Phycomyces blakesleeanus (no common name). A dense cluster of filimentous aerial hyphae. Each of these threadlike stalks a spore-bearing sporangium at the tip. Big Basin Redwoods State Park. Near Boulder Creek, Santa Cruz Co., Calif.

Jellyfish, also known sea jellies, are the medusa-phase of certain gelatinous members of the subphylum Medusozoa, which is a major part of the phylum Cnidaria.

 

Jellyfish are mainly free-swimming marine animals with umbrella-shaped bells and trailing tentacles, although a few are anchored to the seabed by stalks rather than being mobile. The bell can pulsate to provide propulsion for highly efficient locomotion. The tentacles are armed with stinging cells and may be used to capture prey and defend against predators. Jellyfish have a complex life cycle. The medusa is normally the sexual phase, which produces planula larvae; these then disperse widely and enter a sedentary polyp phase, before reaching sexual maturity.

 

Jellyfish are found all over the world, from surface waters to the deep sea. Scyphozoans (the "true jellyfish") are exclusively marine, but some hydrozoans with a similar appearance live in freshwater. Large, often colorful, jellyfish are common in coastal zones worldwide. The medusae of most species are fast-growing, and mature within a few months then die soon after breeding, but the polyp stage, attached to the seabed, may be much more long-lived. Jellyfish have been in existence for at least 500 million years, and possibly 700 million years or more, making them the oldest multi-organ animal group.

 

Jellyfish are eaten by humans in certain cultures. They are considered a delicacy in some Asian countries, where species in the Rhizostomeae order are pressed and salted to remove excess water. Australian researchers have described them as a "perfect food": sustainable and protein-rich but relatively low in food energy.

 

They are also used in research, where the green fluorescent protein used by some species to cause bioluminescence has been adapted as a fluorescent marker for genes inserted into other cells or organisms.

 

The stinging cells used by jellyfish to subdue their prey can injure humans. Thousands of swimmers worldwide are stung every year, with effects ranging from mild discomfort to serious injury or even death. When conditions are favourable, jellyfish can form vast swarms, which can be responsible for damage to fishing gear by filling fishing nets, and sometimes clog the cooling systems of power and desalination plants which draw their water from the sea.

  

Names

The name jellyfish, in use since 1796, has traditionally been applied to medusae and all similar animals including the comb jellies (ctenophores, another phylum). The term jellies or sea jellies is more recent, having been introduced by public aquaria in an effort to avoid use of the word "fish" with its modern connotation of an animal with a backbone, though shellfish, cuttlefish and starfish are not vertebrates either. In scientific literature, "jelly" and "jellyfish" have been used interchangeably. Many sources refer to only scyphozoans as "true jellyfish".

 

A group of jellyfish is called a "smack" or a "smuck".

 

Definition

The term jellyfish broadly corresponds to medusae, that is, a life-cycle stage in the Medusozoa. The American evolutionary biologist Paulyn Cartwright gives the following general definition:

 

Typically, medusozoan cnidarians have a pelagic, predatory jellyfish stage in their life cycle; staurozoans are the exceptions [as they are stalked].

 

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines jellyfish as follows:

 

A free-swimming marine coelenterate that is the sexually reproducing form of a hydrozoan or scyphozoan and has a nearly transparent saucer-shaped body and extensible marginal tentacles studded with stinging cells.

 

Given that jellyfish is a common name, its mapping to biological groups is inexact. Some authorities have called the comb jellies and certain salps jellyfish, though other authorities state that neither of these are jellyfish, which they consider should be limited to certain groups within the medusozoa.

 

The non-medusozoan clades called jellyfish by some but not all authorities (both agreeing and disagreeing citations are given in each case) are indicated with on the following cladogram of the animal kingdom:

 

Jellyfish are not a clade, as they include most of the Medusozoa, barring some of the Hydrozoa. The medusozoan groups included by authorities are indicated on the following phylogenetic tree by the presence of citations. Names of included jellyfish, in English where possible, are shown in boldface; the presence of a named and cited example indicates that at least that species within its group has been called a jellyfish.

 

Taxonomy

The subphylum Medusozoa includes all cnidarians with a medusa stage in their life cycle. The basic cycle is egg, planula larva, polyp, medusa, with the medusa being the sexual stage. The polyp stage is sometimes secondarily lost. The subphylum include the major taxa, Scyphozoa (large jellyfish), Cubozoa (box jellyfish) and Hydrozoa (small jellyfish), and excludes Anthozoa (corals and sea anemones). This suggests that the medusa form evolved after the polyps. Medusozoans have tetramerous symmetry, with parts in fours or multiples of four.

 

The four major classes of medusozoan Cnidaria are:

Scyphozoa are sometimes called true jellyfish, though they are no more truly jellyfish than the others listed here. They have tetra-radial symmetry. Most have tentacles around the outer margin of the bowl-shaped bell, and long, oral arms around the mouth in the center of the subumbrella.

Cubozoa (box jellyfish) have a (rounded) box-shaped bell, and their velarium assists them to swim more quickly. Box jellyfish may be related more closely to scyphozoan jellyfish than either are to the Hydrozoa.

Hydrozoa medusae also have tetra-radial symmetry, nearly always have a velum (diaphragm used in swimming) attached just inside the bell margin, do not have oral arms, but a much smaller central stalk-like structure, the manubrium, with terminal mouth opening, and are distinguished by the absence of cells in the mesoglea. Hydrozoa show great diversity of lifestyle; some species maintain the polyp form for their entire life and do not form medusae at all (such as Hydra, which is hence not considered a jellyfish), and a few are entirely medusal and have no polyp form.

Staurozoa (stalked jellyfish) are characterized by a medusa form that is generally sessile, oriented upside down and with a stalk emerging from the apex of the "calyx" (bell), which attaches to the substrate. At least some Staurozoa also have a polyp form that alternates with the medusoid portion of the life cycle. Until recently, Staurozoa were classified within the Scyphozoa.

There are over 200 species of Scyphozoa, about 50 species of Staurozoa, about 50 species of Cubozoa, and the Hydrozoa includes about 1000–1500 species that produce medusae, but many more species that do not.

 

Fossil history

Since jellyfish have no hard parts, fossils are rare. The oldest unambiguous fossil of a free-swimming medusa is Burgessomedusa from the mid Cambrian Burgess Shale of Canada, which is likely either a stem group of box jellyfish (Cubozoa) or Acraspeda (the clade including Staurozoa, Cubozoa, and Scyphozoa). Other claimed records from the Cambrian of China and Utah in the United States are uncertain, and possibly represent ctenophores instead.

 

Anatomy

The main feature of a true jellyfish is the umbrella-shaped bell. This is a hollow structure consisting of a mass of transparent jelly-like matter known as mesoglea, which forms the hydrostatic skeleton of the animal. 95% or more of the mesogloea consists of water, but it also contains collagen and other fibrous proteins, as well as wandering amoebocytes which can engulf debris and bacteria. The mesogloea is bordered by the epidermis on the outside and the gastrodermis on the inside. The edge of the bell is often divided into rounded lobes known as lappets, which allow the bell to flex. In the gaps or niches between the lappets are dangling rudimentary sense organs known as rhopalia, and the margin of the bell often bears tentacles.

  

Anatomy of a scyphozoan jellyfish

On the underside of the bell is the manubrium, a stalk-like structure hanging down from the centre, with the mouth, which also functions as the anus, at its tip. There are often four oral arms connected to the manubrium, streaming away into the water below. The mouth opens into the gastrovascular cavity, where digestion takes place and nutrients are absorbed. This is subdivided by four thick septa into a central stomach and four gastric pockets. The four pairs of gonads are attached to the septa, and close to them four septal funnels open to the exterior, perhaps supplying good oxygenation to the gonads. Near the free edges of the septa, gastric filaments extend into the gastric cavity; these are armed with nematocysts and enzyme-producing cells and play a role in subduing and digesting the prey. In some scyphozoans, the gastric cavity is joined to radial canals which branch extensively and may join a marginal ring canal. Cilia in these canals circulate the fluid in a regular direction.

  

Discharge mechanism of a nematocyst

The box jellyfish is largely similar in structure. It has a squarish, box-like bell. A short pedalium or stalk hangs from each of the four lower corners. One or more long, slender tentacles are attached to each pedalium. The rim of the bell is folded inwards to form a shelf known as a velarium which restricts the bell's aperture and creates a powerful jet when the bell pulsates, allowing box jellyfish to swim faster than true jellyfish. Hydrozoans are also similar, usually with just four tentacles at the edge of the bell, although many hydrozoans are colonial and may not have a free-living medusal stage. In some species, a non-detachable bud known as a gonophore is formed that contains a gonad but is missing many other medusal features such as tentacles and rhopalia. Stalked jellyfish are attached to a solid surface by a basal disk, and resemble a polyp, the oral end of which has partially developed into a medusa with tentacle-bearing lobes and a central manubrium with four-sided mouth.

 

Most jellyfish do not have specialized systems for osmoregulation, respiration and circulation, and do not have a central nervous system. Nematocysts, which deliver the sting, are located mostly on the tentacles; true jellyfish also have them around the mouth and stomach. Jellyfish do not need a respiratory system because sufficient oxygen diffuses through the epidermis. They have limited control over their movement, but can navigate with the pulsations of the bell-like body; some species are active swimmers most of the time, while others largely drift. The rhopalia contain rudimentary sense organs which are able to detect light, water-borne vibrations, odour and orientation. A loose network of nerves called a "nerve net" is located in the epidermis. Although traditionally thought not to have a central nervous system, nerve net concentration and ganglion-like structures could be considered to constitute one in most species. A jellyfish detects stimuli, and transmits impulses both throughout the nerve net and around a circular nerve ring, to other nerve cells. The rhopalial ganglia contain pacemaker neurones which control swimming rate and direction.

 

In many species of jellyfish, the rhopalia include ocelli, light-sensitive organs able to tell light from dark. These are generally pigment spot ocelli, which have some of their cells pigmented. The rhopalia are suspended on stalks with heavy crystals at one end, acting like gyroscopes to orient the eyes skyward. Certain jellyfish look upward at the mangrove canopy while making a daily migration from mangrove swamps into the open lagoon, where they feed, and back again.

