View allAll Photos Tagged SearchEngine
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so since I've had my pro account sometimes I like to look the number of views I get each day. I also like to see what people searched. For the past year people have been searching for: pink cupcakes, chicken and penne, Korean food, kimchi, chocolate cake, flan, best dessert ever (yes, people search for that and I named one of my photo that =))...anyway, you get it.
But recently I've noticed some really strange things...once someone searched for penis festival...I guess they have always been searching for weird things my photos just never showed up. anyway, see notes in the photos for the crazy things I saw some people searched for. =) hehe.
SAMSUNG DIGITAL CAMERA
so since I've had my pro account sometimes I like to look the number of views I get each day. I also like to see what people searched. For the past year people have been searching for: pink cupcakes, chicken and penne, Korean food, kimchi, chocolate cake, flan, best dessert ever (yes, people search for that and I named one of my photo that =))...anyway, you get it.
But recently I've noticed some really strange things...once someone searched for penis festival...I guess they have always been searching for weird things my photos just never showed up. anyway, see notes in the photos for the crazy things I saw some people searched for. =) hehe.
Junk Jet has developed an archive impossible that transports, in print format, net based works, or fragments of works showing collections, series, animations, applications, and reflecting anti-heart texts on the net and its new forms of art, design, and architecture. N°5, the net.heart issue, has transferred internet things from their digital space into a paper jet. This transportation procedure relies on documents in a similar way as the museum relies on photograph and video documenting performance arts. And Junk Jet believes that this analogue documentation is in no way inferior to pseudo-preserving techniques of data migration, emulation, or reprogramming. At the end, Junk Jet says: Transportation is not so much about the artwork as object, but rather about the indication of the subjective decision of the artist. In this sense Junk Jet is a Russian conceptualist.
www.facebook.com/pages/Junk-Jet/298633638983
With wireless contributions by Adam Cruces, Agathe Andre, Alessandro Bava, Alexei Shulgin, Angela Genusa, Angelo Plessas, Aureliano Segundo, Asli Serbest, Aristide Antonas, Artie Vierkant, Ball-Nogues, Bärbel Jetter, Bea Fremderman, Beatriz Ramo, Ben Aqua, Ben Vickers, Billy Rennekamp, Bonno van Doorn, Brad Troemel, Bryan Boyer, Carsten Güth, Christian Oldham, Christine Nasz and Stefanie Hunold, Constant Dullaart, Dennis Knopf, Eilis Mcdonald, Fabien Mousse, Gene McHugh, Greg J. Smith, Hanne Mugaas, Jacob Engblom, Jasper Elings, JODI, Jonas Lund, Jordan Tate, Katja Novitskova, Laimonas Zakas, Lenox Twins, m-a-u-s-e-r, Marisa Olson, Michael Schoner, Mike Ruiz, Mimi Zeiger, Mona Mahall, Natalie Bookchin, Nicholas O'Brien, Nicolas Sassoon, NIEI, NLarchitects, Olia Lialina, Palace Palace, Rafaël Rozendaal, Ricardo Scofidio, Parker Ito, Patrick Cruz, Pieterjan Grandry, Raphael Bastide, Sam Hancocks, Sarah Weis, Something Fantastic, Sterling Crispin, Theo Seemann, Will Brand, Wyne Veen
Edited by Mona Mahall and Asli Serbest
N°5 comes with a Poster: "Home Buttons by Architects"
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
The Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a bird of prey found in North America that is most recognizable as the national bird and symbol of the United States of America. This sea eagle has two known sub-species and forms a species pair with the White-tailed Eagle. Its range includes most of Canada and Alaska, all of the contiguous United States and northern Mexico. It is found near large bodies of open water with an abundant food supply and old-growth trees for nesting.
The Bald Eagle is a large bird, with a body length of 71–96 centimeters (28–38 in), a wingspan of 168–244 centimeters (66–88 in), and a mass of 3–6.3 kilograms (6.6–14 lb); females are about 25 percent larger than males.[2] The adult Bald Eagle has a brown body with a white head and tail, and bright yellow irises, taloned feet, and a hooked beak; juveniles are completely brown except for the yellow feet. Males and females are identical in plumage coloration. Its diet consists mainly of fish, but it is an opportunistic feeder. It hunts fish by swooping down and snatching the fish out of the water with its talons. It is sexually mature at four years or five years of age. In the wild, Bald Eagles can live up to thirty years, and often survive longer in captivity.[3] The Bald Eagle builds the largest nest of any North American bird, up to 4 meters (13 ft) deep, 2.5 meters (8 ft) wide, and one tonne (1.1 tons) in weight.[2]
The species was on the brink of extirpation in the continental United States (while flourishing in much of Alaska and Canada) late in the 20th century, but now has a stable population and has been officially removed from the U.S. federal government's list of endangered species. The Bald Eagle was officially reclassified from "Endangered" to "Threatened" on July 12, 1995 by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. On July 6, 1999, a proposal was initiated "To Remove the Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife." It was delisted on June 28, 2007.
Description
The plumage of an adult Bald Eagle is evenly brown with a white head and tail. The tail is moderately long and slightly wedge-shaped. Males and females are identical in plumage coloration, however females display reverse sexual dimorphism and are 25 percent larger than males.[2] The beak, feet, and irises are bright yellow. The legs are unfeathered, and the toes are short and powerful with large talons. The highly developed talon of the hind toe is used to pierce the vital areas of prey while it is held immobile by the front toes.[4] The beak is large and hooked, with a yellow cere.[5]
The plumage of the immature is brown, speckled with white until the fifth (rarely fourth, very rarely third) year, when it reaches sexual maturity.[2][4] Immature Bald Eagles are distinguishable from the Golden Eagle in that the former has a more protruding head with a larger bill, straighter edged wings which are held flat (not slightly raised) and with a stiffer wing beat, and feathers which do not completely cover the legs.[6] Also, the immature Bald Eagle has more light feathers in the upper arm area, especially around the very top of the arm.
Body length ranges from 71 to 96 cm (28–38 in). Adult females have a wingspan of up to 2.44 m (88 in), while adult males may be as small as 1.68 m (66 in).[2] Adult females weigh approximately 5.8 kg (12.8 lb), males weigh 4.1 kg (9 lb).[7] The size of the bird varies by location; the smallest specimens are those from Florida, where an adult male may barely exceed 2.3 kg (5 lb) and a wingspan of 1.8 m (6 ft). The largest are Alaskan birds, where large females may exceed 7.5 kg (16.5 lb) and have a wingspan of over 2.4 m (8 ft).[5]
The average lifespan of Bald Eagles in the wild is around 20 years, with the oldest living to be about 30. In captivity, they often live somewhat longer. In one instance, a captive individual in New York lived for nearly 50 years. As with size, the average lifespan of an eagle population appears to be influenced by its location.
Taxonomy
This sea eagle gets both its common and scientific names from the distinctive appearance of the adult's head. Bald in the English name is derived from the word piebald, and refers to the white head and tail feathers and their contrast with the darker body. The scientific name is derived from Haliaeetus, New Latin for "sea eagle" (from the Ancient Greek haliaetos), and leucocephalus, Latinized Ancient Greek for "white head," from λευκος leukos ("white") and κεφαλη kephale ("head").[8][9]
The Bald Eagle was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae, under the name Falco leucocephalus.[10]
There are two recognized subspecies of Bald Eagle:[2][11]
* H. l. leucocephalus (Linnaeus, 1766) is the nominate subspecies. It is separated from H. l. alascanus at approximately latitude 38° N, or roughly the latitude of San Francisco.[12] It is found in the southern United States and Baja California.[13]
* H. l. washingtoniensis (Audubon, 1827), synonym H. l. alascanus Townsend, 1897, the northern subspecies, is larger than southern nominate leucocephalus. It is found in the northern United States, Canada and Alaska.[2][13] This subspecies reaches further south than latitude 38° N on the Atlantic Coast, where they occur in the Cape Hatteras area.[12]
The Bald Eagle forms a species pair with the Eurasian White-tailed Eagle. This species pair consists of a white-headed and a tan-headed species of roughly equal size; the White-tailed Eagle also has overall somewhat paler brown body plumage. The pair diverged from other Sea Eagles at the beginning of the Early Miocene (c. 10 Ma BP) at the latest, but possibly as early as the Early/Middle Oligocene, 28 Ma BP, if the most ancient fossil record is correctly assigned to this genus.[14] The two species probably diverged in the North Pacific, as the White-tailed Eagle spread westwards into Eurasia and the Bald Eagle spread eastwards into North America.
Habitat and range
The Bald Eagle prefers habitats near seacoasts, rivers, large lakes, and other large bodies of open water with an abundance of fish. Studies have shown a preference for bodies of water with a circumference greater than 11 km (7 miles), and lakes with an area greater than 10 km² (3.8 square miles) are optimal for breeding bald eagles.[16]
The Bald Eagle requires old-growth and mature stands of coniferous or hardwood trees for perching, roosting, and nesting. Selected trees must have good visibility, an open structure, and proximity to prey, but the height or species of tree is not as important as an abundance of comparatively large trees surrounding the body of water. Forests used for nesting should have a canopy cover of less than 60 percent, and as low as 20 percent, and be in close proximity to water.[16]
The Bald Eagle is extremely sensitive to human activity, and occurs most commonly in areas free of human disturbance. It chooses sites more than 1.2 km (0.75 miles) from low-density human disturbance and more than 1.8 km (1.2 miles) from medium- to high-density human disturbance.[16]
The Bald Eagle's natural range covers most of North America, including most of Canada, all of the continental United States, and northern Mexico. It is the only Sea Eagle native to only North America. The bird itself is able to live in most of North America's varied habitats from the bayous of Louisiana to the Sonoran Desert and the eastern deciduous forests of Quebec and New England. Northern birds are migratory, while southern birds are resident, often remaining on their breeding territory all year. The Bald Eagle previously bred throughout much of its range but at its lowest population was largely restricted to Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, northern and eastern Canada, and Florida.
It has occurred as a vagrant twice in Ireland; a juvenile was shot illegally in Fermanagh on January 11, 1973 (misidentified at first as a White-tailed Eagle), and an exhausted juvenile was captured in Kerry on November 15, 1987.[18] Bald Eagles will also congregate in certain locations in winter. From November until February, one to two thousand birds winter in Squamish, British Columbia, about halfway between Vancouver and Whistler. The birds primarily gather along the Squamish and Cheakamus Rivers, attracted by the salmon spawning in the area.
Behavior
The Bald Eagle is a powerful flier, and soars on thermal convection currents. It reaches speeds of 56–70 km/h (35–44 miles per hour) when gliding and flapping, and about 48 km/h (30 miles per hour) while carrying fish.[20] It is partially migratory, depending on location. If its territory has access to open water, it remains there year-round, but if the body of water freezes during the winter, making it impossible to obtain food, it migrates to the south or to the coast. The Bald Eagle selects migration routes which take advantage of thermals, updrafts, and food resources. During migration, it may ascend in a thermal and then glide down, or may take ascend in updrafts created by the wind against a cliff or other terrain. Migration generally takes place during the daytime, when thermals are produced by the sun.[4]
Bald Eagles normally squeak and have a shrill cry, punctuated by grunts. They do not make the scream that is found in films; this is usually the call of a Red-tailed Hawk, dubbed into films for dramatic effect.
Diet
The Bald Eagle's diet is opportunistic and varied, but most feed mainly on fish. In the Pacific Northwest, spawning trout and salmon provide most of the Bald Eagles' diet.[21] Locally, eagles may rely largely on carrion, especially in winter, and they will scavenge carcasses up to the size of whales, though it seems that carcasses of ungulates and large fish are preferred. They also may sometimes feed on subsistence scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics, as well as garbage dumps. Mammalian prey includes rabbits, hares, raccoons, muskrats, beavers, sea otters, and deer fawns. Preferred avian prey includes grebes, alcids, ducks, gulls, coots, egrets and geese. Most live prey are quite a bit smaller than the eagle, but predatory attacks on large birds such as the Great Blue Heron and even swans have been recorded. Reptiles, amphibians and crustaceans (especially crabs) are preyed on when available.
To hunt fish, easily their most important live prey, the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its talons. They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other. Eagles have structures on their toes called spiricules that allow them to grasp fish. Osprey also have this adaptation.[20] Bald Eagles have powerful talons.
Sometimes, if the fish is too heavy to lift, the eagle will be dragged into the water. It may swim to safety, but some eagles drown or succumb to hypothermia. When competing for food, eagles will usually dominate other fish-eaters and scavengers, aggressively displacing mammals such as coyotes and foxes, and birds such as corvids, gulls, vultures and other raptors. Bald Eagles may be displaced by or themselves displace Golden Eagles, with neither species known to be dominant. Occasionally, Bald Eagles will steal fish away from smaller raptors, such as Ospreys, a practice known as kleptoparasitism.
Reproduction
Bald Eagles are sexually mature at four or five years of age. When they are old enough to breed, they often return to the area where they were born. It is thought that Bald Eagles mate for life. However, if one member of a pair dies or disappears, the other will choose a new mate. A pair which has repeatedly failed in breeding attempts may split and look for new mates.[23] Bald Eagle courtship involves elaborate calls and flight displays. The flight includes swoops, chases, and cartwheels, in which they fly high, lock talons, and free fall, separating just before hitting the ground.[24]
The nest is the largest of any bird in North America; it is used repeatedly over many years and with new material added each year may eventually be as large as 4 meters (13 ft) deep, 2.5 meters (8 ft) across and weigh one tonne (1.1 tons);[2] one nest in Florida was found to be 6.1 meters deep (20 ft), 2.9 meters (9.5 ft) across, and to weigh 2.722 tonnes (3 tons).[25] The nest is built out of branches, usually in large trees near water. When breeding where there are no trees, the Bald Eagle will nest on the ground. Eagles produce between one and three eggs per year, but it is rare for all three chicks to successfully fly. Both the male and female take turns incubating the eggs. The other parent will hunt for food or look for nesting material. The eggs average about 7.3 centimeters (2.9 in) long and have a breadth of 5.5 centimeters (2.2 in).
The incubation period averages at about 35 days and the parents will brood their offspring until they are about four weeks of age. The fledging stage can occur at any time from 70 to 92 days, the wide variation dictated by the effects of sex and hatching order on growth and development. Egg and nestling predation may be committed by Black-billed Magpies, gulls, ravens and crows, black bears and raccoons. With no known predators themselves, adults will fiercely defend their offspring from these species.
Relationship with humans
Population decline and recovery
Once a common sight in much of the continent, the Bald Eagle was severely affected in the mid-20th century by a variety of factors, among them thinning of egg shells, attributed to the use of the pesticide DDT.[26] Bald Eagles, like many birds of prey, were especially affected by DDT due to biomagnification. DDT itself was not lethal to the adult bird, but it interfered with the bird's calcium metabolism, making the bird either sterile or unable to lay healthy eggs. Female eagles laid eggs that were too brittle to withstand the weight of a brooding adult, making it nearly impossible to produce young.[17] It's estimated that in the early 1700s, the bald eagle population was 300,000–500,000,[27] but by the 1950s there were only 412 nesting pairs in the 48 contiguous states of the US. Other factors in Bald Eagle population reductions were a widespread loss of suitable habitat, and illegal shooting, which was described as "the leading cause of direct mortality in both adult and immature bald eagles," according to a 1978 report in the Endangered Species Technical Bulletin. In 1984, the National Wildlife Federation listed hunting, power line electrocution, and collisions in flight as the leading causes of eagle deaths. Bald Eagle populations have also been negatively affected by oil, lead, and mercury pollution, and by human and predator intrusion.
The species was first protected in the U.S. and Canada by the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty, later extended to all of North America. The 1940 Bald Eagle Protection Act in the U.S., which protected the Bald Eagle and the Golden Eagle, prohibited commercial trapping and killing of the birds. The Bald Eagle was declared an endangered species in the U.S. in 1967, and amendments to the 1940 act between 1962 and 1972 further restricted commercial uses and increased penalties for violators. Also in 1972, DDT was banned in the United States.[29] DDT was completely banned in Canada in 1989, though its use had been highly restricted since the late 1970s.[30]
With regulations in place and DDT banned, the eagle population rebounded. The Bald Eagle can be found in growing concentrations throughout the United States and Canada, particularly near large bodies of water. In the early 1980s, the estimated total population was 100,000 birds, with 110,000–115,000 by 1992;[2] the U.S. state with the largest resident population is Alaska, with about 40,000–50,000 birds, with the next highest population being the Canadian province of British Columbia with 20,000–30,000 birds in 1992.[2]
It was officially removed from the U.S. federal government's list of endangered species on July 12, 1995 by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, when it was reclassified from "Endangered" to "Threatened." On July 6, 1999, a proposal was initiated "To Remove the Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife." It was delisted on June 28, 2007.[31] It has also been assigned a risk level of Least Concern category on the IUCN Red List.
