when it was returned to the French following the Treaty of Vervins. It was rebuilt in 1640.[75] Vauban, who visited the fort some time in the 1680s, described it as "a home for owls, and place to hold the Sabbath" rather than a fortification.[76] During World War II it served as an air raid shelter. It contains the Lancaster Tower, a name often given to the fort itself.[73]

 

Fort Nieulay, located along the Avenue Pierre Coubertin originally dated to the 12th or 13th century. During the English invasion in 1346, sluices gates were added as water defences and a fort was built up around it in 1525 on the principle that the people of the fort could defend the town by flooding it.[77] In April and May 1677, Louis XIV and Vauban visited Calais and ordered a complete rebuilding of Fort Nieulay. It was completed in 1679, with the purpose to protect the bridge of Nieulay crossing the Hames River.[78] By 1815 the fort had fallen into a ruined state and it wasn't until 1903 that it was sold and improved by its farmer tenants.[77] The fort was briefly the site of a low-key scuffle with Germans in May 1940.

 

Museums, theatres and cultural centres

  

Calais Theatre

Calais contains several museums. These include the Musée des Beaux-Arts et de la Dentelle de Calais, Cité internationale de la Dentelle et de la Mode de Calais and the Musée de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale (World War II museum). Cité internationale de la Dentelle et de la Mode de Calais is a lace and fashion museum located in an old Boulart factory on the canalside and contains workshops, a library and a restaurant and regularly puts on fashion shows.[60] The World War II museum is located at Parc St Pierre opposite the town hall and south of the train station. The building is a former Nazi bunker and wartime military headquarters, built in 1941 by the Todt Organisation. The 194-metre-long structure contains twenty rooms with relics and photographs related to World War II, and one room dedicated to World War I.[60][79]

 

Theatres and cultural centres include Le théâtre municipal, Le Centre Culturel Gérard Philipe, Le Conservatoire à rayonnement départemental (CRD), L'auditorium Didier Lockwood, L'École d'Art de Calais, Le Channel, Le Cinéma Alhambra and La Médiathèque municipale. Le théâtre municipal or Calais Theatre is located on the Boulevard Lafayette and was built in 1903 on a plot of land which was used as a cemetery between 1811 and 1871.[80] The theatre opened in 1905. On the first floor of the façade are statues which represent the performing arts subjects of Poetry, Comedy, Dance and Music.[80]

 

Monuments and memorials

 

The Burghers of Calais

 

Louis XVIII column

Directly in front of the town hall is a bronze cast of Les Bourgeois de Calais ("The Burghers of Calais"), a sculpture by Auguste Rodin to commemorate six men who were to have been executed by Edward III in 1347. The cast was erected in 1895, funded by a public grant of 10,000 francs.[11] Rodin (who based his design on a fourteenth-century account by Jean Froissart) intended to evoke the viewer's sympathy by emphasizing the pained expressions of the faces of the six men about to be executed.[11]

  

Monument Le Pluviôse

The Monument des Sauveteurs ("Rescuers' Monument") was installed in 1899 on Boulevard des Alliés, and transferred to the Quartier of Courgain in 1960. It is a bronze sculpture, attributed to Edward Lormier.

 

The Monument Le Pluviôse is a 620 kg (1,367 lb) bronze monument built in 1912 by Émile Oscar Guillaume on the centre of the roundabout near the beach of Calais, commemorating the accidental sinking of the submarine Pluviôse in May 1910, off the beach by the steamer Pas de Calais.[81] Armand Fallières, president of the Republic, and his government came to Calais for a state funeral for its 27 victims. One of these victims, Delpierre Auguste, (1889–1910), drowned at age 21 before the beach at Calais; a dock in the city is named for him. The monument was dedicated on June 22, 1913.

 

Monument "Jacquard" was erected on the square in 1910, opposite the entrance to the Calais theatre. It commemorates Joseph Marie Jacquard, popular in Calais because of his contribution to the development of lace through his invention of the Jacquard loom.[82]

 

A tall column in the Courgain area of the city commemorates a visit by Louis XVIII.

 

Parc Richelieu, a garden behind the war memorial, was built in 1862 on the old city ramparts and redesigned in 1956.[83] It contains a statue designed by Yves de Coëtlogon in 1962, remembering both world wars with an allegorical figure, representing Peace, which clutches an olive branch to her breast.[84]

 

Hotels and nightclubs

Hôtel Meurice de Calais is a hotel, established in 1771 as Le Chariot Royal by the French postmaster, Charles-Augustin Meurice, who would later establish the five-star Hôtel Meurice, one of Paris' most famous luxury hotels. It was one of the earliest hotels on the continent of Europe to specifically cater for the British elite.[85] The hotel was rebuilt in 1954–55.[86] It has 41 en-suite rooms.

 

The main centre of night activity in Calais is at the Casino Le Touquet’s on the Rue Royale and at the 555 Club. Every month, Casino Le Touquet hosts a dinner and dance cabaret. The casino features slot machines, blackjack, roulette, and poker facilities.[87]

 

Education

There are several schools in Calais. These include Groupe Scolaire Coubertin, Eglise Saint-Pierre, Universite du Littoral, Centre Universitaire,[48] Lycée HQE Léonard de Vinci on Rue du Pasteur Martin Luther-King, École d'Art de Calais on Rue des Soupirants, and the Centre Scolaire Saint-Pierre on Rue du Four à Chaux which provides education in the primary grades, high school, and vocational school.[88] There are at least seven colleges in the city, such as Collège Martin Luther King on Rue Martin Luther King, Collège Nationalisé Lucien Vadez on Avenue Yervant Toumaniantz, Collège Les Dentelliers on Rue Gaillard, College Jean Mace on Rue Maréchaux, Collège République on Place République, Collège Vauban on Rue Orléansville, and Collège Privé Mixte Jeanne d'Arc on Rue Champailler.

 

Sport

Calais is represented in association football by the Calais RUFC, who compete in the Championnat National. The club was founded 1902 as Racing Club de Calais and in 1974 was renamed as Calais Racing Union Football Club.[89] Calais RUFC have a good reputation in French cup competitions and went as far as the final in the 1999/2000 season, losing out finally to Nantes. Since 2008 they have played at the Stade de l'Épopée, a stadium which holds about 12,000 spectators. The rugby club in Calais is Amicale Rugby Calaisien. Basketball is popular in Calais with the teams Calais Basket (male) and COB Calais (female) as is volleyball with the Lis Calais (male) and Stella Calais (female) teams. There is also the SOC club which caters in a range of sports including athletics, handball and football and Yacht Club de Calais, a yachting club. Calais also has Les Seagulls, an American football team.

 

Transport

 

Sea

 

The Port of Calais was the first cable ship port in Europe and is the fourth largest port in France and the largest for passenger traffic.[97] The port accounts for more than a third of economic activity of the town of Calais. Cargo traffic has tripled over the past two decades. In 2007 more than 41.5 million tonnes of traffic passed through Calais with some 11.52 million passengers, 1.4 million trucks and trailers, 2.249 million cars and 4,700 crossings a year. On average, ships sail from the port every 30 minutes. A new 400 million euro project is underway at the port to create a breakwater protecting a pool of 700 meters long, thus allowing virtually all types of ships to stop at Calais.

 

Rail

As well as the large port, the town is served by three railway stations: Gare de Calais-Fréthun, Gare de Calais-Ville, and Gare des Fontinettes, the former being the first stop on mainland Europe of the Eurostar line. Gare de Calais-Ville is the nearest station to the port with trains to Gare de Boulogne-Ville and either Gare de Lille Flandres or Gare de Lille Europe.

 

Road

Local bus services are provided by STCE. Free car parking facilities are available in front of the Calais ferry terminal and the maximum stay is three days. Calais is served by an airport and an airfield. Calais–Dunkerque Airport is located at Marck, 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) east north east of Calais. Saint-Inglevert Airfield is located at Saint-Inglevert, 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) south west of Calais.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calais

A greater glory, I have never seen. Needs to be viewed like this.

 

Geologically regarded as part of the main axis of the Himalayan range, Kanchenjunga (alternative spellings Kangchenjunga, Kangchen Dzö-nga, Khangchendzonga, Kanchenjanga, Kachendzonga, or Kangchanfanga) is the third highest mountain in the world and the second highest in Nepal and the highest in India, located in the Taplejung district straddling the frontier between Nepal and India.

 

Figures recognised by the Survey of India:

• 1st Mount Everest - 29,002'

• 2nd Godwin Austin - 28,250'

• 3rd Kanchenjunga - 28,156'

 

Figures according to Col. Burrard's calculation:

• 1st Mount Everest - 29,141'

• 2nd Kanchenjunga - 28,225'

• 3rd Godwin Austin - 28,191'

 

The Kanchenjunga massif is in the form of a gigantic cross, the arms of which lie north, south, east, and west. The individual summits connect to neighboring peaks by four main ridges, from which four glaciers flow.

 

The rough translation of Kanchenjunga is "Five Treasures of the Snow", as it contains five peaks, four of them over 8,450 metres. Until 1852, Kanchenjunga was assumed to be the highest mountain in the world, but calculations made by the British 1849 Great Trigonometric Survey showed Mount Everest to be the highest and Kanchenjunga the third-highest.

 

The five peaks of Kanchenjunga are as follows:

 

Kanchenjunga Main 8,586 m. 28,169 ft. †

Kanchenjunga West (Yalung Kang) 8,505 m. 27,904 ft.

Kanchenjunga Central (Middle) 8,482 m. 27,828 ft.

Kanchenjunga South 8,494 m. 27,867 ft.

Kambachen 7,902 m. 25,925 ft.

 

Three of these five peaks (Main, Central and South) are on the India-Nepal border, while the other two are completely in Nepal.

 

In 1955, a British expedition under Charles Evans climbed the mountain but, in deference to local religious beliefs, the party stopped a few yards short of the summit.

   

- From Wikipedia, Encyclopedia.com, and Encyclopædia Britannica.

I am selling these shirts for Wishing Well: Water for the World.

 

$10 and totally epic.

 

www.wishforwater.com

 

There is a drop that is needed

In the land where clean water has receded

A drop on the tongues’ dry land

Where government funds and hands are tied to the back pockets of the thirsty sand

and their eye sockets fixed on their spry dockets which sign them to sky rockets lifting them out of the parched paper novel where the dying log their struggle for one drop just wishing. Well, these drops are better than none.

 

There is a problem that has gone unsolved

An unbalanced equation that has evolved

To the point where numbers can’t get involved

Because they can’t explain how one drop just dissolves

The water crisis problem around which death has revolved

 

Some things, just don’t add up

 

I’ve done the math

And 1 + 15 + 5 +2 + 4 + 8 +1 still equals zero

1 15 year old boy walks 5 hours a day with 2 Jerry cans to get 4 gallons of water for his family of 8 to use for 1 day

And they still don’t have one drop of clean water

 

I’ve done the math

And billions of dollars does not equal one days work for struggling fathers

That’s Bono’s billions, and Larry’s millions not coming close to the work of an impoverished civilian

Because when water’s not on tap as much as corruption and greed

It means a five hour disruption to get one thing you need

And the hours spent watching feet bleed to reach knee deep ponds where bacteria breeds could be spent working to buy what your family eats

Because the billions of dollars aren’t reaching as far as the pavilion of haulers marching with jars

The equation is unbalanced

 

I’ve done the math

One school year subtracted by one clean pool near has distracted generations who’ll never hear the classroom’s scrub to remove the fool’s veneer leaving nations in frustration living off nothing but poverty inflating vocations

443 million days of school are missed by children walking water like a mule

No close water

Means they have to walk farther

Means no education for the daughter

Means the continuous walk toward the unseen slaughter

 

I’ve done the math

Half the world’s hospital wards are soaked by people who drink from an unclean source

No cancer or swine

No plague or line of STD or mental disease or diabetes comes close to the 80% of sickness being born in water overseas

 

We are killing the world with the gold in our sinks

I’ve done the math

And I’ve seen the floods that America drinks

Every day each of us uses 150 gallons or more

While each African only uses 4

What we use in a day they use in a month

What they make last 24 hours we use in 30 seconds in our showers

Something just doesn’t add up

 

So we have to change the equation

Change the way we look at the whole situation

So that our relation with death’s proliferation

Might lead to the donation of salvation in the appropriate location

Let’s change the quotations of unclean water’s dictation

Creating invitations for our hearts combination

Until we change our hesitation from a guilty fascination

From our conscience’s accusations

To a completed obligation of humanities conservation

 

It’s time for One Drop Mathematics

 

You see

One drop can’t stop the world from going thirsty

The One drop mathematic must employ symbiotic mercy

That’s one drop across the plots of seas

Sent from one basic human providing one basic human need

One drop mathematics cancels out the impossibility of solving problems globally

By one person recognizing one person’s humanity

One drop hasn’t got what it takes to fill the ocean of oppressions mistakes

But realizes the significance of the ripple it makes

 

One drop algorithms count numbers like tears

One dollar here means one person gets clean water for a year

Luckily, some things just don’t add up

 

One drop formula’s are challenging the foundations of oppressions’ equations

We are breaking new ground in the field of trigonometry where you and them and me form a triangle equilaterally in what mathematics deemed an impossibility our unity solves the problem perfectly

 

You see I’ve studied the path of One drop math

I found the text book for One drop mathematics

In the attics of Teresa’s homes that she built out of the broken tomes of lives that she quilted together with every patch of each person to which she roamed

I found the homework for one drop mathematics

In the charismatic reform of democratic storms of inequality, who had to write an essay with her life that proved that one bus seat equaled a nation of change

I found the answer key for one drop mathematics

In the one of three that some may see as a fanatic who became ecstatic over a widow’s penny, but was emphatic in his judgment of the dramatic donation of aristocratic prosperity

 

All we need is a drop

Just one

Because we are dealing with those who are dealing with none

So please don’t get discouraged before you’ve begun

Because there is eternal significance in the mathematics of one

 

A man on trial knows the power of one word

A mute man knows the desire he feels to be heard

A street walker knows the importance of one dollar

A soldier knows the pain of one red bullet’s color

An addict knows the lust for one deal

The starving know the meaning of one meal

The farmer knows the importance of one crop

And the thirsty know the significance of even one drop

 

Well I am one drop

Through high waters and hell

But together

Here’s wishing

that we will be the well

 

-David Bowden (epic spoken word artist)

 

trigonometric functions visualization using Processing.

 

The main feature of Table Mountain is the level plateau approximately 3 kilometres (2 mi) from side to side, edged by impressive cliffs. The plateau, flanked by Devil's Peak to the east and by Lion's Head to the west, forms a dramatic backdrop to Cape Town. This broad sweep of mountainous heights, together with Signal Hill, forms the natural amphitheatre of the City Bowl and Table Bay harbour. The highest point on Table Mountain is towards the eastern end of the plateau and is marked by Maclear's Beacon, a stone cairn built in 1865 by Sir Thomas Maclear for trigonometrical survey. It is 1,086 metres (3,563 ft) above sea level, about 19 metres (62 ft) higher than the cable station at the western end of the plateau.

 

press F to fave if you like;-)

press L to view in BIIIG;-)

 

Happy Sliders Sunday!

 

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These components perform key computations for Tide Predicting Machine No. 2, a special purpose mechanical analog computer for predicting the height and time of high and low tides. The tide prediction formula implemented by the machine includes the addition of a series of cosine terms. The triangular metal pieces are part of slotted yoke cranks which convert circular motion to a vertical motion that traces a sinusoid. Each slotted yoke crank is connected by a shaft to a pulley, which causes the pulley to follow the sinusoidal motion. A chain going over and under pulleys sums each of their deflections to compute the tide.

 

The U.S. government used Tide Predicting Machine No. 2 from 1910 to 1965 to predict tides for ports around the world. The machine, also known as “Old Brass Brains,” uses an intricate arrangement of gears, pulleys, chains, slides, and other mechanical components to perform the computations.

 

A person using the machine would require 2-3 days to compute a year’s tides at one location. A person performing the same calculations by hand would require hundreds of days to perform the work. The machine is 10.8 feet (3.3 m) long, 6.2 feet (1.9 m) high, and 2.0 feet (0.61 m) wide and weighs approximately 2,500 pounds (1134 kg). The operator powers the machine with a hand crank.

Domes underlying structure is going to consist of 32 rafters layouted around circle's circumference at 11.25 degrees. Single rafter has 4 segments angled at 22.5 degrees each. This will allow to use 16 of the them to connect the roof panels/tiles and the rest to connect trims that will hide any panels' irregularities. Overall it took me several days and some trigonometry fun to figure this out but it seems legit without any stresses or bending.

Church of Our Lady in Calais.