 

Box jellyfish have more advanced vision than the other groups. Each individual has 24 eyes, two of which are capable of seeing colour, and four parallel information processing areas that act in competition, supposedly making them one of the few kinds of animal to have a 360-degree view of its environment.

 

Box jellyfish eye

The study of jellyfish eye evolution is an intermediary to a better understanding of how visual systems evolved on Earth. Jellyfish exhibit immense variation in visual systems ranging from photoreceptive cell patches seen in simple photoreceptive systems to more derived complex eyes seen in box jellyfish. Major topics of jellyfish visual system research (with an emphasis on box jellyfish) include: the evolution of jellyfish vision from simple to complex visual systems), the eye morphology and molecular structures of box jellyfish (including comparisons to vertebrate eyes), and various uses of vision including task-guided behaviors and niche specialization.

 

Evolution

Experimental evidence for photosensitivity and photoreception in cnidarians antecedes the mid 1900s, and a rich body of research has since covered evolution of visual systems in jellyfish. Jellyfish visual systems range from simple photoreceptive cells to complex image-forming eyes. More ancestral visual systems incorporate extraocular vision (vision without eyes) that encompass numerous receptors dedicated to single-function behaviors. More derived visual systems comprise perception that is capable of multiple task-guided behaviors.

 

Although they lack a true brain, cnidarian jellyfish have a "ring" nervous system that plays a significant role in motor and sensory activity. This net of nerves is responsible for muscle contraction and movement and culminates the emergence of photosensitive structures. Across Cnidaria, there is large variation in the systems that underlie photosensitivity. Photosensitive structures range from non-specialized groups of cells, to more "conventional" eyes similar to those of vertebrates. The general evolutionary steps to develop complex vision include (from more ancestral to more derived states): non-directional photoreception, directional photoreception, low-resolution vision, and high-resolution vision. Increased habitat and task complexity has favored the high-resolution visual systems common in derived cnidarians such as box jellyfish.

 

Basal visual systems observed in various cnidarians exhibit photosensitivity representative of a single task or behavior. Extraocular photoreception (a form of non-directional photoreception), is the most basic form of light sensitivity and guides a variety of behaviors among cnidarians. It can function to regulate circadian rhythm (as seen in eyeless hydrozoans) and other light-guided behaviors responsive to the intensity and spectrum of light. Extraocular photoreception can function additionally in positive phototaxis (in planula larvae of hydrozoans), as well as in avoiding harmful amounts of UV radiation via negative phototaxis. Directional photoreception (the ability to perceive direction of incoming light) allows for more complex phototactic responses to light, and likely evolved by means of membrane stacking. The resulting behavioral responses can range from guided spawning events timed by moonlight to shadow responses for potential predator avoidance. Light-guided behaviors are observed in numerous scyphozoans including the common moon jelly, Aurelia aurita, which migrates in response to changes in ambient light and solar position even though they lack proper eyes.

 

The low-resolution visual system of box jellyfish is more derived than directional photoreception, and thus box jellyfish vision represents the most basic form of true vision in which multiple directional photoreceptors combine to create the first imaging and spatial resolution. This is different from the high-resolution vision that is observed in camera or compound eyes of vertebrates and cephalopods that rely on focusing optics. Critically, the visual systems of box jellyfish are responsible for guiding multiple tasks or behaviors in contrast to less derived visual systems in other jellyfish that guide single behavioral functions. These behaviors include phototaxis based on sunlight (positive) or shadows (negative), obstacle avoidance, and control of swim-pulse rate.

 

Box jellyfish possess "proper eyes" (similar to vertebrates) that allow them to inhabit environments that lesser derived medusae cannot. In fact, they are considered the only class in the clade Medusozoa that have behaviors necessitating spatial resolution and genuine vision. However, the lens in their eyes are more functionally similar to cup-eyes exhibited in low-resolution organisms, and have very little to no focusing capability. The lack of the ability to focus is due to the focal length exceeding the distance to the retina, thus generating unfocused images and limiting spatial resolution. The visual system is still sufficient for box jellyfish to produce an image to help with tasks such as object avoidance.

 

Utility as a model organism

Box jellyfish eyes are a visual system that is sophisticated in numerous ways. These intricacies include the considerable variation within the morphology of box jellyfishes' eyes (including their task/behavior specification), and the molecular makeup of their eyes including: photoreceptors, opsins, lenses, and synapses. The comparison of these attributes to more derived visual systems can allow for a further understanding of how the evolution of more derived visual systems may have occurred, and puts into perspective how box jellyfish can play the role as an evolutionary/developmental model for all visual systems.

 

Characteristics

Box jellyfish visual systems are both diverse and complex, comprising multiple photosystems. There is likely considerable variation in visual properties between species of box jellyfish given the significant inter-species morphological and physiological variation. Eyes tend to differ in size and shape, along with number of receptors (including opsins), and physiology across species of box jellyfish.

 

Box jellyfish have a series of intricate lensed eyes that are similar to those of more derived multicellular organisms such as vertebrates. Their 24 eyes fit into four different morphological categories. These categories consist of two large, morphologically different medial eyes (a lower and upper lensed eye) containing spherical lenses, a lateral pair of pigment slit eyes, and a lateral pair of pigment pit eyes. The eyes are situated on rhopalia (small sensory structures) which serve sensory functions of the box jellyfish and arise from the cavities of the exumbrella (the surface of the body) on the side of the bells of the jellyfish. The two large eyes are located on the mid-line of the club and are considered complex because they contain lenses. The four remaining eyes lie laterally on either side of each rhopalia and are considered simple. The simple eyes are observed as small invaginated cups of epithelium that have developed pigmentation. The larger of the complex eyes contains a cellular cornea created by a mono ciliated epithelium, cellular lens, homogenous capsule to the lens, vitreous body with prismatic elements, and a retina of pigmented cells. The smaller of the complex eyes is said to be slightly less complex given that it lacks a capsule but otherwise contains the same structure as the larger eye.

 

Box jellyfish have multiple photosystems that comprise different sets of eyes. Evidence includes immunocytochemical and molecular data that show photopigment differences among the different morphological eye types, and physiological experiments done on box jellyfish to suggest behavioral differences among photosystems. Each individual eye type constitutes photosystems that work collectively to control visually guided behaviors.

 

Box jellyfish eyes primarily use c-PRCs (ciliary photoreceptor cells) similar to that of vertebrate eyes. These cells undergo phototransduction cascades (process of light absorption by photoreceptors) that are triggered by c-opsins. Available opsin sequences suggest that there are two types of opsins possessed by all cnidarians including an ancient phylogenetic opsin, and a sister ciliary opsin to the c-opsins group. Box jellyfish could have both ciliary and cnidops (cnidarian opsins), which is something not previously believed to appear in the same retina. Nevertheless, it is not entirely evident whether cnidarians possess multiple opsins that are capable of having distinctive spectral sensitivities.

 

Comparison with other organisms

Comparative research on genetic and molecular makeup of box jellyfishes' eyes versus more derived eyes seen in vertebrates and cephalopods focuses on: lenses and crystallin composition, synapses, and Pax genes and their implied evidence for shared primordial (ancestral) genes in eye evolution.

 

Box jellyfish eyes are said to be an evolutionary/developmental model of all eyes based on their evolutionary recruitment of crystallins and Pax genes. Research done on box jellyfish including Tripedalia cystophora has suggested that they possess a single Pax gene, PaxB. PaxB functions by binding to crystallin promoters and activating them. PaxB in situ hybridization resulted in PaxB expression in the lens, retina, and statocysts. These results and the rejection of the prior hypothesis that Pax6 was an ancestral Pax gene in eyes has led to the conclusion that PaxB was a primordial gene in eye evolution, and that the eyes of all organisms likely share a common ancestor.

 

The lens structure of box jellyfish appears very similar to those of other organisms, but the crystallins are distinct in both function and appearance. Weak reactions were seen within the sera and there were very weak sequence similarities within the crystallins among vertebrate and invertebrate lenses. This is likely due to differences in lower molecular weight proteins and the subsequent lack of immunological reactions with antisera that other organisms' lenses exhibit.

 

All four of the visual systems of box jellyfish species investigated with detail (Carybdea marsupialis, Chiropsalmus quadrumanus, Tamoya haplonema and Tripedalia cystophora) have invaginated synapses, but only in the upper and lower lensed eyes. Different densities were found between the upper and lower lenses, and between species. Four types of chemical synapses have been discovered within the rhopalia which could help in understanding neural organization including: clear unidirectional, dense-core unidirectional, clear bidirectional, and clear and dense-core bidirectional. The synapses of the lensed eyes could be useful as markers to learn more about the neural circuit in box jellyfish retinal areas.

 

Evolution as a response to natural stimuli

The primary adaptive responses to environmental variation observed in box jellyfish eyes include pupillary constriction speeds in response to light environments, as well as photoreceptor tuning and lens adaptations to better respond to shifts between light environments and darkness. Interestingly, some box jellyfish species' eyes appear to have evolved more focused vision in response to their habitat.

 

Pupillary contraction appears to have evolved in response to variation in the light environment across ecological niches across three species of box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri, Chiropsella bronzie, and Carukia barnesi). Behavioral studies suggest that faster pupil contraction rates allow for greater object avoidance, and in fact, species with more complex habitats exhibit faster rates. Ch. bronzie inhabit shallow beach fronts that have low visibility and very few obstacles, thus, faster pupil contraction in response to objects in their environment is not important. Ca. barnesi and Ch. fleckeri are found in more three-dimensionally complex environments like mangroves with an abundance of natural obstacles, where faster pupil contraction is more adaptive. Behavioral studies support the idea that faster pupillary contraction rates assist with obstacle avoidance as well as depth adjustments in response to differing light intensities.

 

Light/dark adaptation via pupillary light reflexes is an additional form of an evolutionary response to the light environment. This relates to the pupil's response to shifts between light intensity (generally from sunlight to darkness). In the process of light/dark adaptation, the upper and lower lens eyes of different box jellyfish species vary in specific function. The lower lens-eyes contain pigmented photoreceptors and long pigment cells with dark pigments that migrate on light/dark adaptation, while the upper-lens eyes play a concentrated role in light direction and phototaxis given that they face upward towards the water surface (towards the sun or moon). The upper lens of Ch. bronzie does not exhibit any considerable optical power while Tr. cystophora (a box jellyfish species that tends to live in mangroves) does. The ability to use light to visually guide behavior is not of as much importance to Ch. bronzie as it is to species in more obstacle-filled environments. Differences in visually guided behavior serve as evidence that species that share the same number and structure of eyes can exhibit differences in how they control behavior.