In captivity
Permits are required to keep Bald Eagles in captivity in the United States. Permits are primarily issued to public educational institutions, and the eagles which they show are permanently injured individuals which cannot be released to the wild. The facilities where eagles are kept must be equipped with adequate caging and facilities, as well as workers experienced in the handling and care of eagles. Bald Eagles cannot legally be kept for falconry in the United States. As a rule, the Bald Eagle is a poor choice for public shows, being timid, prone to becoming highly stressed, and unpredictable in nature. Native American Tribes can obtain a "Native American Religious Use" permit to keep non-releasable eagles as well. They use their naturally molted feathers for religious and cultural ceremonies. The Bald Eagle can be long-lived in captivity if well cared for, but does not breed well even under the best conditions.[33] In Canada, a license is required to keep Bald Eagles for falconry.
National bird of the United States
The Bald Eagle is the national bird of the United States of America. It is one of the country's most recognizable symbols, and appears on most of its official seals, including the Seal of the President of the United States.
The Continental Congress adopted the current design for the Great Seal of the United States including a Bald Eagle grasping thirteen arrows and a thirteen-leaf olive branch with its talons on June 20, 1782.
After the end of the Revolutionary War, Benjamin Franklin wrote a famous letter from Paris in 1784, to his daughter, criticizing the choice and suggesting the Wild Turkey as a better representative of American qualities. He described the Bald Eagle as "a Bird of bad moral character," who, "too lazy to fish for himself" survived by robbing the Osprey. He called the Bald Eagle "a rank Coward" easily driven from a perch by the much smaller kingbird. In the letter, Franklin wrote the Turkey is, "a much more respectable Bird," which he described as "a little vain & silly [but] a Bird of Courage."[35]
The Bald Eagle remained the emblem of the United States. It can be found on both national seals and on the back of several coins (including the quarter dollar coin until 1999), with its head oriented towards the olive branch. Between 1916 and 1945, the Presidential Flag showed an eagle facing to its left (the viewer's right), which gave rise to the urban legend that the seal is changed to have the eagle face towards the olive branch in peace, and towards the arrows in wartime.
Role in Native American culture
The Bald Eagle is a sacred bird in some North American cultures, and its feathers, like those of the Golden Eagle, are central to many religious and spiritual customs among Native Americans. Eagles are considered spiritual messengers between gods and humans by some cultures.[37] Many pow wow dancers use the eagle claw as part of their regalia as well. Eagle feathers are often used in traditional ceremonies, particularly in the construction of regalia worn and as a part of fans, bustles and head dresses. The Lakota, for instance, give an eagle feather as a symbol of honor to person who achieves a task. In modern times, it may be given on an event such as a graduation from college.[38] The Pawnee considered eagles as symbols of fertility because their nests are built high off the ground and because they fiercely protect their young. The Kwakwaka'wakw scattered eagle down to welcome important guests.
During the Sun Dance, which is practiced by many Plains Indian tribes, the eagle is represented in several ways. The eagle nest is represented by the fork of the lodge where the dance is held. A whistle made from the wing bone of an eagle is used during the course of the dance. Also during the dance, a medicine man may direct his fan, which is made of eagle feathers, to people who seek to be healed. The medicine man touches the fan to the center pole and then to the patient, in order to transmit power from the pole to the patient. The fan is then held up toward the sky, so that the eagle may carry the prayers for the sick to the Creator.[40]
Current eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain Bald or Golden Eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. The constitutionality of these laws has been questioned by Native American groups on the basis that it violates the First Amendment by affecting ability to practice their religion freely.[41] Additionally, only members of federally recognized tribes are legally allowed to possess eagle feathers, preventing non-federally recognized tribe members from practicing religion freely. The laws have also been criticized on grounds of racial preferences and infringements on tribal sovereignty.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
History
The United States Air Force became a separate military service on September 18, 1947, with the implementation of the National Security Act of 1947.[10] The Act created the United States Department of Defense, which was composed of three branches, the Army, Navy and a newly-created Air Force.[11] Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was divided between the Army (for land-based operations) and the Navy, for sea-based operations from aircraft carrier and amphibious aircraft. The Army created the first antecedent of the Air Force in 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual separation 40 years later. The predecessor organizations of today's U.S. Air Force are:
* Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps (August 1, 1907 to July 18, 1914)
* Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps (July 18, 1914 to May 20, 1918)
* Division of Military Aeronautics (May 20, 1918 to May 24, 1918)
* U.S. Army Air Service (May 24, 1918 to July 2, 1926)
* U.S. Army Air Corps (July 2, 1926 to June 20, 1941) and
* U.S. Army Air Forces (June 20, 1941 to September 17, 1947)
[edit] Wars
The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts, and operations since its conception; these include:
* World War I[12] Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
* World War II[13] United States Army Air Forces
* The Cold War
* The Korean War
* The Vietnam War
* Operation Eagle Claw
* Operation Urgent Fury
* Operation Eldorado Canyon
* The United States invasion of Panama
* The Gulf War
* Operation Northern Watch
* Operation Southern Watch
* The Kosovo War
* Operation Enduring Freedom
* Operation Iraqi Freedom
[edit] Humanitarian operations
The U.S. Air Force has taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following:[14]
* Berlin Airlift (Operation Vittles), 1948-1949
* Operation Safe Haven, 1956-1957
* Operations Babylift, New Life, Frequent Wind, and New Arrivals, 1975
* Operation Provide Comfort, 1991
* Operation Sea Angel, 1991
* Operation Provide Hope, 1992-1993
* Operation Unified Assistance, December 2004 - April 2005
[edit] Administrative organization
Main article: Organizational structure and hierarchy of the United States Air Force
The Air Force is one of three service departments, and is managed by the (civilian) Department of the Air Force. Guidance is provided by the Secretary of the Air Force(SECAF) and the Secretary's staff and advisors. The military leadership is the Air Staff, led by the Chief of Staff.
USAF direct subordinate commands and units are the Field Operating Agency (FOA), Direct Reporting Unit (DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency.
The Major Command (MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. Including the Air Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has nine major commands, and a tenth, Air Force Cyber Command, in process. The Numbered Air Force (NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused), Air Division (also now unused), Wing, Group, Squadron, and Flight.
[edit] Force structure
Headquarters, United States Air Force, The Pentagon, Arlington, Virginia
* Air Combat Command (ACC), headquartered at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia
o First Air Force, headquartered at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida
o Eighth Air Force, headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana
o Ninth Air Force, headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina
o Twelfth Air Force, headquartered at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona
* Air Education and Training Command (AETC), headquartered at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas
o Second Air Force, headquartered at Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi
o Nineteenth Air Force, headquartered at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas
* Air Force Cyber Command (Provisional) (AFCYBER), interim location at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana
o Twenty Fourth Air Force
* Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC), headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
* Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC), headquartered at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia
o Fourth Air Force, headquartered at March Air Reserve Base, California
o Tenth Air Force, headquartered at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas
o Twenty-Second Air Force, headquartered at Dobbins Air Reserve Base, Georgia
* Air Force Space Command (AFSPC), headquartered at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado
o Fourteenth Air Force, headquartered at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California
o Twentieth Air Force, headquartered at F. E. Warren Air Force Base, Wyoming
* Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC), headquartered at Hurlburt Field, Florida
o Twenty-Third Air Force
* Air Mobility Command (AMC), headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois
o Eighteenth Air Force, headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois
* United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE), headquartered at Ramstein Air Base, Germany
o Third Air Force, headquartered at Ramstein Air Base, Germany
o Seventeenth Air Force, headquartered at Sembach Annex, Germany
* United States Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), headquartered at Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii
o Fifth Air Force, headquartered at Yokota Air Base, Japan
o Seventh Air Force, headquartered at Osan Air Base, Republic of Korea
o Eleventh Air Force, headquartered at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska
o Thirteenth Air Force, headquartered at Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii
The permanent establishment of the USAF, as of 30 September 2006,[15] consisted of:
* Active duty forces:
o 57 flying wings, 8 space wings, and 55 non-flying wings
o 9 flying groups, 8 non-flying groups
+ 134 flying squadrons, 43 space squadrons
* Air Force Reserve
o 35 flying wings, 1 space wing
o 4 flying groups
+ 67 flying squadrons, 6 space squadrons
* Air National Guard
o 87 flying wings
+ 101 flying squadrons, 4 space squadrons
The United States Air Force and its Air Reserve Components field a total of 302 flying squadrons.[16]
[edit] Operational organization
The above organizational structure is responsible for the peacetime Organization, Equipping, and Training of aerospace units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the National Command Authority directs a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their peacetime alignment to a Regional Combatant Commander (CCDR). In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency to USTRANSCOM unless chopped to a Regional CCDR.
[edit] Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force
CHOPPED units are referred to as "forces". The top-level structure of these forces is the Air and Space Expeditionary Task Force (AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of aerospace forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in the COCOM's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the most strategic air assets in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as the Joint Forces Air Component Commander (JFACC).
[edit] Commander, Air Force Forces
The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior Air Force officer responsible for the employment of Air Power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission.
[edit] Air Operations Center
The Air Operations Center (AOC) is the JFACC's Command and Control (C²) center. This center is responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives.
[edit] Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons
The AETF generates air power to support COCOM objectives from Air Expeditionary Wings (AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions.
[edit] Vocations
This section does not cite any references or sources. (May 2008)
Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.
The vast majority of Air Force members remain on the ground. There are hundreds of support positions which are necessary to the success of a mission.
The classification of an Air Force job is the Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC). They range from flight combat operations such as a gunner, to working in a dining facility to ensure that members are properly fed. There are many different jobs in fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties, enlisted aircrew, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations, security forces, and search and rescue specialties.
Perhaps the most dangerous Air Force jobs are Explosive Ordnance Disposal, Pararescue, Combat Control, Combat Weather and Tactical Air Control Party, who deploy with infantry and special operations units who disarm bombs, rescue downed or isolated personnel, call in air strikes and set up landing zones in forward locations. Most of these are enlisted positions. Other jobs have seen increasing combat, and have been billed "Battlefield Airmen". These include EOD, Vehicle operators, and OSI.
Nearly all enlisted jobs are "entry level," meaning that the Air Force provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular job, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Training. After Basic Military Training, new Air Force members attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command is responsible for nearly all technical training.
Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 31 days of tech school training, while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is 1 year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over 10 separate divisions; sometimes taking students close to 2 years to complete. Some AFSC's have even shorter or longer training.
[edit] Aircraft
Main article: List of active United States military aircraft
B-2 Spirit
B-2 Spirit
F-22 Raptors
F-22 Raptors
V-22 Ospreys
V-22 Ospreys
C-17 Globemaster III
C-17 Globemaster III
The United States Air Force has over 7,500 aircraft commissioned as of 2004. Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while the U.S. Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army/Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer to United States Department of Defense Aerospace Vehicle Designations.
Current aircraft of the USAF[17]:
[edit] Attack (Close Air Support)
* O/A-10A/C Thunderbolt II
* AC-130H/U Spectre/Spooky II
[edit] Bomber
* B-1B Lancer
* B-2A Spirit
* B-52H Stratofortress
[edit] Transport, Special Operations
* An-26 Curl
* C-5A/B/C/M Galaxy
* C-12C/D/F Huron
* C-17A Globemaster III
* C-20A/B/C Gulfstream III
* C-20G/H Gulfstream IV
* C-21A Learjet
* C-22B
* VC-25A (Air Force One)
* C-26B Metroliner
* C-29A
* C-32A
* C-37A Gulfstream V
* C-38 Courier
* C-40B Clipper
* C-41A Aviocar
* C-130E/H/J Hercules
* HC-130H/N
* LC-130H
* MC-130E/H/W Combat Talon/Combat Spear
* WC-130J
* C-135C/E/K Stratolifter
* NC-135B/E/W
* VC-137C
* CN-235-100[citation needed]
* E-9A
* CV-22B Osprey
* TC-18E
* TC-135S
* TC-135W
* WC-135C/W
[edit] AWACS, Electronic Warfare
* EC-137D Stratoliner[citation needed]
* E-3B/C Sentry
* E-4B
* E-8C JSTARS
[edit] Fighter
* F-15A/B/C/D Eagle
* F-15E Strike Eagle
* F-16C/D Fighting Falcon
* F-22A Raptor
* F-35 Lightning II
[edit] Helicopter
* MH-53J/M Pave Low III/IV
* HH-60G Pave Hawk
* UH-1N Iroquois
[edit] Tanker
* KC-10A Extender
* KC-135E/R/T Stratotanker
[edit] Reconnaissance
* OC-135B
* M/RQ-1A/B Predator
* RQ-4A Global Hawk
* MQ-9 Reaper
* RC-135S/U/V/W
* U-2R/S "Dragon Lady"
[edit] Trainer
* NT-39A/B Sabreliner
* T-1A Jayhawk
* T-6 Texan II
* (A)T-38A/B/C Talon
* Boeing T-43
* TG-3A
* TG-4A
* TG-7A
* TG-9A
* TG-10B/C/D
* TG-11A
* TG-15A/TG-15B
* UC-26C
* UV-18A/B Twin Otter
* UV-20A Chiricua
* U-28A
Source: [18]
[edit] Culture
[edit] Uniforms
Main article: United States Air Force uniform
United States Air Force personnel wear uniforms which are distinct from those of the other branches of the United States Armed Forces. The current uniform is an olive drab/black/brown and tan combination called the Battle Dress Uniform (BDU). Members deployed to an AOR wear a variation of the BDU, tan and brown in color, called the Desert Camouflage Uniform (DCU). A new uniform called the Airman Battle Uniform (ABU) is currently being distributed to some bases, and in a memo from HQ AFPC at Randolph AFB dated September 2007, will be distributed to basic trainees in their clothing issue starting October 2007. The ABU is already authorized for wear, and is scheduled to completely replace the BDU and DCU by November 2011.
[edit] Awards and badges
In addition to basic uniform clothing, various badges are used by the USAF to indicate a job assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-based awards. Over time, various badges have been discontinued and are no longer distributed.
[edit] Grade Structure and Insignias
See also: United States Air Force officer rank insignia
See also: United States Air Force enlisted rank insignia
The standard USAF uniform is also decorated with an insignia to designate rank. USAF rank is divided between enlisted airmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from "airman basic" to the commissioned rank of general. Promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval. Promotions among enlisted men and non-commissioned officers rankings are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons. Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five (only in war-time) stars.
For cadet rank at the U.S. Air Force Academy, see United States Air Force Academy Cadet Insignia.
[edit] Slogans & Creeds
The United States Air Force has had numerous recruiting slogans to include "Nothing Comes Close" and Uno Ab Alto. For many years, the U.S. Air Force used "Aim High" as its recruiting motto; more recently, they have used "Cross Into the Blue", "We've been waiting for you" and "Do Something Amazing",[19] and the newest one, "Above All".[20] Each wing, group, or squadron usually has its own motto(s). Information and logos can usually be found on the wing, group, or squadron websites.[21]
The Airman's Creed is a statement introduced in the spring of 2007 to summarize the culture of the Air Force.
Air Force Core Values: Integrity First, Service Before Self, Excellence In All We Do
To help further knowledge of their mission and functions, the Air Force has also produced videos, such as "Setting the Conditions for Victory" and "How We Fight",[22] to outline the Air Force role in the war on terrorism and how the service succeeds in its domains of air, space and cyberspace. The Above All campaign continues to support the message of "air, space and cyberspace" dominance.
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Missing in action
Missing in action is a status assigned to a member of the armed services who is reported missing following combat and may be injured, captured, or dead.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 US Armed Forces
* 2 Colloquial usage
* 3 See also
* 4 Notes
* 5 External links
[edit] US Armed Forces
POW/MIA flag
POW/MIA flag
The term is commonly used for and individual missing in combat. Its American abbreviation (not commonly used elsewhere) is MIA.