Église Notre-Dame ("The Church of Our Lady") is a Roman Catholic parish church located on Rue de la Paix, in Calais, department of Pas-de-Calais, in northern France. It dates from the 12th century, and chiefly from the 14th century. Arguably, it is the only church built in the English perpendicular style in all of France.

 

The church was damaged during the early wars between France and England, especially in 1346-47, after the Battle of Crécy. Many of the kings and queens of France and England prayed here; and John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners is buried in the church choir.

 

On 11 July 1469 George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, the third surviving son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, and the brother of English Kings Edward IV and Richard III, was married to Isabel Neville, by Rt. Revd. George Neville, Archbishop of York.

 

The tower of Notre Dame church was used as an observation point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which used trigonometry to calculate the precise distance between the Paris Observatory and the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Cross-channel sightings were made in September and October 1787 of signal lights at Dover Castle and Fairlight Down, and vice versa.

 

In 1785, after the first hot air balloon crossing of the English Channel by Jean-Pierre Blanchard, Louis XVI of France ordered the balloon and boat be hung up in the church.

 

In 1843 some medieval paintings were discovered under a thick coat of whitewash by Monsieur. C. de Rheims. One comprised a female figure holding in her right hand an orange coloured shield charged with nine bezants d’or; her left hand resting on a spear with banner displayed, and charged as the shield. At her feet was a kneeling figure; in the background a fortified city. Another painting represented the Virgin with the infant Jesus, and a figure, apparently a bishop with episcopal staff, kneeling and invoking her. Each of the frescoes was surrounded with a border on which the motto Le Jour Viendra occurred ten times, alternately separated by a club of gold entwined with branches and flowers, with the arms of the Woodhouse family, one of whom was the embellisher of the church and the originator of the paintings. At the bottom of the former painting was written Orate pro anima Thoms Wodehous.

 

It was classified as a historical monument on 13 September 1913.

 

Charles de Gaulle and Yvonne Vendroux were married in the church on 7 April 1921.

 

It was bombarded by Allied Forces on 23 September 1944. It was substantially damaged and the bell tower fell through the roof into the north transept.

 

A campaign of restoration began in the 1960s.

 

1963-1973: Reconstruction of the nave and bell tower

1976 onwards: Addition of stained glass windows by Gérard Lardeur

2002-2013: Restoration of the choir and chapel.

Teacher: Today we're going to learn how to read an analog clock!

Simon: My iPhone is my clock!

Teacher: Shush. So there are two hands - the shorter hand is called the 'Little Hand' it tells you the hour. There are 12 Hours per revolution. The 'Big hand' tells you the minutes. There are 60 minutes in an hour.

Simon: If hours are bigger than minutes, how come it has the smaller hand?

Teacher: It just is. Any other questions?

Simon: How come the hands look like stupid Bionicle weapon Air Katanas?

...

 

Built for my Iron Builder round against onosendai2600

 

--

 

MOCathalon 2013

Group: Clutch Builders

Category:

25. Just teach it!

Pick a subject matter, and break it down in Lego form. Explain mitosis, trigonometry, or the the theory of relativity, for example. You can use humor or shoot straight, just make sure you got the facts right!

Introduction.

William Julian Light has to be considered as one of the main founders of our city and state although he lived here for only three years until his death in October 1839. His vision, planning and surveying has left an indelible mark across the state. Sadly his time here was fraught with conflict, disrespect by many and ill health. He clearly knew that he was dying of tuberculosis for some time but he could not return to England so he died at his house in Thebarton. The South Australian newspaper in 1839 reported in mid September that “this highly esteemed colonist still continues in a very precarious state” and that there was little hope of recovery. When he died the government arranged a state funeral with the body carried from his home at Thebarton to Trinity Church where the service was conducted by the Colonial Chaplain Rev C Howard. Shops and banks closed for the day. The government offered £100 before the funeral to start a public memorial fund. The funeral was the largest congregation of people in the colony to that time. 423 gentlemen and state officials took part in the funeral procession and around 3,000 colonists followed. The body was appropriately interred in Light Square. Left is a

1904 painting of William Light owned by the Royal Geographical Society of SA.

 

Colonel William Light – his family heritage.

Francis Light, the father of William, was in the British navy and began the British settlement of Malaysia when he leased the Island of Penang from 1786. Francis Light founded the town of Georgetown and British Penang for the East India Company. Francis took a princess of Thai (Siamese) and Portuguese heritage from neighbouring Kedah as his bride whom he married in a local ceremony not recognised by the British. He had four daughters and two sons with Marina Rozells including William Light. Francis died in 1794 in Penang. Young William was born in 1786 in Penang and sent back to England for his schooling in 1792 to Theberton in Suffolk where he stayed in Theberton Hall owned by the aristocratic Doughty family. Francis Light’s Penang had a street grid pattern around a swamp, drains and a couple of hills. Church and mosque were allocated a zone with a cemetery further away etc and open ground was left around the fort and the public buildings. Undoubtedly Colonel William Light was very aware of his father’s design of Penang.

William Light joined the navy early and then the British Army from 1808-1814 when he served in Spain and elsewhere in the Napoleonic Wars under the Duke of Wellington. He was a brave leader and highly respected. When he left the Army in 1821 he married 19 year old E Perois in Northern Ireland. Her parents were probably Caesar and Mary Perois who are buried in the Londonderry Protestant Cathedral. She probably died a short time afterwards but nothing is known about her demise. He remarried in 1824 to nineteen year old Mary Bennet the illegitimate daughter of the Duke of Richmond. At that time Light was 38 years old. Light and Mary moved in literary and artistic circles. Light and his wealthy bride bought a yacht and sailed the Mediterranean for several years. They finally explored Egypt. Light painted, wrote and published his work. When he returned to England on business his wife took up a new lover and the Light marriage ended in 1832. She later had three children with the surname of Light but they were fathered by two other men. William Light in 1832 began an affair with Maria Gandy who was 21 years old when Light was 45 years old. William Light returned to Egypt in 1834 to captain the steamer the Nile and it was at this time that he met John Hindmarsh and John Morphett. In fact it was in Egypt that Hindmarsh heard that Light was going to be offered the post of governor of the new colony. Hindmarsh returned to England with a letter of introduction to Sir Charles Napier, a friend of Light, who was going to be involved in the decision about the governorship and Hindmarsh put himself forward- successfully. Light was then offered the position of Surveyor-General. Maria voyaged out to South Australia in 1836 on the Rapid with Colonel Light and others as his housekeeper. Her two brothers Edward and William were on the Rapid. Another brother George who arrived in 1838 named his child William Light Gandy in 1840. Maria stayed with Light until his death in Adelaide when she inherited his estate. Her brothers stayed in Thebarton with William being the Hindmarsh pound keeper. Edward went to California and then the Victorian gold fields and was quite successful. He bought two hotels which he managed for the rest of his life. He was mourned when he died as an 1836 pioneer of SA. In 1840 a few months after Light’s death Maria Gandy married Dr George Mayo. She had four children with Dr Mayo before her own death of tuberculosis, probably caught from Colonel Light, in 1847. It was the Mayo family who inherited William Light’s land portfolio, his papers and paintings etc and they benefited from the sale and development of Lights section 1. A granddaughter of Dr Mayo and Maria Gandy was the well-known South Australia Dr Helen Mayo. Dr George Mayo became the chief surgeon at the Royal Adelaide Hospital for most of his life. He remarried in 1853.

 

Light – the man and his personal life.

William Light had an excellent balance of practical expertise, a good geographical eye, common sense and vision. He was a painter and writer. He kept meticulous diaries. He was known for his hard work, loyalty and commitment to his tasks in South Australia. He persisted against the wishes of Governor Hindmarsh who instigated a public meeting to have the site of Adelaide changed to Port Adelaide and the constant backstabbing and lies of his Deputy Surveyor General George Kingston and public criticism of his choice of the Adelaide site and the slow rate at which land was trigonometrically surveyed ready for sale. Unable to cope with the frustrations of his office and the lack of surveyors to speed up the work he resigned in June 1838 just before Governor Hindmarsh was recalled in July 1838. Colonel Light then established his own private surveying firm with Boyle Travers Finniss (who became in effect the first SA premier although that term was not used then). One of their major employees from the original survey team was Henry Nixon. When Governor Gawler arrived in October 1838 the survey department under the control of the incompetent Kingston was in disarray and Gawler appointed Captain Charles Sturt as Surveyor General. William Light was a religious man and along with Maria Gandy they were both among the original 32 subscriber donors to Trinity Church on North Terrace. Yet when Light was on his death bed Reverend Charles Howard of that church refused to visit Colonel Light. Colonel Light established Light Finniss and Co in July 1838 with their offices in Stephen’s Place. The new company received private commission to lay out several important SA towns namely Gawler which still has a Light Square and an Anglican Church in a central square (Orleana Square); and Glenelg which was a private town on the land of William Finke. Light’s company laid out Glenelg by 30 March 1839 with a central square (Torrens Square) for the Church of England (Anglican) as he had done in Gawler. Governor Gawler approved this town plan of Glenelg on 18 May 1839 and his wife proposed the name of St Peters for the church. Glenelg had earlier been set aside as a town reserve but it was thrown open to selection by ballot in February 1839 when Finke and others won the ballot. Light Finniss and Co also laid out the village of Marion along the banks of the Sturt River. Colonel Light died in October 1839 and Boyle Finniss returned to the public service as Deputy Surveyor General also in late 1839 under direction of Edward Charles Frome who was Surveyor General from October 1839 to February 1849. Frome reported his early work was redoing the sections around Adelaide which had been inaccurately surveyed by George Kingston.

 

Light - Surveying, Mapping, Military Skills and Planning.

Colonel Light between September and December examined at least six possible sites for the siting of Adelaide. He chose the Adelaide Plains after his explorations of the harbour at Port Adelaide area at the end of September 1836 but not the actual location of the city as the River Torrens had not been discovered at that time. Kingston and John Morphett and others discovered the River Torrens in November as Holdfast Bay had also been discovered. Light then favoured the current Adelaide site but the final decision was not made until December 1836. Light’s assistant surveyor was George Kingston who lied about being a surveyor and had no skills at surveying. The areas of the city which Kingston surveyed were redone by Light because of the numerous errors. Surveying of Adelaide began on 11 January 1837 covering areas north and south of the River Torrens and covering 1,042 town acres surrounded by 2,300 acres of figure eight parklands exclusive of 32 acres for the cemetery and a further 38 acres for public squares. The city lands were sold in March 1837. The areas surrounding the city area were also surveyed in 1837 and put up for public sale. All these surveys were done by trigonometrical surveying which is the most accurate and Colonel Light’s theodolite is pictured left. All started from trig point one on the corner of North and West Terraces. This was also the location of Resident Commissioner James Hurtle Fisher’s cottage and the Surveying Office occupied by Light and Light’s cottage. Both these cottages were destroyed by fire in January 1839 when Light lost most of his papers and drawings. January 1839 was also the time when Light moved into his new house on his Thebarton lands. Most of the Adelaide metropolitan area was surveyed in 1837 creating 137 sections of land each of 134 acres. Those who bought land orders in England before colonisation at the reduced price of 12 shillings per acre could then purchase 134 acres instead of the advertised 80 acre sections which were to apply elsewhere. On 18 May 1838, just over a year since the sale of Adelaide town lots, Light declared that 150,000 acres of land was ready for settlement, or almost so. They were:

69,000 acres around Adelaide; 27,000 acres at Rapid Bay; 5,400 acres at Yankalilla; 20,000 acres on Kangaroo Island; and 28,000 acres in the Onkaparinga Valley. But a month later Colonel Light resigned as Surveyor General.

 

Light and Adelaide.

Edward Gibbon Wakefield who had played a role in promoting the concept of the colony and had had help from the Duke of Wellington to get the SA Act passed in the British parliament hoped the capital of the new colony would be named Wellington. But King William IV was asked if he wanted the capital named after himself. He declined and asked for it to be named after his wife Adelaide. Not to be deterred when Edward Gibbon Wakefield established his New Zealand Company in 1839 his first settlement was named Wellington. It later became the capital of New Zealand. Colonel William Light was given the task of selecting the site for the new capital in line with set criteria and his own expertise. The capital had to have a nearby port, a river for a water supply and a hinterland of good arable land for farmers etc. Light discounted other sites including Rapid Bay, Port Lincoln and Encounter Bay because they did not meet all of these criteria and he chose the current site. It was a few miles from a safe port at Port Adelaide, had extensive fertile lands to the north and south, and as he had spent years in the Mediterranean he knew the orthographic effect would increase the rainfall of the Mount Lofty Ranges to provide adequate water in the River Torrens and other streams. Ground water was also available from wells and bores under the proposed city. He chose a spot safe from flooding which was a problem below the city site and also one with a zone of higher rainfall between it and the foothills. Although the site was criticised by some led by Governor Hindmarsh, hindsight has shown that Light could not have chosen a better location. He sited the cemetery below the residential areas on West Terrace and he selected North Adelaide for grander residences away from the commercial areas.

 

But it was his actual plan for the city which earned him a great place in urban history. He knew from his days in the British Army that grid patterns worked well. But he introduced numerous squares and an encircling belt of parklands or green space. Colonel light was a well-read educated man and undoubtedly drew on the work of previous town planners. Perhaps he drew inspiration from the planners of beautiful Georgian Bath in the late 1700s with its grand boulevards, parks, terrace houses and arcs and curves. Or perhaps he was influenced by General James Oglethorpe, the designer of Savannah, Georgia which was done in 1733. Savannah has a grid plan, with each block divided by a narrow street and with 18 town squares. The wide main street of Savannah crosses five of the town squares, whereas in Light’s plan for Adelaide the wide main street (King William Street) only crosses Victoria Square. Savannah is not surrounded by a parkland belt. Colonel light was a world leader with this brilliant idea. At the end of the 19th century Light’s ideas were used in the garden city movement in Britain and America. Serendipitously these ideas were used by Charles Reade in the planning of Colonel Light Gardens.

 

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Here's a picture I took on a foggy morning just after sunrise a few months back in the Village of Villa Park. I posted a different picture of that morning on the day I took it, and I meant to come back and post more but never did. So here's this one.

 

I post this one tonight because those calculations I did for the last space station post got me to thinking about math and the passage of time. I mentioned when we moved to Villa Park a month before I took this photo of a sunrise that we'd moved west, so sunrise would find us just a bit later. The question I always meant to answer but never did, though, was, how much later?

 

That's a relatively easy question to answer if you answer two other questions first: 1.) How much farther west are we? 2.) How fast is my particular patch of planet rotating? Or, what's my speed as the planet spins me toward sunrise?

 

That second question is the harder one to answer, because I have to track down my latitude and then do a bunch of trigonometry to figure out how fast the planet at this latitude is spinning. But I did that math for the last space station post and therefore know the answer. I live at 41.9°N latitude, and am therefore being spun east at a speed of 783 miles per hour.

 

That leaves the first question, which is easy. I just have to go measure the distance from the old place to the new place, and then do a little dance because of an oddly coincidental little quirk of geography and random real estate transactions that simplifies this entire thought experiment tremendously. When we moved from Oak Park to Villa Park, we moved a distance of 10.52 miles almost exactly due west. And when I say almost exactly due west, I mean that a line running exactly west from our old place misses our new place by about 600 feet. Draw a line due east from our new place, and you hit the house on the corner of our Oak Park street 600 feet from our apartment that I always called the "scary house."

 

This is the kind of thing that gets me excited.

 

The reason this is significant for this thought exercise, though, is that our position almost exactly due west of the old place means the seasonal changes that move the Sun's position in the sky don't affect how long it takes sunrise to get from there to here. Our house in Villa Park is always going to be 10.52 miles behind our apartment in Oak Park at 783 miles an hour. That works out to 48.4 seconds. Sunrise hits our big back window 48.4 seconds later than it hits the big front windows on the old apartment.

 

Want to complicate this up, though? We used to live near the corner of Fullerton and Maplewood in Chicago's Logan Square neighborhood. That's farther east than the Oak Park place. How much earlier does Maplewood see sunrise?

 

Unfortunately, our departure from Maplewood didn't take us due west. There was a southward component to that vector. The straight line distance from Maplewood to Oak Park was 5.52 miles, but the heading was 32.78° south of due west. So we moved 4.66 miles west, but 2.98 miles south. So that means calculations for sunrise timing are only easy on the equinoxes. On the mornings of March 22 and September 22, Maplewood will see the sun 21.4 seconds before Oak Park, and 69.8 seconds before Villa Park. But only on those two days. Any other day, the tilting of the Earth on its axis throws Maplewood either a little closer to the sunrise than Oak and Villa Parks, or a little farther away, and calculating how much involves an enormous amount of math that changes for every day.