 

Largest and smallest

Jellyfish range from about one millimeter in bell height and diameter, to nearly 2 metres (6+1⁄2 ft) in bell height and diameter; the tentacles and mouth parts usually extend beyond this bell dimension.

 

The smallest jellyfish are the peculiar creeping jellyfish in the genera Staurocladia and Eleutheria, which have bell disks from 0.5 millimetres (1⁄32 in) to a few millimeters in diameter, with short tentacles that extend out beyond this, which these jellyfish use to move across the surface of seaweed or the bottoms of rocky pools; many of these tiny creeping jellyfish cannot be seen in the field without a hand lens or microscope. They can reproduce asexually by fission (splitting in half). Other very small jellyfish, which have bells about one millimeter, are the hydromedusae of many species that have just been released from their parent polyps; some of these live only a few minutes before shedding their gametes in the plankton and then dying, while others will grow in the plankton for weeks or months. The hydromedusae Cladonema radiatum and Cladonema californicum are also very small, living for months, yet never growing beyond a few mm in bell height and diameter.

 

The lion's mane jellyfish, Cyanea capillata, was long-cited as the largest jellyfish, and arguably the longest animal in the world, with fine, thread-like tentacles that may extend up to 36.5 m (119 ft 9 in) long (though most are nowhere near that large). They have a moderately painful, but rarely fatal, sting. The increasingly common giant Nomura's jellyfish, Nemopilema nomurai, found in some, but not all years in the waters of Japan, Korea and China in summer and autumn is another candidate for "largest jellyfish", in terms of diameter and weight, since the largest Nomura's jellyfish in late autumn can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in bell (body) diameter and about 200 kg (440 lb) in weight, with average specimens frequently reaching 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) in bell diameter and about 150 kg (330 lb) in weight. The large bell mass of the giant Nomura's jellyfish can dwarf a diver and is nearly always much greater than the Lion's Mane, whose bell diameter can reach 1 m (3 ft 3 in).

 

The rarely encountered deep-sea jellyfish Stygiomedusa gigantea is another candidate for "largest jellyfish", with its thick, massive bell up to 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) wide, and four thick, "strap-like" oral arms extending up to 6 m (19+1⁄2 ft) in length, very different from the typical fine, threadlike tentacles that rim the umbrella of more-typical-looking jellyfish, including the Lion's Mane.

 

Desmonema glaciale, which lives in the Antarctic region, can reach a very large size (several meters). Purple-striped jelly (Chrysaora colorata) can also be extremely long (up to 15 feet).

 

Life history and behavior

Life cycle

Jellyfish have a complex life cycle which includes both sexual and asexual phases, with the medusa being the sexual stage in most instances. Sperm fertilize eggs, which develop into larval planulae, become polyps, bud into ephyrae and then transform into adult medusae. In some species certain stages may be skipped.

 

Upon reaching adult size, jellyfish spawn regularly if there is a sufficient supply of food. In most species, spawning is controlled by light, with all individuals spawning at about the same time of day; in many instances this is at dawn or dusk. Jellyfish are usually either male or female (with occasional hermaphrodites). In most cases, adults release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water, where the unprotected eggs are fertilized and develop into larvae. In a few species, the sperm swim into the female's mouth, fertilizing the eggs within her body, where they remain during early development stages. In moon jellies, the eggs lodge in pits on the oral arms, which form a temporary brood chamber for the developing planula larvae.

 

The planula is a small larva covered with cilia. When sufficiently developed, it settles onto a firm surface and develops into a polyp. The polyp generally consists of a small stalk topped by a mouth that is ringed by upward-facing tentacles. The polyps resemble those of closely related anthozoans, such as sea anemones and corals. The jellyfish polyp may be sessile, living on the bottom, boat hulls or other substrates, or it may be free-floating or attached to tiny bits of free-living plankton or rarely, fish or other invertebrates. Polyps may be solitary or colonial. Most polyps are only millimetres in diameter and feed continuously. The polyp stage may last for years.

 

After an interval and stimulated by seasonal or hormonal changes, the polyp may begin reproducing asexually by budding and, in the Scyphozoa, is called a segmenting polyp, or a scyphistoma. Budding produces more scyphistomae and also ephyrae. Budding sites vary by species; from the tentacle bulbs, the manubrium (above the mouth), or the gonads of hydromedusae. In a process known as strobilation, the polyp's tentacles are reabsorbed and the body starts to narrow, forming transverse constrictions, in several places near the upper extremity of the polyp. These deepen as the constriction sites migrate down the body, and separate segments known as ephyra detach. These are free-swimming precursors of the adult medusa stage, which is the life stage that is typically identified as a jellyfish. The ephyrae, usually only a millimeter or two across initially, swim away from the polyp and grow. Limnomedusae polyps can asexually produce a creeping frustule larval form, which crawls away before developing into another polyp. A few species can produce new medusae by budding directly from the medusan stage. Some hydromedusae reproduce by fission.

 

Lifespan

Little is known of the life histories of many jellyfish as the places on the seabed where the benthic forms of those species live have not been found. However, an asexually reproducing strobila form can sometimes live for several years, producing new medusae (ephyra larvae) each year.

 

An unusual species, Turritopsis dohrnii, formerly classified as Turritopsis nutricula, might be effectively immortal because of its ability under certain circumstances to transform from medusa back to the polyp stage, thereby escaping the death that typically awaits medusae post-reproduction if they have not otherwise been eaten by some other organism. So far this reversal has been observed only in the laboratory.

 

Locomotion

Jellyfish locomotion is highly efficient. Muscles in the jellylike bell contract, setting up a start vortex and propelling the animal. When the contraction ends, the bell recoils elastically, creating a stop vortex with no extra energy input.

Using the moon jelly Aurelia aurita as an example, jellyfish have been shown to be the most energy-efficient swimmers of all animals. They move through the water by radially expanding and contracting their bell-shaped bodies to push water behind them. They pause between the contraction and expansion phases to create two vortex rings. Muscles are used for the contraction of the body, which creates the first vortex and pushes the animal forward, but the mesoglea is so elastic that the expansion is powered exclusively by relaxing the bell, which releases the energy stored from the contraction. Meanwhile, the second vortex ring starts to spin faster, sucking water into the bell and pushing against the centre of the body, giving a secondary and "free" boost forward. The mechanism, called passive energy recapture, only works in relatively small jellyfish moving at low speeds, allowing the animal to travel 30 percent farther on each swimming cycle. Jellyfish achieved a 48 percent lower cost of transport (food and oxygen intake versus energy spent in movement) than other animals in similar studies. One reason for this is that most of the gelatinous tissue of the bell is inactive, using no energy during swimming.

 

Ecology

Diet

Jellyfish are, like other cnidarians, generally carnivorous (or parasitic), feeding on planktonic organisms, crustaceans, small fish, fish eggs and larvae, and other jellyfish, ingesting food and voiding undigested waste through the mouth. They hunt passively using their tentacles as drift lines, or sink through the water with their tentacles spread widely; the tentacles, which contain nematocysts to stun or kill the prey, may then flex to help bring it to the mouth. Their swimming technique also helps them to capture prey; when their bell expands it sucks in water which brings more potential prey within reach of the tentacles.

 

A few species such as Aglaura hemistoma are omnivorous, feeding on microplankton which is a mixture of zooplankton and phytoplankton (microscopic plants) such as dinoflagellates. Others harbour mutualistic algae (Zooxanthellae) in their tissues; the spotted jellyfish (Mastigias papua) is typical of these, deriving part of its nutrition from the products of photosynthesis, and part from captured zooplankton. The upside-down jellyfish (Cassiopea andromeda) also has a symbiotic relationship with microalgae, but captures tiny animals to supplement their diet. This is done by releasing tiny balls of living cells composed of mesoglea. These use cilia to drive them through water and stinging cells which stun the prey. The blobs also seems to have digestive capabilities.

 

Predation

Other species of jellyfish are among the most common and important jellyfish predators. Sea anemones may eat jellyfish that drift into their range. Other predators include tunas, sharks, swordfish, sea turtles and penguins. Jellyfish washed up on the beach are consumed by foxes, other terrestrial mammals and birds. In general however, few animals prey on jellyfish; they can broadly be considered to be top predators in the food chain. Once jellyfish have become dominant in an ecosystem, for example through overfishing which removes predators of jellyfish larvae, there may be no obvious way for the previous balance to be restored: they eat fish eggs and juvenile fish, and compete with fish for food, preventing fish stocks from recovering.

 

Symbiosis

Some small fish are immune to the stings of the jellyfish and live among the tentacles, serving as bait in a fish trap; they are safe from potential predators and are able to share the fish caught by the jellyfish. The cannonball jellyfish has a symbiotic relationship with ten different species of fish, and with the longnose spider crab, which lives inside the bell, sharing the jellyfish's food and nibbling its tissues.

 

Main article: Jellyfish bloom

Jellyfish form large masses or blooms in certain environmental conditions of ocean currents, nutrients, sunshine, temperature, season, prey availability, reduced predation and oxygen concentration. Currents collect jellyfish together, especially in years with unusually high populations. Jellyfish can detect marine currents and swim against the current to congregate in blooms. Jellyfish are better able to survive in nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor water than competitors, and thus can feast on plankton without competition. Jellyfish may also benefit from saltier waters, as saltier waters contain more iodine, which is necessary for polyps to turn into jellyfish. Rising sea temperatures caused by climate change may also contribute to jellyfish blooms, because many species of jellyfish are able to survive in warmer waters. Increased nutrients from agricultural or urban runoff with nutrients including nitrogen and phosphorus compounds increase the growth of phytoplankton, causing eutrophication and algal blooms. When the phytoplankton die, they may create dead zones, so-called because they are hypoxic (low in oxygen). This in turn kills fish and other animals, but not jellyfish, allowing them to bloom. Jellyfish populations may be expanding globally as a result of land runoff and overfishing of their natural predators. Jellyfish are well placed to benefit from disturbance of marine ecosystems. They reproduce rapidly; they prey upon many species, while few species prey on them; and they feed via touch rather than visually, so they can feed effectively at night and in turbid waters. It may be difficult for fish stocks to re-establish themselves in marine ecosystems once they have become dominated by jellyfish, because jellyfish feed on plankton, which includes fish eggs and larvae.