During the late 1970s and 1980s the friends and relatives of unaccounted for American GIs became politically active, requesting the U.S. government reveal what steps were taken to follow up on intelligence regarding last known alive MIAs and POWs. When initial inquiries revealed important information had not been pursued, many families and their supporters asked for the public release of POW/MIA records and called for an investigation. Serious charges were leveled at the George H. W. Bush administration regarding the POW/MIA issue. (Ex-chief describes woes of POW office" Washington Times May 31, 1991) The Defense Department, headed by then Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, had been accused of covering up information and failing to properly pursue intelligence about American POW/MIAs. "Ex-Official Alleges Administration Coverup on POW/MIA Issue "The Washington Post; May 22, 1991 In May of 1991, the Minority Report of the Senate Foreign Relation Committee concluded that “any evidence that suggested an MIA might be alive was uniformly and arbitrarily rejected. . .” A resolution to create a Senate Select POW/MIA Committee, introduced by U.S. Senator Robert C. Smith, was passed in the Senate months later. Senator John Kerry was eventually named chairman, and was joined on the committee by Senator and former POW John McCain, who had been a strong opponent of the creation of a Senate Select POW/MIA Committee. Six live sighting investigators hired by the committee unanimously concluded that the live sighting intelligence through 1989 showed Vietnam and Laos were still holding American prisoners.[1] Controversy erupted when Kerry ordered the report of the live sighting investigators to be shredded along with all of their personal notes.[2] Committee staffer Jon McCreary, on loan from the Defense Intelligence Agency, filed a memorandum on the shredding incident. Journalist Sydney Schanberg, recipient of the Pulitzer Prize for some of his Southeast Asia coverage during the Vietnam War, described Kerry’s actions in a February 24, 2004 article for the Village Voice:
He gave orders to his committee staff to shred crucial intelligence documents. The shredding stopped only when some intelligence staffers staged a protest. Some wrote internal memos calling for a criminal investigation. One such memo—from John F. McCreary, a lawyer and staff intelligence analyst—reported that the committee's chief counsel, J. William Codinha, a longtime Kerry friend, "ridiculed the staff members" and said, "Who's the injured party?" When staffers cited "the 2,494 families of the unaccounted-for U.S. servicemen, among others," the McCreary memo continued, Codinha said: "Who's going to tell them? It's classified.[2]
The 2004 documentary Missing, Presumed Dead: The Search for America's POWs, narrated by Ed Asner, includes one scene from the committee where former Korean War POW Steve Kiba, who was held prisoner in China after the end of the Korean War, testified and asked, "Where are all the other senators?" and an embarrassed Kerry eventually eventually rushed in. A shocking public revelation during the committee was the admission by former Secretaries of Defense from the Vietnam War era that American POWs had been left behind in Southeast Asia. See "Nixon Defense Secretaries Say U.S. Left POWs in Vietnam," Los Angeles Times, 1992-09-22. The committee disagreed about whether POWs were still alive in Southeast Asia, as reflected in the minority and majority reports of the committee. All committee members agreed on a final report that used the words "compelling evidence," but stated that the "compelling evidence" did not prove that men were still alive in Southeast Asia. [3]
During the Persian Gulf War of 1991, an American pilot named Scott Speicher was reported as MIA [citation needed]after his F/A-18 was shot down in northern Iraq. In 1997, a Defense Department document leaked to the New York Times showed that the Pentagon had not been forthcoming with information previously requested by U.S. Senator Rod Grams. Senator Grams publicly accused the Pentagon of misleading him, and joined with Senator Bob Smith in calling for an investigation by the U.S. Senate Intelligence Committee. [4]
In 2006, the National Alliance of Families found 1992 documents discussing the admission by Vietnam of capturing a number of missing Americans. The National Alliance contacted the families they could locate, and found that the Vietnamese admissions had been concealed from the families by the U.S. government. ( National Alliance of Families June 24, 2006 Bits 'N' Pieces Special 19 New POW Cases) The U.S. and Vietnamese governments had given every indication to the families that the men had been killed in their loss incidents. However, at least one MIA, San Dewayne Francisco was reported to be alive by a North Vietnamese newspaper which was confirmed by radio transmissions by Francisco immediately after his aircraft crashed. A bill including criminal penalties for deliberately withholding POW/MIA records in violation of the law unanimously passed the House of Representatives in the 1990s. However, as also reported by Sydney Schanberg, such penalties were stripped from the law due to the efforts of former POW John McCain. [5]
On October 23, 2006 US Army soldier Spc. Ahmed Qusai al-Taayie was captured by insurgents and is listed as missing-captured. He appeared in a proof of life video in February of 2007 but he hasn't been seen or heard from since. A $50,000 reward is being offered by the US government for information leading to his recovery. On May 12, 2007 a US Army observation post was overrun by Iraqi insurgents, four American and one Iraqi soldier were killed, three other US Army soldiers were captured. They were Pfc. Joseph J. Anzack Jr., Pvt. Byron W. Fouty and Spc. Alex R. Jimenez. Pfc. Anzacks' body was found in the Euphrates River south of Baghdad on May 23, 2007 bearing signs of torture. On June 4, 2007. The ISI claimed that they killed Fouty and Jimenez and also claimed that their bodies are buried and will not be returned to their families. Since the war began 4 US servicemen are still listed as MIA. On 3/30/08 the military anounced the discovery of the remains of Maupin, bringing the Iraq MIA toll down to 3.
[edit] Colloquial usage
MIA is sometimes used in American English to describe difficulty finding something. "The TV remote is MIA." It is less often used in this context in UK English, where the equivalent phrase is "gone AWOL".
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The flag of the United States of America consists of 13 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 U.S. states and the 13 stripes represent the original Thirteen Colonies that rebelled against the British Crown and became the first states in the Union.[1] Nicknames for the flag include the stars and stripes, Old Glory,[2] the American flag, and the star-spangled banner (also the name of the country's official national anthem).
Because of its symbolism, the starred blue canton is called the "union". This part of the national flag can stand alone as a maritime flag called the Union Jack.
Symbolism
The flag of the United States is one of the nation's widely recognized and used symbols. Within the U.S. it is frequently displayed, not only on public buildings, but on private residences, as well as iconically in forms such as decals for car windows, and clothing ornaments such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world it is used in public discourse to refer to the U.S., both as a nation state, government, and set of policies, but also as an ideology and set of ideas.
Many understand the flag to represent the freedoms and rights guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution and its Bill of Rights and perhaps most of all to be a symbol of individual and personal liberty as set forth in the Declaration of Independence. The flag is a complex and contentious symbol, around which emotions run high.
Apart from the numbers of stars and stripes representing the number of current and original states, respectively, and the union with its stars representing a constellation, there is no legally defined symbolism to the colors and shapes on the flag. However, folk theories and traditions abound; for example, that the stripes refer to rays of sunlight and that the stars refer to the heavens, the highest place that a person could aim to reach.[4] Tradition holds that George Washington proclaimed: "We take the stars from Heaven, the red from our mother country, separating it by white stripes, thus showing that we have separated from her, and the white stripes shall go down to posterity representing Liberty."
Design
Specification
The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:
* Hoist (width) of the flag: A = 1.0
* Fly (length) of the flag: B = 1.9[6]
* Hoist (width) of the Union: C = 0.5385 (A x 7/13, spanning seven stripes)
* Fly (length) of the Union: D = 0.76 (B × 2/5, two fifths of the flag length)
* E = F = 0.0538 (C/10, One tenth the height of the field of stars)
* G = H = 0.0633 (D/12, One twelfth the width of the field of stars)
* Diameter of star: K = 0.0616
* Width of stripe: L = 0.0769 (A/13, One thirteenth of the flag width)
Colors
The exact shades of red, white, and blue to be used in the flag are specified as follows:
Dark Red 70180 193 C #BF0A30 (191,10,48)
White 70001 Safe #FFFFFF (255,255,255)
Navy Blue 70075 281 C #002868 (0,40,104)
The 49- and 50-star unions
When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were spontaneously submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49-star versions, the vast majority were 50-star proposals. At least three, and probably more, of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50-star flag.[10] At the time, credit was given by the Executive Department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.
Of these proposals, one created by 18-year old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project has received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the union in 1959. He got an A.
Decoration
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often utilize fringe to enhance the beauty of the flag. The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "...is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy..." as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe.
Flag etiquette
Main article: United States Flag Code
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. (This tradition comes from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American team captain Martin Sheridan refused, famously proclaiming that "this flag dips to no earthly king."[13]). The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct dignified flag-burning ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. It is a common myth that if a flag touches the ground or a flag that is soiled must be burned as well. While a flag that is currently touching the ground and a soiled flag are unfit for display, neither situation is permanent and thus the flag does not need to be burned if the unfit situation is remedied. [14]
Although US Flag Code states that "The flag should not be used as part of a costume or athletic uniform, except that a flag patch may be used on the uniform of military personnel, firefighters, police officers, and members of patriotic organizations", many athletic teams have worn the flag as a part of their uniform. Notably, Major League Baseball placed the flag on the back of all uniforms following the 9/11 attacks, and the US team in the 2006 World Baseball Classic wore a flag patch on their left sleeve. For Independence Day and 9/11 2008, with the exception of the Toronto Blue Jays, All MLB teams will wear navy-blue versions of their hats, with an American flag imposed inside their own logo.
Although the Flag Code is U.S. Federal law, there is no penalty for failure to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced—indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established in this area.
Folding the flag
Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. (The Philippines, a former American territory, also has this custom for folding its flag.) To properly fold the flag:
1. Begin by holding it waist-high with another person so that its surface is parallel to the ground.
2. Fold the lower half of the stripe section lengthwise over the field of stars, holding the bottom and top edges securely.
3. Fold the flag again lengthwise with the blue field on the outside.
4. Make a rectangular fold then a triangular fold by bringing the striped corner of the folded edge to meet the open top edge of the flag. Starting the fold from the left side over to the right
5. Turn the outer end point inward, parallel to the open edge, to form a second triangle.
6. The triangular folding is continued until the entire length of the flag is folded in this manner (usually thirteen triangular folds, as shown at right). On the final fold, any remnant that does not neatly fold into a triangle (or in the case of exactly even folds, the last triangle) is tucked into the previous fold.
7. When the flag is completely folded, only a triangular blue field of stars should be visible.
Display
The flag is customarily flown year-round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full-size flags. Some private use is year-round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans.
Places of continuous display
By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, American flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.
* Replicas of the Star Spangled Banner Flag (15 stars, 15 stripes) are flown at two sites in Baltimore, Maryland: Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine (Presidential Proclamation No. 2795, July 2, 1948) and Flag House Square (Public Law 83-319, approved March 26, 1954).
* United States Marine Corps War Memorial (Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima), Arlington, Virginia (Presidential Proclamation No. 3418, June 12, 1961).
* Lexington, Massachusetts Town Green (Public Law 89-335, approved November 8, 1965).
* The White House, Washington, DC (Presidential Proclamation No. 4000, September 4, 1970).
* Fifty U.S. Flags are displayed continuously at the Washington Monument, Washington, DC. (Presidential Proclamation No. 4064, July 6, 1971, effective July 4, 1971).
* By order of Richard Nixon at United States Customs Service Ports of Entry that are continuously open (Presidential Proclamation No. 4131, May 5, 1972).
* By Congressional decree, a Civil War era flag (for the year 1863) flies above Pennsylvania Hall (Old Dorm) at Gettysburg College. This building, occupied by both sides at various points of the Battle of Gettysburg, served as a lookout and battlefield hospital.
* Grounds of the National Memorial Arch in Valley Forge NHP, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania (Public Law 94-53, approved July 4, 1975).
* Mount Slover limestone quarry (Colton Liberty Flag), in Colton, California (Act of Congress). First raised July 4, 1917.[15]
* Washington Camp Ground, part of the former Middlebrook encampment, Bridgewater, New Jersey, Thirteen Star Flag, by Act of Congress.
* By custom, at the Maryland home, birthplace, and grave of Francis Scott Key; at the Worcester, Massachusetts war memorial; at the plaza in Taos, New Mexico (since 1861); at the United States Capitol (since 1918); and at Mount Moriah Cemetery in Deadwood, South Dakota.
* On the south pole, in the center of the Antarctic, an American flag is posted separate from the cluster of worldwide flags.
* In addition, the American flag is on continuous display on the surface of the Moon, having been placed there by the astronauts of Apollo 11, Apollo 12, Apollo 14, Apollo 15, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17. It is possible that Apollo 11's flag was knocked down by the exhaust force of liftoff for return to lunar orbit.
Particular days of display
The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:
* January 1 - New Year's Day
* January 20 - Inauguration Day
* February 12 - Lincoln's Birthday
* Third Monday in February - Presidents' Day, originally Washington's birthday
* Third Saturday in May - Armed Forces Day
* Last Monday in May - Memorial Day (half-staff until noon)
* June 14 - Flag Day
* July 4 - Independence Day
* First Monday in September - Labor Day
* September 11 - Patriot Day
* September 17 - Constitution Day
* Second Monday in October - Columbus Day
* October 27 - Navy Day
* November 11 - Veterans Day
* Fourth Thursday in November - Thanksgiving Day
* and such other days as may be proclaimed by the President of the United States; the birthdays of States (date of admission); and on State holidays.
When Displaying the flag at half staff
The US Flag is displayed at half staff as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president of the United States; state-wide or territory-wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954 standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens. It is worthy of note that the rules regarding the display of the flag are the "Flag Code", not the Flag Law or Flag Act: there are no legal penalties for flying the flag at half staff (or upside down) improperly.
To properly fly the US flag at half staff, the protocol is to first hoist it briskly to full staff, then reverently (slowly) lower it to half-staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half staff, it should be first hoisted briskly to full staff, then lowered reverently to the base of the flagpole.
Federal guidelines state the flag should be flown at half staff at the following dates/times:
* May 15 - Peace Officers Memorial Day
* Last Monday in May - Memorial Day (until noon)
* July 27 - Korean War Veterans Day
* September 11 - Patriot Day[16]
* December 7 - Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day
* For 30 days - Death of a US President or former President
* For 10 days - Death of a US Vice President, Supreme Court Chief Justice/retired Chief Justice, or Speaker of the House of Representatives.
* From death until the day of interment - US Supreme Court Associate Justice, member of the Cabinet, former Vice President, President pro-tempore of the Senate, or the majority and minority leaders of the Senate and House of Representatives. Also for federal facilities within a state or territory, for the governor.
* On the day after the death - US Senators, Members of Congress, territorial delegates or the resident commissioner of the commonwealth of Puerto Rico
History
See also: Timeline of the Flag of the United States
The flag has been changed 26 times since the new, 13-state union adopted it. The 48-star version went unchanged for 47 years, the longest time the flag went unmodified until July 4, 2007, when the current 50-star flag broke the record.
First flag
At the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776, the United States had no official national flag. The Grand Union Flag has historically been referred to as the "First National Flag"; although it has never had any official status, it was used throughout the American Revolutionary War by George Washington and formed the basis for the design of the first official US flag.
This flag is properly considered the de facto first naval ensign of the United States. It was first raised aboard Continental Navy Commodore Esek Hopkins' flagship Alfred on the Delaware River on December 3, 1775,[17] possibly (according to his claim) by the ship's senior lieutenant John Paul Jones.
The origins of the design are unclear. It closely resembles the British East India Company (BEIC) flag of the same era, and an argument dating to Sir Charles Fawcett in 1937 holds that the BEIC flag indeed inspired the design.[18] However, the BEIC flag could have from 9 to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean.[19] Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, a common flag throughout Britain and its colonies.
Another theory holds that the red-and-white stripe—and later, stars-and-stripes—motif of the flag may have been based on the Washington family coat-of-arms, which consisted of a shield "argent, two bars gules, above, three mullets gules" (a white shield with two red bars below three red stars).[20]
More likely it was based on a flag of the Sons of Liberty, one of which consisted of 13 red and white alternating horizontal stripes.
See also: Flags of the American Revolution
The Flag Resolution of 1777
On June 14, 1777, the Marine Committee of the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new Constellation."[21] Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. A false tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June of 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.[22]
The 1777 resolution was probably meant to define a naval ensign, rather than a national flag. It appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On 10 May 1779 Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters, Jr. expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States."[23]
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars. The pictured flag shows thirteen outwardly-oriented five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, the so-called Betsy Ross flag. Although the Betsy Ross legend is not taken seriously by many historians, the design itself is the oldest version of any U.S. flag to appear on any physical relic[citation needed], since it is historically referenced in contemporary battlefield paintings by John Trumbull and Charles Willson Peale, which depict the circular star arrangement. Popular designs at the time were varied and most were individually crafted rather than mass-produced. Other examples of 13-star arrangements can be found on the Francis Hopkinson flag, the Cowpens flag, and the Brandywine flag. Given the scant archaeological and written evidence, it is unknown which design was the most popular at that time.
The origin of the stars and stripes design cannot be fully documented. A popular story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch by George Washington who personally commissioned her for the job. However, no evidence for this theory exists beyond Ross' descendants' much later recollections of what she told her family. Another woman, Rebecca Young, has also been credited as having made the first flag by later generations of her family. Rebecca Young's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag.
It is likely that Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November of 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June of 1777. This contradicts the Betsy Ross legend, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776.[21][24] Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a bill to Congress for his work. He asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine" as payment initially. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress, and he was not the only person to have contributed to the design. It should be noted that no one else contested his claim at the time.
Later flag acts
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15-star, 15-stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner," now the national anthem.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid[25] in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would remain at thirteen to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short-lived 49-star flag.
As of July 4, 2007, the 50-star flag has become the longest rendition in use.
First salute
The Netherlands was the first country to salute the Grand Union flag, when gun salutes by American ships were returned by officials on Dutch islands in the West Indies in late 1776: on St. Croix in October, and on St. Eustatius in November. (Though later, the better documented St. Eustatius incident involving the USS Andrew Doria is traditionally regarded as the "first salute".) France was the first country to salute the Stars and Stripes, when a fleet off the French mainland returned a gun salute by Captain John Paul Jones commanding USS Ranger on February 14, 1778.
Historical progression of designs
See also: List of U.S. states by date of statehood
In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48-star flag by President William Howard Taft on 29 October 1912, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.
Future of the flag
The United States Army Institute of Heraldry has plans for flags with up to 56 stars, using a similar staggered star arrangement should additional states accede. There are political movements supporting statehood in Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia, among other areas.
Non-standard flags
A number of non-standard flags appeared in the early years of American independence. One example is the design approximated here, of a flag traditionally believed to have been carried by the American troops at the Battle of Guilford Court House in 1781. This is disputed by some other historians who think it dates to the nineteenth century. The original flag is at the North Carolina Historical Museum.