 

I'm not entirely sure how you'd do that math ... but for fun, I'll try it for the summer solstice. I think what I need to do is shift the sunrise line to match the maximum tilt of the Earth on its axis, which is 23.5°. Then I just plug in some trigonometry, calculate an adjustment, and if my thinking's right I find that on June 22, sunrise hits Maplewood 52.9 seconds before it hits Oak Park, and a minute and 41.3 seconds before it hits Villa Park. And what about the winter solstice? On December 22, sunrise hits Maplewood only 16.9 seconds before it hits Villa Park, and it actually beats its way into Oak Park 10.1 seconds ahead of Maplewood, even though Maplewood is further east.

 

So ... did you make it all the way through all that? I'm not sure I did. That's enough math for tonight, I think. I might have cured my insomnia.

A stack of fallen trees on the way up to Wedgemount Lake.

Playing with Sine and Cosine functions.

Windsor (/ˈwɪnzər/) is a town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British Royal Family.

 

The town is situated 23 miles (37 km) west of Charing Cross, London. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with Eton. The village of Old Windsor, just over 2 miles (3 km) to the south, predates what is now called Windsor by around 300 years; in the past Windsor was formally referred to as New Windsor to distinguish the two.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

  

The Last Supper by Franz de Cleyn in the West Gallery of Windsor parish church of St John The Baptist.[3]

New Windsor was a nationally significant town in the Middle Ages, certainly one of the fifty wealthiest towns in the country by 1332. Its prosperity came from its close association with the royal household. The repeated investment in the castle brought London merchants (goldsmiths, vintners, spicers and mercers) to the town in the late 13th century and provided much employment for townsmen. The development of the castle under Edward III, between 1350–68, was the largest secular building project in England of the Middle Ages, and many Windsor people worked on this project, again bringing great wealth to the town. Although the Black Death in 1348 had reduced some towns' populations by up to 50%, in Windsor the building projects of Edward III brought money to the town, and possibly its population doubled: this was a 'boom' time for the local economy. People came to the town from every part of the country, and from continental Europe. The poet Geoffrey Chaucerheld the honorific post of 'Clerk of the Works' at Windsor Castle in 1391.

 

The development of the castle continued in the late 15th century with the rebuilding of St George's Chapel. With this Windsor became a major pilgrimage destination, particularly for Londoners. Pilgrims came to touch the royal shrine of the murdered Henry VI, the fragment of the True Cross and other important relics. Visits to the chapel were probably combined with a visit to the important nearby Marian shrine and college at Eton, founded by Henry VI in 1440, and dedicated to the Assumption; which is now better known as Eton College. Pilgrims came with substantial sums to spend. From perhaps two or three named inns in the late 15th century, some 30 can be identified a century later. The town again grew in wealth. For London pilgrims, Windsor was probably – but briefly – of greater importance than Canterbury and the shrine of the City's patron Saint Thomas Becket. With the closures of the Reformation, however, Windsor's pilgrim traffic died out. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in 1547, next to Jane Seymour, the mother of his only legitimate son, Edward (Edward VI). Henry, the founder of the Church of England, may have wanted to benefit from the stream of Catholic pilgrims coming to the town. His will gives that impression.

 

The town began to stagnate about ten years after the Reformation. The castle was considered old-fashioned and shrines to the dead were thought to be superstitious. The early modern period formed a stark contrast to the medieval history of the town. Most accounts of Windsor in the 16th and 17th centuries talk of its poverty, badly made streets and poor housing. Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Windsor is set in Windsor and contains many references to parts of the town and the surrounding countryside. Shakespeare must have walked the town's streets, near the castle and river, much as people still do. The play may have been written in the Garter Inn, opposite the Castle, but this was destroyed by fire in the late 17th century. The long-standing – and famous – courtesan of king Charles II, Nell Gwyn, was given a house on St Albans Street: Burford House (now part of the Royal Mews). Her residence in this house, as far as it is possible to tell, was brief. Only one of her letters addressed from Burford House survives: it was probably intended as a legacy for her illegitimate son, the Earl of Burford, later the Duke of St Albans.

 

Windsor was garrisoned by Colonel Venn during the English Civil War. Later it became the home of the New Model Army when Venn had left the castle in 1645. Despite its royal dependence, like many commercial centres, Windsor was a Parliamentarian town. Charles Iwas buried without ceremony in St George's Chapel after his execution at Whitehall in 1649. The present Guildhall, built in 1680–91, replaced an earlier market house that had been built on the same site around 1580, as well as the old guildhall, which faced the castle and had been built around 1350. The contraction in the number of old public buildings speaks of a town 'clearing the decks', ready for a renewed period of prosperity with Charles II's return to the Castle. But his successors did not use the place, and as the town was short of money, the planned new civic buildings did not appear. The town continued in poverty until the mid 19th century.

 

In 1652 the largest house in Windsor Great Park was built on land which Oliver Cromwell had appropriated from the Crown. Now known as Cumberland Lodge after the Duke of Cumberland's residence there in the mid 18th century, the house was variously known as Byfield House, New Lodge, Ranger's Lodge, Windsor Lodge and Great Lodge.

 

In 1778, there was a resumption of the royal presence, with George III at the Queen's Lodge and, from 1804, at the castle. This started a period of new development in Windsor, with the building of two army barracks. However the associated large numbers of soldiers led to a major prostitution problem by 1830, in a town where the number of streets had little changed since 1530. In the 18th c. the town traded with London selling the Windsor Chair which was actually made in Buckinghamshire.

 

A number of fine houses were built in this period, including Hadleigh House on Sheet Street, which was built in 1793 by the then Mayor of Windsor, William Thomas. In 1811 it was the home of John O'Reilly, the apothecary-surgeon to George III.

 

Windsor Castle was the westernmost sighting-point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which measured the precise distance between the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory by trigonometry. Windsor was used because of its relative proximity to the base-line of the survey at Hounslow Heath.

 

The substantial redevelopment of the castle in the subsequent decade and Queen Victoria's residence from 1840, as well as the coming of two railways in 1849, signalled the most dramatic changes in the town's history. These events catapulted the town from a sleepy medieval has-been to the centre of empire – many European crowned heads of state came to Windsor to visit the Queen throughout the rest of the 19th century. Unfortunately, excessive redevelopment and 'refurbishment' of Windsor's medieval fabric at this time resulted in widespread destruction of the old town, including the demolition of the old parish church of St John the Baptist in 1820. The original had been built around 1135.

 

Most of the current town's streets date from the mid to late 19th century.[5] However the main street, Peascod Street (pronunciation: /ˈpɛskɒd/) is very ancient, predating the castle by many years, and probably of Saxon origin. It formed part of the 10th-century parish structure in east Berkshire[citation needed] and is first referred to as Peascroftstret in c. 1170. The 1000-year-old royal Castle, although the largest and longest-occupied in Europe, is a recent development in comparison. "New Windsor" was officially renamed "Windsor" in 1974.

 

is accessible from Junction 6 of the M4 and from Slough via a 3 mile long dual carriageway. Bus services in the town are mostly provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, although a park-and-rideservice and one local route are operated by Courtney Coaches.

 

Windsor has two railway stations. Windsor & Eton Central railway station has a shuttle service to Slough. Windsor & Eton Riverside station provides a service to London Waterloo. Both stations were time in the 19th century, as the two train companies which owned the lines both wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege.[8] From 1883 to 1885, the London Underground's District line's westbound service ran as far as Windsor.

 

Windsor has frequent bus services to/from London Heathrow Airport, Victoria Coach Station in central London and Legoland Windsor Resort.

  

en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Berkshire

  

Windsor (/ˈwɪnzər/) is a town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British Royal Family.

 

The town is situated 23 miles (37 km) west of Charing Cross, London. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with Eton. The village of Old Windsor, just over 2 miles (3 km) to the south, predates what is now called Windsor by around 300 years; in the past Windsor was formally referred to as New Windsor to distinguish the two.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

  

The Last Supper by Franz de Cleyn in the West Gallery of Windsor parish church of St John The Baptist.[3]

New Windsor was a nationally significant town in the Middle Ages, certainly one of the fifty wealthiest towns in the country by 1332. Its prosperity came from its close association with the royal household. The repeated investment in the castle brought London merchants (goldsmiths, vintners, spicers and mercers) to the town in the late 13th century and provided much employment for townsmen. The development of the castle under Edward III, between 1350–68, was the largest secular building project in England of the Middle Ages, and many Windsor people worked on this project, again bringing great wealth to the town. Although the Black Death in 1348 had reduced some towns' populations by up to 50%, in Windsor the building projects of Edward III brought money to the town, and possibly its population doubled: this was a 'boom' time for the local economy. People came to the town from every part of the country, and from continental Europe. The poet Geoffrey Chaucerheld the honorific post of 'Clerk of the Works' at Windsor Castle in 1391.

 

The development of the castle continued in the late 15th century with the rebuilding of St George's Chapel. With this Windsor became a major pilgrimage destination, particularly for Londoners. Pilgrims came to touch the royal shrine of the murdered Henry VI, the fragment of the True Cross and other important relics. Visits to the chapel were probably combined with a visit to the important nearby Marian shrine and college at Eton, founded by Henry VI in 1440, and dedicated to the Assumption; which is now better known as Eton College. Pilgrims came with substantial sums to spend. From perhaps two or three named inns in the late 15th century, some 30 can be identified a century later. The town again grew in wealth. For London pilgrims, Windsor was probably – but briefly – of greater importance than Canterbury and the shrine of the City's patron Saint Thomas Becket. With the closures of the Reformation, however, Windsor's pilgrim traffic died out. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in 1547, next to Jane Seymour, the mother of his only legitimate son, Edward (Edward VI). Henry, the founder of the Church of England, may have wanted to benefit from the stream of Catholic pilgrims coming to the town. His will gives that impression.

 

The town began to stagnate about ten years after the Reformation. The castle was considered old-fashioned and shrines to the dead were thought to be superstitious. The early modern period formed a stark contrast to the medieval history of the town. Most accounts of Windsor in the 16th and 17th centuries talk of its poverty, badly made streets and poor housing. Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Windsor is set in Windsor and contains many references to parts of the town and the surrounding countryside. Shakespeare must have walked the town's streets, near the castle and river, much as people still do. The play may have been written in the Garter Inn, opposite the Castle, but this was destroyed by fire in the late 17th century. The long-standing – and famous – courtesan of king Charles II, Nell Gwyn, was given a house on St Albans Street: Burford House (now part of the Royal Mews). Her residence in this house, as far as it is possible to tell, was brief. Only one of her letters addressed from Burford House survives: it was probably intended as a legacy for her illegitimate son, the Earl of Burford, later the Duke of St Albans.

 

Windsor was garrisoned by Colonel Venn during the English Civil War. Later it became the home of the New Model Army when Venn had left the castle in 1645. Despite its royal dependence, like many commercial centres, Windsor was a Parliamentarian town. Charles Iwas buried without ceremony in St George's Chapel after his execution at Whitehall in 1649. The present Guildhall, built in 1680–91, replaced an earlier market house that had been built on the same site around 1580, as well as the old guildhall, which faced the castle and had been built around 1350. The contraction in the number of old public buildings speaks of a town 'clearing the decks', ready for a renewed period of prosperity with Charles II's return to the Castle. But his successors did not use the place, and as the town was short of money, the planned new civic buildings did not appear. The town continued in poverty until the mid 19th century.

 

In 1652 the largest house in Windsor Great Park was built on land which Oliver Cromwell had appropriated from the Crown. Now known as Cumberland Lodge after the Duke of Cumberland's residence there in the mid 18th century, the house was variously known as Byfield House, New Lodge, Ranger's Lodge, Windsor Lodge and Great Lodge.

 

In 1778, there was a resumption of the royal presence, with George III at the Queen's Lodge and, from 1804, at the castle. This started a period of new development in Windsor, with the building of two army barracks. However the associated large numbers of soldiers led to a major prostitution problem by 1830, in a town where the number of streets had little changed since 1530. In the 18th c. the town traded with London selling the Windsor Chair which was actually made in Buckinghamshire.

 

A number of fine houses were built in this period, including Hadleigh House on Sheet Street, which was built in 1793 by the then Mayor of Windsor, William Thomas. In 1811 it was the home of John O'Reilly, the apothecary-surgeon to George III.

 

Windsor Castle was the westernmost sighting-point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which measured the precise distance between the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory by trigonometry. Windsor was used because of its relative proximity to the base-line of the survey at Hounslow Heath.

 

The substantial redevelopment of the castle in the subsequent decade and Queen Victoria's residence from 1840, as well as the coming of two railways in 1849, signalled the most dramatic changes in the town's history. These events catapulted the town from a sleepy medieval has-been to the centre of empire – many European crowned heads of state came to Windsor to visit the Queen throughout the rest of the 19th century. Unfortunately, excessive redevelopment and 'refurbishment' of Windsor's medieval fabric at this time resulted in widespread destruction of the old town, including the demolition of the old parish church of St John the Baptist in 1820. The original had been built around 1135.

 

Most of the current town's streets date from the mid to late 19th century.[5] However the main street, Peascod Street (pronunciation: /ˈpɛskɒd/) is very ancient, predating the castle by many years, and probably of Saxon origin. It formed part of the 10th-century parish structure in east Berkshire[citation needed] and is first referred to as Peascroftstret in c. 1170. The 1000-year-old royal Castle, although the largest and longest-occupied in Europe, is a recent development in comparison. "New Windsor" was officially renamed "Windsor" in 1974.

 

is accessible from Junction 6 of the M4 and from Slough via a 3 mile long dual carriageway. Bus services in the town are mostly provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, although a park-and-rideservice and one local route are operated by Courtney Coaches.

 

Windsor has two railway stations. Windsor & Eton Central railway station has a shuttle service to Slough. Windsor & Eton Riverside station provides a service to London Waterloo. Both stations were time in the 19th century, as the two train companies which owned the lines both wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege.[8] From 1883 to 1885, the London Underground's District line's westbound service ran as far as Windsor.

 

Windsor has frequent bus services to/from London Heathrow Airport, Victoria Coach Station in central London and Legoland Windsor Resort.

  

en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Berkshire

  

470 ways to know you are addicted to Minecraft.

You continually refresh Notch's blog for the latest post about the next compatability-breaking update.

You wear a diaper to increase time between bathroom breaks.

You begin to panic when you black screen for more than 10 seconds.

You go to bed in minecraft when you're tired in real life.

You haven't eaten or slept in 24 hours.

You just sit down to mine a few blocks and look up to realize its already been 4 hours.

If you've completed the 404 challenge more than once.

You refresh the mod page hoping for a new mod update to reflect Notch's latest update.

You google "Minecraft addiction".

The only time you see your friends is in-game.

You worry about server griefing while you're offline.

You get excited when Notch releases a demo video about the next update.

You begin dreaming about blocks.

You see a dark area in the kitchen and have the urge to put a torch there.

You smack snow with a shovel and half-expect snowballs to pop out.

You make a website about Minecraft addictions.

You see fog and think about hitting "F"

You look at every building in real life and start seeing it as blocks and measuring it.

You get coal as a gift and think its a good thing.

You are referred by people in real life by your Minecraft nickname.

When you're in public and you hear "ssssss" and you yell "CREEPER!!!"

When you watch too many "Let's Play's" and you begin commentating every move you make.

You are afraid of the dark because you think mobs will spawn.

Your body parts start getting blocky.

You forget to feed your real dog, because you were too busy feeding your pack of virtual dogs...

You hate it when people ask you to eat while playing Minecraft

When it's dark, you try to place a torch.

You re-create your town in Minecraft and live your life in there.

You break all the bones in your hand due to attempting to open doors by punching them.

You see some pesky trees in your yard and think, "I really wish I at least had my wooden axe right now."

You see a stray dog and think, "Dangitt why didn't I bring my bones with me!"

You use Minecraft as a model maker for your dream home/city. (We all have dreams you know)

You hear someone go Uggghh, and you tell your friend, "I think that guy over there is a zombie. Do you have your sword on you?"

You see a beautiful landmark and think, "I bet I could make a cool version of that in Minecraft." And later that night you put a scale replica in you town and say,"Yep, that is as cool as the real Washington Monument."

You see one of those commercial where you sell your used gold for cash, and think, "No way! I'm saving my gold for power rails!"

You're hungry and you think, "Man, I wish I could find a pig right now."

You tested 99% positive for minecraft addiction.

You have submitted over 11 Minecraft addiction jokes to this website. (To whom I thank very much. --Drise)

You try to punch your way through a tree.

You start wondering who people on a server really are.

You begin to view the world as Minecraft.

You punch a tree 5 times hoping it yields some wood.

You try to start a new world IRL because you fell.

You walk into a jewelry store in think "Dang, whish I had a workbench, and a pickaxe".

You hear creeper or zombie noises when you wake up in the middle of the night.

You wonder why a thing doesn't break as easy as in minecraft and why real life is harder.

You start drawing creeper faces everywhere.