 

As suspected at the turn of this century, jellyfish blooms are increasing in frequency. Between 2013 and 2020 the Mediterranean Science Commission monitored on a weekly basis the frequency of such outbreaks in coastal waters from Morocco to the Black Sea, revealing a relatively high frequency of these blooms nearly all year round, with peaks observed from March to July and often again in the autumn. The blooms are caused by different jellyfish species, depending on their localisation within the Basin: one observes a clear dominance of Pelagia noctiluca and Velella velella outbreaks in the western Mediterranean, of Rhizostoma pulmo and Rhopilema nomadica outbreaks in the eastern Mediterranean, and of Aurelia aurita and Mnemiopsis leidyi outbreaks in the Black Sea.

 

Some jellyfish populations that have shown clear increases in the past few decades are invasive species, newly arrived from other habitats: examples include the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Baltic Sea, central and eastern Mediterranean, Hawaii, and tropical and subtropical parts of the West Atlantic (including the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and Brazil).

 

Jellyfish blooms can have significant impact on community structure. Some carnivorous jellyfish species prey on zooplankton while others graze on primary producers. Reductions in zooplankton and ichthyoplankton due to a jellyfish bloom can ripple through the trophic levels. High-density jellyfish populations can outcompete other predators and reduce fish recruitment. Increased grazing on primary producers by jellyfish can also interrupt energy transfer to higher trophic levels.

 

During blooms, jellyfish significantly alter the nutrient availability in their environment. Blooms require large amounts of available organic nutrients in the water column to grow, limiting availability for other organisms. Some jellyfish have a symbiotic relationship with single-celled dinoflagellates, allowing them to assimilate inorganic carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen creating competition for phytoplankton. Their large biomass makes them an important source of dissolved and particulate organic matter for microbial communities through excretion, mucus production, and decomposition. The microbes break down the organic matter into inorganic ammonium and phosphate. However, the low carbon availability shifts the process from production to respiration creating low oxygen areas making the dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus largely unavailable for primary production.

 

These blooms have very real impacts on industries. Jellyfish can outcompete fish by utilizing open niches in over-fished fisheries. Catch of jellyfish can strain fishing gear and lead to expenses relating to damaged gear. Power plants have been shut down due to jellyfish blocking the flow of cooling water. Blooms have also been harmful for tourism, causing a rise in stings and sometimes the closure of beaches.

 

Jellyfish form a component of jelly-falls, events where gelatinous zooplankton fall to the seafloor, providing food for the benthic organisms there. In temperate and subpolar regions, jelly-falls usually follow immediately after a bloom.

 

Habitats

Most jellyfish are marine animals, although a few hydromedusae inhabit freshwater. The best known freshwater example is the cosmopolitan hydrozoan jellyfish, Craspedacusta sowerbii. It is less than an inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, colorless and does not sting. Some jellyfish populations have become restricted to coastal saltwater lakes, such as Jellyfish Lake in Palau. Jellyfish Lake is a marine lake where millions of golden jellyfish (Mastigias spp.) migrate horizontally across the lake daily.

 

Although most jellyfish live well off the ocean floor and form part of the plankton, a few species are closely associated with the bottom for much of their lives and can be considered benthic. The upside-down jellyfish in the genus Cassiopea typically lie on the bottom of shallow lagoons where they sometimes pulsate gently with their umbrella top facing down. Even some deep-sea species of hydromedusae and scyphomedusae are usually collected on or near the bottom. All of the stauromedusae are found attached to either seaweed or rocky or other firm material on the bottom.

 

Some species explicitly adapt to tidal flux. In Roscoe Bay, jellyfish ride the current at ebb tide until they hit a gravel bar, and then descend below the current. They remain in still waters until the tide rises, ascending and allowing it to sweep them back into the bay. They also actively avoid fresh water from mountain snowmelt, diving until they find enough salt.

  

Parasites

Jellyfish are hosts to a wide variety of parasitic organisms. They act as intermediate hosts of endoparasitic helminths, with the infection being transferred to the definitive host fish after predation. Some digenean trematodes, especially species in the family Lepocreadiidae, use jellyfish as their second intermediate hosts. Fish become infected by the trematodes when they feed on infected jellyfish.

 

Relation to humans

Jellyfish have long been eaten in some parts of the world. Fisheries have begun harvesting the American cannonball jellyfish, Stomolophus meleagris, along the southern Atlantic coast of the United States and in the Gulf of Mexico for export to Asia.

 

Jellyfish are also harvested for their collagen, which is being investigated for use in a variety of applications including the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

 

Aquaculture and fisheries of other species often suffer severe losses – and so losses of productivity – due to jellyfish.

 

Products

Main article: Jellyfish as food

In some countries, including China, Japan, and Korea, jellyfish are a delicacy. The jellyfish is dried to prevent spoiling. Only some 12 species of scyphozoan jellyfish belonging to the order Rhizostomeae are harvested for food, mostly in southeast Asia. Rhizostomes, especially Rhopilema esculentum in China (海蜇 hǎizhé, 'sea stingers') and Stomolophus meleagris (cannonball jellyfish) in the United States, are favored because of their larger and more rigid bodies and because their toxins are harmless to humans.

 

Traditional processing methods, carried out by a jellyfish master, involve a 20- to 40-day multi-phase procedure in which, after removing the gonads and mucous membranes, the umbrella and oral arms are treated with a mixture of table salt and alum, and compressed. Processing makes the jellyfish drier and more acidic, producing a crisp texture. Jellyfish prepared this way retain 7–10% of their original weight, and the processed product consists of approximately 94% water and 6% protein. Freshly processed jellyfish has a white, creamy color and turns yellow or brown during prolonged storage.

 

In China, processed jellyfish are desalted by soaking in water overnight and eaten cooked or raw. The dish is often served shredded with a dressing of oil, soy sauce, vinegar and sugar, or as a salad with vegetables. In Japan, cured jellyfish are rinsed, cut into strips and served with vinegar as an appetizer. Desalted, ready-to-eat products are also available.

 

Biotechnology

The hydromedusa Aequorea victoria was the source of green fluorescent protein, studied for its role in bioluminescence and later for use as a marker in genetic engineering.

Pliny the Elder reported in his Natural History that the slime of the jellyfish "Pulmo marinus" produced light when rubbed on a walking stick.

 

In 1961, Osamu Shimomura extracted green fluorescent protein (GFP) and another bioluminescent protein, called aequorin, from the large and abundant hydromedusa Aequorea victoria, while studying photoproteins that cause bioluminescence in this species. Three decades later, Douglas Prasher sequenced and cloned the gene for GFP. Martin Chalfie figured out how to use GFP as a fluorescent marker of genes inserted into other cells or organisms. Roger Tsien later chemically manipulated GFP to produce other fluorescent colors to use as markers. In 2008, Shimomura, Chalfie and Tsien won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work with GFP. Man-made GFP became widely used as a fluorescent tag to show which cells or tissues express specific genes. The genetic engineering technique fuses the gene of interest to the GFP gene. The fused DNA is then put into a cell, to generate either a cell line or (via IVF techniques) an entire animal bearing the gene. In the cell or animal, the artificial gene turns on in the same tissues and the same time as the normal gene, making a fusion of the normal protein with GFP attached to the end, illuminating the animal or cell reveals what tissues express that protein—or at what stage of development. The fluorescence shows where the gene is expressed.

 

Aquarium display

Jellyfish are displayed in many public aquariums. Often the tank's background is blue and the animals are illuminated by side light, increasing the contrast between the animal and the background. In natural conditions, many jellies are so transparent that they are nearly invisible. Jellyfish are not adapted to closed spaces. They depend on currents to transport them from place to place. Professional exhibits as in the Monterey Bay Aquarium feature precise water flows, typically in circular tanks to avoid trapping specimens in corners. The outflow is spread out over a large surface area and the inflow enters as a sheet of water in front of the outflow, so the jellyfish do not get sucked into it. As of 2009, jellyfish were becoming popular in home aquariums, where they require similar equipment.

 

Stings

Jellyfish are armed with nematocysts, a type of specialized stinging cell. Contact with a jellyfish tentacle can trigger millions of nematocysts to pierce the skin and inject venom, but only some species' venom causes an adverse reaction in humans. In a study published in Communications Biology, researchers found a jellyfish species called Cassiopea xamachana which when triggered will release tiny balls of cells that swim around the jellyfish stinging everything in their path. Researchers described these as "self-propelling microscopic grenades" and named them cassiosomes.

 

The effects of stings range from mild discomfort to extreme pain and death. Most jellyfish stings are not deadly, but stings of some box jellyfish (Irukandji jellyfish), such as the sea wasp, can be deadly. Stings may cause anaphylaxis (a form of shock), which can be fatal. Jellyfish kill 20 to 40 people a year in the Philippines alone. In 2006 the Spanish Red Cross treated 19,000 stung swimmers along the Costa Brava.

 

Vinegar (3–10% aqueous acetic acid) may help with box jellyfish stings but not the stings of the Portuguese man o' war. Clearing the area of jelly and tentacles reduces nematocyst firing. Scraping the affected skin, such as with the edge of a credit card, may remove remaining nematocysts. Once the skin has been cleaned of nematocysts, hydrocortisone cream applied locally reduces pain and inflammation. Antihistamines may help to control itching. Immunobased antivenins are used for serious box jellyfish stings.

 

In Elba Island and Corsica dittrichia viscosa is now used by residents and tourists to heal stings from jellyfish, bees and wasps pressing fresh leaves on the skin with quick results.

 

Mechanical issues

Jellyfish in large quantities can fill and split fishing nets and crush captured fish. They can clog cooling equipment, having disabled power stations in several countries; jellyfish caused a cascading blackout in the Philippines in 1999, as well as damaging the Diablo Canyon Power Plant in California in 2008. They can also stop desalination plants and ships' engines.