Similar flags
The flag of Liberia bears a close resemblance, showing the ex–American-slave origin of the country. The Liberian flag has similar red and white stripes, though only 11 of them, as well as a blue square for the union, but with only a single large white star.
The flag of Malaysia also has a striking resemblance, with red and white stripes (14 total), and a blue canton, but displaying instead of stars a star and crescent emblem. This might be due, however, to the great influence of the British East India Company, rather than the later United States flag
The flag of Hawaii, in use since it was a kingdom in the 19th century, with eight stripes in red, white, and blue, and the British Union Flag in the canton, has some resemblance to the U.S. Grand Union Flag of the 18th century.
The flag of Amazonas was adopted by law No. 1513 of January 14, 1982. The 25 stars in the topleft corner represent the 25 municipalities which existed on August 4, 1897. The bigger star represents the capital Manaus. The two horizontal white bars represent hope, while the red bar in the middle represents the struggles overcome.
The flag of Ohio was adopted in 1902 and designed by John Eisemann. The large blue triangle represent Ohio's hills and valleys, and the stripes represent roads and waterways. 17 stars symbolize that Ohio was the 17th state admitted to the union. The white circle with its red center not only represents the first letter of the state name, but also its nickname "the Buckeye State".
The flag of Georgia was adopted on May 8, 2003. The flag has three red and white stripes, with the state coat of arms (taken from the state seal) on a blue field in the upper left corner. In the coat of arms, the arch symbolizes the state's Constitution and the pillars represent the three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. The words of the state motto, "Wisdom, Justice, Moderation," are wrapped around the pillars, guarded by a male figure dressed in Colonial attire like a soldier of the War of Independence, with a drawn sword representing the defense of the Constitution. An additional motto, In God We Trust, appears under these elements, though it is not part of the state seal nor coat of arms. The flag has thirteen stars, representing Georgia and the 12 other original states that formed the United States of America.
The flag of Piaui was created on 24 July 1922. The blue canton and a star represents the state itself and the green and yellow bars represent Piauí's union with Brazil. It is similar to an old flag of Brazil used for four days after the republican coup that established the United States of Brazil in November 1889.
The flags of Chile and of Texas have similar simplified designs, each with a single red and white stripe, and a "lone star" in the canton.
Today's Chile flag was conceived by Bernardo O'Higgins's Minister of War José Ignacio Zenteno and designed by Antonio Arcos, although some claim that is was Gregorio de Andía y Varela who drew it.
Though more dissimilar in appearance, the flag of Cuba was also inspired by the flag of the United States. Its origins date from 1849, when Cuban liberation movements emerged among Cuban exiles in the U.S.[28]
Another flag design tied to that of the U.S. flag is the flag of Puerto Rico. There are specific shades of red and blue for the construction of the flag, however there might be slight variations depending on the flag-flyer's political beliefs. The pro-independence groups use sky blue, while the pro-statehood groups use a darker shade of blue more similar to that of the U.S. flag. The official version uses an intermediate shade, so as not to take sides.
The green bars in the flag of Goiás symbolize the spring and the yellow bars gold. The blue rectangle in the topleft corner symbolizes the sky, with the five stars forming the constellation of the Southern Cross. The flag was adopted on July 30, 1919. It is a toned down version of the original Republican flag of Brazil, in itself not original.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
United States Merchant Marine
The United States Merchant Marine refers to the fleet of US civilian-owned merchant ships — operated by either the government or the private sector — that are engaged in commerce or transportation of goods and services in and out of the navigable waters of the United States. The merchant marine is responsible for transporting cargo and passengers during peace time. In time of war, the merchant marine[1] is an auxiliary to the Navy, and can be called upon to deliver troops and supplies for the military.
The people of the merchant marine are called merchant mariners. The merchant marine is not a uniformed service, except in times of war when, in accordance with the Merchant Marine Act of 1936, mariners are considered military personnel. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill into law making veterans of merchant mariners who serve in war.
As of 2006, the United States merchant fleet numbered 465 ships[2] and approximately 69,000 people. Seven hundred ships owned by American interests but registered, or flagged, in other countries are not included in this number.
The federal government maintains fleets of merchant ships via organizations such as Military Sealift Command and the National Defense Reserve Fleet. In 2004, the Federal government employed approximately 5% of all American water transportation workers.[3]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, a number of laws were enacted that fundamentally changed the course of American merchant shipping. These laws put an end to practices such as flogging and shanghaiing, and increased shipboard safety and the standard of living. The United States Merchant Marine is also governed by several international conventions to promote safety and prevent pollution.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Background
* 2 History
* 3 Today's merchant fleet
o 3.1 The commercial fleet
o 3.2 The federal fleet
* 4 Important laws
o 4.1 The Seamen's Act of 1915
o 4.2 The Jones Act
o 4.3 The Merchant Marine Act
o 4.4 International regulations
o 4.5 Belated Thank You to the Merchant Mariners of World War II Act of 2007
* 5 Noted U.S. Merchant Mariners
* 6 Fictional accounts
* 7 Notes
* 8 References
* 9 See also
* 10 External links
[edit] Background
Merchant mariners move cargo and passengers between nations and within the United States. They operate and maintain deep-sea merchant ships, tugboats, towboats, ferries, dredges, excursion vessels, and other waterborne craft on the oceans, the Great Lakes, rivers, canals, harbors, and other waterways.
Captains, mates, and pilots supervise ship operations on domestic waterways and the high seas. A captain is in overall command of a vessel, and supervises the work of all other officers and crew. The captain orders the ship's course and speed, maneuvers to avoid hazards, and continuously monitors the ship's position. Captains oversee crew members who steer the vessel, determine its location, operate engines, communicate with other vessels, perform maintenance, handle lines, and operate the ship's equipment. Captains and their department heads[4] ensure that proper procedures and safety practices are followed, ensure that machinery is in good working order, and oversee the loading and discharging of cargo and passengers. They also maintain logs and other records tracking the ships' movements, efforts at controlling pollution, and cargo and passengers carried.
The mates direct a ship's routine operation for the captain during the shifts, which are called watches. Mates stand watch for specified periods, usually 4 hours on and 8 hours off.[5] When more than one mate is necessary aboard a ship, they typically are designated chief mate or first mate, second mate, third mate, and so forth. Mates also supervise the ship's crew. They monitor cargo loading and unloading to ensure proper stowage, and supervise crew members engaged in maintenance and the vessel's upkeep.
Pilots guide ships in and out of confined waterways, such as harbors, where a familiarity with local conditions is of prime importance.[6] Harbor pilots are generally independent contractors who accompany vessels while they enter or leave port, and may pilot many ships in a single day.
Ship's engineers operate, maintain, and repair propulsion engines, boilers, generators, pumps, and other machinery. Merchant marine vessels usually have four engineering officers: A chief engineer and a first, second, and third assistant engineer. Assistant engineers stand periodic watches, overseeing the safe operation of engines and machinery.
Deck officers and ship's engineers are usually trained at maritime academies.[7] However, women were barred from entry to U.S. maritime academies until 1974, when the California Maritime Academy admitted women as cadets.[8] It is becoming increasingly difficult for unlicensed mariners to earn a merchant marine license[9] due to increased requirements for formal training. To do so, a mariner must have sufficient sea time in a qualified rating and complete specified testing and training, such as that required by STCW.
Able seamen and ordinary seamen operate the vessel and its deck equipment under the officers' supervision and keep their assigned areas in good condition.[10] They stand watch, looking out for other vessels and obstructions in the ship's path, as well as for navigational aids such as buoys and lighthouses. They also steer the ship, measure water depth in shallow water, and maintain and operate deck equipment such as lifeboats, anchors, and cargo-handling gear. On tankers, mariners designated as pumpmen hook up hoses, operate pumps, and clean tanks. When arriving at or leaving a dock, they handle the mooring lines. Seamen also perform routine maintenance chores, such as repairing lines, chipping rust, and painting and cleaning decks. On larger vessels, a boatswain, or head seaman will supervise the work.
Marine oilers and more experienced qualified members of the engine department, or QMEDs, maintain the vessel in proper running order in the engine spaces below decks, under the direction of the ship's engineering officers. These workers lubricate gears, shafts, bearings, and other moving parts of engines and motors; read pressure and temperature gauges; record data; and sometimes assist with repairs and adjust machinery. Wipers are the entry-level workers in the engine room, holding a position similar to that of ordinary seamen of the deck crew. They clean and paint the engine room and its equipment and assist the others in maintenance and repair work. With more experience they become oilers and firemen.
A typical deep-sea merchant ship has a captain, three mates, a chief engineer and three assistant engineers, plus six or more unlicensed seamen, such as able seamen, oilers, QMEDs, and cooks or food handlers.[11] Other unlicensed positions on a large ship may include electricians and machinery mechanics.[12]
[edit] History
For more details on this topic, see Maritime history of the United States.
Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo explored the coast of California in 1542. This chart of the "Island of California" dates to 1640.
Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo explored the coast of California in 1542. This chart of the "Island of California" dates to 1640.
The history of ships and shipping in North America goes back at least as far as when Leif Erikson established a short-lived settlement called Vinland in present day Newfoundland. An actual shipping industry gradually came into being as colonies grew and trade with Europe increased. As early as the 15th century, Europeans were shipping horses, cattle and hogs to the Americas.
Spanish colonies began to form as early as 1565 in places like St. Augustine, Florida, and later in Santa Fe, New Mexico, San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco. English colonies like Jamestown began to form as early as 1607. The connection between the American colonies and Europe, with shipping as its only conduit, would continue to grow unhindered for almost two hundred years.
The first wartime role of an identifiable United States Merchant Marine first took place on June 12, 1775 in and around Machias, Maine. A group of citizens, hearing the news from Concord and Lexington, captured the British schooner HMS Margaretta. The citizens, in need of critical supplies, were given an ultimatum: either load the ships with lumber to build British barracks in Boston, or go hungry. They chose to fight.[13]
Word of this revolt reached Boston, where the Continental Congress and the various colonies issued Letters of Marque to privateers.[14] The privateers interrupted the British supply chain all along the eastern seaboard of the United States and across the Atlantic Ocean. These actions by the privateers predates both the United States Coast Guard and the United States Navy, which were formed in 1790 and 1797, respectively.
Some civilian mariners have earned the Merchant Marine Expeditionary Medal in the Iraq War.
Some civilian mariners have earned the Merchant Marine Expeditionary Medal in the Iraq War.
The Merchant Marine was active in subsequent wars, from the Confederate commerce raiders of the American Civil War, to the First and Second Battle of the Atlantic in World War I and World War II. 3.1 million tons of merchant ships were lost in World War II, mariners dying at a rate of 1 in 24. All told, 733 American cargo ships were lost[15] and 8,651 of the 215,000 who served perished on troubled waters and off enemy shores.
Merchant shipping also played its role in the wars in Vietnam and Korea. From just six ships under charter when the Korean war began, this total peaked at 255. In September 1950, when the U.S. Marine Corps went ashore at Inchon, 13 USNS cargo ships, 26 chartered American, and 34 Japanese-manned merchant ships, under the operational control of Military Sea Transportation Service participated in the invasion.
During the Vietnam War, ships crewed by civilian seamen carried 95% of the supplies used by the American Armed Forces. Many of these ships sailed into combat zones under fire. In fact, the SS Mayaguez incident involved the capture of mariners from the American merchant ship SS Mayaguez.[16]
During the first Gulf War, the merchant ships of the Military Sealift Command (MSC) delivered more than 11 million metric tons of vehicles, helicopters, ammunition, fuel and other supplies and equipment during the war. At one point during the war, more than 230 government-owned and chartered ships were involved in the sealift.
Government owned merchant vessels from the National Defense Reserve Fleet (NDRF) have supported emergency shipping requirements in seven wars and crises. During the Korean War, 540 vessels were activated to support military forces. A worldwide tonnage shortfall from 1951 to 1953 required over 600 ship activations to lift coal to Northern Europe and grain to India. From 1955 through 1964, another 600 ships were used to store grain for the Department of Agriculture. Another tonnage shortfall following the Suez Canal closing in 1956 caused 223 cargo ship and 29 tanker activations from the NDRF. During the Berlin crisis of 1961, 18 vessels were activated, which remained in service until 1970. The Vietnam conflict required the activation of 172 vessels.[17]
Since 1977, the Ready Reserve Fleet has taken over the brunt of the work previously handled by the National Defense Reserve Fleet. The RRF made a major contribution to the success of Operation Desert Shield/Operation Desert Storm from August 1990 through June 1992, when 79 vessels were activated to meet military sealift requirements by carrying 25% of the unit equipment and 45% of the ammunition needed.[17]
Two RRF tankers, two RO/RO ships and a troop transport ship were needed in Somalia for Operation Restore Hope in 1993 and 1994. During the Haitian crisis in 1994, 15 ships were activated for Operation Uphold Democracy operations. In 1995 and 1996, four RO/RO ships were used to deliver military cargo as part of U.S. and U.K. support to NATO peace-keeping missions.[17]
Four RRF ships were activated to provide humanitarian assistance for Central America following Hurricane Mitch in 1998. Three RRF ships currently support the Afloat Prepositioning Force with two specialized tankers and one dry cargo vessel capable of underway replenishment for the Navy’s Combat Logistics Force.[17]
In 2003, 40 RRF ships were used in support of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. This RRF contribution was significant and included sealifting equipment and supplies into the theatre of combat operations, which included combat support equipment for the Army, Navy Combat Logistics Force, and USMC Aviation Support equipment. By the beginning of May 2005, RRF cumulative support included 85 ship activations that logged almost 12,000 ship operating days, moving almost 25% of the equipment needed to support the U.S. Armed Forces liberation of Iraq.[17]
MSC is also involved in the current Iraq War, having delivered 61 million square feet (5.7 km²) of cargo and 1.1 billion US gallons (4,200,000 m³) of fuel by the end of the first year alone. Merchant mariners are being recognized for their contributions in Iraq. For example, in late 2003, Vice Adm. David Brewer III, commander of Military Sealift Command, awarded the officers and crewmembers of the Motor Vessel Bennett the Merchant Marine Expeditionary Medal.[18]
The RRF was called upon to provide humanitarian assistance to gulf coast areas following Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita landfalls in September 2006. The Federal Emergency Management Agency requested a total of eight vessels to support relief efforts. Messing and berthing was provided for refinery workers, oils spill response teams, longshoremen. One of the vessels provided electrical power.[17]
[edit] Today's merchant fleet
[edit] The commercial fleet
As of 2006, the United States merchant fleet had 465 privately-owned ships of 1,000 gross register tons or over. Two hundred ninety-one (291) of these were dry cargo ships, 97 were tankers, and 77 passenger ships. Of those American-flagged ships, 51 were foreign owned. Seven hundred American-owned ships are flagged in other nations.[19][20]
2005 statistics from the United States Maritime Administration focus on the larger segment of the fleet: ships of 10,000 metric tons of deadweight (DWT) and over. 245 privately owned American-flagged ships are of this size, and 153 of those meet the Jones Act criteria.[21]
U.S. sealift capability viewed over time shows a steep drop in the number of ships in the merchant marine fleet. Observers point to the World War II era as the peak for the U.S. fleet. During the post-war year of 1950, for example, U.S. carriers represented about 43 percent of the world's shipping trade. By 1995, the American market share had plunged to 4 percent, according to a 1997 report by the U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO).[22] CBO further notes in the report that "the number of U.S.-flag vessels has dropped precipitously--from more than 2,000 in the 1940s and 850 in 1970 to about 320 in 1996."
A diminishing U.S. fleet comes in the face of surge in international sea trade. For instance, worldwide demand for natural gas and the subsequent spike in related international trade presents a job growth opportunity for today's U.S. mariners aboard liquefied natural gas (LNG) tankers. A 2007 agreement signed by the United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) sets uniform LNG training standards at U.S. maritime training facilities. Uniform training standards will help U.S. mariners compete for jobs aboard LNG tankers, estimated to number more than 370 worldwide at the close of 2007, according to MARAD.[23]
However, despite projection of an eight-fold increase in U.S. imported LNG by 2025, the worldwide LNG fleet does not include a single U.S. flagged vessel.[24] Moreover, only five U.S. deepwater LNG ports were operational in 2007, although permits have been issued for four additional ports, according to MARAD.[24]
Further limiting potential job growth in the U.S. fleet is the fact that ranks of qualified seamen to serve on ships continue to shrink. Recruitment efforts to attract younger mariners to replace retiring crews have failed to stem the shortage.[25] MARAD describes the gap between sealift crewing needs and available unlicensed personnel as "reaching critical proportions, and the long term outlook for sufficient personnel is also of serious concern."[26]
Seagoing jobs of the future for U.S. mariners may not necessarily be on U.S.-flagged ships. American-trained mariners are being sought after by international companies to operate foreign-flagged vessels, according to Julie A. Nelson, deputy maritime administrator of the U.S. Department of Commerce.[27]. For example, Shell International and Shipping Company Ltd. has announced that it will be recruiting U.S. seafarers to crew its growing fleet of tankers.[28] Further signs of the globalization of the mariner profession is evidenced by an agreement signed in 2007 between Overseas Shipholding Group and the Maritime Administration that will allow American maritime academy cadets to train aboard OSG's international flag vessels.[29]
[edit] The federal fleet
Further information: Military Sealift Command and National Defense Reserve Fleet
The USNS Comfort (T-AH-20) is a converted oil tanker now operated as a 1,000-bed hospital ship by the MSC.