You know more about minecraft, than you do in your classes

You suffer from the tetris effect.

You watch Ultimate Survival and Think "I could do alot better"

You start planning what you are going to build the next day, IN YOUR DREAMS.

While fishing you're hoping a fish pops out of the water.

You make cake, but leave the bottle of milk in the mix.

At night you go to bed, lie there five seconds and get up thinking it's day.

You have arachnophobia and begin to see skeletons riding spiders.

You punch pigs when you're hungry.

You punch pigs when you get hurt.

You think Notch is your god and Mojang your church.

You have more then ten Minecraft-related YouTube subscriptions...

You always think with blocks.

You mod your night lights into torches and place them in your house.

When you don't know what to build, you look up famous monuments

You make your own house in Minecraft

You cut part of the bottom of a tree trunk thinking the rest will stay up.

You look at a birch tree in real life and see it as blocks.

When the cat hisses, you run away and come back in 2 minutes looking for the crater.

You give your dog 5 bones just so you can take him for a walk and slap him on the head once to make him sit.

You get arrested for punching sheep.

Your biological clock adapts to Minecraft's 10 minute days and nights.

You see a circle and think "wait, that's not right."

You stay home all day isolated in your room

You start driving minecarts instead of cars

You notice perfectly square brick columns IRL and think, "man, where'd that guy find all that clay?"

Your desktop, mouse cursor, screensaver, and homepage all relate to Minecraft

You start swinging your arms like the minecraft character when you walk.

You are in history class and you imagine the building as if they were built in minecraft

When you bookmark this page.

You walk by sugarcanes and attempt to make a bookcase

You see the sun as a square.

When the server you play on is down you immediately curl up in a corner and cry while playing single player on your laptop with a creeper skin to prevent theft.

When you don't have bread, you align 3 wheats together.

You start eating raw pork.

You try to make friends with wild wolves.

When you stay up late at night starring at your computer trying to find redstone somewhere

You check your backyard mob grinder every ten minutes hopping to find bones and gunpowder.

You jump off a 50 ft tower and hope you land in that 3 ft deep water

You think apples made of pure gold taste delicious

You recreate your real life house in MC, and make better things inside.

You break your head attempting to place a big stone block above you...

You try to organise things in multiples of 4.

You mutter /time day in your sleep.

You attempt to put fires out with your bare hands, then eat cookies until you stop burn ing.

When you say "In Notch's name" instead of "In God's name"

You don't go near obsidian for months because your afraid if you light it on fire it will send you to the nether

When you see a person wearing diamond jewelry IRL, you think, "How the nether did that guy find that much diamonds??!!!" And proceed to ask that person what kind of mining technique they use.

You throw an egg hoping for a chicken to pop out.

You are afraid that your cup of water may flood the kitchen.

You feel strange whenever you see something taller than 64 meters.

You think of the world from a blocky perspective

If you are tired but you can not sleep because it's a day

You fear to go to the woods because you think there are a lot of wolves.

When you will die, you look forward to finally meeting this "re spawn" Button!

You think you can carry 10 billion pounds of stuff in your pockets.

You see a creeper and you piss yourself

You punch the grass on your lawn, and when someone asks you what you're doing, you tell them you're going mining.

The ONLY vehicles you know of, are minecarts and boats. Wooden boats.

You walk on stuff lying around your room, hoping you automatically pick them up.

You listen to minecraft-parodied songs rather than the original.

You Play Minecraft(FULLSTOP)

When diving, you think that you can evade drowning by eating pork really fast.

You dig Diamonds

When you want to make a book stack 3 papers and wait...

You make weapon,and hurt tree!

You start digging a hole and look for caves in real life.

When you see something white in the dark, you think it's a Skeleton.

It gets dark out and you think: "must find coal...)

Your friends make hissing sounds just to makeyou jump.

In math class, your using the calculator to find out just how many cobble you'll need for your next castle.

You always get scared around wooden structures because you think they'll be greifed.

You start finding crafting recipes for common things: Tv:two glass by eight cobble and redstone Pencil: coal and stick Fish tank: two water plus four glass

You try to change pictures on the wall by punching them

You always check your basement for slimes

You walk down the street, saying "THIS TEXTURE PACK IS AMAZING"

You try to hit right click when your real life dog is bothering you.

You picture redstone running through your walls when you turn a light on.

You do research to find out how real life mining compares to Minecraft mining.

You think when you sprinkle ground up bones on to a tree sapling and expect it to suddenly grow into a tree.

You validate 'creeper' as a real animal.

The only animals you've ever known of are cows, sheep, chickens and pigs

You are suprised you get hurt when you make a belly dive from the highest diving platform.

You wonder why the real world is so small and doesn't have snow next to the desert.

You see someone with a checkered shirt and think: Dont tell me you haven't added a HD texturepack.

You think outside the blocks.

Your friend finds you in the garden, in a 5 metre deep hole trying to find iron.

You connect your electrical devices using reddish-black dust.

You place 3 diamonds and two sticks on a workbench and think, "Dang it, why isn't this turning into a diamond pickaxe?!"

You think smashing a saddle on a pig and riding it will make you epic. But the farmer just screams at you.

You go to sleep with your lights on, and wait for everything to get progressively dark before you close your eyes.

You start to make cartoon characters in minecraft.

You think you're dead when you fall 6 feet.

Your "downloads" folder is Full Off Minecraft stuff

You try to attach a stone to your wall and wonder why it falls down.

I Play Minecraft until i can't focus on the screen.

You run away and jump for cover everytime you hear a "Ssssssss" sound, expecting a explosion.

You stuff porkchops and coal into the furnace and hope that 10 secs later a cooked porkchop pops out.

You try to ride a pig on a regular basis

you throw a wooden plank in front of a door and step on it to open it

You can only count up to 64 and then start over at one

Putting a lump of coal on top of a stick you found outside and thinking "Where is my torch?"

You think of redstone instead of wires and minecarts instead of cars.

How many creepers does it take to screw in a lightbulb? None cause they dont have any arms.

You sit your dog down and expect it to stay there until you stand it up, no matter how far away you go.

You sprint away from your dog as fast as you can just so you can see it teleport to you.

You plant a seed in the ground, thinking it will be fully grown in an hour.

you try to make bread by mashing up wheat on a work bench

you try to do the /fly command and then brake your face trying to fly

You start to see creepers appearing as flowers in your garden...

You look up at the sky to see which way the clouds are moving in order to determine which way is north.

When you hear a dog bark, you quickly climb over the nearest hill/mountain hoping to find a wolf pack.

Your in geometry and you have to find the area of a square, but you already know it because tis the same parameter as the temple your building.

When you pick up steel tools, you think its iron and and if you have one, whack your diamond ring with it.

You're setting up a minecart track and say, "Mom, can i have some redstone?... or maybe just some stone?"

you ride the mono-rail and think "I wonder where the boosters are?"

You go door to door asking for your neighbors to let you inspect their house to make your scale replica of your town in Minecraft.

You constantly wonder, "How does life not lag with this super high res texture pack?"

You say "/give tnt 999" when you're really board and somehow are not playing Minecraft.

You throw dirt in the air trying to make it float.

You spend your school day making textures.

You read all of these jokes hoping for help.

When someone drops wood, you run away because you don't have a sword or arrows.

You chill

You walk into a library and think "It must've taken a long time to get all those reeds."

You see a water fountain and think "Wish I had some buckets on me."

You're heading out to the store, and check and see if you've got everything you need - Wallet, car keys, list of stuff to get, redstone compass...

You try to find a torch when your room gets dark.

Your Face is a Creeper

You punch trees IRL and wonder why your fist bleeds

You try to establish your house on a floating island.

You change your clock time forward IRL to engage hyperspeed.

You hear about the earth running out of resources and think 'just spawn some, damnit!'.

You sit in class and sketch stuff to build later.

You decide to learn Java just so you could make Minecraft mods.

You see solar panels at the store and explain to your dad how they work in Industrial craft format.

When your parents say 'Come on, we have to go now!' and you said 'Wait a minute, I just need to finish this..'

It is physically impossible for you to eat beef, chicken or lamb.

When you see a dark corner you think "I should put a torch there."

You dig holes in your backyard looking for coal and iron.

you ask your P.E teacher if you can go on a creeper pking field trip

you try programing a mod for real life

you broke your hand cause you needed wood.

You get a job as a miner and bring a sword with you.

When you can tell the time of day by looking at the sun

You feel like you need an obsidian panic room

Your scared that monsters will spawn out of your shadow.

you can eat gold !

You lay your building materials in geometric-grid shapes expecting them to build themselves.

You trade your olex for a clock that only shows day-time and night-time

You burn real pigs and wonder why they don't drop cooked porkchops.

You punch trees in real life to the point where you rage because its too slow without your diamond axe.

you watch bluexephos and then attempt to sing the diggy diggy hole song!

When 64 seems like an important number

you see an ugly building and think "I need a new texture pack"

When you want pork, you go find a pig to kill

When you want to pick something up you start punching it first.

you see a dead skeleton and try to take his bones and arrows

You go and play another game and DIE SKOL AFSOLFAO SLASPÖ

When you see a thunderstorm you become extremely scared of pigs and all things green

when you click on this site.

You smelt your own wedding ring to make gold.

You think you can dig up dirt in 3 seconds

You try and make a diamond pickaxe

Reading this entire list.

You try to change texture packs in real life.

You try to mod real-life.

you think that your render distance is low when it is foggy in real life.

You are terrified of the color green.

You break your door with an axe hoping it's miniature version will drop to the floor to be re-used.

if you see a creeper at your door telling "oh what nice house you got here" you run away telling "panic" and you falling down by dizzy.

You can describe, in-depth, three different mining systems and their varying efficiencies for finding ore.

When the entirety of your absent-minded doodles consist of designs and schematics for mechanisms or new projects.

You look at a building and image what it would be made of in Minecraft.

You beat the crap out of your computer waiting for a small flat pixelated portable version to pop out

You try to collect parts of your house.

you look at your clock or wristwatch and expect it to be half blue with the sun and half black with the moon

You build a clock that only has "Day and Night" on it.

Minecraft its a funny game im right?!

When you hear footsteps you grab the nearest pointy object and hide behind the sofa waiting for the creeper to pop out.

When you go outside you start punching trees

When you make a site to know if you're addicted or not..

Everything is blocky, even your eyes.

You cry for days when you lose your minecraft saves.

You have all the icons from Orion-Pyro

You have memorised all the splash screen messages.

You know about Dr. Leon Sisk's existance from Bobby Yarsulik's song, "PigMen Story" and also know he actually is a real person.

If you get a raging boner after seeing all the dicks on multi player servers... You mite be a faggot.

You see something green and grab out a wooden sword and charge

You crouch to make sure you don't fall off

You start to think of clothing as skins.

You try to find lava for your new house.

you wonder why things on the ground are not popping in to your quickbar

You start to to call yourself Steve and wish you could change your skin.

You are looking for the create a new world button when things go bad on Earth.

You hold shift to not fall from a building

you keep a list of your mod names,just in case there is a new update

you turn your car into a minecart.

You can't make a perfect circle in the real world.

You call your parents pussies because "they disabled hostile mobs spawning".

You walk for ten minutes trying to find a new biome.

You think about digging up the floor and look for iron under it.

When your parents come in the room, you scream, thinking its a creeper

When something happens to your minecraft you cry

When you get bored of minecraft you watch youtube about minecraft or go to the forums

You make a facebook so you can like this page or any other minecraft page.

When you hear Notch has twitter, you delete your facebook, and go on twitter.

Every site you make an account, you use your minecraft name

You don't care about dying because you think you can respawn.

You try to punch cacti without being hurt... ouch!

You keep refreshing this site to see if your joke has been added.

Creepers are green Spiders are black Now your shelter is under attack

You see a beautiful sunset and think "Hey, that's just like Minecraft"

You try to milk a giant squid, and when you fail epicly, you think: "Curse the Beta 1.3 update!"

You cut down a tree in real life, and once you regain conciousness in a hospital with severe breakages in all your bones, you wonder why gravity sudeny started working.

When you see green jello in your fridge, you slash at it wildly with your sword, and later wonder why it didn't multiply or attempt to eat you.

You want to have everything infinite in REAL LIFE.

You play on "PEACEFUL" because you hate that ... SsssSsss......

You start smashing your head at table when Notch release minecraft update and the mod's you really like gets broken.

You never try to catch squid with a fishing rod because you read on MinecraftWiki that it is impossible.

You put a piece of coal on a stick thinking that it will instantly become a torch that never burns out or lights stuff on fire.

When some-one asks you how big your house is, you proudly answer, "Four chunks."

You look at a map of a round Earth and think, "Where are the Edgelands then?"

Your wallpaper is minecraft.

you see a person and think: man, he needs to change skin

You go out in the morning looking for some arrows/bones/feathers

You never go outside for more than 10 minutes.

You try to press e to open your inventory and place your new dirt and rocks in there...

You live in constant fear of your neighbors punching through the wall and stealing all your valuables.

You throw coco beans at a sheep hoping it to turn brown.

You eat nothing but pork chops.

You sit around hoping to see a pink sheep.

You try to swallow apples with 8 cubik meters of pure gold around it, atempting to heal all of your woulds

You try to change your skin if you think you look ugly.

You hit a real crafting table and think a gui will show up and get frustrated by that.

Everyday, you watch at least 2 Minecraft videos

You see the sun and moon as squares

You can carry 81365 cubic feet of stone.

You think bears are a mod.

In real life you think that bookshelves are for decoration only

You can't hold a conversation in real life.

You started thinking electricity works the same as redstone and becomes surprised hearing that wires are circular.

your dream is what you did earlier that day on minecraft

You dream in Java code.

You see a car and go, "How!?"

When you look into a mirror, you think about F5 and i

When you go to the beach you take sand and come home and out it in a furnace

You build your room full-detailed at a scale of 1/1000 (no, really, its scary)

You think "this will make things easier!" when you see floor tiles.

You carry a grid-paper notebook on you at all times.

You cry when your wolf drowns.

when you star a painting and put it on the wall its blank as you forgot that paintings only automaticaly paint themselfs in minecraft

You want to know what texture pack it is when u go outside

You don't understand why your dog in real life doesn't sit when you right-click on it.

When there is a blackout, you try to wire your computer into a redstone torch.

Its a sqaury joke you got there

You hear a tyre hissing and you run away.

You make a site that has a werid name for minecraft addicts

You don't go out at night because you think Zombies will come after you!

You look at your bed and wonder why it isn't red.

You don't get a job because you think you can make your own with self-harvested resources.

You dump a bucket of water on a flat surface and wonder why it doesn't flow towards a hole you placed 7 meters away.

You wonder why your computer has colors other than black and red.

You see a spider and wonder why it's not as big as you are.

You start telling people "I like your skin. Where'd you get it?"

You see a dead person lying on the ground and wonder when they'll respawn.

You wonder how the Empire State Building was built when the sky limit is only 64 meters above sea level.

You See a book IRL and you wonder when Notch will let you write in it.

You have a Minecraft themed birthday with a creeper cake.

You kill an animal and wonder why it doesn't disappear in a poof of smoke.

Whenever there is a thunderstorm in real life, you are scared that monsters will spawn.

You wonder why you don't move upward when you walk into a ladder.

Whenever you get hurt in real life, you imitate that "Ohff" sound that you make in minecraft when you get hurt.

You punch someone and wonder why they don't turn red and jump backwards.

You place a cake in real life, and wonder why punching it doesn't make small portions of it disappear

You start seeing pigs fly through your screen when you're actually riding them off a cliff.

You see a sky scraper and think "that can't be right, the world isn't that high."

You try to break stone with wood.

When you stop listening to the real version of the song and listen to the Noteblock one instead.

You see a rectangle and think: "thats almost right!"

You always bring two extra porkchops when going diving.

When it's dark, you fear that a creeper spawn behind you.

You are actually reading this.... to see if you are addicted.....

You go out in a thunderstorm with a pig waiting for a lightning to strike it so you can have your own zombie pigman

You wonder why your hand gets bloody one you punch things

You make a giant creeper out of wool and fill it with TNT so you can blow it up when a sheep walks near it.

You find some obsidian and try to set it on fire so you can see your deceased grandfather

You never swim in the ocean without a fishing rod because of your perfectly rational fear of fireball-spitting-floating-jellyfishes

You sing the Minecraft "TNT" song everytime you hear Taio Cruz's "Dynamite"

You often get splinters in your knuckles due to the amount of wood-punching you do.

You drink milk by pouring it on the ground.

You start thinking about how epic your house would look with a few creeper traps.

You start raiding graves to make some fertilizer and tame all the wild wolves you come by.

You dig to the core of the earth, and you think you can survive the lava since you have hax on.

When it's dark, you try to /give 50 64.