Ageratum houstonianum (Flossflower, Bluemink; syn. Ageratum mexicanum Hort.) is a cool-season annual plant often grown as a bedding plant in gardens. The flowers are usually blue (though sometimes white, pink, or purple), the heads borne in dense corymbs. The ray flowers are threadlike, leading to the common name.

It is apparently native to Central America and adjacent parts of Mexico, but has naturalized in other areas, especially coastal areas of the eastern United States and Pacific islands.

Ageratum also has an ingenious method of protecting itself from insects, this being a chemical that when eaten, effects the insects juvenile hormone rendering their larvae sterile.

 

Al genere ageratum appartengono circa sessanta specie di piante erbacee, annuali e perenni, originarie dell’America settentrionale; A. houstonianum è una specie perenne , originaria del Messico, in genere coltivata come annuale. Produce piccoli cespi compatti, densamente ramificati; i fusti sono sottili, carnosi, di colore verde, e portano foglie ovali, finemente dentellate, di colore verde brillante, dall’aspetto vellutato; da aprile fino all’autunno, all’apice dei fusti, sbocciano piccoli fiori di colore azzurro, simili a piccoli pompon disordinati, riuniti in piccoli grappoli, che si stagliano al di sopra del fogliame. Ai fiori seguono piccoli frutti contenenti i semi.

 

Beauty Skin Area Care Healthy Bodies Summary

 

Healthy Bodies :

 

These days, what it takes to have a beautiful body targets two themes, in roughly similar measure. The first is the value of being healthy–or, at least, as healthy as you can be if you’re living with a disease or long-term condition. The second theme is the value of receiving your unique body condition and size.

 

Shape and Size

 

Height

 

Just about everyone has a tough time, though, accepting what we should understand to be our imperfections. Those who believe they’re too short look for miraculous growth formulas. Yet with the exception of human growth hormone used to children of brief stature under strict medical supervision, which can add 1 ) 5 to 4 inches to a child’s adult height, the only way to increase height is to improve your posture or to wear platform shoes or high heels.

 

People that think they’re too tall are less likely to look for a way to change their height, nonetheless they may unconsciously slouch or try to make themselves less conspicuous.

The fact of the situation is that there is no “right” height–or even a “healthy” height for instance. And because you can’t really control your height, is actually best to do what you can not to be anxious about it. Sure, wear high heels if you need a couple of inches, and stick to vertical beating to make you look longer, but don’t go crazy over the top of it, because is actually out of your control.

 

Pounds

 

On the other hand, if you’re unsatisfied with your weight, you can do something about it. It might take some willpower, hard work, commitment, and maybe some outside help, but shedding pounds is something most of us can do. If you’re all set to lose weight, ensure you do not get suckered in by any lose-weight-quick schemes; almost all of options unhealthy and inadequate over time. Used tried-and-true methods like healthy dieting and exercise programs to shed pounds.

 

Weight-loss has an extra benefit which should go above and beyond sense good about fitting into a smaller size dress or shirt: even slight weight loss can prevent the onset of disease, ease symptoms for those already suffering, and even reverse the course of some chronic conditions like Type 2 diabetes, hypertension, some types of tumor, osteoporosis, erectile dysfunction, backside pain, and sleep apnea.

 

Weight is a sensitive subject: not everyone is going to agree on a great body size. Generally there are, however, some useful measures to determine your individual “healthy weight. ” The National Institutes of Well being (NIH) suggests using your body Mass Index (which quotes body fat) to determine whether in a healthy weight range for your height. Calculate your BODY MASS INDEX by following actions:

 

Increase in numbers your weight in pounds by 703.

 

Divide from your height in inches.

 

Break down by your height in inches a second time.

BMI

 

Underweight Below 18. 5

 

Regular 18. 5-24. 9

 

Obese 25. 0-29. 9

 

Overweight 30. zero and Over

 

BMI isn’t very always accurate; it may overestimate body fat for athletes and bodybuilders, and it may underestimate body fat in the aged or others that have lost muscle. Also, children should be assessed over a different scale.

 

Cellulite

 

Cellulite is high on many could lists of unwelcome physical attributes. Women tend to have more cellulite than men because their physiques naturally have a higher percentage of fat family member to lean body mass. Cellulite is just fat that appears near to the surface of the skin.

 

Workout is the best way to minimize the appearance of cellulite because it bulks up lean muscle and reduces body fat, both nearby the surface of the skin and in the deeper layers of tissues. Don’t waste your money on “firming creams, inch thigh-rolling procedures or devices, or any type of other means of targeting cellulite. They don’t work. Position the cash toward a pair of walking shoes instead.

 

Repeatedly gaining and shedding pounds will make lumpy skin appear worse, because this cycle weakens collagen fibres in connective tissue below the skin that serves as a girdle, of sorts, to keep weight from bulging. It’s also smart to stay hydrated.

 

Simply as an athlete appears more ripped when your dog is dehydrated, cellulite becomes more obvious on us normal folks once we don’t drink enough water.

 

Varicose Abnormal veins

 

Fine, weblike spider blood vessels or twisted, ropelike varicose veins often appear with age, usually in the legs. Veins have visible valves that keep bloodstream flowing the right way. As these valves damage, blood collects in the veins, triggering them to balloon to be able to accommodate the backflow of blood. Formation of varicose and spider blood vessels can also be related to inheritance, hormonal changes, pregnancy, unhealthy weight, or lack of physical activity.

 

Spider veins can be treated by sclerotherapy, the injection of a substance that irritates the veins to result in them to form marks that are less obvious than the threadlike red or blue veins. ” light ” varicose veins (those near the skin’s surface) that pose a cosmetic problem can be surgically stolen out of the calf.

 

Though rare, varicose blood vessels may be painful and can be associated with serious health problems, such as deep vein thrombosis. Seek medical attention immediately if you develop a rash near your foot, if the skin of your calf or rearfoot changes color or thickens, or if you have bleeding, swelling, throbbing, pain, warmth, or tenderness around a varicose vein.

 

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This is Appalachian bristle fern. It is very atypical looking for a fern. It only exist as tufts of threadlike gametophytes. The species reproduces by multicellular gemmae. I consider the species rare in Georgia. I look for it when I am in appropriate habitat and usually don't find it. For more information: www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=2...

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichomanes_intricatum

plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=TRIN13

The Panorpidae are a family of scorpionflies containing more than 480 species. The family is the largest family in Mecoptera, covering approximately 70% species of the order. Species range between 9–25 mm long.

 

These insects have four membranous wings and threadlike antennae. Their elongated faces terminate with mouthparts that are used to feed on dead and dying insects, nectar, and rotting fruit. While in larval form, they scavenge by consuming dead insects on the ground.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panorpidae

 

This particular one was seen from Moston Footpath 21 in Sandbach, Cheshire.

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

南天の実

 

ナンテン

なんてん ／南天

 

Nandina domestica Thunb.

 

メギ科の常緑低木。茎は叢生(そうせい)する。葉は大形の数回羽状複葉、小葉は披針(ひしん)形で全縁。6月ころ、茎の先に大形の円錐(えんすい)花序をつくり、多数の白色花を開く。萼片(がくへん)、花弁とも3枚ずつ輪生し、萼片は多数、花弁は6枚で光沢がある。雄しべは6本、葯(やく)は縦に裂ける。雌しべは1本、子房は1室で2、3個の胚珠(はいしゅ)がある。果実は球形、赤くてよく目だつ。果実の白い品種をシロミナンテンという。中国では野生するものが知られるが、日本産のものは野生か栽培の逸出したものかはっきりしない。ナンテンは、メギ科のなかでは、花被片(かひへん)の諸性質、胚珠や、花粉の形態、染色体数などにおいて特異で、ナンテン科として別科にする見解もある。ただしメギ科を特徴づける雌しべの構造においては、ほかの属と本質的に変わらない。 [寺林　進]

 

文化史

　ナンテンは鎌倉時代から記録され、藤原定家(ていか)は1230年（寛喜2）、中宮権大夫(ちゅうぐうごんのだいぶ)が前栽(せんざい)に植える、と『明月記』に書き留めた。足利義満(あしかがよしみつ)が建てた金閣寺の夕佳亭(せっかてい)には、ナンテンの床柱が使われたとの伝承がある。いけ花では最古の花道書『仙伝抄(せんでんしょう)』にすでに取り上げられている。元禄(げんろく)（1688〜1704）のころには普及し、園芸品種が作出され始め、『草木錦葉集(そうもくきんようしゅう)』（1829）には斑入(ふい)りを中心に41の品種が載る。明治年間には120品種に増えたが、その後衰退し、現在は40品種ほどが維持されている。

　ナンテンは難転に通じるとして、縁起植物に扱われ、盗人、火災、魔除(まよ)けに植えられた。京都鞍馬寺 (くらまでら)の祭事、竹伐会式(たけきりえしき)や火祭りにはナンテンの小枝を身につける。ナンテンは果実にドメステチンメチルエステル、樹皮にナンジニン、ドメステンベルベリンなどの成分を含む。防虫、防腐の効果があり、葉を食物の掻敷(かいしき)に使い、古くは米櫃(こめびつ)や鎧櫃(よろいびつ) などに入れた。なお、「ナンテンの床柱」といわれているものは、普通イイギリなどの別種の材である。 [湯浅浩史]

 

nanten

南天／nandin

  

Nandina domestica. Evergreen shrub of the family Berberidaceae, found in mountainous areas of Kyūshū, Shikoku, and western Honshū, as well as in central China and India. In Japan it is widely cultivated as an ornamental. Its dark brown trunks grow in clusters from 2−3 meters (7−10 ft) high. Large alternate pinnate leaves bear leathery leaflets; small white flowers appear in June, followed by clusters of bright red berries. Numerous horticultural varieties have been developed, including shiromi nanten, distinguished by its white berries; fujinanten, with lavender berries; and kinshi nanten, which has threadlike leaves.

 

Because its name suggests the expression nan o tenzuru (to overturn misfortune or adversity), nanten has traditionally been regarded as an auspicious plant. Warriors of old put its leaves in their armor to ensure victory. Nanten was also used as an alcove ornament for coming-of-age ceremonies (gempuku), and pregnant women were known to place sprays of nanten under their coverlets to ensure a safe delivery.

   

Singapore Botanical Garden in January 2007.

 

We spent several hours in the Botanical Garden on our first day in Singapore. It is a beautiful garden. The National Orchid Garden really is something special.