The USNS Comfort (T-AH-20) is a converted oil tanker now operated as a 1,000-bed hospital ship by the MSC.
Military Sealift Command (MSC) is an arm of the Navy that serves the entire Department of Defense as the ocean carrier of materiel during peacetime and war. It transports equipment, fuel, ammunition, and other goods essential to the smooth function of United States armed forces worldwide. Up to 95% of all supplies needed to sustain the U.S. military can be moved by Military Sealift Command.[30] MSC operates approximately 120 ships with 100 more in reserve. All ships are manned by civil service or contract merchant mariners, estimated to number more than 8,000.[31] MSC tankers and freighters have a long history of also serving as re-supply vessels in support of civilian research at McMurdo Station, Antarctica, and at other polar operations, including Greenland.
Civilian-crewed MSC ships annually re-supply McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Here the USNS Southern Cross (T-AK-285) is seen during cargo operations alongside a floating ice pier.
Civilian-crewed MSC ships annually re-supply McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Here the USNS Southern Cross (T-AK-285) is seen during cargo operations alongside a floating ice pier.
The National Defense Reserve Fleet (NDRF)[32] acts as a reserve of cargo ships for national emergencies and defense. Consisting of 2,277 ships at its peak in 1950, the NDRF fleet now numbers only 251 ships.[33]
NDRF vessels are now staged[34] at the James River, Beaumont and Suisun Bay fleet sites and other designated locations. A Ready Reserve Force[35] component of NDRF was established in 1976 to provide rapid deployment of military equipment. This force currently has 58 vessels, down from a peak of 102 in 1994.[17]
In 2004, the Federal government employed approximately 5% of all water transportation workers, most of whom worked on Military Sealift Command supply ships.[3]
[edit] Important laws
A few laws have shaped the development of the U.S. Merchant Marine. Chief among them are the "Seamen's Act of 1915," the "Merchant Marine Act of 1920" (commonly referred to as the "Jones Act"), and the "Merchant Marine Act of 1936".
[edit] The Seamen's Act of 1915
For more details on this topic, see Seamen's Act.
Senator La Follette (center), with maritime labor leader Andrew Furuseth (left) and muckraker Lincoln Steffens, circa 1915.
Senator La Follette (center), with maritime labor leader Andrew Furuseth (left) and muckraker Lincoln Steffens, circa 1915.
The Seaman's Act[36] significantly improved working conditions for American seamen.[37] The brainchild of International Seamen's Union president Andrew Furuseth, the Act was sponsored in the Senate by Robert Marion La Follette and received significant support from Secretary of Labor, William B. Wilson.
Among other things, the Act:
1. abolished the practice of imprisonment for seamen who deserted their ship
2. reduced the penalties for disobedience
3. regulated a seaman's working hours both at sea and in port
4. established a minimum quality for ship's food
5. regulated the payment of seamen's wages
6. required specific levels of safety, particularly the provision of lifeboats
7. required a minimum percentage of the seamen aboard a vessel to be qualified Able Seamen
8. required a minimum of 75% of the seamen aboard a vessel to understand the language spoken by the officers
The Act's passage was attributed to union lobbying, increased tensions immediately before World War I, and raised public consciousness of safety at sea due to the sinking of the RMS Titanic three years prior.[38]
[edit] The Jones Act
For more details on this topic, see Merchant Marine Act of 1920.
The Jones Act was sponsored by Senator Wesley Livsey Jones of Washington.
The Jones Act was sponsored by Senator Wesley Livsey Jones of Washington.
The "Merchant Marine Act of 1920," often called The "Jones Act," requires U.S.-flagged vessels be built in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens, and documented under the laws of the United States.[39] It also requires that all officers and 75% of the crew must be U.S. citizens. Vessels satisfying these requirements comprise the "Jones Act Fleet," and only these vessels may engage in "cabotage," or carrying passengers or cargo between two U.S. ports.[40]
Another important aspect of the Act is that it allows injured sailors to obtain damages from their employers for the negligence of the shipowner, the captain, or fellow members of the crew.
[edit] The Merchant Marine Act
For more details on this topic, see Merchant Marine Act of 1936.
The Merchant Marine Act of 1936 was enacted "to further the development and maintenance of an adequate and well-balanced American merchant marine, to promote the commerce of the United States, to aid in the national defense, to repeal certain former legislation, and for other purposes."
Specifically, the Act established the United States Maritime Commission and required a United States Merchant Marine that consists of U.S.-built, U.S.-flagged, U.S.-crewed and U.S.-owned vessels capable of carrying all domestic and a substantial portion of foreign water-borne commerce which can serve as a naval auxiliary in time of war or national emergency.
The act also established federal subsidies for the construction and operation of merchant ships. Two years after the Act was passed, the U.S. Merchant Marine Cadet Corps, the forerunner to the United States Merchant Marine Academy, was established.
[edit] International regulations
Federal law requires the merchant marine to adhere to a number of international conventions. The International Maritime Organization has been either the source or a conduit for a number of these regulations.
The principal International Conventions are:
* SOLAS 74: International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea.
* MARPOL 73/78: International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978.
* ICLL 66: International Convention on Load Lines, as revised in 1966
* 72 COLREGS: International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea.
* STCW 95: International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW).
* SAR 79: International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue.[41]
A list of IMO conventions adopted in the United States is available at the U.S. Coast Guard's Maritime Safety Center website.
[edit] Belated Thank You to the Merchant Mariners of World War II Act of 2007
The "Belated Thank You to the Merchant Mariners of World War II Act of 2007" would direct the Secretary of Veterans Affairs to pay a tax-exempt monthly benefit of $1,000 to certain honorably-discharged veterans of the U.S. Merchant Marine who served between December 7, 1941, and December 31, 1946 (or to their survivors). This would include service in the Army Transport Service and the Naval Transport Service.
The Act passed in the House of Representatives on July 30, 2007 as H.R. 23 and was referred to the Senate Veterans' Affairs Committee on March 22, 2007 as S. 961.[2]
[edit] Noted U.S. Merchant Mariners
Further information: List of notable American mariners and List of notable mariners
Merchant seamen have gone on to make their mark on the world in a number of interesting ways, for example, Douglass North went from seaman to navigator to winner of the 1993 Nobel Prize in Economics.
American merchant seamen have won the Medal of Honor in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and one went on to become the "Father of the American Navy."
Since World War II, a number of merchant seamen have become notorious criminals. William Colepaugh was convicted as a Nazi spy in World War II. George Hennard was a mass murderer who claimed twenty-four victims on a rampage at Luby's Cafeteria in Killeen, Texas. Perry Smith's own murderous rampage was made famous in Truman Capote's non-fiction novel In Cold Blood.
Mariners are well represented in the visual arts. Seaman Haskell Wexler would later win two Academy Awards, the latter for a biography of his shipmate Woody Guthrie. Merchant seaman Johnny Craig was already a working comic book artist before he joined up, but Ernie Schroeder would not start drawing comics until after returning home from World War II.
Merchant sailors have also made a splash in the world of sport. In football, with the likes of Dan Devine and Heisman Trophy winner Frank Sinkwich. In track and field, seamen Cornelius Cooper Johnson and Jim Thorpe both won Olympic medals, though Thorpe did not get his until thirty years after his death. Seamen Jim Bagby, Jr. and Charlie Keller went on to Major League Baseball. Drew Bundini Brown was Muhammad Ali's assistant trainer and cornerman, and Joe Gold went on to make his fortune as the bodybuilding and fitness guru of Gold's Gym.
Writer Ralph Ellison was a merchant mariner as were prominent members of the Beat movement Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, Bob Kaufman,Dave Van Ronk and Herbert Huncke. Perhaps it is not surprising that the writers of Moby Dick, The American Practical Navigator, and Two Years Before the Mast were merchant mariners. It might be surprising that the writer of Cool Hand Luke and co-writer of Borat were.
A number of merchant mariners from World War II ended up playing well-known television characters. The list includes Raymond Bailey, who played Milburn Drysdale on The Beverly Hillbillies, Archie Bunker on All in the Family, Columbo on Columbo, Jim Rockford on The Rockford Files, Steve McGarret on Hawaii Five-O, Uncle Jesse Duke on The Dukes of Hazzard, and Cheyenne Bodie on Cheyenne.
Songwriter and lyricist Jack Lawrence was a mariner during World War II, and wrote the official United States Merchant Marine song "Heave Ho! My Lads, Heave Ho!" while a young lieutenant stationed at Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, in 1943.
Robert Kiyosaki lays claim of being a mariner. Paul Teutul, Sr., the founder of Orange County Ironworks and Orange County Choppers is a Vietnam War veteran of the United States Merchant Marine.
[edit] Fictional accounts
The United States Merchant Marine has been featured in a number of movies. Action in the North Atlantic is a 1943 film featuring Humphrey Bogart, Raymond Massey, and Alan Hale as merchant mariners fighting the Battle of the Atlantic in World War II. Other WWII fare includes The Long Voyage Home starring John Wayne, and the television documentary The Men Who Sailed the Liberty Ships.
Other movies set in the United States Merchant Marine include Lifeboat, Wake of the Red Witch, The Sea Chase, The Last Voyage, Morituri, and The Wreck of the Mary Deare.
The characters Bo Brady and Steve "Patch" Johnson were merchant mariners on the soap opera [[Days of our Lives].
The character Tom Wingfield leaves his family to join the merchant marine in the play The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams.
Popeye was a merchant mariner before joining first the U.S. Coast Guard, and then the U.S.Navy.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
101st Airborne Division (United States)
The 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault)—nicknamed the “Screaming Eagles”—is an airborne division of the United States Army primarily trained for air assault operations. During World War II, it earned renown by its actions in the Normandy Landings and the Battle of the Bulge. During the Vietnam War, the 101st was redesignated an airmobile division, and later as an air assault division. For historical reasons, it keeps the identifier “airborne”, but does not conduct parachute operations at a division level. Many modern members of the 101st are graduates of the U.S. Army Air Assault School, and wear the Air Assault Badge, but it is not a prerequisite to be assigned to the division. The division is headquartered at Fort Campbell, Kentucky and has served in Iraq and Afghanistan. It is the only division in the U.S. Army that has two aviation brigades.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
o 1.1 World War II
+ 1.1.1 Units
+ 1.1.2 Helmet insignia
o 1.2 Reactivation
o 1.3 Civil rights
o 1.4 Vietnam War
o 1.5 Post-Vietnam
o 1.6 Persian Gulf War
o 1.7 Montana forest fires
o 1.8 Operation Enduring Freedom
o 1.9 Operation Iraqi Freedom
o 1.10 Second deployment to Iraq
* 2 Accusations of misconduct in Iraq
o 2.1 Third deployment to Iraq
* 3 General information
* 4 Parachute Demonstration Team
* 5 Current structure
* 6 Lineage
o 6.1 HHC, 101st Division
o 6.2 HHC, 1st Brigade
o 6.3 HHC, 2nd Brigade
o 6.4 HHC, 3rd Brigade
o 6.5 HHB, 101st Division Artillery
o 6.6 HHC, 101st Aviation Brigade
+ 6.6.1 HHC, 1st Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
+ 6.6.2 HHC, 2d Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
+ 6.6.3 HHC, 3d Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
+ 6.6.4 HHC, 4th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
+ 6.6.5 HHC, 5th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
+ 6.6.6 HHC, 6th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
+ 6.6.7 HHC, 7th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
+ 6.6.8 HHC, 8th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
+ 6.6.9 HHC, 9th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
o 6.7 HHC, 159th Aviation Brigade[10]
* 7 Honors
o 7.1 Campaign Participation Credit
+ 7.1.1 Decorations
* 8 Division commanders
* 9 Noted Members (selection)
* 10 In popular culture
* 11 See also
* 12 Notes
* 13 External links
[edit] History
[edit] World War II
General Dwight D. Eisenhower speaks with paratroops of the 502d Parachute Infantry Regiment, on the evening of June 5, 1944.
General Dwight D. Eisenhower speaks with paratroops of the 502d Parachute Infantry Regiment, on the evening of June 5, 1944.
101st Airborne troops posing with a captured Nazi flag, two days after landing at Normandy
101st Airborne troops posing with a captured Nazi flag, two days after landing at Normandy
The division was activated on August 15, 1942 at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana. On August 19, 1942, its first commander, Major General William C. Lee, promised his new recruits that the 101st had "no history but had a rendezvous with destiny."
General Order Number Five, which gave birth to the division, reads:
The 101st Airborne Division, activated at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana, has no history, but it has a rendezvous with destiny. Like the early American pioneers whose invincible courage was the foundation stone of this nation, we have broken with the past and its traditions in order to establish our claim to the future.
Due to the nature of our armament, and the tactics in which we shall perfect ourselves, we shall be called upon to carry out operations of far-reaching military importance and we shall habitually go into action when the need is immediate and extreme.
Let me call your attention to the fact that our badge is the great American eagle. This is a fitting emblem for a division that will crush its enemies by falling upon them like a thunderbolt from the skies.
The history we shall make, the record of high achievement we hope to write in the annals of the American Army and the American people, depends wholly and completely on the men of this division. Each individual, each officer and each enlisted man, must therefore regard himself as a necessary part of a complex and powerful instrument for the overcoming of the enemies of the nation. Each, in his own job, must realize that he is not only a means, but an indispensable means for obtaining the goal of victory. It is, therefore, not too much to say that the future itself, in whose molding we expect to have our share, is in the hands of the soldiers of the 101st Airborne Division.
During World War II, the Pathfinders of the 101st Airborne Division led the way on D-Day in the night drop prior to the invasion. They left from RAF North Witham having trained there with the 82nd Airborne Division
On August 25, 1944 the division became part of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the First Allied Airborne Army. As part of this formation, the division took part in Operation Market Garden.
During the Battle of the Bulge the 101st, as one of the few forces available to contain the German advance, was rushed forward by truck to defend the vital road junction of Bastogne. Famously, Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe answered the German demand for surrender with the reply "To the German Commander: NUTS! -The American Commander" and the division fought on until the siege was lifted and the German advance halted.
On 1 August 1945, the 101st Airborne Division left Germany for Auxerre, France, to begin training for the invasion of Japan. When Japan surrendered two weeks later, the operation became unnecessary. The 101st inactivated on 30 November at Auxerre.
For their efforts during World War II, the 101st Airborne Division was awarded four campaign streamers and two Presidential Unit Citations. The division suffered 1,766 Killed In Action; 6,388 Wounded In Action; and 324 Died of Wounds during World War II.
[edit] Units
101st Airborne troops retrieving air dropped supplies during the siege of Bastogne.
101st Airborne troops retrieving air dropped supplies during the siege of Bastogne.
* Division Headquarters
* 501st Parachute Infantry Regiment, attached 1 May 1944 – past 9 May 1945
* 502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment
* 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, assigned 1 March 1945, previously attached 15 September 1943 - 1 March 1945
* 327th Glider Infantry Regiment
* 401st Glider Infantry Regiment, disbanded 1 March 1945 in France; assets to 327th GIR
* HHB, Division Artillery
o 321st Glider Field Artillery Battalion (75mm)
o 463rd Parachute Field Artillery Battalion (75mm)
o 907th Glider Field Artillery Battalion (75mm)
o 377th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion (75mm)
* 81st Airborne Antiaircraft Battalion
* 326th Airborne Engineer Battalion
* 326th Airborne Medical Company
* 101st Parachute Maintenance Company
* 101st Signal Company
* 101st Counter Intelligence Corps Detachment
* Headquarters, Special Troops
o 801st Airborne Ordnance Maintenance Company
o 426th Airborne Quartermaster Company
o Headquarters Company, 101st Airborne Division
o Military Police Platoon
o Reconnaissance Platoon
o Band (assigned in 1 Mar 45 reorganization)
Source: Order of Battle: U.S. Army World War II by Shelby Stanton, Presidio Press, 1984.
[edit] Helmet insignia
The 101st is distinctive partly by their helmet decorations. The soldiers used card suits (diamonds, spades, hearts, and clubs) to indicate the regiment to which they belonged. The only exception being the 187th, who were added to the division later.
* These insignias were first seen in World War II, and can still be seen on 101st Division soldiers today.
o 327th: Clubs (♣) (Presently worn by the 1st Brigade Combat Team)
o 501st: Diamonds (♦) (Currently 1st Battalion, 501st Infantry Regiment is part of the 4th Brigade (ABN), 25th Infantry Division in Alaska.)(The Diamond is presently used by the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade)
o 502nd: Hearts (♥) (Presently worn by the 2nd Brigade Combat Team)
o 506th: Spades (♠)(Presently worn by the 4th Brigade Combat Team)
o 187th: Torii (Presently worn by the 3rd Brigade Combat Team; not during World War II, when the 187th Infantry Regiment was part of the 11th Airborne Division.)