When you see a shovel and start thinking about starting a mine in your backyard.

you hang up a painting and take it off repeatedly thinking it will be a new painting

You lay 2 sticks and 3 chunks of wood on your kitchen table.

you start putting rocks in your stove.

you try to make a wooden pickaxe out of fallen sticks

You try to put a pumpkin on your head.

you tried and failed to get to the bedrock layer

You find yourself fiddling with sticks and stones on a crafting table

You expect your friend to turn red for a couple of seconds when you punch him.

You look at your wife's jewelry box and say "Yes! I can finally get obsidian!"

Whenever you're wife gets angry, you think of the Charlotte mod and throw a flower at her to make her stay put.

You Try punching a Tree

You see real creepers

You continue to ask to be OP

When you are driving and see the fuel gauge going down you ask your passenger: "Hey, you have any spare coal?"

You use your wives diamond jewlery with sticks hoping for a pickaxe.

You make sure there isn't any way creepers can get into your house before you go to sleep.

You see a tree in real life and immediately calculate how many tools you can make from it.

You accidentally hit your dog and wonder why it's eyes aren't red.

When it starts getting dark you jump in your bed and go to sleep.

You build boats

You put your mom's ring's Diamond on the end of a stick attached to another stick and try to dig with it.

Every day, when you have to go to school, everything looks smooth and hi-resolution, and you think, wait, thats not right

You meet a blind person and think it's Herobrine.

When your motto is thinking outside of the block.

You wish for a minecart every time you need to go somewhere irl.

You cannot go to sleep unless the whole area is sleeping,

you have played more than 10 minecraft adventure maps

You jump into lava thinking you have god mode on.

You sat through this entire list.

Every light in your house has to be on.

Your pulse shoots off every time you hear a bow twang

You expect leather to pop out of a cow after it dies.

You find diamond in real life and try to make armor out of it.

You disassemble your computer and look at your motherboard: 'Woah, the guy who created this deserves a free internet.'

When youre stuck, you think you can just jump and put some dirt under you.

You keep your old computer because it has all your minecraft saves on it and you dont have a USB stick.

When you get greifed you start to treat everyone on the server as greifers. (even admins/ops)

You need a pick axe, oh wait, yes I have in my backpack

You have read the entire 'Art of war' thread on the forums and actually understood it.

When you see something ugly you think "Man i need to change my texture pack".

You feel like pressing shift-f whenever a game lags.

When you know the exact circumstances for leaves not to decay in alpha.

You think real spiders are midgets

When you get told that riding pigs is apparently a bad idea.

When your wolf says CREEPER than cry!

you walk up to people and hit them so you can take stuff of there dead bodies

you can survive a head on collison with a minecart going at full speed

You are still reading this

You see tree's waving in the wind. You say, " Thats not right..." .

You place a rock against the wall and when it drops, you wonder if it was gravel.

You're drawing minecraft figures all over your homework.

You shout "HAX!1!!!1!" when someone runs by faster than you can walk.

You attempt to re-texture IRL.

When your bored you try to add a mod.

You make a house dedicated to crafting

You try eating 10 un-cooked porkchops and wonder why you got sick.

You are no longer impressed by gold medals.

When you see a pig get hit by lightning in real life, you expect it to turn into a Zombie Pigman.

You refuse to take trigonometry because is it based upon heresy. (circles)

You stab a a sheep with a sword and the wool doesn't fall off, you call the president and tell him to fix the bug.

when you watch movies you think: ''c'mon just jump in the water it will be ok''

You know what a creeper actually is...

I guess you can say that Minecraft is pretty.. *Sunglasses* Top Notch.

You call yourself steve.

you think you have to press ''T'' before talking to someone

You read all this stuff here.

All your friends were made through Minecraft.

You get on minecraft at 6:30 then someone asked you what time it is and look at the clock and it says 5:45...

you have attempted to ignite a living pig in an attempt to cut out the time it would take to cook it's pork

You go out at night and worry,"Am i gonna get eaten by zombie"

You see flowing water and think "I'm going the other way"

You jump off a building, thinking you can eat an apple later.

You end up breaking your neck from looking up to see where the sun is.

You we're mining on a cave when you saw 50 creepers chasing you and you won.

You avoid moss stone because you are afraid that a dungeon might be near

The only way you spend time with people is on SMP.

You read every single one of these.

You see a TV and wonder how the redstone circuitry works.

You know every block id.

When you get stuck, you jump up and punch at the ground continuously, but no dirt appears.

You've burned down your house trying to create a Nether Portal.

In Geometry class, you suggest you spend a little more time on cubes.

You were sleepy and punched your bed.

you expected a mere metal bucket to hold a cubic meter of lava.

You poured a bucket of water on top of a mountain and were disturbed by the fact it didn't create a waterfall

you tried to carry 2,301 cubic meters of sand.

you punch things to pick them up.

You are afraid to go within a 5-meter radius of sprinklers.

You search all the sports channels looking for a Spleef match that's going on.

When Creeper stops meaning the guy who's a creep.

You cant stop listening to the "Form this way" yogcast music video.

When you hear a lot of sizzling and yell 'CREEPER GANBANG!'

You have several Minecraft related apps, even ones that do nothing like the Redstone torch app.

your watching TV and you wonder how to make it with redstone

You Punch Trees in your backyard When you want a new house

You look at grass IRL when your low on seeds in Minecraft and say "Dangit, I should've brought my hoe."

You get home from a car trip, cautiously walk into your dark house, and jump out in every room swinging a stick around in case there are creepers who have spawned, and then go to sleep with every light in the house turned on.

You have dreams about Minecraft updating.

You're constantly dissapointed with modern architecture, because you know you could build better in-game.

you look at a cow and wonder how much leather will drop

You hear groans and run only to find out that it was only your big brother

You jump off a high cliff into shallow water thinking you will be just fine by hitting jump.

You see a forest and think "I can build a wood fortress!"

You refer to Notch has "The Creator".

You always place your hands on the AWSD keys and mouse while waiting for stuff on your computer to load.

You refresh this page constantly to see if your joke has been added yet.

You get a watch thinking it shows a sun and moon.

Youve actually read all of these, shame on you...

You think that a creeper caused the Haiti earthquake.

You made Minecraft forums your homepage.

You see a jellyfish and run for your life, thinking that it will blast you with flaming snowballs.

You see strange landforms in real life and think "HEROBRINE".

You try to punch a tree in real life, hoping to get wood, but then you're just disappointed.

You never go underground in case of the Obsidian Skeleton.

You put cactus in the oven, then hope to dye sheep green with the resulting paste.

You go to a graveyard and punch the bodies expecting to get feathers.

You think that spiders won't bite you in the daytime.

You try to shear a sheep with snowballs.

You swim in shark-infested waters thinking that you're safe because you don't have Mo creatures on.

You put four pieces of sand in a grid formation expecting to get sandstone.

You put a log on a workbench expecting to get planks IN REAL LIFE.

you watch commentary by slyfox and yogscast everyday.

It has been 10 minutes and your wondering why the sun hasn't started to go down.

You think cages are Mob spawners

You light a steel cage on fire and put a model of a pig inside expecting swine to be created in puffs of smoke.

You think worshipping Notch is a religion.

You can't read normal clocks.

  

Also PSN Will be back tomorrow with free membership and free downloads for 30 days.

Addressed to: Mrs. Adie / Millington Road / Cambridge / England

 

Message on postcard reads: Dear Gran (Granville), Please forgive a P.C. (postcard) it is late & I'm dog tired. If Mother hasn't committed herself to the bedstand please ask her not to, (but) if she has, don't please tell her but I have 6 or 8 of the same from the Hotel. Besides which I suppose she would get an iron one & freight is $3.60 a ????. Will you tell her that I shall have to miss them this week. How I am going to get through at all, goodness knows. All goes well, I hope with you to. With best love - I have been writing her at 6 Claremont. Has she got the letters, I wonder! Bob.

 

- the mother - Clementina (nee Hellaby) Adia - she was born in Brudenell Place, Hoxton on - 17 Jan 1837 to Richard Hellaby and Mary Clementina Paqualin. Clementina Hellaby married Patrick Adie and had 8 children. She passed away on - 5 Nov 1930 in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England.

 

- the father - PATRICK ADIE was the youngest son of the late Alexander James Adie, F.R.S.E., optician of Edinburgh, and brother of the late Engineer of the Edinburgh and Glasgow and other railways. He was born in 1821, and was educated at the High School of Edinburgh. On leaving he went to the workshops of Milne and Son, gas engineers, in that city, where he gained his first mechanical experience. The next four years were spent in his father’s workshop in Edinburgh, with the exception of six months, which he passed in Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane’s observatory, near Kelso, where he gained valuable information, and made the acquaintance of the late Mr. John Welsh, subsequently Superintendent of the Kew Observatory. About 1847 he came to London, and a few years afterwards set up in business as an optician and surveying-instrument maker, which business he continued till the time of his death. He designed and supplied many of the instruments used by the engineers engaged in the great trigonometrical survey of India, and also in the construction of many railways, both in this country and abroad. He gained medals at the Exhibitions of 1851 (London), 1855 (Paris), 1862 (London), &C., for excellence of these instruments. For meteorological instruments his reputation was fully sustained, many certificates being received from Kew Observatory, showing that they were without error. That Mr. Adie possessed great inventive power is shown by the fact that he took out no less than twelve patents, many of which are well known, and have proved very successful. One of these patents he was engaged in perfecting at the time of his death. It consists in the employment of corrugated steel belting, in lieu of leather, which he believed would effect a large saving both in power and cost. In this opinion he was supported by some eminent Members of the Institution, to whom he was well known, and who frequently sought the advice which his great experience enabled him to give. During the last ten years of his life he had suffered from bronchitis and heart disease. He died suddenly on the 18th of May, 1886.

Today's story and sketch "by me" you see Professor Pratup, piloting his B&R Swoopy

Coupe Glider who is here from "TCU", hired by the "EBRA" Earth Racing Blimp

Association, to see if there is a straight forward Mathematical Solution to why

some of the Race Blimp teams are having problems with loosing altitude,

and after doing an extensive study found the sinking was being caused by

multiple arrows sticking out of many of the Race favorites.

The Professor has come a long way from the Planet Lippo home of "TCU" Trigonometric

Calculus University, He was the only Professor available, and has no mathematical

training, but is real good at everyday common sense problems, which is very good,

none of the math teachers would have seen the arrows.

But Professor Pratup does teach a course in "DS" Dermatological Surgery,

Which is A hair transplant procedure in which a surgeon moves hair from Goats

to Aliens who want to empress Alien and Earth Girls with stylish real Goatee's,

or just a nice firm toupee, but that is a story for another time till then taa ta

the Rod Blog.

Windsor (/ˈwɪnzər/) is a town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British Royal Family.

 

The town is situated 23 miles (37 km) west of Charing Cross, London. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with Eton. The village of Old Windsor, just over 2 miles (3 km) to the south, predates what is now called Windsor by around 300 years; in the past Windsor was formally referred to as New Windsor to distinguish the two.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

  

The Last Supper by Franz de Cleyn in the West Gallery of Windsor parish church of St John The Baptist.[3]

New Windsor was a nationally significant town in the Middle Ages, certainly one of the fifty wealthiest towns in the country by 1332. Its prosperity came from its close association with the royal household. The repeated investment in the castle brought London merchants (goldsmiths, vintners, spicers and mercers) to the town in the late 13th century and provided much employment for townsmen. The development of the castle under Edward III, between 1350–68, was the largest secular building project in England of the Middle Ages, and many Windsor people worked on this project, again bringing great wealth to the town. Although the Black Death in 1348 had reduced some towns' populations by up to 50%, in Windsor the building projects of Edward III brought money to the town, and possibly its population doubled: this was a 'boom' time for the local economy. People came to the town from every part of the country, and from continental Europe. The poet Geoffrey Chaucerheld the honorific post of 'Clerk of the Works' at Windsor Castle in 1391.

 

The development of the castle continued in the late 15th century with the rebuilding of St George's Chapel. With this Windsor became a major pilgrimage destination, particularly for Londoners. Pilgrims came to touch the royal shrine of the murdered Henry VI, the fragment of the True Cross and other important relics. Visits to the chapel were probably combined with a visit to the important nearby Marian shrine and college at Eton, founded by Henry VI in 1440, and dedicated to the Assumption; which is now better known as Eton College. Pilgrims came with substantial sums to spend. From perhaps two or three named inns in the late 15th century, some 30 can be identified a century later. The town again grew in wealth. For London pilgrims, Windsor was probably – but briefly – of greater importance than Canterbury and the shrine of the City's patron Saint Thomas Becket. With the closures of the Reformation, however, Windsor's pilgrim traffic died out. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in 1547, next to Jane Seymour, the mother of his only legitimate son, Edward (Edward VI). Henry, the founder of the Church of England, may have wanted to benefit from the stream of Catholic pilgrims coming to the town. His will gives that impression.

 

The town began to stagnate about ten years after the Reformation. The castle was considered old-fashioned and shrines to the dead were thought to be superstitious. The early modern period formed a stark contrast to the medieval history of the town. Most accounts of Windsor in the 16th and 17th centuries talk of its poverty, badly made streets and poor housing. Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Windsor is set in Windsor and contains many references to parts of the town and the surrounding countryside. Shakespeare must have walked the town's streets, near the castle and river, much as people still do. The play may have been written in the Garter Inn, opposite the Castle, but this was destroyed by fire in the late 17th century. The long-standing – and famous – courtesan of king Charles II, Nell Gwyn, was given a house on St Albans Street: Burford House (now part of the Royal Mews). Her residence in this house, as far as it is possible to tell, was brief. Only one of her letters addressed from Burford House survives: it was probably intended as a legacy for her illegitimate son, the Earl of Burford, later the Duke of St Albans.

 

Windsor was garrisoned by Colonel Venn during the English Civil War. Later it became the home of the New Model Army when Venn had left the castle in 1645. Despite its royal dependence, like many commercial centres, Windsor was a Parliamentarian town. Charles Iwas buried without ceremony in St George's Chapel after his execution at Whitehall in 1649. The present Guildhall, built in 1680–91, replaced an earlier market house that had been built on the same site around 1580, as well as the old guildhall, which faced the castle and had been built around 1350. The contraction in the number of old public buildings speaks of a town 'clearing the decks', ready for a renewed period of prosperity with Charles II's return to the Castle. But his successors did not use the place, and as the town was short of money, the planned new civic buildings did not appear. The town continued in poverty until the mid 19th century.

 

In 1652 the largest house in Windsor Great Park was built on land which Oliver Cromwell had appropriated from the Crown. Now known as Cumberland Lodge after the Duke of Cumberland's residence there in the mid 18th century, the house was variously known as Byfield House, New Lodge, Ranger's Lodge, Windsor Lodge and Great Lodge.

 

In 1778, there was a resumption of the royal presence, with George III at the Queen's Lodge and, from 1804, at the castle. This started a period of new development in Windsor, with the building of two army barracks. However the associated large numbers of soldiers led to a major prostitution problem by 1830, in a town where the number of streets had little changed since 1530. In the 18th c. the town traded with London selling the Windsor Chair which was actually made in Buckinghamshire.

 

A number of fine houses were built in this period, including Hadleigh House on Sheet Street, which was built in 1793 by the then Mayor of Windsor, William Thomas. In 1811 it was the home of John O'Reilly, the apothecary-surgeon to George III.

 

Windsor Castle was the westernmost sighting-point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which measured the precise distance between the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory by trigonometry. Windsor was used because of its relative proximity to the base-line of the survey at Hounslow Heath.

 

The substantial redevelopment of the castle in the subsequent decade and Queen Victoria's residence from 1840, as well as the coming of two railways in 1849, signalled the most dramatic changes in the town's history. These events catapulted the town from a sleepy medieval has-been to the centre of empire – many European crowned heads of state came to Windsor to visit the Queen throughout the rest of the 19th century. Unfortunately, excessive redevelopment and 'refurbishment' of Windsor's medieval fabric at this time resulted in widespread destruction of the old town, including the demolition of the old parish church of St John the Baptist in 1820. The original had been built around 1135.

 

Most of the current town's streets date from the mid to late 19th century.[5] However the main street, Peascod Street (pronunciation: /ˈpɛskɒd/) is very ancient, predating the castle by many years, and probably of Saxon origin. It formed part of the 10th-century parish structure in east Berkshire[citation needed] and is first referred to as Peascroftstret in c. 1170. The 1000-year-old royal Castle, although the largest and longest-occupied in Europe, is a recent development in comparison. "New Windsor" was officially renamed "Windsor" in 1974.

 

is accessible from Junction 6 of the M4 and from Slough via a 3 mile long dual carriageway. Bus services in the town are mostly provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, although a park-and-rideservice and one local route are operated by Courtney Coaches.