 

My thanks to ulfmeliasson for the ID of this beautiful exotic flower ...

 

From Wikipedia -

Strophanthus is a genus of 35-40 species of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, native mainly to tropical Africa, extending to South Africa, with a few species in Asia, from southern India to the Philippines and southern China. The name (strophos anthos, "twisted cord flower") derives from the long twisted threadlike segments of the corolla, which in one species (S. preussii) attain a length of 30–35 cm.

 

The genus includes vines, shrubs and small trees. The leaves are opposite or whorled, simple broad lanceolate, 2–20 cm long, with an entire margin.

 

Several of the African tribes used Strophanthus as the principal ingredient in arrow poison.

 

Plants from this genus produce toxic alkaloids and cardiac glycosides g-strophanthin (syn. ouabain), k-strophanthin and e-strophanthin. As ordinarily administered, the drug acts on the heart before influencing any other organ or tissue. Often indeed no other action can be observed. It is used to produce the drug Ouabain which was taken as a cardiac stimulant to treat heart failure, and is similar to the drug Digoxin produced from Digitalis purpurea.

A few months ago I came upon a new word. In and of itself, this isn't and extraordinary occurrence. but unlike other words, this one has stuck with me. Its not even a word from my language or one which I know has a synonym. This Anishinabbe word is puhpowee and refers to the force that causes Mushrooms to push up from the earth, An unseen energy, giving them the power to move soil, stones and even pavement.

This hydraulic pressure comes from the turgor pressure of the cells that make up the stalk of the mushroom. The cells of mushrooms also contain chitin, which when arranged the way it is in a mushrooms, makes the cell walls strong and confines the internal pressure in a vertical column. Chitin is the same material invertebrates (insects , Lobsters, etc) use for their exoskeletons. Its a tough material. The presence of chitin is in the fungal Kingdom and the animal kingdom but not in the plant kingdom is one bit of evidence that fungi and animals are more closely related to each other than to plants. This is not terribly relevant to most of us, but could it have implications for Vegetarians?

In addition, most mushrooms can sense gravity. many, if picked and placed on their side, will reorient their caps to be vertical. Ammonite species are fast at doing this.

The most common species people observe that move paving stones and ash fault are the Coprinus species (Ink Caps-Shaggy Mane). They grow on buried plant matter. It is indeed amazing that something so delicate and fragile to the touch can push through a few inches of ashphalt. The fruit of the Coprinus species are short lived. Within a day or two, they dissolve into a black watery mess called deliquescence. This phenomenon is what gives them the common name inky cap.

Mushrooms are the fruiting body of fungi, analogous to fruit on a tree. But keep in mind they are not closely related to plants. They do not photosynthesize. Instead, they make their living in a variety of ways. Some, like the Coprinus and Agaricus species are decomposers of plans matter and like to grow in compost piles, lawns and meadows.Some decompose animals. Others decompose dead trees and logs. Some grow on or in living trees. A large number grow under ground and are attached to the roots of living plants, in a relationship that benefits the plant and the fungus. The fungus passes minerals and water to the plants and gets the carbohydrates it needs from the plants. This allows the plants to grow in sub-optimal conditions, such as under the canopy or on dry hillsides. This group is called corrhizal and contains some of our most disirable edibles, such as chanterelles and pine mushrooms.

Western Science has, for the most part, had a mechanistic view of nature--looking at aspects of nature isolation (reductionism) in an effort to understand the whole by understanding the parts, like studying the puzzle pieces to understand the whole picture. The modern science of ecology, and certainly traditional Ecological Knowledge, sees the connection between things (living and non-living, but also processes) as essential. As John Muir put it "when we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the Universe" Fungi illustrates this in a wonderful way. For most of the year, they are hidden, tiny threadlike filaments under the soil or in logs. But when presented with favourable moisture and temperatures, they fruit quickly and make their presence known. Puhpowee---emerging magically and making every fall walking the woods a new experience. Note: I learned the word puhpowee from Robin Kimmerer in her book: Braiding Sweetgrass--Indigenous wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the teaching of plants

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

{28} 52 of you

 

i have arm pit hair, always have. i know to some it is unattractive and some it doesn't bother. the idea that we aren't supposed to have arm pit hair or leg hair (i don't shave my legs either) as women is something i believe society puts on us. why should we torture ourselves shaving if we don't wish to, it is an option for men.

On the underside of a mushroom - apparently feeding. Elegant shiny elytra and threadlike antennae. Not seen before and not thought to be common locally. That opinion may change. Knowing where to look is most of the game. A Scaphisoma sp. based on a suggestion in the comments (thank you) and from inaturalist images.

Asclepias cryptoceras, PALLID MILKWEED. Five reflexed greenish-white petals. Stigmatic disc in center with stamens fused to its sides (gynostegium), surrounded by 5 rose-colored hoods. Adjacent pollen masses are attached by threadlike structures on top. When insect lands on the gynostegium, its legs snag the threads. When the insect flies away, it carries the saddlebags of pollen to another plant, hopefully another milkweed. Red Canyon

Nigella is a genus of about 14 species of annual plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native to southern Europe, north Africa and southwest Asia. Common names applied to members of this genus are Devil-in-a-bush or Love in a mist.

 

The species grow to 20-90 cm tall, with finely divided leaves, the leaf segments narrowly linear to threadlike. The flowers are white, yellow, pink, pale blue or pale purple, with 5-10 petals. The fruit is a capsule composed of several united follicles, each containing numerous seeds; in some species (e.g. Nigella damascena), the capsule is large and inflated.

 

The seeds are used as a spice in Indian and Middle Eastern couisine. Several species are grown as ornamental plants in gardens, popular for their seed capsules, which are used in dried flower arrangements.

"Little by little," the acorn said,

As it slowly sank in its mossy bed,

"I am improving every day,

Hidden deep in the earth away."

Little by little each day it grew;

Little by little it sipped the dew;

Downward it sent out a threadlike root;

Up in the air sprung a tiny shoot,

Day after day, and year after year,

Little by little the leaves appear;

And the slender branches spread far and wide,

Till the mighty oak is the forest's pride.

1. Corn Ear (Zea mays)

Identification: The thick, green structure in the center of the image wrapped in husk leaves.

 

Definition: The ear is the female flower structure of maize (corn), which develops into the cob containing rows of kernels once pollination and fertilization occur.

 

2. Corn Husk

Identification: The tightly layered green leaves surrounding the ear.

 

Definition: Protective leafy bracts that enclose and shield the developing kernels from pests, weather, and physical damage.

 

3. Corn Silk

Identification: The long, threadlike reddish-brown strands emerging from the top of the ear.

 

Definition: Each silk is a style attached to a single ovule (potential kernel). Pollen grains must land on silks for fertilization. As they age or after pollination, silks dry and darken.

 

4. Corn Stalk

Identification: The vertical green stem at the left edge of the image.

 

Definition: The main structural axis of the corn plant, transporting water, sugars, and nutrients between the roots, leaves, and ears.

 

5. Corn Leaves

Identification: Large, parallel-veined green leaves visible both in the background and lower part of the photo.

 

Definition: Photosynthetic organs that capture sunlight and provide energy for plant growth and kernel development.

 

Group Definition

Together, these parts form the reproductive system of maize, a wind-pollinated grass in the Poaceae family. The tassels (not shown here) release pollen, which lands on the silks of the ear. Each fertilized silk grows into one kernel on the cob.

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

Polyp #1

Mixed Media

2010

4' x 6'

 

A sedentary animal characterized by a fixed base, column like body, and a free end with mouth and tentacles. Polyps tend to be cylindrical in shape and elongated along the axis of their bodies.

The external form of the polyp varies from species to species. The column may be long and slender, or may be short, causing the body to appear almost disk-like. The tentacles at the ends of the column, may be long and threadlike, or short, looking more like knobs or warts. The tentacles may be simple and unbranched, or their patterns may appear feathery.

 

Polyps tend to reproduce asexually by the method of budding. In many cases the buds do not separate from the parent but remain in continuity with it, forming colonies which can grow quite large. Minute differences in the method of budding create the variations witnessed in the colonies. The reef-building corals are an example of polyp colonies.

 

Materials used:

 

Various tubes such as: toilet paper tubes, paper towel tubes, gift wrapping tubes, etc.

Epsom salt, table salt, oatmeal. Acrylic paint and various fabric dyes. Various types of yarn, fabric softener sheets, cotton fill, cotton swabs, and various other pieces of fabric. Also used is paper, tissue paper, and plaster.

1: slight threadlike radiating striae.

2: fine concentric growth lines emphasised by algal growth.

Full SPECIES DESCRIPTION at: flic.kr/p/tg3YWR

KEY ID FEATURES BELOW

Sets of OTHER SPECIES at:

www.flickr.com/photos/56388191@N08/collections/

 

Similar species

Testudinalia testudinalis (O. F. Müller, 1776)

1) Maximum length usually 20 mm, occasionally 25 mm 31Tv flic.kr/p/2jcH6iR .

2) Shell exterior matt-whitish with radiating dark brown rays that often bifurcate and reunite across the shell 30Tv flic.kr/p/2jcH6nd .

3) Shell interior porcelaneous-white with brown-banded peripheral border, and dark brown viscera patch, usually with pale vertex patch 33Tv flic.kr/p/2jcH6eh .

4) Fine concentric growth lines and radiating striae 32Tv flic.kr/p/2jcEoS6 .

5) Mantle skirt green in pallial groove, no red bands or large white glands on mantle periphery. Ctenidium, no pallial gills 34Tv flic.kr/p/2jcJrNh .

6) Large pallial tentacles protrude beyond shell perimeter when active 34Tv flic.kr/p/2jcJrNh .

7) North U.K, to Anglesey and N. Yorkshire. Many absence records, misleadingly, mapped further south on NBN with same symbol as for presence. On encrusted rock, not on seaweeds. records.nbnatlas.org/occurrences/search?q=lsid:NHMSYS0021...

8) Apex c. 25% to 40% of length from anterior 32Tv flic.kr/p/2jcEoS6 .

 

Patella pellucida Linnaeus, 1758 [early stage length 2 to 7mm]

1) Maximum length of development stage 7 mm.