[edit] Reactivation
Paratroopers from the 101st escorting students into Little Rock High School in Arkansas
Paratroopers from the 101st escorting students into Little Rock High School in Arkansas
The 101st Airborne Division was reactivated as a training unit at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, in 1948 and again in 1950. It was reactivated again in 1954 at Fort Jackson, South Carolina, and in March 1956, the 101st was transferred, less personnel and equipment, to Fort Campbell, Kentucky, to be reorganized as a combat division. The 101st was reactivated as a "pentomic" division with five battle groups in place of its World War II structure that featured regiments and battalions. The reorganization was in place by late April 1957 and the division's battle groups were:
* 2nd Airborne Battle Group, 187th Infantry
* 1st Airborne Battle Group, 327th Infantry
* 1st Airborne Battle Group, 501st Infantry
* 1st Airborne Battle Group, 502nd Infantry
* 1st Airborne Battle Group, 506th Infantry
Division artillery consisted of the following units:
* Battery D, 319th Artillery (Abn)
* Battery A, 321st Artillery (Abn)
* Battery B, 321st Artillery (Abn)
* Battery C, 321st Artillery (Abn)
* Battery A, 377th Artillery (Abn)
Other supporting units were also assigned.
[edit] Civil rights
From September through November 1957 elements of the division's 1st Airborne Battle Group, 327th Infantry (bearing the lineage of the old Company A, 327th Glider Infantry Regiment) were deployed to Little Rock, Arkansas, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to enforce Federal court orders during the Little Rock Crisis.
[edit] Vietnam War
Men of the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division, fire from old Viet Cong trenches.
Men of the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division, fire from old Viet Cong trenches.
In the mid-1960s, the 1st Brigade and support troops were deployed to the Republic of Vietnam, followed by the rest of the division in late 1967. In almost seven years of combat in Vietnam, elements of the 101st participated in 15 campaigns. Notable among these were the Battle of Hamburger Hill in 1969 and Firebase Ripcord in 1970. The 101st was deployed in the northern I Corps region operating against the Vietnam People's Army (NVA) infiltration routes through Laos and the A Shau Valley. Elements of the division supported the ARVN Operation Lam Son 719, the invasion of southern Laos, in 1971, but only aviation units actually entered Laos. In the seven years that all or part of the division served in Vietnam it suffered 4,011 Killed in Action and 18,259 Wounded in Action.
It has been said that most North Vietnamese had never seen a bald eagle, so they called the 101st soldiers "Chicken Men" or "Rooster Men." Viet Cong commanders would regularly include in their briefings that they were to avoid confrontation with the "Chicken Men" at all costs, as they were sure to lose. Supposedly this remained a source of fierce pride among veterans who served in Vietnam under the 101st.[1]
Such claims must be balanced against the reality of combat losses. Casualties for the 101st in Viet Nam were twice those suffered in World War II, and its total number of Killed in Action (4,022) was the third highest of all U.S. Army ground units, behind the 1st Cavalry Division (5,464) and the 25th Infantry Division (4,561). Had the entire division arrived in 1965, as did the 1st Cav and 25th, its total casualties would have undoubtedly been even higher.
[edit] Post-Vietnam
A member of the 101st Airborne Division, armed with an M60 machine gun, participates in a field exercise in 1972. M16A1 rifle in background with each soldier wearing a M1 Helmet
A member of the 101st Airborne Division, armed with an M60 machine gun, participates in a field exercise in 1972. M16A1 rifle in background with each soldier wearing a M1 Helmet
In 1968, the 101st took on the structure and equipment of an airmobile division. Following its return from Vietnam, the division was rebuilt with one brigade (3rd) and supporting elements on jump status, using the assets of what had been the 173rd Airborne Brigade. The remaining two brigades and supporting units were organized as airmobile. With the exception of certain specialized units, such as the pathfinders and parachute riggers, in early 1974 the Army terminated jump status for the division. Concurrently the 101st introduced the Airmobile Badge (renamed later that year as the Air Assault Badge), the design of which was based on the Glider Badge of World War II. Initially the badge was only authorized for wear while assigned to the division, but in 1978 the Army authorized it for service-wide wear. Soldiers continued to wear the garrison cap with glider patch, bloused boots, and the cloth wing oval behind their wings, as had division paratroopers before them. The division also was authorized to wear a full color (white eagle) shoulder patch insignia instead of the subdued green eagle shoulder patch that was worn as a combat patch by soldiers who fought with the 101st in Vietnam, a distinction shared with the 1st and 5th Infantry divisions.
Tragedy struck the division on December 12, 1985. A civilian aircraft, Arrow Air Flight 1285, chartered to transport some of the division from peacekeeping duty with the Multinational Force Observers on the Sinai Peninsula to Kentucky, crashed near Gander, Newfoundland. All eight air crew members and 248 US servicemen died, most were from the 3d Battalion, 502d Infantry. The crash was the worst in Canadian aviation history. President Ronald Reagan and his wife Nancy travelled to Fort Campbell to comfort grieving family members. On March 8, 1988, two U.S. Army helicopters collided in Fort Campbell, Kentucky, killing 17 servicemen.
[edit] Persian Gulf War
In January 1991, the 101st once again had its "Rendezvous with Destiny" in Iraq during the combat air assault into enemy territory. The 101st sustained no soldiers killed in action during the 100-hour war and captured thousands of enemy prisoners of war. General Richard A. Cody, then lieutenant colonel, commander of the 1st Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, fired the first shots of the war[citations needed] from his AH-64 Apache.
The division has supported humanitarian relief efforts in Rwanda and Somalia, then later supplied peacekeepers to Haiti and Bosnia.
[edit] Montana forest fires
In August and September 2000, the 3rd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) from Fort Campbell, Kentucky, helped fight fires on the Bitterroot National Forest in Montana. Designated Task Force Battle Force and commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Jon S. Lehr, the battalion fought fires on the Valley Complex near Darby, Montana.
Reference: Military Support in Wildland Fire Suppression 1988 - 2003, National Interagency Fire Center, www.nifc.gov/pres_visit/military.html
[edit] Operation Enduring Freedom
Rakkasans of the 187th Infantry Regiment return from Operation Anaconda in Afghanistan.
Rakkasans of the 187th Infantry Regiment return from Operation Anaconda in Afghanistan.
The 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) was the first conventional unit to deploy in support of the American War on Terrorism.[citation needed] The 2nd Brigade, "Strike", built around the 502nd Infantry, was largely deployed to Kosovo on peacekeeping operations, with some elements of 3/502 deploying after 9/11 as a security element in the CENTCOM AOR with the Fort Campbell-based 5th Special Forces Group. The Division quickly deployed its 3rd Brigade, the 187th Infantry's "Rakkasans" as the first conventional unit to fight as part of Operation Enduring Freedom.[citation needed] After an intense period of combat in rugged Shoh-I-Khot Mountains of eastern Afghanistan during Operation Anaconda with elements of the 10th Mountain Division, the Rakkasans redeployed to Fort Campbell only to find the 101st awaiting another deployment order.
[edit] Operation Iraqi Freedom
3rd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment alongside Task Force 20 at Uday and Qusay Hussein's hideout.
3rd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment alongside Task Force 20 at Uday and Qusay Hussein's hideout.
In 2003, Major General David H. Petraeus ("Eagle 6") led the Screaming Eagles to war during the 2003 invasion of Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom). General Petraeus led the division into Iraq saying, "Guidons, Guidons. This is Eagle 6. The 101st Airborne Division's next Rendezvous with Destiny is North to Baghdad. Op-Ord Desert Eagle 2 is now in effect. Godspeed. Air Assault. Out." The division was in V Corps, providing support to the 3rd Infantry Division by clearing Iraqi strongpoints which that division had bypassed. The Division then went on to a tour of duty as part of the occupation forces of Iraq, using the city of Mosul as their primary base of operations. 1st and 2nd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment (1st Brigade) oversaw the remote airfield Qayarrah West 30 miles south of Mosul. The 502nd Infantry Regiment (2nd Brigade) and 3rd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment were responsible for Mosul itself while the 187th Infantry Regiment (3rd Brigade) controlled Tal Afar just north of Mosul.
Once replaced by the first operational Stryker Brigade, the 101st was withdrawn in early 2004 for rest and refit. As part of the Army's modular transformation, the existing infantry brigades, artillery brigade, and aviation brigades were transformed. The Army also activated the 4th Brigade Combat Team, which includes the 1st and 2nd Battalions, 506th Infantry Regiment ("Currahee") and subordinate units. Both battalions were part of the 101st in Vietnam but saw their colors inactivated during an Army-wide reflagging of combat battalions in the 1980s, with 1-506th INF resurfacing in Korea, along with 1-503rd INF and 2-503rd INF (the latter later inactivated), as Air Assault units within the 2nd Infantry Division. The colors of the 506th have returned to the 101st and 1-503rd and 2-503rd are parachute infantry battalions of the 173rd Airborne Brigade in Italy, just as they were when the 173rd was in Viet Nam.
The reconfiguration of 101st formed seven major units in the division (four infantry BCTs, two combat aviation brigades (CABs), and one sustainment brigade), making it the largest formation currently in the U.S. Army.
As of December 2007, 143 members of the Division have died while on service in Iraq. [2]
[edit] Second deployment to Iraq
Soldiers from Battery B, 3rd Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment, 101st Airborne Division, pose at the end of a patrol near Wynot, Iraq.
Soldiers from Battery B, 3rd Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment, 101st Airborne Division, pose at the end of a patrol near Wynot, Iraq.
The division's second deployment to Iraq began in the late summer of 2005. The division headquarters replaced the 42nd Infantry Division, which had been directing security operations as the headquarters for Task Force Liberty. Renamed Task Force Band of Brothers, the 101st assumed responsibility on November 1, 2005 for four provinces in north central Iraq: Salah ad Din, Kirkuk, Diyala and As Sulymaniyah. On December 30, 2005, Task Force Band of Brothers also assumed responsibility for training Iraqi security forces and conducting security operations in Ninevah and Dahuk provinces as the headquarters for Task Force Freedom was disestablished.
CPL Jared Jenkins and 1SG Arthur Abiera, Apache Troop, 1st Squadron, 33rd Cavalry Regiment, 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division, patrol the outskirts of Sadr City, Iraq.
CPL Jared Jenkins and 1SG Arthur Abiera, Apache Troop, 1st Squadron, 33rd Cavalry Regiment, 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division, patrol the outskirts of Sadr City, Iraq.
During the second deployment, 2nd and 4th Brigades of the 101st Airborne Division were assigned to conduct security operations under the command of Task Force Baghdad, led initially by 3rd Infantry Division, which was replaced by 4th Infantry Division. The 1st Battalion of the 506th Infantry (4th Brigade) was separated from the division and served with the Marines in Ramadi, in the Al Anbar province. 3rd Brigade was assigned to Salah ad Din and Bayji sectors and 1st Brigade was assigned to the overall Kirkuk province which included Hawijah, one of the deadliest cities in Iraq.
Task Force Band of Brothers' primary mission during its second deployment to Iraq was the training of Iraqi security forces. When the 101st returned to Iraq, there were no Iraqi units capable of assuming the lead for operations against Iraqi and foreign terrorists. As the division concluded its tour, 33 battalions were in the lead for security in assigned areas, and two of four Iraq divisions in northern Iraq were commanding and controlling subordinate units.
Simultaneously with training Iraqi Soldiers and their leaders, 101st Soldiers conducted numerous security operations against terrorist cells operating in the division's assigned, six-province area of operations. Operation Swarmer was the largest air assault operation conducted in Iraq since April 22, 2003. 1st Brigade conducted Operation Scorpion with Iraqi units near Kirkuk.
Developing other aspects of Iraqi society also figured in 101st operations in Iraq. Division commander Major General Thomas Turner hosted the first governors' conference for the six provinces in the division's area of operations, as well as the neighboring province of Erbil.[3] Numerous civil affairs operations were directed by the division, including the construction and renovation of schools, clinics, police stations, and other important landmarks in civilian communities from Turkey to Baghdad and from the Syrian border to the Iranian border.
[edit] Accusations of misconduct in Iraq
On June 19 2006, the US military announced that three soldiers of the 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division, Private First Class Corey R. Clagett, Specialist William B. Hunsaker and Staff Sergeant Raymond L. Girouard, were being charged in connection of the deaths of three male detainees in an operation near a canal north of Baghdad on May 9. On June 21, a fourth soldier was charged, but none were convicted.
In July 2006, five troopers were charged in connection with the rape and murder of 14 year old Iraqi girl Abeer Qasim, and the murder of three of her family members, including a 5-year-old girl. The incident took place in Mahmoudiya, south of Baghdad. Previously, an arrest in the case was also made in June of 2006 when former trooper Steven D. Green was apprehended in North Carolina. On November 17, 2006 Specialist James Barker was sentenced to life in prison for the incident. Friday February 23, 2007 saw the Sergeant, two specialists and two privates convicted with lengthy sentences.
[edit] Third deployment to Iraq
The 1st Brigade Combat Team of the 101st is currently deployed in Iraq, in the Salah ad Din Province, northeast of Baghdad. The 2nd Brigade Combat Team is currently deployed in Iskandariyah, and the 3rd Brigade Combat Team is currently deployed in the Southern belt region south of Baghdad.
[edit] General information
The most recent change of command within the division took place on November 10, 2006. During this change of command, MG Jeff Schloesser took command of the 101st from the division's previous commander, now-LTG Tom Turner. Turner left the 101st to command Fifth Army.
* Commanding General: Major General Jeffrey J. Schloesser
* Deputy Assistant Division Commander (Operations): Colonel (promotable) Mark A. Milley.[4]
* Deputy Assistant Division Commander (Support): Brigadier General James C. McConville.[4]
* Chief of Staff: Colonel Thomas D. Vail
* Division Command Sergeant Major: Command Sergeant Major Vincent F. Camacho
[edit] Parachute Demonstration Team
The "Screaming Eagles" is also the nickname for the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) Command Parachute Demonstration Team. Its history goes as far back as the late 1950s, during the infancy of precision freefall. The command group decided to form a full time team in 1984.
See website: www.campbell.army.mil/PDT/pdt.htm
[edit] Current structure
OrBat of the 101st Airborne Division
OrBat of the 101st Airborne Division
101st Airborne Division:
* 501st Special Troops Battalion
* 1st Brigade Combat Team ("Bastogne")(♣)
o 1st Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment ("Above the Rest")
o 2nd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment ("No Slack")
o 2nd Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment ("Balls of the Eagle")
o 1st Squadron (RSTA), 32nd Cavalry Regiment ("Victory or Death")
o 1st Brigade Special Troops Battalion
o 426th Brigade Support Battalion
* 2d Brigade Combat Team ("Strike")(♥)
o 1st Battalion, 502d Infantry Regiment ("First Strike")
o 2nd Battalion, 502d Infantry Regiment ("Strike Force")
o 1st Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment ("Top Guns")
o 1st Squadron (RSTA), 75th Cavalry Regiment ("Widowmakers")
o 2nd Brigade Special Troops Battalion
o 526th Brigade Support Battalion
* 3rd Brigade Combat Team ("Rakkasans") (Torii)
o 1st Battalion, 187th Infantry Regiment ("Leader Rakkasans")
o 2nd Battalion, 187th Infantry Regiment ("Raider Rakkasans")(inactivated 30 Sep 2005)
o 3rd Battalion, 187th Infantry Regiment ("Iron Rakkasans")
o 3rd Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment ("Red Knight")
o 1st Squadron (RSTA), 33rd Cavalry Regiment("War Rakkasans")
o 626th Brigade Support Battalion ("Assurgam")
o 3rd Brigade Special Troops Battalion ("Rak Solid")
* 4th Brigade Combat Team ("Currahee")(♠)
o 1st Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment ("Red Currahee")
o 2nd Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment ("White Currahee")
o 1st Squadron (RSTA), 61st Cavalry Regiment ("Panther")
o 4th Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment ("Guns of Glory")
o 801st Brigade Support Battalion ("Maintaineers")
o 4th Brigade Special Troops Battalion ("Apache")
* 101st Combat Aviation Brigade ("Wings of Destiny")(♦)
o 2nd Squadron, 17th Cavalry Regiment ("Out Front")
o 1st Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment ("Expect No Mercy")
o 5th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment ("Eagle Assault")[5]
o 6th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment (GSAB) ("Shadow of the Eagle")
o 96th Support Battalion (Aviation) ("Troubleshooters")
* 159th Combat Aviation Brigade ("Eagle Thunder") (Triangle)
o 7th Squadron, 17th Cavalry Regiment ("Pale Horse")
o 3rd Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment ("Eagle Attack")
o 4th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment ("Wings of the Eagle")[5].