 

Windsor has two railway stations. Windsor & Eton Central railway station has a shuttle service to Slough. Windsor & Eton Riverside station provides a service to London Waterloo. Both stations were time in the 19th century, as the two train companies which owned the lines both wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege.[8] From 1883 to 1885, the London Underground's District line's westbound service ran as far as Windsor.

 

Windsor has frequent bus services to/from London Heathrow Airport, Victoria Coach Station in central London and Legoland Windsor Resort.

  

en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Berkshire

  

On the cover is an illustration of a battleship that has been cut loose by sweeping waves and runs down the lofty New York Municipal tower where crowds had sought refuge from the rising flood waters.

 

“The late Professor Garrett P. Serviss, the well-known scientist-author hits upon the effects which would be produced on humanity by a second deluge. It is an impressive tale, and not a whit more improbable than the first Noachian deluge of Biblical days. Only the setting is modern, and the second great ark is, of course, vastly different from that used by Noah. . .” [From the Editor’s Note]

 

“An undersized, lean, wizen-faced man, with an immense bald head, as round and smooth and shining as a great soap-bubble . . . Cosmo Versal sat bent over a writing desk with a huge sheet of cardboard before him, on which he was swiftly drawing geometrical and trigonometrical figures. Compasses, T-squares, rulers, protractors, and ellipsographs obeyed the touch of his fingers as if inspired with life. . .

 

“My God!” he said. “That’s it! That Lick photograph of the Lord Rosse nebula is its very image, except that there’s no electric fire in it. The same great whirl of outer spirals, and then comes the awful central mass – and we’re going to plunge straight into it. Then quintrillions of tons of water will condense on the earth and cover it like a universal cloudburst. And then good-by to the human race – unless –unless I, Cosmo Versal, inspired by science, can save a remnant to repeople the planet after the catastrophe . . .” [Quoting from the story].

 

Wilpena Pound.

For this northern latitude Wilpena Pound has good rainfall and a microclimate because of the surrounding hills. It was always a special place for Aboriginal people and a prized location for sheep pastoralists. At Cradock they average 250 mms annually, Hawker rises to 300 mm and Wilpena has 390 mms (15 inches in the old rainfall). Further north at Marree the average is just 136 mm a year. Wilpena Creek flows out of the Pound which covers 80 square kilometres (20,000 acres). It is 6 kms wide and 16 kms long and its highest surrounding peak is Mt Mary at 1,171 m or 3,842 feet. In 1840 Edward John Eyre and others explored parts of the Flinders Ranges but they did not discover Wilpena Pound. That was achieved by C Bagot in 1851. Bagot said in the press that there was only one ingress or egress to flat land with a permanent running creek suitable for depasturing 500 cattle. This plain was surrounded by steep rocky walls up to 1,000 feet high. The government responded by immediately sending Mr Burr of the Survey Office to the Pound for a trigonometrical survey in June 1851. Bagot gave it its Aboriginal name. The furthest north leasehold run in 1851 was at Kanyaka between Quorn and Hawker. The Wilpena run was also taken out in 1851 and originally covered 850 square miles but that was soon reduced into other leaseholds. Drs William and John Browne took over the Wilpena leasehold and by 1853 the pine slab homestead was built (demolished 1931) and shearing sheds and workers cottages soon followed. George Marchant got a 14 year lease of 85 square miles on 1 January 1855. In 1857 he employed a manager Charles Powell, whose father had planted the first mulberry tree at Kingscote in 1836, and he stayed at Wilpena station until 1882 but with various owners. By 1860 Dr William Browne held Wilpena run and he sold off the Arkaba section in 1863 before the big drought. By 1861 Henry Strong Price owned the leasehold which he tried to sell but could find no buyer. A report on Wilpena in 1865 says it covered 154 square miles and employed 19 married men and their wives, 24 single men and 41 children making a total of 101 people. Later in the 19th century Dr William Browne owned Wilpena again and the government resumed most of it in January 1880. Tourism came to Wilpena Pound in 1920 when the Wilpena Forest Reserve was created but the run was leased to graziers until 1945. At that time the Rasheed family established the chalet and all grazing in the Pound ceased. In 1970 the adjoining Orraparinna station was purchased by the government to create Flinders Ranges National Park. Finally in 1985 the government bought the leasehold to Wilpena station to add to the park. Its name was changed from Flinders National Park to Ikara Flinders National Park in 2016 thus incorporating, an Adnyamathanha word from the traditional land occupiers, into the title. The Adnyamathanha people and their sub clans have been in the area for around 15,000 years.

The Pound is a natural amphitheatre with Rawnsley Bluff at the southern end (he was the surveyor of runs in the 1850s). The Pound has a fascinating geomorphological structure. The landscape here was deeply folded with synclines and anticlines. Synclines are downward folds of earth layers with a trough at the bottom i.e. Wilpena Pound. Anticlines are the peaks of the layers but in the Flinders Ranges the anticlines have been eroded away over vast geological eras leaving rugged edges above the synclines or troughs. The trough of Wilpena Pound has a layer of quartzite, then other layers beneath that. The end of the anticline from the western side of the Pound is the Elder Range. The true shape of the formation reveals itself from the air.

 

This is of the last week, yes, quality sucks a bit.

Songspiration: we are young.

Sometimes the past is something you can not lose. Sometimes the past is something I would do anything to forget. Sometimes we learn something new about the past, which changes everything we know about the present.

 

Facts of those last days:

-9 last exams, 9 last exams and i'll finish all of them. And i'll have freedom. I'm looking forward to finishing.

-2 weeks of class.

-i've failed my trigonometry exam and i'll have another one this Monday, I wish pass it. * fingers crossed*

-today i had an anxiety attack D: (i was too scared)

-On 28th June i've got an Ibiza party, where i have to wear in white, and today i went to looking for a dress. YAYAYAYAY :D

-i'm thinking about my future, and i don't know WHAT STUDY. I just don't know D:

-i've thought such an incredible proyect that i have to do it in only a week , so i'm ready to do it !

 

have a good weekend everybody!

   

Darke Peak, South Australia

 

The grave of explorer John Darke, with the mountain that bears his name in the background.

 

The town takes its name from the explorer John Charles Darke, who was injured in a spear attack by Indigenous people while he was climbing nearby Waddikee Rock on 24 October 1844. Waddikee Rock is a sacred site of the Barngarla people. He died the next day and was buried at the foot of the Rock. Governor Grey expressed a wish that some landform in the region of the grave should be named to honour him. In 1865 surveyor Thomas Evans who was performing a trigonometrical survey of the Gawler Ranges and named the 1,564 ft (477 m) high mount, 'Darke's Peak'.

 

In 1909, another surveyor, W.G. Evans, reported that he had found bones in a grave and was satisfied they were the remains of Darke. Darke's grave and monument are located on the western side of the range, still standing as a memorial to the first European who explored this area. The memorial was erected by the SA Government in 1910.

 

The township of Darke Peak was originally proclaimed Carappee in 1914. The town was renamed in 1940 after the peak that bears John Charles Darke's name as further honour to the explorer. A school opened in the town in 1917.

Introduction.

William Julian Light has to be considered as one of the main founders of our city and state although he lived here for only three years until his death in October 1839. His vision, planning and surveying has left an indelible mark across the state. Sadly his time here was fraught with conflict, disrespect by many and ill health. He clearly knew that he was dying of tuberculosis for some time but he could not return to England so he died at his house in Thebarton. The South Australian newspaper in 1839 reported in mid September that “this highly esteemed colonist still continues in a very precarious state” and that there was little hope of recovery. When he died the government arranged a state funeral with the body carried from his home at Thebarton to Trinity Church where the service was conducted by the Colonial Chaplain Rev C Howard. Shops and banks closed for the day. The government offered £100 before the funeral to start a public memorial fund. The funeral was the largest congregation of people in the colony to that time. 423 gentlemen and state officials took part in the funeral procession and around 3,000 colonists followed. The body was appropriately interred in Light Square. Left is a

1904 painting of William Light owned by the Royal Geographical Society of SA.

 

Colonel William Light – his family heritage.

Francis Light, the father of William, was in the British navy and began the British settlement of Malaysia when he leased the Island of Penang from 1786. Francis Light founded the town of Georgetown and British Penang for the East India Company. Francis took a princess of Thai (Siamese) and Portuguese heritage from neighbouring Kedah as his bride whom he married in a local ceremony not recognised by the British. He had four daughters and two sons with Marina Rozells including William Light. Francis died in 1794 in Penang. Young William was born in 1786 in Penang and sent back to England for his schooling in 1792 to Theberton in Suffolk where he stayed in Theberton Hall owned by the aristocratic Doughty family. Francis Light’s Penang had a street grid pattern around a swamp, drains and a couple of hills. Church and mosque were allocated a zone with a cemetery further away etc and open ground was left around the fort and the public buildings. Undoubtedly Colonel William Light was very aware of his father’s design of Penang.

William Light joined the navy early and then the British Army from 1808-1814 when he served in Spain and elsewhere in the Napoleonic Wars under the Duke of Wellington. He was a brave leader and highly respected. When he left the Army in 1821 he married 19 year old E Perois in Northern Ireland. Her parents were probably Caesar and Mary Perois who are buried in the Londonderry Protestant Cathedral. She probably died a short time afterwards but nothing is known about her demise. He remarried in 1824 to nineteen year old Mary Bennet the illegitimate daughter of the Duke of Richmond. At that time Light was 38 years old. Light and Mary moved in literary and artistic circles. Light and his wealthy bride bought a yacht and sailed the Mediterranean for several years. They finally explored Egypt. Light painted, wrote and published his work. When he returned to England on business his wife took up a new lover and the Light marriage ended in 1832. She later had three children with the surname of Light but they were fathered by two other men. William Light in 1832 began an affair with Maria Gandy who was 21 years old when Light was 45 years old. William Light returned to Egypt in 1834 to captain the steamer the Nile and it was at this time that he met John Hindmarsh and John Morphett. In fact it was in Egypt that Hindmarsh heard that Light was going to be offered the post of governor of the new colony. Hindmarsh returned to England with a letter of introduction to Sir Charles Napier, a friend of Light, who was going to be involved in the decision about the governorship and Hindmarsh put himself forward- successfully. Light was then offered the position of Surveyor-General. Maria voyaged out to South Australia in 1836 on the Rapid with Colonel Light and others as his housekeeper. Her two brothers Edward and William were on the Rapid. Another brother George who arrived in 1838 named his child William Light Gandy in 1840. Maria stayed with Light until his death in Adelaide when she inherited his estate. Her brothers stayed in Thebarton with William being the Hindmarsh pound keeper. Edward went to California and then the Victorian gold fields and was quite successful. He bought two hotels which he managed for the rest of his life. He was mourned when he died as an 1836 pioneer of SA. In 1840 a few months after Light’s death Maria Gandy married Dr George Mayo. She had four children with Dr Mayo before her own death of tuberculosis, probably caught from Colonel Light, in 1847. It was the Mayo family who inherited William Light’s land portfolio, his papers and paintings etc and they benefited from the sale and development of Lights section 1. A granddaughter of Dr Mayo and Maria Gandy was the well-known South Australia Dr Helen Mayo. Dr George Mayo became the chief surgeon at the Royal Adelaide Hospital for most of his life. He remarried in 1853.

 

Light – the man and his personal life.

William Light had an excellent balance of practical expertise, a good geographical eye, common sense and vision. He was a painter and writer. He kept meticulous diaries. He was known for his hard work, loyalty and commitment to his tasks in South Australia. He persisted against the wishes of Governor Hindmarsh who instigated a public meeting to have the site of Adelaide changed to Port Adelaide and the constant backstabbing and lies of his Deputy Surveyor General George Kingston and public criticism of his choice of the Adelaide site and the slow rate at which land was trigonometrically surveyed ready for sale. Unable to cope with the frustrations of his office and the lack of surveyors to speed up the work he resigned in June 1838 just before Governor Hindmarsh was recalled in July 1838. Colonel Light then established his own private surveying firm with Boyle Travers Finniss (who became in effect the first SA premier although that term was not used then). One of their major employees from the original survey team was Henry Nixon. When Governor Gawler arrived in October 1838 the survey department under the control of the incompetent Kingston was in disarray and Gawler appointed Captain Charles Sturt as Surveyor General. William Light was a religious man and along with Maria Gandy they were both among the original 32 subscriber donors to Trinity Church on North Terrace. Yet when Light was on his death bed Reverend Charles Howard of that church refused to visit Colonel Light. Colonel Light established Light Finniss and Co in July 1838 with their offices in Stephen’s Place. The new company received private commission to lay out several important SA towns namely Gawler which still has a Light Square and an Anglican Church in a central square (Orleana Square); and Glenelg which was a private town on the land of William Finke. Light’s company laid out Glenelg by 30 March 1839 with a central square (Torrens Square) for the Church of England (Anglican) as he had done in Gawler. Governor Gawler approved this town plan of Glenelg on 18 May 1839 and his wife proposed the name of St Peters for the church. Glenelg had earlier been set aside as a town reserve but it was thrown open to selection by ballot in February 1839 when Finke and others won the ballot. Light Finniss and Co also laid out the village of Marion along the banks of the Sturt River. Colonel Light died in October 1839 and Boyle Finniss returned to the public service as Deputy Surveyor General also in late 1839 under direction of Edward Charles Frome who was Surveyor General from October 1839 to February 1849. Frome reported his early work was redoing the sections around Adelaide which had been inaccurately surveyed by George Kingston.

 

Light - Surveying, Mapping, Military Skills and Planning.

Colonel Light between September and December examined at least six possible sites for the siting of Adelaide. He chose the Adelaide Plains after his explorations of the harbour at Port Adelaide area at the end of September 1836 but not the actual location of the city as the River Torrens had not been discovered at that time. Kingston and John Morphett and others discovered the River Torrens in November as Holdfast Bay had also been discovered. Light then favoured the current Adelaide site but the final decision was not made until December 1836. Light’s assistant surveyor was George Kingston who lied about being a surveyor and had no skills at surveying. The areas of the city which Kingston surveyed were redone by Light because of the numerous errors. Surveying of Adelaide began on 11 January 1837 covering areas north and south of the River Torrens and covering 1,042 town acres surrounded by 2,300 acres of figure eight parklands exclusive of 32 acres for the cemetery and a further 38 acres for public squares. The city lands were sold in March 1837. The areas surrounding the city area were also surveyed in 1837 and put up for public sale. All these surveys were done by trigonometrical surveying which is the most accurate and Colonel Light’s theodolite is pictured left. All started from trig point one on the corner of North and West Terraces. This was also the location of Resident Commissioner James Hurtle Fisher’s cottage and the Surveying Office occupied by Light and Light’s cottage. Both these cottages were destroyed by fire in January 1839 when Light lost most of his papers and drawings. January 1839 was also the time when Light moved into his new house on his Thebarton lands. Most of the Adelaide metropolitan area was surveyed in 1837 creating 137 sections of land each of 134 acres. Those who bought land orders in England before colonisation at the reduced price of 12 shillings per acre could then purchase 134 acres instead of the advertised 80 acre sections which were to apply elsewhere. On 18 May 1838, just over a year since the sale of Adelaide town lots, Light declared that 150,000 acres of land was ready for settlement, or almost so. They were:

69,000 acres around Adelaide; 27,000 acres at Rapid Bay; 5,400 acres at Yankalilla; 20,000 acres on Kangaroo Island; and 28,000 acres in the Onkaparinga Valley. But a month later Colonel Light resigned as Surveyor General.

 

Light and Adelaide.

Edward Gibbon Wakefield who had played a role in promoting the concept of the colony and had had help from the Duke of Wellington to get the SA Act passed in the British parliament hoped the capital of the new colony would be named Wellington. But King William IV was asked if he wanted the capital named after himself. He declined and asked for it to be named after his wife Adelaide. Not to be deterred when Edward Gibbon Wakefield established his New Zealand Company in 1839 his first settlement was named Wellington. It later became the capital of New Zealand. Colonel William Light was given the task of selecting the site for the new capital in line with set criteria and his own expertise. The capital had to have a nearby port, a river for a water supply and a hinterland of good arable land for farmers etc. Light discounted other sites including Rapid Bay, Port Lincoln and Encounter Bay because they did not meet all of these criteria and he chose the current site. It was a few miles from a safe port at Port Adelaide, had extensive fertile lands to the north and south, and as he had spent years in the Mediterranean he knew the orthographic effect would increase the rainfall of the Mount Lofty Ranges to provide adequate water in the River Torrens and other streams. Ground water was also available from wells and bores under the proposed city. He chose a spot safe from flooding which was a problem below the city site and also one with a zone of higher rainfall between it and the foothills. Although the site was criticised by some led by Governor Hindmarsh, hindsight has shown that Light could not have chosen a better location. He sited the cemetery below the residential areas on West Terrace and he selected North Adelaide for grander residences away from the commercial areas.