2) Shell exterior translucent pale horn to light brown with blue/green hyphens in longitudinal rows 36Tv flic.kr/p/2jcEoK7 . not in links of a chain pattern like that on some young T. virginea 3Tv flic.kr/p/tg3WuB .

3) Shell interior pale horn to light brown with black, colloidal particles under parts of the blue/green hyphens.

4) Smooth fragile shell 36Tv flic.kr/p/2jcEoK7 .

5) Mantle-skirt translucent whitish. Pallial gills, no ctenidium in nuchal cavity. No inwardly oriented, large, white repugnatorial glands or reddish bands on mantle periphery 35Tv flic.kr/p/2jcEoKC

6) pallial tentacles protrude from aperture rim, but unobtrusive as translucent and almost invisible 35Tv flic.kr/p/2jcEoKC .

7) All round Britain except Liverpool Bay and parts of SE England. On Laminaria, not rock, when > 2mm long.

8) Apex lost from anterior rim of aperture 36Tv flic.kr/p/2jcEoK7 .

  

Williamia gussoni (Costa O. G., 1829) 37Tv flic.kr/p/2jcJrJQ

1) Usual shell length c. 6 mm. Maximum L. c. 8 mm, W. 6 mm and H. 3 mm (Ruthensteiner, 2006); L. 8.8 mm (P. Ugarković, 2020 pers. comm.)

2) Exterior of shell is shiny, bright red-brown with c. 18 pale radiating rays that are sometimes obscured or faded when dead. Periostracum extends well beyond rim of shell.

3) Shell interior as exterior, but paler.

4) Thin, smooth shell with convex anterior and posterior slopes.

5) Mantle is translucent, red-brown with radiating, opaque white rays which correlate with pale rays of shell. No inwardly oriented, large, white repugnatorial glands. In Siphonariidae; respires with c. 17 lamellae concealed in mantle cavity; no pallial gills or protruding ctenidium plume.

6) No pallial tentacles. Cephalic tentacular lobes separated from large flat head by small cleft. Large flap-like anal lobe protrudes from mantle cavity on right. Dorsal surface of head and foot are red-brown; ventrally yellowish white

7) Common at Low Water to more than 50 m (J. Prkić, 2020, pers. comm.) in Adriatic, Mediterranean and adjacent Atlantic; not N.W. Europe (Ruthensteiner, 2006).

8) Apex has distinct semi-spiral protoconch positioned off-centre posteriorly, sometimes overhanging beyond the posterior of the aperture.

 

 

In a splendid portrait created by light and gravity, Saturn's lonely moon

Mimas is seen against the cool, blue-streaked backdrop of Saturn's

northern hemisphere. Delicate shadows cast by the rings arc gracefully

across the planet, fading into darkness on Saturn's night side.

  

The part of the atmosphere seen here appears darker and more bluish than

the warm brown and gold hues seen in Cassini images of the southern

hemisphere, due to preferential scattering of blue wavelengths by the

cloud-free upper atmosphere.

  

The bright blue swath near Mimas (398 kilometers, or 247 miles across) is

created by sunlight passing through the Cassini division (4,800

kilometers, or 2,980 miles wide). The rightmost part of this distinctive

feature is slightly overexposed and therefore bright white in this image.

Shadows of several thin ringlets within the division can be seen here as

well. The dark band that stretches across the center of the image is the

shadow of Saturn's B ring, the densest of the main rings. Part of the

actual Cassini division appears at the bottom, along with the A ring and

the narrow, outer F ring. The A ring is transparent enough that, from

this viewing angle, the atmosphere and threadlike shadows cast by the

inner C ring are visible through it.

  

Images taken with red, green and blue filters were combined to create

this color view. The images were obtained with the Cassini spacecraft

narrow angle camera on Nov. 7, 2004, at a distance of 3.7 million

kilometers (2.3 million miles) from Saturn. The image scale is 22

kilometers (14 miles) per pixel.

  

The Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the

European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion

Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in

Pasadena, manages the Cassini-Huygens mission for NASA's Office of Space

Science, Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter and its two onboard

cameras, were designed, developed and assembled at JPL. The imaging team

is based at the Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colo.

  

For more information, about the Cassini-Huygens mission visit,

saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/ and the Cassini imaging team home page,

ciclops.org/.

  

credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute

View Large On White

 

It's amazing how it coil in any support that serves to them to climb upper.

 

Es sorprendente cómo se enroscan en cualquier soporte que les sirva para trepar más alto.

 

ENGLISH

In botany, a tendril is a specialized stem, leaf or petiole with a threadlike shape that is used by climbing plants for support and attachment, generally by twining around whatever it touches.

 

The earliest and most comprehensive study of tendrils was Charles Darwin's monograph On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants, which was originally published in 1865. This work also coined the term circumnutation to describe the motion of growing stems and tendrils seeking supports.

 

More info: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendril

 

------------------------------------------

 

CASTELLANO

Un zarcillo es un tallo, hoja o pecíolo especializado del que se sirven ciertas plantas trepadoras para sujetarse a una superficie o a otras plantas. Existe una gran variedad de zarcillos, siendo los más importantes los de tipo caulinar y foliar.

 

Fuente: es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarcillo

Plant organ specialized to anchor and support vining stems. A tendril is a slender, whiplike or threadlike strand, produced usually from the node of a stem and composed of either stem or leafstalk tissue, by which a vine or other plant may climb. Sensitive to contact, the tendril turns toward any object it brushes against, wraps about it, and clings to it for as long as the stimulation persists. Later, strong mechanical tissue develops in the tendrils, making them strong enough to support the weight of the plant. Some tendrils have enlargements at the ends that flatten and produce an adhesive that firmly cements them to their support

Bukit Tagar, Selangor, Malaysia.

 

Carnivorous or insectivorous plant - Habitat; old tin-mining lake with receding water line. Utricularia gibba L. Lentibulariaceae. CN: [Malay - Lumut ekor kuning (referring to U. flexuosa Vahl syn. U. aurea Lour.], Bladderwort, Conespur bladderpod, Fibrous bladderwort, Humped bladderwort, Floating bladderwort. Found globally and the widest range among the Utricularia spp. The upper corolla lip that is larger than the lower corolla lip; very small with only threadlike stolons and numerous 2-tipped leaves; classified as suspended and affixed aquatic plant. Aquatic weed.

 

Synonym(s):

Many; refer to The Plant List www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-2446981

 

Ref and suggested reading:

www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-2446981

zipcodezoo.com/Plants/U/Utricularia_gibba/

www.sarracenia.com/faq/faq5666.html

www.sarracenia.com/pubs/focus5.html

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utricularia

Common name: Lemon-scented Gum 檸檬桉

Family: Myrtaceae 桃金孃科

Location: Victoria Park

 

Evergreen tree 24–40 m high with tall straight trunk 0.6–1.3 m in diameter, and thin, graceful crown of drooping foliage. Bark smooth, gray, peeling off in thin irregular scales or patches and becoming mottled, exposing whitish or faintly bluish inner layer with powdery surfaces appearing dimpled. Twigs slender, slightly flattened, light green, tinged with brown. Leaves alternate, narrowly lance-shaped, 10–20 cm long, 1–2.5 cm wide, apically acuminate, basally acute, entire, glabrous, thin, light green on both surfaces, with many fine parallel straight veins and with vein inside edge. Corymbs terminal and at leaf ba"s, to 6 cm long, branched. Flowers many, 3–5 on equal short stalks (umbels) from ovoid buds 8–12 mm long, 5–8 mm wide. Stamens many, threadlikes, white, 6 mm long, spreading ca 12 mm across, anthers with long gland. Pistil inferior 3-celled ovary and long, stout style. Capsules few, urn-shaped or ovoid, narrowed into short neck, 10–12 mm long, 8–10 mm wide, brown with scattered raised dots. Seeds few, irregularly ellipsoid, 4–5 mm long, shiny black (Little, 1983).

 

Ref: www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_citrio...

resources.edb.gov.hk/~trees2/01/01_photo.html

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

Inspired by the beautiful lampwork bead I found, made by local artisan, Cindy Campbell, and all of the winged hearts I doodled as a teenager.

 

Hand forged out of sterling silver wire, coiled with threadlike silver wire. The built-in bail is formed from the upper coils, and threaded with black leather, which can be knotted and made adjustable, or finished with a handmade sterling clasp.

 

Expect more hearts from me soon, as this has inspired me, and I drew out a bunch of other heart designs today.

 

***This was one of those designs that I kind of sketched out, but just in very general terms. When I started making the necklace, it was like it had a mind of it's own, and there was basically no planning involved. It turned out great, but after looking at the pictures, I realized that the wings are not at ALL symmetrical, lol...just like they would be in real life, I guess!

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

On a field near the dunes of Goedereede in the Netherlands.

 

(Thanks to Karen:)

Dill (Anethum graveolens) is a short-lived annual herb, native to southwest and central Asia. It is the sole species of the genus Anethum. It grows to 40-60 cm tall, with slender stems and alternate, finely divided, softly delicate leaves 10-20 cm long. The ultimate leaf divisions are 1-2 mm broad, slightly broader than the similar leaves of fennel, which are threadlike, less than 1 mm broad, but harder in texture. The flowers are white to yellow, in small umbels 2-9 cm diameter. The seeds are 4-5 mm long and 1 mm thick, and straight to slightly curved with a longitudinally ridged surface.Its seeds, dill seed are used as a spice, and its fresh leaves, dill, and its dried leaves, dill weed, are used as herbs. (source: Wikipedia)

 

Yellow On Black

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

North Fork Owyhee Wilderness; Puffballs (Calvatia gigantea). The inside is filled with a dark mass of spores intermingled with threadlike fungal hyphae. At maturity, the puffball splits apart releasing millions of spores into the air in a cloud of black dust; Shari Hart.

Yucca filamentosa

 

It gets its species name from the threadlike filaments along the leaf margins. It has has its very own moth! Here is a link to interesting information about the Yucca Moth seen here:

cdri.org/publications/nature-notes/evolution-ecology/yucc...

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

A spider that I caught a while back and had to freeze because he was so lively. I enjoy the threadlike web he created.

The top rather random layout is nearer to the first end-point I reached when putting the jigsaw together. The image wraps so a large number of arrangements with different outlines are possible from the tessellating adjacent square twosie pieces. I'll investigate a few and post photos. The most compact solution will be the 21x14tile rectangle - and any of the 294 pieces could be in the lower left corner.