o 7th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment (GSAB) ("Eagle Lift")
o 563rd Support Battalion (Aviation) ("Keep Them Fighting")
* HHC, 101st Sustainment Brigade ("Life Liners")[6]
o 106th Transportation Battalion
o 129th Corps Support Battalion
o 561st Combat Support Battalion (inactivated)
o 101st Soldier Support Battalion (inactivated)
o 101st Brigade Troops Battalion ("Trojans")
o 326th Engineer Battalion (CBT)
Note: The 49th Quartermaster Group at Fort Lee, Virginia, may provide support to, but is not part of, the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault).Quartermaster GroupQuartermaster Group
[edit] Lineage
[edit] HHC, 101st Division
* Constituted 23 July 1918 in the National Army as Headquarters, 101st Division
* Organized 2 November 1918 at Camp Shelby, Mississippi
* Demobilized 11 December 1918 at Camp Shelby, Mississippi
* Reconstituted 24 June 1921 in the Organized Reserves as Headquarters, 101st Division
* Organized 10 September 1921 at Milwaukee, Wisconsin
* Redesignated 31 March 1942 as Division Headquarters, 101st Division
* Disbanded 15 August 1942; concurrently, reconstituted in the Army of the United States as Headquarters, 101st Airborne Division, and activated at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana
* Inactivated 30 November 1945 in France
* Allotted 25 June 1948 to the Regular Army
* Activated 6 July 1948 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Inactivated 27 May 1949 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Activated 25 August 1950 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Inactivated 1 December 1953 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Activated 15 May 1954 at Fort Jackson, South Carolina
* Reorganized and redesignated 3 February 1964 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 101st Airborne Division
[edit] HHC, 1st Brigade
* Constituted 24 June 1921 in the Organized Reserves as Headquarters Company, 101st Division
* Organized in November 1921 at Milwaukee, Wisconsin
* Reorganized and redesignated 31 March 1942 as Headquarters and Military Police Company (less Military Police Platoon), 101st Division
* Disbanded 15 August 1942; concurrently reconstituted in the Army of the United States as Headquarters Company, 101st Airborne *Division, and activated at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana
* Inactivated 30 November 1945 in France
* Allotted 25 June 1948 to the Regular Army
* Activated 6 July 1948 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Inactivated 27 May 1949 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Activated 25 August 1950 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Inactivated 1 December 1953 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Activated 15 May 1954 at Fort Jackson, South Carolina
* Reorganized and redesignated 1 July 1956 as Headquarters and Service Company, 101st Airborne Division
* Reorganized and redesignated 25 April 1957 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, Command and Control Battalion, 101st Airborne Division
* Reorganized and redesignated 3 February 1964 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division
[edit] HHC, 2nd Brigade
* Constituted 5 August 1917 in the National Army as Headquarters, 159th Infantry Brigade, an element of the 80th Division
* Organized 27 August 1917 at Camp Lee, Virginia
* Demobilized 1 June 1919 at Camp Lee, Virginia
* Reconstituted 24 June 1921 in the Organized Reserves as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 159th Infantry Brigade, an element of the 80th Division
* Organized in September 1922 at Richmond, Virginia
* Redesignated 23 March 1925 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 159th Brigade
* Redesignated 24 August 1936 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 159th Infantry Brigade
* Converted and redesignated 12 February 1942 as the 80th Reconnaissance Troop (less 3d Platoon), 80th Division (Headquarters and *Headquarters Company, 160th Infantry Brigade, concurrently converted and redesignated as the 3d Platoon, 80th Reconnaissance Company, 80th Division)
* Troop ordered into active military service 15 July 1942 and reorganized at Camp Forrest, Tennessee, as the 80th Cavalry *Reconnaissance Troop, an element of the 80th Division (later redesignated as the 80th Infantry Division)
* Reorganized and redesignated 12 August 1943 as the 80th Reconnaissance Troop, Mechanized
* Inactivated 6 January 1946 at Camp Kilmer, New Jersey
* Redesignated 15 July 1946 as the Reconnaissance Platoon, 80th Airborne Division
* Activated 21 May 1947 at Richmond, Virginia, as the 80th Airborne Reconnaissance Platoon, an element of the 80th Airborne Division
* (Organized Reserves redesignated 25 March 1948 as the Organized Reserve Corps; redesignated 9 July 1952 as the Army Reserve)
* Reorganized and redesignated 20 April 1948 as the Reconnaissance Platoon, 80th Airborne Division
* Reorganized and redesignated 18 September 1950 as the 80th Airborne Reconnaissance Company
* Reorganized and redesignated 10 May 1952 as the 80th Reconnaissance Company, an element of the 80th Infantry Division
* Disbanded 29 March 1959 at Richmond, Virginia
* Reconstituted (less 3d Platoon) 22 October 1963 in the Regular Army as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 159th Infantry *Brigade (3d Platoon, 80th Reconnaissance Company--hereafter separate lineage)
* Redesignated 21 January 1964 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 2d Brigade, 101st Airborne Division
* Activated 3 February 1964 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
[edit] HHC, 3rd Brigade
* Constituted 5 August 1917 in the National Army as Headquarters, 160th Infantry Brigade, an element of the 80th Division
* Organized 27 August 1917 at Camp Lee, Virginia
* Demobilized 7 June 1919 at Camp Lee, Virginia
* Reconstituted 24 June 1921 in the Organized Reserves as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 160th Infantry Brigade, an element of the 80th Division
* Organized in September 1922 at Baltimore, Maryland
* Redesignated 23 March 1925 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 160th Brigade
* Redesignated 24 August 1936 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 160th Infantry Brigade
* Converted and redesignated 12 February 1942 as the 3d Platoon, 80th Reconnaissance Troop, 80th Division (Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 159th Infantry Brigade, concurrently converted and redesignated as the 80th Reconnaissance Troop [less 3d Platoon], 80th Division)
* Troop ordered into active military service 15 July 1942 and reorganized at Camp Forrest, Tennessee, as the 80th Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop, an element of the 80th Division (later redesignated as the 80th Infantry Division)
* Reorganized and redesignated 12 August 1943 as the 80th Reconnaissance Troop, Mechanized
* Inactivated 6 January 1946 at Camp Kilmer, New Jersey
* Redesignated 15 July 1946 as the Reconnaissance Platoon, 80th Airborne Division
* Activated 21 May 1947 at Richmond, Virginia, as the 80th Airborne Reconnaissance Platoon, an element of the 80th Airborne Division
* (Organized Reserves redesignated 25 March 1948 as the Organized Reserve Corps; redesignated 9 July 1952 as the Army Reserve)
* Reorganized and redesignated 20 April 1948 as the Reconnaissance Platoon, 80th Airborne Division
* Reorganized and redesignated 18 September 1950 as the 80th Airborne Reconnaissance Company
* Reorganized and redesignated 10 May 1952 as the 80th Reconnaissance Company, an element of the 80th Infantry Division
* Disbanded 29 March 1959 at Richmond, Virginia
* 3d Platoon, 80th Reconnaissance Company, reconstituted 22 October 1963 in the Regular Army as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 160th Infantry Brigade (remainder of the company - hereafter separate lineage)
* Redesignated 21 January 1964 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 3d Brigade, 101st Airborne Division
* Activated 3 February 1964 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
[edit] HHB, 101st Division Artillery
* Constituted 24 June 1921 in the Organized Reserves as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 176th Field Artillery Brigade
* Organized in 1923 in Wisconsin
* Redesignated 30 January 1942 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 101st Division Artillery
* Disbanded 15 August 1942; concurrently reconstituted in the Army of the United States as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 101st Airborne Division Artillery, and activated at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana
* Inactivated 30 November 1945 in France
* Allotted 25 June 1948 to the Regular Army
* Activated 6 July 1948 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Inactivated 27 May 1949 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Activated 25 August 1950 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Inactivated 1 December 1953 at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky
* Activated 15 May 1954 at Fort Jackson, South Carolina
* Reorganized and redesignated 1 July 1956 as Headquarters, Headquarters and Service Battery, 101st Airborne Division Artillery
* Reorganized and redesignated 25 April 1957 as Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 101st Airborne Division Artillery
[edit] HHC, 101st Aviation Brigade
* Constituted 1950-12-07 in the Regular Army as the 4th Light Aviation Section
* Activated 1950-12-19 in Korea
* Inactivated 1954-11-05 in Korea
* Redesignated 1956-07-01 as the 101st Aviation Company, assigned to the 101st Airborne Division, and activated at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
* Reorganized and redesignated 1962-12-03 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 101st Aviation Battalion[7]
* Reorganized and redesignated 1987-10-16 as the 101st Aviation Brigade, a parent regiment under the United States Army Regimental System
[edit] HHC, 1st Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
* Constituted 1962-11-15 in the Regular Army as Company A, 101st Aviation Battalion, an element of the 101st Airborne Division
* Activated 1962-12-03 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
* Inactivated 1979 -04-04 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
* Activated 1981-09-30 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
* Reorganized and redesignated 1987-10-16 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 1st Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, and remained assigned to the 101st Airborne Division[8].
[edit] HHC, 2d Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
* Constituted 1962-11-15 in the Regular Army as Company B, 101st Aviation Battalion, an element of the 101st Airborne Division
* Activated 3 December 1962-12-03 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky.
* Reorganized and redesignated 1987-10-16 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 2d Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, and remained assigned to the 101st Airborne Division[8]
* Inactivated 1988-11-16 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
* Activated 1991-08-16 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
[edit] HHC, 3d Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
* 1968-07-01 in the Regular Army as Company C, 101st Aviation Battalion, an element of the 101st Airborne Division
* Activated 1968-12-20 in Vietnam.
* Reorganized and redesignated 1987-10-16 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 3d Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, and remained assigned to the 101st Airborne Division[8].
[edit] HHC, 4th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
* Constituted 1 July 1968-07-01 in the Regular Army as Company D, 101st Aviation Battalion, an element of the 101st Airborne Division
* Activated 1968-12-20 in Vietnam
* Inactivated 1981-09-30 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
* Redesignated 1987-10-16 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 4th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, and activated at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, as an element of the 101st Airborne Division[8]
[edit] HHC, 5th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
* Constituted 1987-09-16 in the Regular Army as the 5th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, assigned to the 101st Airborne Division, and activated at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
[edit] HHC, 6th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
* Constituted 16 1987-09-16 in the Regular Army as the 6th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, assigned to the 101st Airborne Division, and activated at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
[edit] HHC, 7th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
* Constituted 1950-12-07 in the Regular Army as the 4th Light Aviation Section.
* Activated 1950-12-19 in Korea
* Inactivated 1954-11-05 in Korea
* Redesignated 1956-07-01 as the 101st Aviation Company, assigned to the 101st Airborne Division, and activated at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
* Reorganized and redesignated 1962-12-03 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 101st Aviation Battalion
* Headquarters Company, 101st Aviation Battalion[9] reorganized and redesignated 1987-10-16 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 7th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, and remained assigned to the 101st Airborne Division[8]
[edit] HHC, 8th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
* Constituted 1987-10-16 in the Regular Army as the 8th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, assigned to the 101st Airborne Division, and activated at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
[edit] HHC, 9th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment
* Constituted 1989-12-16 in the Regular Army as the 9th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, assigned to the 101st Airborne Division, and activated at Fort Campbell, Kentucky
[edit] HHC, 159th Aviation Brigade[10]
Soldiers from the 101st Airborne Division fly to Forward Operating Base Dagger near Tikrit, Iraq, aboard UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters.
Soldiers from the 101st Airborne Division fly to Forward Operating Base Dagger near Tikrit, Iraq, aboard UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters.
* Constituted 16 October 1992 in the Regular Army as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 159th Aviation Group, and activated at Fort Bragg, North Carolina
* Reorganized and redesignated 16 June 1998 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 159th Aviation Brigade, 101st Airborne Division.
[edit] Honors
[edit] Campaign Participation Credit
* World War I (2nd and 3rd Brigades ONLY):
1. Hundred Days Offensive (also known as the Battle of Saint-Quentin or the Second Battle of the Somme);
2. Meuse-Argonne Offensive;
3. Picardy 1918
* World War II (except 159th Aviation Brigade):
1. Normandy (with arrowhead);
2. Rhineland (with arrowhead);
3. Ardennes-Alsace;
4. Central Europe
* Vietnam War (Except 159th Aviation Brigade):
1. Defense (1st Brigade Only);
2. Counteroffensive (1st Brigade Only);
3. Counteroffensive, Phase II (1st Brigade Only)
4. Counteroffensive, Phase III;
5. Tet Counteroffensive;
6. Counteroffensive, Phase IV;
7. Counteroffensive, Phase V;
8. Counteroffensive, Phase VI;
9. Tet 1969/Counteroffensive;
10. Summer-Fall 1969;
11. Winter-Spring 1970;
12. Sanctuary Counteroffensive;
13. Counteroffensive, Phase VII;
14. Consolidation I;
15. Consolidation II
* Southwest Asia (Except 159th Aviation Brigade):
1. Defense of Saudi Arabia;
2. Liberation and Defense of Kuwait
[edit] Decorations
1. Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for NORMANDY (Division and 1st Brigade Only)
2. Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for BASTOGNE (Division and 1st Brigade Only)
3. Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for DAK TO, VIETNAM 1966 (1st Brigade only)
4. Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for DONG AP BIA MOUNTAIN (3rd Brigade Only)
5. Valorous Unit Award for THUA THIEN PROVINCE (3rd Brigade and DIVARTY Only)
6. Valorous Unit Award for TUY HOA (1st Brigade Only)
7. Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for VIETNAM 1965-1966 (1st Brigade Only)
8. Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for VIETNAM 1968 (3rd Brigade Only)
9. Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for SOUTHWEST ASIA (Except 159th Aviation Brigade)
10. French Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War II for NORMANDY (Division and 1st Brigade Only)
11. Belgian Croix de Guerre 1940 with Palm for BASTOGNE (Division and 1st Brigade Only);
12. cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action at BASTOGNE (Division and 1st Brigade Only)
13. Belgian Fourragere 1944 (Division and 1st Brigade Only)
14. Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action in FRANCE AND BELGIUM (Division and 1st Brigade Only)
15. Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm for VIETNAM 1966-1967 (1st Brigade Only)
16. Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm for VIETNAM 1968 (2nd Brigade Only)
17. Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm for VIETNAM 1968-1969 (Except 159th Aviation Brigade)
18. Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm for VIETNAM 1971 (Except 159th Aviation Brigade)
19. Republic of Vietnam Civil Action Honor Medal, First Class for VIETNAM 1968-1970 (Except 159th Aviation Brigade)
20. Republic of Vietnam Civil Action Honor Medal, First Class for VIETNAM 1970 (DIVARTY only)
[edit] Division commanders
* MG William C. Lee Aug-42 - Feb-44
* BG Don F. Pratt 6-Feb-44 - 14-Mar-44[11]
* MG Maxwell D. Taylor Mar-44 - Aug-45
* BG Anthony C. McAuliffe 5-Dec-44 - 26-Dec-44[11]
* BG William N. Gillmore Aug-45 - Sep-45
* BG Gerald St. C. Mickle Sep-45 - Oct-45
* BG Stuart Cutler Oct-45 - Nov-45
* MG William R. Schmidt Jul-48 - May-49
* MG Cornelius E. Ryan Aug-50 - May-51
* MG Roy E. Porter May-51 - May-53
* MG Paul DeWitt Adams May-53 - Dec-53
* MG Riley F. Ennis May-54 - Oct-55
* MG F. S. Bowen Oct-55 - Mar-56
* MG Thomas L. Sherburne, Jr. May-56 - Mar-58
* MG William C. Westmoreland Apr-58 - Jun-60
* MG Ben Harrell Jun-60 - Jul-61
* MG C.W.G. Rich Jul-61 - Feb-63
* MG Harry H. Critz Feb-63 - Mar-64
* MG Beverly E. Powell Mar-64 - Mar-66
* MG Ben Sternberg Mar-66 - Jul-67
* MG Olinto M. Barsanti Jul-67 - Jul-68
* MG Melvin Zais Jul-68 - May-69
* MG John M. Wright May-69 - May-70
* MG John J. Hennessey May-70 - Feb-71
* MG Thomas M. Tarpley Feb-71 - Apr-72
* MG John H. Cushman Apr-72 - Aug-73
* MG Sidney B. Berry Aug-73 - Jul-74
* MG John W. McEnery Aug-74 - Feb-76
* MG John A. Wickham, Jr. Mar-76 - Mar-78
* MG John N. Brandenburg Mar-78 - Jun-80
* MG Jack V. Mackmull Jun-80 - Aug-81
* MG Charles W. Bagnal Aug-81 - Aug-83
* MG James E. Thompson Aug-83 - Jun-85
* MG Burton D. Patrick Jun-85 - May-87
* MG Teddy G. Allen May-87 - Aug-89
* MG J. H. Binford Peay III Aug-89 - Jun-91
* MG John Miller Jun-91 - Jul-93
* MG John M. Keane Jul-93 - Feb-96
* MG William F. "Buck" Kernan Feb-96 - Feb-98
* MG Robert T. Clark Feb-98 - Jun-00
* MG Richard A. Cody Jun-00 - Jul-02
* MG David H. Petraeus Jul-02 - May-04
* MG Thomas R. Turner II May-04 - Nov-06
* MG Jeffrey J. Schloesser Nov-06 - present
Junk Jet has developed an archive impossible that transports, in print format, net based works, or fragments of works showing collections, series, animations, applications, and reflecting anti-heart texts on the net and its new forms of art, design, and architecture. N°5, the net.heart issue, has transferred internet things from their digital space into a paper jet. This transportation procedure relies on documents in a similar way as the museum relies on photograph and video documenting performance arts. And Junk Jet believes that this analogue documentation is in no way inferior to pseudo-preserving techniques of data migration, emulation, or reprogramming. At the end, Junk Jet says: Transportation is not so much about the artwork as object, but rather about the indication of the subjective decision of the artist. In this sense Junk Jet is a Russian conceptualist.
www.facebook.com/pages/Junk-Jet/298633638983
With wireless contributions by Adam Cruces, Agathe Andre, Alessandro Bava, Alexei Shulgin, Angela Genusa, Angelo Plessas, Aureliano Segundo, Asli Serbest, Aristide Antonas, Artie Vierkant, Ball-Nogues, Bärbel Jetter, Bea Fremderman, Beatriz Ramo, Ben Aqua, Ben Vickers, Billy Rennekamp, Bonno van Doorn, Brad Troemel, Bryan Boyer, Carsten Güth, Christian Oldham, Christine Nasz and Stefanie Hunold, Constant Dullaart, Dennis Knopf, Eilis Mcdonald, Fabien Mousse, Gene McHugh, Greg J. Smith, Hanne Mugaas, Jacob Engblom, Jasper Elings, JODI, Jonas Lund, Jordan Tate, Katja Novitskova, Laimonas Zakas, Lenox Twins, m-a-u-s-e-r, Marisa Olson, Michael Schoner, Mike Ruiz, Mimi Zeiger, Mona Mahall, Natalie Bookchin, Nicholas O'Brien, Nicolas Sassoon, NIEI, NLarchitects, Olia Lialina, Palace Palace, Rafaël Rozendaal, Ricardo Scofidio, Parker Ito, Patrick Cruz, Pieterjan Grandry, Raphael Bastide, Sam Hancocks, Sarah Weis, Something Fantastic, Sterling Crispin, Theo Seemann, Will Brand, Wyne Veen
Edited by Mona Mahall and Asli Serbest
N°5 comes with a Poster: "Home Buttons by Architects"
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
Men's sports
Baseball
The Oregon State University baseball program was established in 1907 by Ty Eriksen. It has since seen dozens of players go on to play in the minor leagues and more than 15 go on to play in the MLB, including Steve Lyons and pitching All-Star Ken Forsch. The baseball team has won its conference championship 22 times and has made it to the College World Series 4 times, first in 1952 and more recently three straight years, in 2005, 2006, and 2007. The team is currently led by head coach Pat Casey, and they play at Goss Stadium at Coleman Field.