 

But it was his actual plan for the city which earned him a great place in urban history. He knew from his days in the British Army that grid patterns worked well. But he introduced numerous squares and an encircling belt of parklands or green space. Colonel light was a well-read educated man and undoubtedly drew on the work of previous town planners. Perhaps he drew inspiration from the planners of beautiful Georgian Bath in the late 1700s with its grand boulevards, parks, terrace houses and arcs and curves. Or perhaps he was influenced by General James Oglethorpe, the designer of Savannah, Georgia which was done in 1733. Savannah has a grid plan, with each block divided by a narrow street and with 18 town squares. The wide main street of Savannah crosses five of the town squares, whereas in Light’s plan for Adelaide the wide main street (King William Street) only crosses Victoria Square. Savannah is not surrounded by a parkland belt. Colonel light was a world leader with this brilliant idea. At the end of the 19th century Light’s ideas were used in the garden city movement in Britain and America. Serendipitously these ideas were used by Charles Reade in the planning of Colonel Light Gardens.

 

Wilpena Pound.

For this northern latitude Wilpena Pound has good rainfall and a microclimate because of the surrounding hills. It was always a special place for Aboriginal people and a prized location for sheep pastoralists. At Cradock they average 250 mms annually, Hawker rises to 300 mm and Wilpena has 390 mms (15 inches in the old rainfall). Further north at Marree the average is just 136 mm a year. Wilpena Creek flows out of the Pound which covers 80 square kilometres (20,000 acres). It is 6 kms wide and 16 kms long and its highest surrounding peak is Mt Mary at 1,171 m or 3,842 feet. In 1840 Edward John Eyre and others explored parts of the Flinders Ranges but they did not discover Wilpena Pound. That was achieved by C Bagot in 1851. Bagot said in the press that there was only one ingress or egress to flat land with a permanent running creek suitable for depasturing 500 cattle. This plain was surrounded by steep rocky walls up to 1,000 feet high. The government responded by immediately sending Mr Burr of the Survey Office to the Pound for a trigonometrical survey in June 1851. Bagot gave it its Aboriginal name. The furthest north leasehold run in 1851 was at Kanyaka between Quorn and Hawker. The Wilpena run was also taken out in 1851 and originally covered 850 square miles but that was soon reduced into other leaseholds. Drs William and John Browne took over the Wilpena leasehold and by 1853 the pine slab homestead was built (demolished 1931) and shearing sheds and workers cottages soon followed. George Marchant got a 14 year lease of 85 square miles on 1 January 1855. In 1857 he employed a manager Charles Powell, whose father had planted the first mulberry tree at Kingscote in 1836, and he stayed at Wilpena station until 1882 but with various owners. By 1860 Dr William Browne held Wilpena run and he sold off the Arkaba section in 1863 before the big drought. By 1861 Henry Strong Price owned the leasehold which he tried to sell but could find no buyer. A report on Wilpena in 1865 says it covered 154 square miles and employed 19 married men and their wives, 24 single men and 41 children making a total of 101 people. Later in the 19th century Dr William Browne owned Wilpena again and the government resumed most of it in January 1880. Tourism came to Wilpena Pound in 1920 when the Wilpena Forest Reserve was created but the run was leased to graziers until 1945. At that time the Rasheed family established the chalet and all grazing in the Pound ceased. In 1970 the adjoining Orraparinna station was purchased by the government to create Flinders Ranges National Park. Finally in 1985 the government bought the leasehold to Wilpena station to add to the park. Its name was changed from Flinders National Park to Ikara Flinders National Park in 2016 thus incorporating, an Adnyamathanha word from the traditional land occupiers, into the title. The Adnyamathanha people and their sub clans have been in the area for around 15,000 years.

The Pound is a natural amphitheatre with Rawnsley Bluff at the southern end (he was the surveyor of runs in the 1850s). The Pound has a fascinating geomorphological structure. The landscape here was deeply folded with synclines and anticlines. Synclines are downward folds of earth layers with a trough at the bottom i.e. Wilpena Pound. Anticlines are the peaks of the layers but in the Flinders Ranges the anticlines have been eroded away over vast geological eras leaving rugged edges above the synclines or troughs. The trough of Wilpena Pound has a layer of quartzite, then other layers beneath that. The end of the anticline from the western side of the Pound is the Elder Range. The true shape of the formation reveals itself from the air.

 

I'm not sure if the white pillar is actually a trig point or just some remains of an old building or something, but I thought it made a good title! :-)

This was photographed on the Pembrokeshire coast on a short walk from Porthgain to Abereiddy. The cloud fascinated me and at one point it looked like a huge bird! But there was something missing at the left of the frame. Luckily I wasn't alone, so asked my mum to wander a few yard on towards the sea. In hindsight, maybe she's just a bit too rigid, (but then so is the pillar!) or maybe it's just the perfectionist in me! LOL

Vugelles, Vaud, Switzerland

 

--------------------------------------------------------

 

Way better on black (much better quality than the "L" option)

 

then you can hit "F" if you like it and "C" if you wish to comment.

 

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Sine functions with colour.

Windsor (/ˈwɪnzər/) is a town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British Royal Family.

 

The town is situated 23 miles (37 km) west of Charing Cross, London. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with Eton. The village of Old Windsor, just over 2 miles (3 km) to the south, predates what is now called Windsor by around 300 years; in the past Windsor was formally referred to as New Windsor to distinguish the two.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

  

The Last Supper by Franz de Cleyn in the West Gallery of Windsor parish church of St John The Baptist.[3]

New Windsor was a nationally significant town in the Middle Ages, certainly one of the fifty wealthiest towns in the country by 1332. Its prosperity came from its close association with the royal household. The repeated investment in the castle brought London merchants (goldsmiths, vintners, spicers and mercers) to the town in the late 13th century and provided much employment for townsmen. The development of the castle under Edward III, between 1350–68, was the largest secular building project in England of the Middle Ages, and many Windsor people worked on this project, again bringing great wealth to the town. Although the Black Death in 1348 had reduced some towns' populations by up to 50%, in Windsor the building projects of Edward III brought money to the town, and possibly its population doubled: this was a 'boom' time for the local economy. People came to the town from every part of the country, and from continental Europe. The poet Geoffrey Chaucerheld the honorific post of 'Clerk of the Works' at Windsor Castle in 1391.

 

The development of the castle continued in the late 15th century with the rebuilding of St George's Chapel. With this Windsor became a major pilgrimage destination, particularly for Londoners. Pilgrims came to touch the royal shrine of the murdered Henry VI, the fragment of the True Cross and other important relics. Visits to the chapel were probably combined with a visit to the important nearby Marian shrine and college at Eton, founded by Henry VI in 1440, and dedicated to the Assumption; which is now better known as Eton College. Pilgrims came with substantial sums to spend. From perhaps two or three named inns in the late 15th century, some 30 can be identified a century later. The town again grew in wealth. For London pilgrims, Windsor was probably – but briefly – of greater importance than Canterbury and the shrine of the City's patron Saint Thomas Becket. With the closures of the Reformation, however, Windsor's pilgrim traffic died out. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in 1547, next to Jane Seymour, the mother of his only legitimate son, Edward (Edward VI). Henry, the founder of the Church of England, may have wanted to benefit from the stream of Catholic pilgrims coming to the town. His will gives that impression.

 

The town began to stagnate about ten years after the Reformation. The castle was considered old-fashioned and shrines to the dead were thought to be superstitious. The early modern period formed a stark contrast to the medieval history of the town. Most accounts of Windsor in the 16th and 17th centuries talk of its poverty, badly made streets and poor housing. Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Windsor is set in Windsor and contains many references to parts of the town and the surrounding countryside. Shakespeare must have walked the town's streets, near the castle and river, much as people still do. The play may have been written in the Garter Inn, opposite the Castle, but this was destroyed by fire in the late 17th century. The long-standing – and famous – courtesan of king Charles II, Nell Gwyn, was given a house on St Albans Street: Burford House (now part of the Royal Mews). Her residence in this house, as far as it is possible to tell, was brief. Only one of her letters addressed from Burford House survives: it was probably intended as a legacy for her illegitimate son, the Earl of Burford, later the Duke of St Albans.

 

Windsor was garrisoned by Colonel Venn during the English Civil War. Later it became the home of the New Model Army when Venn had left the castle in 1645. Despite its royal dependence, like many commercial centres, Windsor was a Parliamentarian town. Charles Iwas buried without ceremony in St George's Chapel after his execution at Whitehall in 1649. The present Guildhall, built in 1680–91, replaced an earlier market house that had been built on the same site around 1580, as well as the old guildhall, which faced the castle and had been built around 1350. The contraction in the number of old public buildings speaks of a town 'clearing the decks', ready for a renewed period of prosperity with Charles II's return to the Castle. But his successors did not use the place, and as the town was short of money, the planned new civic buildings did not appear. The town continued in poverty until the mid 19th century.

 

In 1652 the largest house in Windsor Great Park was built on land which Oliver Cromwell had appropriated from the Crown. Now known as Cumberland Lodge after the Duke of Cumberland's residence there in the mid 18th century, the house was variously known as Byfield House, New Lodge, Ranger's Lodge, Windsor Lodge and Great Lodge.

 

In 1778, there was a resumption of the royal presence, with George III at the Queen's Lodge and, from 1804, at the castle. This started a period of new development in Windsor, with the building of two army barracks. However the associated large numbers of soldiers led to a major prostitution problem by 1830, in a town where the number of streets had little changed since 1530. In the 18th c. the town traded with London selling the Windsor Chair which was actually made in Buckinghamshire.

 

A number of fine houses were built in this period, including Hadleigh House on Sheet Street, which was built in 1793 by the then Mayor of Windsor, William Thomas. In 1811 it was the home of John O'Reilly, the apothecary-surgeon to George III.

 

Windsor Castle was the westernmost sighting-point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which measured the precise distance between the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory by trigonometry. Windsor was used because of its relative proximity to the base-line of the survey at Hounslow Heath.

 

The substantial redevelopment of the castle in the subsequent decade and Queen Victoria's residence from 1840, as well as the coming of two railways in 1849, signalled the most dramatic changes in the town's history. These events catapulted the town from a sleepy medieval has-been to the centre of empire – many European crowned heads of state came to Windsor to visit the Queen throughout the rest of the 19th century. Unfortunately, excessive redevelopment and 'refurbishment' of Windsor's medieval fabric at this time resulted in widespread destruction of the old town, including the demolition of the old parish church of St John the Baptist in 1820. The original had been built around 1135.

 

Most of the current town's streets date from the mid to late 19th century.[5] However the main street, Peascod Street (pronunciation: /ˈpɛskɒd/) is very ancient, predating the castle by many years, and probably of Saxon origin. It formed part of the 10th-century parish structure in east Berkshire[citation needed] and is first referred to as Peascroftstret in c. 1170. The 1000-year-old royal Castle, although the largest and longest-occupied in Europe, is a recent development in comparison. "New Windsor" was officially renamed "Windsor" in 1974.

 

is accessible from Junction 6 of the M4 and from Slough via a 3 mile long dual carriageway. Bus services in the town are mostly provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, although a park-and-rideservice and one local route are operated by Courtney Coaches.

 

Windsor has two railway stations. Windsor & Eton Central railway station has a shuttle service to Slough. Windsor & Eton Riverside station provides a service to London Waterloo. Both stations were time in the 19th century, as the two train companies which owned the lines both wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege.[8] From 1883 to 1885, the London Underground's District line's westbound service ran as far as Windsor.

 

Windsor has frequent bus services to/from London Heathrow Airport, Victoria Coach Station in central London and Legoland Windsor Resort.

  

en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Berkshire

  

Today I decided I should catch up with the rest of my Trig class. I missed the last week of school to start my acation early, unfortunately, that week would have been mighty helpful to my understanding of the chapter we were on.

Since I was spending so much time to my book work, I decided I would make it a little interesting for me by taking a few shots of some of the problems.

I really like the outcome of the pictures, and... I accidentally deleted all but one, this lucky one. It's interesting how the words for the problems above look as if they aren't really on the page.

Windsor (/ˈwɪnzər/) is a town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British Royal Family.

 

The town is situated 23 miles (37 km) west of Charing Cross, London. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with Eton. The village of Old Windsor, just over 2 miles (3 km) to the south, predates what is now called Windsor by around 300 years; in the past Windsor was formally referred to as New Windsor to distinguish the two.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

  

The Last Supper by Franz de Cleyn in the West Gallery of Windsor parish church of St John The Baptist.[3]

New Windsor was a nationally significant town in the Middle Ages, certainly one of the fifty wealthiest towns in the country by 1332. Its prosperity came from its close association with the royal household. The repeated investment in the castle brought London merchants (goldsmiths, vintners, spicers and mercers) to the town in the late 13th century and provided much employment for townsmen. The development of the castle under Edward III, between 1350–68, was the largest secular building project in England of the Middle Ages, and many Windsor people worked on this project, again bringing great wealth to the town. Although the Black Death in 1348 had reduced some towns' populations by up to 50%, in Windsor the building projects of Edward III brought money to the town, and possibly its population doubled: this was a 'boom' time for the local economy. People came to the town from every part of the country, and from continental Europe. The poet Geoffrey Chaucerheld the honorific post of 'Clerk of the Works' at Windsor Castle in 1391.

 

The development of the castle continued in the late 15th century with the rebuilding of St George's Chapel. With this Windsor became a major pilgrimage destination, particularly for Londoners. Pilgrims came to touch the royal shrine of the murdered Henry VI, the fragment of the True Cross and other important relics. Visits to the chapel were probably combined with a visit to the important nearby Marian shrine and college at Eton, founded by Henry VI in 1440, and dedicated to the Assumption; which is now better known as Eton College. Pilgrims came with substantial sums to spend. From perhaps two or three named inns in the late 15th century, some 30 can be identified a century later. The town again grew in wealth. For London pilgrims, Windsor was probably – but briefly – of greater importance than Canterbury and the shrine of the City's patron Saint Thomas Becket. With the closures of the Reformation, however, Windsor's pilgrim traffic died out. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in 1547, next to Jane Seymour, the mother of his only legitimate son, Edward (Edward VI). Henry, the founder of the Church of England, may have wanted to benefit from the stream of Catholic pilgrims coming to the town. His will gives that impression.

 

The town began to stagnate about ten years after the Reformation. The castle was considered old-fashioned and shrines to the dead were thought to be superstitious. The early modern period formed a stark contrast to the medieval history of the town. Most accounts of Windsor in the 16th and 17th centuries talk of its poverty, badly made streets and poor housing. Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Windsor is set in Windsor and contains many references to parts of the town and the surrounding countryside. Shakespeare must have walked the town's streets, near the castle and river, much as people still do. The play may have been written in the Garter Inn, opposite the Castle, but this was destroyed by fire in the late 17th century. The long-standing – and famous – courtesan of king Charles II, Nell Gwyn, was given a house on St Albans Street: Burford House (now part of the Royal Mews). Her residence in this house, as far as it is possible to tell, was brief. Only one of her letters addressed from Burford House survives: it was probably intended as a legacy for her illegitimate son, the Earl of Burford, later the Duke of St Albans.

 

Windsor was garrisoned by Colonel Venn during the English Civil War. Later it became the home of the New Model Army when Venn had left the castle in 1645. Despite its royal dependence, like many commercial centres, Windsor was a Parliamentarian town. Charles Iwas buried without ceremony in St George's Chapel after his execution at Whitehall in 1649. The present Guildhall, built in 1680–91, replaced an earlier market house that had been built on the same site around 1580, as well as the old guildhall, which faced the castle and had been built around 1350. The contraction in the number of old public buildings speaks of a town 'clearing the decks', ready for a renewed period of prosperity with Charles II's return to the Castle. But his successors did not use the place, and as the town was short of money, the planned new civic buildings did not appear. The town continued in poverty until the mid 19th century.

 

In 1652 the largest house in Windsor Great Park was built on land which Oliver Cromwell had appropriated from the Crown. Now known as Cumberland Lodge after the Duke of Cumberland's residence there in the mid 18th century, the house was variously known as Byfield House, New Lodge, Ranger's Lodge, Windsor Lodge and Great Lodge.

 

In 1778, there was a resumption of the royal presence, with George III at the Queen's Lodge and, from 1804, at the castle. This started a period of new development in Windsor, with the building of two army barracks. However the associated large numbers of soldiers led to a major prostitution problem by 1830, in a town where the number of streets had little changed since 1530. In the 18th c. the town traded with London selling the Windsor Chair which was actually made in Buckinghamshire.

 

A number of fine houses were built in this period, including Hadleigh House on Sheet Street, which was built in 1793 by the then Mayor of Windsor, William Thomas. In 1811 it was the home of John O'Reilly, the apothecary-surgeon to George III.