 

One thing that threw me when I was putting together the blue fish in the centre - there is a colour change and very slight mismatch along the cut - indicating that the jigsaw was printed in two halves.

 

The path I took through the problem led initially to a much more diagonal solution - I had two growing lumps and when the first chance of joining them together emerged the 'hole' and 'knob' were on very different 'levels'. As this is my largest board I needed to bring several lumps from the top of the left lump down and re-attach them to the lower edge so that the 'joining point' moved to the centre of the board.

 

Laying out all the pieces for a photo gave me a good idea of the kind of colours and details involved but I wouldn't do it the next time for this puzzle. Laying out twenty then stacking similar pieces on top of each, then 'dealing' twenty more to get sorted upright piles feels much more useful to me than throwing them in a container.

 

The first grouping I took out was the purple sea-urchin/jellyfish, then I worked on the pink threadlike coral and the green plant-like coral. It was soon clear that I had to check every detail across the junction as partial image matches were common. The corals were a good choice allowing me to put reasonably large areas together, but also highlighted that I needed to clear the working board to make any further progress. I started stacking pieces of similar colours on top of each, picking groups out and working on them on separate boards. The stacks are then consolidated to free a growing area of the main board for new lumps of puzzle.

 

I was working on top of the 1500pc Portapuzzle cover which was soon shown to be a mistake as it is far too slippy. Things might slide easily but they come apart instantly because the pieces have no 'necks' and so there is no cohesion between groups of pieces. When they came apart rebuilding often took several attempts because the pieces would also spin!

 

The nature of the image makes it impossible that all the creatures can be kept together.

Top: length 13.6mm, height 3.9mm. Apex 36% of length from anterior.

Middle: length 18.4mm, height 4.5mm. Apex 34% of length from anterior.

Bottom: length 23.9mm, height 7.3mm. Apex 37% of length from anterior.

In Britain, sublittoral specimens usually grow up to 20mm long, 14mm wide, 10mm high, but 15mm is usual maximum length of intertidal specimens. The bottom specimen in this image exceeds both these maxima. 30mm long specimens are sometimes found in N. America.

Usually, apex is closer to centre (about 25% to 40% of length from anterior) than on Tectura virginea (about 18% to 30% of length from anterior), but both species vary and ranges overlap.

 

Key id. features BELOW

Full SPECIES DESCRIPTION at: flic.kr/p/WadzLk

APPENDIX re range advance/retreat: flic.kr/p/2jW74ig

Sets of OTHER SPECIES:

www.flickr.com/photos/56388191@N08/collections/

  

Key identification features

Testudinalia testudinalis

1: Maximum length usually 20mm, occasionally 25mm, rarely 30mm.

2: Shell exterior matt-whitish with radiating chocolate-brown rays that often bifurcate and reunite across the shell 1Tt flic.kr/p/WadzLk .

3: Shell interior porcelaneous-white with brown-banded peripheral border, an amphora-shaped, chocolate-brown patch and a pale vertex patch 4Tt flic.kr/p/XbymyT .

4: No prominent sculpture (except sometimes irregular repair-line of damage), but many fine concentric growth lines and radiating striae 5Tt flic.kr/p/XoDw7c .

5: Mantle skirt with emerald green pigment dorsally that looks blue-green when viewed ventrally 17Tt flic.kr/p/X8KpZN . Green is sometimes very pale.

6: Large pallial tentacles protrude beyond shell perimeter when active 23Tt flic.kr/p/Xksgfj .

7: Northern species stretching south to southern Scotland, northern Ireland, Isle of Man, south-west Sweden and Rhode Island, USA.

8: Sometimes, but more often not, on pink, calcareous, encrusting algae with no pale feeding pits, and faecal rods with flat truncated ends that are not chalk-white.

 

Similar species

Young Patella spp., can resemble worn specimens of T. testudinalis.

 

Tectura virginea

The only ‘tortoiseshell limpet’ in the southern half of Britain where it is often mis-recorded as Testudinalia testudinalis.

1: Maximum length 12mm.

2: Shell exterior whitish/yellowish/bluish with radiating pinkish rays and/or light-brown chains which are often mistaken for brown marks of T. testudinalis, especially small juveniles 42Tt flic.kr/p/XASHRd .

3: Shell interior white often translucent showing exterior marks, sometimes red-brown V near vertex 43Tt flic.kr/p/WCkdUp .

4: Sculpture of slight threadlike radiating striae 43Tt flic.kr/p/WCkdUp , often indistinct or absent 44Tt flic.kr/p/XASHz1 , and numerous fine concentric growth lines

5: Mantle-skirt white, yellowish, or blue-green with reddish bands on periphery 45Tt flic.kr/p/XfRfyN , 46Tt flic.kr/p/WA5eV5 and 47Tt flic.kr/p/XASHvo .

6: Outer edge of mantle has many small, unobtrusive, translucent processes and many large white repugnatorial glands pointing inwards from mantle edge, but no prominent, outward pointing, pallial tentacles 48Tt flic.kr/p/XRRcsx .

7: All round Britain except Liverpool Bay and parts of SE England.

8: Nearly always on pink calcareous encrusting algae with pale feeding pits and short, chalk-white faecal rods with hemispherical ends.

 

Bronze peint| Painted bronze

2013 ©MichelleCourteau

www.hastings.k12.ny.us/natureguides/walkideas.htm

 

You will find a fungus within a hundred feet of wherever you happen to be standing in the woods. See how many types you can find. A good fall activity, especially after a spell of wet weather.

 

Most mushrooms fruit and wither within days. Two common mushrooms that you will see even in dry weather: turkey tail (a stiff bracket mushroom that grows on logs that is hardy enough to last for months; some call them “fairy steps”); and the mycelium of green stain: a mushroom that stains soft rotted wood a bright and curious greenish color.

 

You may be interested to know that the mushroom we see is only the fruit of a larger organism growing underground (or in a log or other substrate). In a rotting log you can sometimes expose a mass of typically white, interwoven, threadlike filaments called hyphae, known collectively as mycelium. The mushroom mycelium is much larger than the fruiting body, and can cover acres and can be decades (in some cases hundreds) of years old. These organisms decompose organic matter and make it available to other plants. Without fungi, we would not have a thriving ecosystem!

 

Want to take more Steps?

 

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

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A generous school parent purchased a 3D printer for James Hilburt's math classes at the J. S. Jenks Middle School in the Chestnut Hill neighborhood of Philadelphia and Hilburt is getting the students excited about designing their own projects by printing out 3-d stackable cups, a rubik's cube-like 3d puzzle, a complete chess set and small replicas of the Disney Castle and the Eiffel Tower. To help the students understand design and construction, Hilburt is first having them build a bridge with Popsicle sticks. For the 3d printer projects, Hilburt downloads digital templates onto his computer and loads them into the printer; a rapidly moving arm lays down layer after layer of threadlike strands of melted plastic through a small nozzle head to build the creations from the ground up, taking nearly a day for the more complicated ones.

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.

Names of body parts

 

Essential Names of body parts

 

English learning students must know about the names of body parts because we use them almost daily.

 

I am sure and assume that you know many names of body parts, but I have tried to include almost all of the essential names of body parts in the lesson.

 

names of body parts in detail

 

I have observed that the majority of people learn the meaning of individual words to enhance their vocabulary. The problem with learning individual words is that we forget them very soon. The best way to increase vocabulary is to understand a word's meaning in the context. Therefore, in today's lesson, we will learn the names of body parts in the context of memorizing them longer and permanently.

 

Head ️ سر: the part of the body containing the brain, eyes, ears, nose, and mouth

 

He got a head injury in an accident.

 

Forehead ماتھا: The front part of the face above the eyes

 

Michael kissed her on the forehead.

 

Hair بال: a dense threadlike thing on the different parts of the body, especially on the topmost part of the head

 

Sofia has beautiful long hair.

 

Ponytail بندھے ہوئے بال: arranging hair together at the back of the head in a specific way especially by girls

 

Salma's thick ponytail was swinging side to side.

 

Face چہرہ: the front part of the head that includes the eyes, nose, eyebrows, eyelashes, eyelid, cheeks, and chin, etc.

 

Salman got up and washed his face.

 

englishwithghazali.com/names-of-body-parts/

Bacteriastrum is a single-celled organism belonging to a group of algae known as diatoms. Diatoms are unique among phytoplankton in having a glasslike exterior made of silica. Bacteriastrum is common throughout temperate and coastal waters. This cylindrical diatom forms threadlike chains of cells. Bacteriastrum has long spinelike projections called setae that help it stay afloat in the water column. The setae have various shapes – curved, divided or branched – and also allow the cell to create chains. Bacteriastrum is nontoxic, but the setae (hairlike bristles) can clog the gills of fish and fish kills are possible during highly concentrated blooms. There have been no reports of illness or other harmful effects from Bacteriastrum in Florida waters.

Nigella is a genus of about 14 species of annual plants in the family Ranunculaceae, native to southern Europe, north Africa, south and southwest Asia. Common names applied to members of this genus are nigella, devil-in-a-bush or love in a mist.

 

The species grow to 20-90 cm tall, with finely divided leaves; the leaf segments are narrowly linear to threadlike. The flowers are white, yellow, pink, pale blue or pale purple, with five to 10 petals. The fruit is a capsule composed of several united follicles, each containing numerous seeds; in some species (e.g. Nigella damascena), the capsule is large and inflated.

 

"The Los Angeles Arboretum and Botanic Gardens"

Introduced, warm-season, biennial (2 years), erect herb, 30-150 cm tall. Stems are bristly and striated. Leaves are hairless and once or twice divided; leaflets are lobed. Flowerheads are large (to 12 cm) umbrella-shaped structures, which are surrounded by divided bracts with threadlike segments. Flowers are white or pinkish and about 2.5 mm wide; the petals are often uneven in size. Fruit are 3–4 mm long and ribbed, with rows of short hairs. Flowering is from spring to autumn. A native of Eurasia and North Africa, it occurs along roadsides and in waste places. An indicator of disturbance and bare ground. It is a common component of roadsides, but rarely is found in pastures. Susceptible to trampling and grazing by livestock.