 

Windsor Castle was the westernmost sighting-point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which measured the precise distance between the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory by trigonometry. Windsor was used because of its relative proximity to the base-line of the survey at Hounslow Heath.

 

The substantial redevelopment of the castle in the subsequent decade and Queen Victoria's residence from 1840, as well as the coming of two railways in 1849, signalled the most dramatic changes in the town's history. These events catapulted the town from a sleepy medieval has-been to the centre of empire – many European crowned heads of state came to Windsor to visit the Queen throughout the rest of the 19th century. Unfortunately, excessive redevelopment and 'refurbishment' of Windsor's medieval fabric at this time resulted in widespread destruction of the old town, including the demolition of the old parish church of St John the Baptist in 1820. The original had been built around 1135.

 

Most of the current town's streets date from the mid to late 19th century.[5] However the main street, Peascod Street (pronunciation: /ˈpɛskɒd/) is very ancient, predating the castle by many years, and probably of Saxon origin. It formed part of the 10th-century parish structure in east Berkshire[citation needed] and is first referred to as Peascroftstret in c. 1170. The 1000-year-old royal Castle, although the largest and longest-occupied in Europe, is a recent development in comparison. "New Windsor" was officially renamed "Windsor" in 1974.

 

is accessible from Junction 6 of the M4 and from Slough via a 3 mile long dual carriageway. Bus services in the town are mostly provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, although a park-and-rideservice and one local route are operated by Courtney Coaches.

 

Windsor has two railway stations. Windsor & Eton Central railway station has a shuttle service to Slough. Windsor & Eton Riverside station provides a service to London Waterloo. Both stations were time in the 19th century, as the two train companies which owned the lines both wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege.[8] From 1883 to 1885, the London Underground's District line's westbound service ran as far as Windsor.

 

Windsor has frequent bus services to/from London Heathrow Airport, Victoria Coach Station in central London and Legoland Windsor Resort.

  

en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Berkshire

  

Windsor (/ˈwɪnzər/) is a town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British Royal Family.

 

The town is situated 23 miles (37 km) west of Charing Cross, London. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with Eton. The village of Old Windsor, just over 2 miles (3 km) to the south, predates what is now called Windsor by around 300 years; in the past Windsor was formally referred to as New Windsor to distinguish the two.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

  

The Last Supper by Franz de Cleyn in the West Gallery of Windsor parish church of St John The Baptist.[3]

New Windsor was a nationally significant town in the Middle Ages, certainly one of the fifty wealthiest towns in the country by 1332. Its prosperity came from its close association with the royal household. The repeated investment in the castle brought London merchants (goldsmiths, vintners, spicers and mercers) to the town in the late 13th century and provided much employment for townsmen. The development of the castle under Edward III, between 1350–68, was the largest secular building project in England of the Middle Ages, and many Windsor people worked on this project, again bringing great wealth to the town. Although the Black Death in 1348 had reduced some towns' populations by up to 50%, in Windsor the building projects of Edward III brought money to the town, and possibly its population doubled: this was a 'boom' time for the local economy. People came to the town from every part of the country, and from continental Europe. The poet Geoffrey Chaucerheld the honorific post of 'Clerk of the Works' at Windsor Castle in 1391.

 

The development of the castle continued in the late 15th century with the rebuilding of St George's Chapel. With this Windsor became a major pilgrimage destination, particularly for Londoners. Pilgrims came to touch the royal shrine of the murdered Henry VI, the fragment of the True Cross and other important relics. Visits to the chapel were probably combined with a visit to the important nearby Marian shrine and college at Eton, founded by Henry VI in 1440, and dedicated to the Assumption; which is now better known as Eton College. Pilgrims came with substantial sums to spend. From perhaps two or three named inns in the late 15th century, some 30 can be identified a century later. The town again grew in wealth. For London pilgrims, Windsor was probably – but briefly – of greater importance than Canterbury and the shrine of the City's patron Saint Thomas Becket. With the closures of the Reformation, however, Windsor's pilgrim traffic died out. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in 1547, next to Jane Seymour, the mother of his only legitimate son, Edward (Edward VI). Henry, the founder of the Church of England, may have wanted to benefit from the stream of Catholic pilgrims coming to the town. His will gives that impression.

 

The town began to stagnate about ten years after the Reformation. The castle was considered old-fashioned and shrines to the dead were thought to be superstitious. The early modern period formed a stark contrast to the medieval history of the town. Most accounts of Windsor in the 16th and 17th centuries talk of its poverty, badly made streets and poor housing. Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Windsor is set in Windsor and contains many references to parts of the town and the surrounding countryside. Shakespeare must have walked the town's streets, near the castle and river, much as people still do. The play may have been written in the Garter Inn, opposite the Castle, but this was destroyed by fire in the late 17th century. The long-standing – and famous – courtesan of king Charles II, Nell Gwyn, was given a house on St Albans Street: Burford House (now part of the Royal Mews). Her residence in this house, as far as it is possible to tell, was brief. Only one of her letters addressed from Burford House survives: it was probably intended as a legacy for her illegitimate son, the Earl of Burford, later the Duke of St Albans.

 

Windsor was garrisoned by Colonel Venn during the English Civil War. Later it became the home of the New Model Army when Venn had left the castle in 1645. Despite its royal dependence, like many commercial centres, Windsor was a Parliamentarian town. Charles Iwas buried without ceremony in St George's Chapel after his execution at Whitehall in 1649. The present Guildhall, built in 1680–91, replaced an earlier market house that had been built on the same site around 1580, as well as the old guildhall, which faced the castle and had been built around 1350. The contraction in the number of old public buildings speaks of a town 'clearing the decks', ready for a renewed period of prosperity with Charles II's return to the Castle. But his successors did not use the place, and as the town was short of money, the planned new civic buildings did not appear. The town continued in poverty until the mid 19th century.

 

In 1652 the largest house in Windsor Great Park was built on land which Oliver Cromwell had appropriated from the Crown. Now known as Cumberland Lodge after the Duke of Cumberland's residence there in the mid 18th century, the house was variously known as Byfield House, New Lodge, Ranger's Lodge, Windsor Lodge and Great Lodge.

 

In 1778, there was a resumption of the royal presence, with George III at the Queen's Lodge and, from 1804, at the castle. This started a period of new development in Windsor, with the building of two army barracks. However the associated large numbers of soldiers led to a major prostitution problem by 1830, in a town where the number of streets had little changed since 1530. In the 18th c. the town traded with London selling the Windsor Chair which was actually made in Buckinghamshire.

 

A number of fine houses were built in this period, including Hadleigh House on Sheet Street, which was built in 1793 by the then Mayor of Windsor, William Thomas. In 1811 it was the home of John O'Reilly, the apothecary-surgeon to George III.

 

Windsor Castle was the westernmost sighting-point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which measured the precise distance between the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory by trigonometry. Windsor was used because of its relative proximity to the base-line of the survey at Hounslow Heath.

 

The substantial redevelopment of the castle in the subsequent decade and Queen Victoria's residence from 1840, as well as the coming of two railways in 1849, signalled the most dramatic changes in the town's history. These events catapulted the town from a sleepy medieval has-been to the centre of empire – many European crowned heads of state came to Windsor to visit the Queen throughout the rest of the 19th century. Unfortunately, excessive redevelopment and 'refurbishment' of Windsor's medieval fabric at this time resulted in widespread destruction of the old town, including the demolition of the old parish church of St John the Baptist in 1820. The original had been built around 1135.

 

Most of the current town's streets date from the mid to late 19th century.[5] However the main street, Peascod Street (pronunciation: /ˈpɛskɒd/) is very ancient, predating the castle by many years, and probably of Saxon origin. It formed part of the 10th-century parish structure in east Berkshire[citation needed] and is first referred to as Peascroftstret in c. 1170. The 1000-year-old royal Castle, although the largest and longest-occupied in Europe, is a recent development in comparison. "New Windsor" was officially renamed "Windsor" in 1974.

 

is accessible from Junction 6 of the M4 and from Slough via a 3 mile long dual carriageway. Bus services in the town are mostly provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, although a park-and-rideservice and one local route are operated by Courtney Coaches.

 

Windsor has two railway stations. Windsor & Eton Central railway station has a shuttle service to Slough. Windsor & Eton Riverside station provides a service to London Waterloo. Both stations were time in the 19th century, as the two train companies which owned the lines both wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege.[8] From 1883 to 1885, the London Underground's District line's westbound service ran as far as Windsor.

 

Windsor has frequent bus services to/from London Heathrow Airport, Victoria Coach Station in central London and Legoland Windsor Resort.

  

en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Berkshire

  

Windsor (/ˈwɪnzər/) is a town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British Royal Family.

 

The town is situated 23 miles (37 km) west of Charing Cross, London. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with Eton. The village of Old Windsor, just over 2 miles (3 km) to the south, predates what is now called Windsor by around 300 years; in the past Windsor was formally referred to as New Windsor to distinguish the two.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

 

The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.

 

Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.

 

Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.

 

The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.

  

The Last Supper by Franz de Cleyn in the West Gallery of Windsor parish church of St John The Baptist.[3]

New Windsor was a nationally significant town in the Middle Ages, certainly one of the fifty wealthiest towns in the country by 1332. Its prosperity came from its close association with the royal household. The repeated investment in the castle brought London merchants (goldsmiths, vintners, spicers and mercers) to the town in the late 13th century and provided much employment for townsmen. The development of the castle under Edward III, between 1350–68, was the largest secular building project in England of the Middle Ages, and many Windsor people worked on this project, again bringing great wealth to the town. Although the Black Death in 1348 had reduced some towns' populations by up to 50%, in Windsor the building projects of Edward III brought money to the town, and possibly its population doubled: this was a 'boom' time for the local economy. People came to the town from every part of the country, and from continental Europe. The poet Geoffrey Chaucerheld the honorific post of 'Clerk of the Works' at Windsor Castle in 1391.

 

The development of the castle continued in the late 15th century with the rebuilding of St George's Chapel. With this Windsor became a major pilgrimage destination, particularly for Londoners. Pilgrims came to touch the royal shrine of the murdered Henry VI, the fragment of the True Cross and other important relics. Visits to the chapel were probably combined with a visit to the important nearby Marian shrine and college at Eton, founded by Henry VI in 1440, and dedicated to the Assumption; which is now better known as Eton College. Pilgrims came with substantial sums to spend. From perhaps two or three named inns in the late 15th century, some 30 can be identified a century later. The town again grew in wealth. For London pilgrims, Windsor was probably – but briefly – of greater importance than Canterbury and the shrine of the City's patron Saint Thomas Becket. With the closures of the Reformation, however, Windsor's pilgrim traffic died out. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in 1547, next to Jane Seymour, the mother of his only legitimate son, Edward (Edward VI). Henry, the founder of the Church of England, may have wanted to benefit from the stream of Catholic pilgrims coming to the town. His will gives that impression.

 

The town began to stagnate about ten years after the Reformation. The castle was considered old-fashioned and shrines to the dead were thought to be superstitious. The early modern period formed a stark contrast to the medieval history of the town. Most accounts of Windsor in the 16th and 17th centuries talk of its poverty, badly made streets and poor housing. Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Windsor is set in Windsor and contains many references to parts of the town and the surrounding countryside. Shakespeare must have walked the town's streets, near the castle and river, much as people still do. The play may have been written in the Garter Inn, opposite the Castle, but this was destroyed by fire in the late 17th century. The long-standing – and famous – courtesan of king Charles II, Nell Gwyn, was given a house on St Albans Street: Burford House (now part of the Royal Mews). Her residence in this house, as far as it is possible to tell, was brief. Only one of her letters addressed from Burford House survives: it was probably intended as a legacy for her illegitimate son, the Earl of Burford, later the Duke of St Albans.

 

Windsor was garrisoned by Colonel Venn during the English Civil War. Later it became the home of the New Model Army when Venn had left the castle in 1645. Despite its royal dependence, like many commercial centres, Windsor was a Parliamentarian town. Charles Iwas buried without ceremony in St George's Chapel after his execution at Whitehall in 1649. The present Guildhall, built in 1680–91, replaced an earlier market house that had been built on the same site around 1580, as well as the old guildhall, which faced the castle and had been built around 1350. The contraction in the number of old public buildings speaks of a town 'clearing the decks', ready for a renewed period of prosperity with Charles II's return to the Castle. But his successors did not use the place, and as the town was short of money, the planned new civic buildings did not appear. The town continued in poverty until the mid 19th century.

 

In 1652 the largest house in Windsor Great Park was built on land which Oliver Cromwell had appropriated from the Crown. Now known as Cumberland Lodge after the Duke of Cumberland's residence there in the mid 18th century, the house was variously known as Byfield House, New Lodge, Ranger's Lodge, Windsor Lodge and Great Lodge.

 

In 1778, there was a resumption of the royal presence, with George III at the Queen's Lodge and, from 1804, at the castle. This started a period of new development in Windsor, with the building of two army barracks. However the associated large numbers of soldiers led to a major prostitution problem by 1830, in a town where the number of streets had little changed since 1530. In the 18th c. the town traded with London selling the Windsor Chair which was actually made in Buckinghamshire.

 

A number of fine houses were built in this period, including Hadleigh House on Sheet Street, which was built in 1793 by the then Mayor of Windsor, William Thomas. In 1811 it was the home of John O'Reilly, the apothecary-surgeon to George III.

 

Windsor Castle was the westernmost sighting-point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which measured the precise distance between the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory by trigonometry. Windsor was used because of its relative proximity to the base-line of the survey at Hounslow Heath.

 

The substantial redevelopment of the castle in the subsequent decade and Queen Victoria's residence from 1840, as well as the coming of two railways in 1849, signalled the most dramatic changes in the town's history. These events catapulted the town from a sleepy medieval has-been to the centre of empire – many European crowned heads of state came to Windsor to visit the Queen throughout the rest of the 19th century. Unfortunately, excessive redevelopment and 'refurbishment' of Windsor's medieval fabric at this time resulted in widespread destruction of the old town, including the demolition of the old parish church of St John the Baptist in 1820. The original had been built around 1135.

 

Most of the current town's streets date from the mid to late 19th century.[5] However the main street, Peascod Street (pronunciation: /ˈpɛskɒd/) is very ancient, predating the castle by many years, and probably of Saxon origin. It formed part of the 10th-century parish structure in east Berkshire[citation needed] and is first referred to as Peascroftstret in c. 1170. The 1000-year-old royal Castle, although the largest and longest-occupied in Europe, is a recent development in comparison. "New Windsor" was officially renamed "Windsor" in 1974.

 

is accessible from Junction 6 of the M4 and from Slough via a 3 mile long dual carriageway. Bus services in the town are mostly provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, although a park-and-rideservice and one local route are operated by Courtney Coaches.

 

Windsor has two railway stations. Windsor & Eton Central railway station has a shuttle service to Slough. Windsor & Eton Riverside station provides a service to London Waterloo. Both stations were time in the 19th century, as the two train companies which owned the lines both wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege.[8] From 1883 to 1885, the London Underground's District line's westbound service ran as far as Windsor.

 

Windsor has frequent bus services to/from London Heathrow Airport, Victoria Coach Station in central London and Legoland Windsor Resort.

  

en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Berkshire

  

you can't stop now

it's already begun

you feel it

running through your bones

 

Ok... I posted a different (horrid) version of this last night. Woke up to nightmares of it and had to continue working on it. I think this time around I'm happier with the product. Its got a more comic-book-y feel to it which it should, after all no normal person can fly...

 

I used a measuring tape, trigonometry and many handstand attempts to get this... my face was bright red by the end of it all.

  

These components perform key computations for Tide Predicting Machine No. 2, a special purpose mechanical analog computer for predicting the height and time of high and low tides. The tide prediction formula implemented by the machine includes the addition of a series of cosine terms. The triangular metal pieces are part of slotted yoke cranks which convert circular motion to a vertical motion that traces a sinusoid. Each slotted yoke crank is connected by a shaft to a pulley, which causes the pulley to follow the sinusoidal motion. A chain going over and under pulleys sums each of their deflections to compute the tide.

 

The U.S. government used Tide Predicting Machine No. 2 from 1910 to 1965 to predict tides for ports around the world. The machine, also known as “Old Brass Brains,” uses an intricate arrangement of gears, pulleys, chains, slides, and other mechanical components to perform the computations.

 

A person using the machine would require 2-3 days to compute a year’s tides at one location. A person performing the same calculations by hand would require hundreds of days to perform the work. The machine is 10.8 feet (3.3 m) long, 6.2 feet (1.9 m) high, and 2.0 feet (0.61 m) wide and weighs approximately 2,500 pounds (1134 kg). The operator powers the machine with a hand crank.