The baseball team has recently established itself as a national contender by being the only team in the nation to reach the College World Series in both 2005 and 2006, winning the Pac-10 championship both years in the process. They were also the only 2005 College World Series team to make it to the 2006 Super Regionals. In the 2006 season, the Beavers swept the Corvallis Regional and Super Regional, culminating with a convincing 15-0 victory over Stanford. It was the largest margin of loss in the history of Stanford postseason play and the first time the team had been held scoreless in postseason play since 1992. The 2006 season also saw a school record nine players drafted in the Major League Baseball Draft. The Beavers were ranked #3 in the nation in the 2006 Collegiate Baseball preseason poll[1] and remained in the top 10 in the coaches' poll most of the season.
In the 2006 College World Series, a double-elimination tournament, the Beavers lost their first game, an 11-1 drubbing at the hands of Miami, which dropped the Beavers into the loser's bracket. They rebounded in their next game, defeating Georgia. They then got revenge on Miami, who had been defeated by Rice, knocking the Hurricanes out of the tournament with an 8-1 victory. This set up a two-game series with #1 Rice, who emerged from the winner's bracket. The Beavers needed to win both games to advance. They did, holding Rice scoreless in both games to record the first back-to-back shutouts in the College World Series since 1992. The Beavers advanced to the three-game Championship series against North Carolina, which started on June 24, 2006. After losing the first game, Oregon State fell behind 5-0 after three innings of Game 2. They proceeded to light up Carolina's normally strong pitching for seven runs in the fourth and added four more in the sixth to cruise to an 11-7 win. They went on to a 3-2 win in Game 3 to secure their first Baseball National Championship.
On June 22, 2007, Oregon governor Ted Kulongoski made a friendly political wager with North Carolina Governor Mike Easley that "Oregon State Beavers baseball team will repeat as champions and defeat the University of North Carolina Tar Heels for a second time in the championship of the 2007 NCAA College World Series."[1] The Beavers repeated as champions in the 2007 College World Series, winning all their games, including a rematch with North Carolina in the finals. This despite a difficult regular season which saw the team barely qualify for the postseason.
The baseball team's all-time record is 1,875-1,267-15 (822-603 conference) through the 2006 season.
The Oregon State Beavers shouldn't be confused with the Portland Beavers, a professional minor league baseball team in Portland, Oregon. In 2007, owner Merritt Paulson announced that he was considering changing the name of the minor league team to prevent confusion with the college team.[2]
[edit] Basketball
The men's basketball team has had several famous players come out of the program, including 9-time NBA All-Star Gary Payton and "Iron Man" A.C. Green. The Beavers have the 13th most amount of wins of any program in the nation as of the end of the 2006 season.
Though they have an impressive program when compared to other Pac-10 teams, the basketball team has recently fallen on hard times. It hasn't had a winning season since 1990 and has been eclipsed by other athletic endeavors to include men's football and baseball (especially after winning two national titles)[3]. They have participated in the NCAA Tournament 16 times*, making it to the Final Four twice. OSU alumni have also received a total of 10 NBA championship rings and 4 Olympic gold medals. Fans of the program can also take pride in having beaten rival Oregon more times than any team has beaten another team in a collegiate sport, with 179 victories.
*1980-82 tournament records vacated by NCAA
Oregon State holds several NCAA basketball records as of the end of the 2004 season:
Individual Records
* Field Goal Percentage (Single season) - 1st - 74.6% — Steve Johnson, 1981 (235 of 315) & 4th - 71.0% — Steve Johnson, 1980 (211 of 297)
* Field Goal Percentage (Career, min. 400 made and 4 made per game) - 1st - 67.8% — Steve Johnson, 1976-81 (828 of 1,222)
* Field Goal Percentage (Single game, min. 12 field goals made) - 1st (tie) - 100% Steve Johnson vs. Hawaii-Hilo (13 of 13), Dec. 5, 1979
* Total Rebounds (Single game) - 15th (tie) - 36 - Swede Halbrook vs. Idaho, Feb. 15, 1955
* Assists (Career) - 11th - 939 - Gary Payton, 1987-1990
* Average Assists Per Game (Career, min. 550 assists) - 9th - 7.82 - Gary Payton, 1987-1990
* Steals (Career) - 18th (tie) - 321 - Gary Payton, 1987-1990
Top Season Performances by Class
* Senior - Field Goal Percentage - 1st - 74.6% — Steve Johnson, 1981 (235 of 315)
* Junior - Field Goal Percentage - 1st - 71.0% — Steve Johnson, 1980 (211 of 297)
Team Records
* Free-Throw Percentage (Single game, min. 30 free throws made) - 12th (tie) - 30-31 vs. Memphis, Dec. 19, 1990
* Steals (Single game) - 19th (tie) - 27 vs. Hawaii-Loa, Dec. 22, 1985
* Field Goal Percentage (Season) - 3rd - 56.4% - 1981 & 25th (tie) - 54.4% - 1980
* All-Time Victories (Min. 25 years in Division I) - 13th - 1,546 games
* Games played vs. Single Opponent - 1st - 323 vs. Oregon, 2nd - 275 vs. Washington, 4th 270 vs. Washington State
* Victories vs. Single Opponent - 1st - 179 vs. Oregon, 6th 159 vs. Washington State
Football
The football program has been a part of Oregon State University since 1893, working as a platform for over a hundred players to enter the NFL, such as Heisman Trophy winner Terry Baker and current Cincinnati Bengals wide receivers Chad Johnson and T.J. Houshmandzadeh. They have won their conference championship 5 times.
After a stretch of 28 years of losing seasons, the Beavers have in recent years put together a competitive program.[4] The football team has enjoyed a huge surge in popularity since the 2000-01 season, where they went 11-1 and dominated Notre Dame in the Fiesta Bowl, 41-9. They have made it to a bowl game every season since 1999, except in 2001 and 2005, where, both years, they were one win shy of being bowl-eligible. Since 2000, the number of All-Americans and players declaring for the NFL draft has also surged. In 2005, Beavers wide receiver Mike Hass was awarded the Fred Biletnikoff Award,awarded annually to the individual recognized as the best wide receiver in the nation, and placekicker Alexis Serna was awarded the Lou Groza Award, awarded annually to the individual recognized as the best kicker in the nation.
The resurgence of Oregon State football is also due in part to the caliber of coaches that have been coaching the Beavers over the past eight years. Starting with Mike Riley's first stint at Oregon State and Dennis Erickson after him, the tradition of winning that OSU hasn't had since the 1960s, has returned. Recruiting by Riley jump-started Erickson's 2001 Fiesta Bowl winning team. Since then, all of Erickson's recruits have moved on, but Coach Riley has brought in many more great recruits. Since Riley returned as coach, it has been a rare sight to not see the Beavers play in a bowl game.
Main article: 1985 Oregon State vs. Washington football game
The football team also holds the record for beating the second-biggest point spread in the history of the NCAA. On October 19, 1985, the Beavers were set to play against the Pac-10 leading Washington Huskies in Seattle. The point spread had been set at 38 in favor of Washington, and Oregon State was forced to play with a backup quarterback as starter Erik Wilhelm was sidelined with an injury. Oregon State managed what is considered the biggest upset in the history of the program, and perhaps the NCAA, when they beat Washington 21-20 with a last minute touchdown.[5]
The 1967 Giant Killers squad was the first, last, and only team to defeat a number one and two ranked team and tie a number two ranked team. They are the only team to go undefeated against three top two opponents in the same season. In a four-week period, they defeated #2 ranked Purdue 22-14 in West Lafayette, Indiana; tied #2 UCLA in Los Angeles 16-16; and defeated #1 ranked USC 3-0 in Corvallis, Oregon. The feat is made all the more impressive by the fact that the Beavers faced the top three 1967 Heisman vote-getters and the top two 1968 Heisman vote-getters. They also defeated both teams that played in the 1967 Rose Bowl, the defending AAWU and Big Ten champions. After defeating and tying two second-ranked teams in three weeks, Dee "The Great Pumpkin" Andros called out USC, saying "I'm tired of playing these number two ranked teams. Bring on number one." The game against USC was met with tremendous anticipation. California governor, Ronald Reagan, and Oregon governor, Tom McCall, were in attendance. After the game was over, Ronald Reagan paid up on the governors' friendly wager, sending a box of California oranges to governor McCall. When #1 UCLA and #3 USC faced off later that year in the "signature game" of the UCLA-USC rivalry, the only blemishes in the two teams' records were supplied by the Giant Killers. The game has subsequently been heralded as the Game of the Century. Due to a loss early against Washington earlier in the season, the tie against UCLA precluded Oregon State from playing in the Rose Bowl. USC would wind up winning the Rose Bowl and National Championship behind the running of future Hall of Famer O.J. Simpson.
The 1933 Oregon State squad also was an impressive squad. They are the only team to have ever beaten or tied a defending national champion using no substitutes. They ended USC's 25-game winning streak, tying the defending national champions, 0-0. The 11 Beavers who played the game became Oregon State's "Ironmen," immortalized in Oregon State's fight song: "watch our team go tearing down the field, men of iron their strength will never yield." The team was also the first team to use the Pyramid play. Against Oregon, center, Clyde Devine, climbed onto the shoulders of tackles, Harry Fields and Ade Schwammel, blocking an Oregon field goal attempt in a losing effort. The next week, Oregon State used the Pyramid Play with much more success in a 9-6 victory over the powerful Fordham Rams at the Polo Grounds. The play was outlawed within a year's time.
Another notable upset came on October 28, 2006, when the then unranked Beavers beat the #3 ranked USC Trojans 33-31. After the Beavers built up a 23-point lead, the Trojans mounted an incredible comeback. USC scored a touchdown with seven seconds left in the game to pull within two points. They had to convert a two-point conversion after the TD in order to tie the game. However, quarterback John David Booty's pass was deflected by Jeff Van Orsow and the Beavers received the ball with only seven seconds remaining. Beavers radio announcer Mike Parker's call has been immortalized by Beaver fans with his excited "Batted down! Batted down!" With the win, the Beavers ended a number of impressive winning streaks the Trojans had been compiling over the years which included:
* 38 straight regular-season wins;
* 27 straight Pac-10 wins;
* 18 straight road wins;
* 13 straight Pac-10 road wins
Since the 1960s, Oregon State has only beaten USC 3 times, including the win in 2006.
With the win over USC, Oregon State became a Semifinalist for the $100,000 in Pontiac Game Changing Performance of the Year. After winning Pontiac's Game Changing Performance of the Week, Oregon State was entered into the Game Changing Performance of the Year voting.
The play that was up for Game Changing Performance of the Year was Defensive End Jeff Van Orsow’s deflection of John David Booty’s two-point conversion pass in the Beavers’ upset win of #3 USC at Reser Stadium, October 28.
The Beavers got another huge upset on October 13, 2007, when they beat #2 ranked California Golden Bears 31-28, stopping a scramble by Cal QB Kevin Riley the in red zone on the final play of the game. It was their first victory over a top-two team in 40 years.
The Annual Civil War game between Oregon State and The University of Oregon is generally the biggest game each year. The series has featured a number of instances when a team with a highly inferior ranking or record has played remarkably better in the Civil War than previously in the season. The game is usually played in November, currently alternating between Reser Stadium in Corvallis (the home field of Oregon State University) and Autzen Stadium in Eugene (the home field of the University of Oregon). It has been contested 111 times as of 2007. The University of Oregon holds a series lead of 55-46-10. The game was not played in 1900, 1901, 1911, 1943, and 1944. Oregon State and the University of Oregon have played each other more times (111) than any other two teams west of the Rocky Mountains. The First Civil War game was played in 1884, with the most recent being played in 2007.
The Beavers have won the latest game of this series in double overtime. The game was played at Autzen Stadium in Eugene, December 01, 2007. With both team failing a potential game-winning field goal in the last minutes, the game moved into overtimes, 28-28. In the first overtime the Beavers and the Ducks are tied with a field goal 31-31. In the first play of the second overtime, James Rodgers ran for a touchdown and the Beavers won 38-31. This victory marks the first win for a road team since 1996, and the first win at Autzen for the Beavers since 1993. it is also the first time since 1973-1974, that they have won back-to-back games in the football version of the Civil War.
The 110th Civil War featured the Beavers playing at home at Reser Stadium in Corvallis, winning 30-28. It marked the 10th straight year (since 1997) that the home team has prevailed in the Civil War. Oregon State's 2006 Civil War win was a tale of two kickers. Oregon State's Alexis Serna successfully made all three extra points (PATs) and field goals that he tried. Oregon's Paul Martinez missed one of his three extra points and missed both of his field goal attempts. Alexis Serna, converted his final field goal attempt with a little over 1 minute left, putting the Beavers ahead 30-28. Oregon's coach, Mike Bellotti decided to bench Paul Martinez in favor of Matt Evenson for what turned out to be the game's final play. But Evenson's potential game-winner was blocked by Oregon State defensive lineman Ben Siegert to preserve the Beaver victory.
They have had a recent good run of quarterbacks and tailbacks. The starting quarterback for most of the 1998 season as well as for all of the 1999-2001 seasons was Jonathan Smith. He was followed by Derek Anderson, who is the most prolific passer in Oregon State football history. "DA," as he is referred to, has since gone on to the NFL, and is currently playing for the Cleveland Browns. He also started for the Browns for several games in the 2006 season when former Browns Quarterback Charlie Frye was sidelined due to injury. Anderson's first notable performance with Cleveland was an impressive come-from-behind victory at Kansas City. After DA graduated, he was followed by Matt Moore, who came to Oregon State as a transfer from UCLA. Although he only played 2 seasons (2005 and 2006), Matt Moore became a very reliable quarterback, leading Oregon State to wins over then #3 USC and the Ducks in the 2006 Civil War. As for tailbacks, Ken Simonton started every game from 1998-2001, including the 2001 Fiesta Bowl. He was followed by Steven Jackson, having has since gone into the NFL, where he currently is a starter for the St. Louis Rams. Jackson was followed by Yvenson Bernard, who is going to be a Senior for the 2007 season. Other notable players to go to the NFL from Oregon State are current Cincinnati Bengals Chad Johnson and T.J. Houshmandzadeh, and Green Bay Packer Nick Barnett.
See also: Oregon State Beavers bowl game history
[edit] Golf
The golf teams practice at Oregon State's own Trysting Tree Golf Club, a nationally recognized course that has held numerous tournaments.
[edit] Rowing
Oregon State has long been a powerhouse for men’s rowing, providing 13 different athletes to the highest levels of rowing in the U.S. And over the past five years, a pair of former Beavers have represented America and the Oregon State rowing program particularly well. Most recently these athletes include Josh Inman, Joey Hansen and Chris Callaghan.
Throughout its history, rowing at Oregon State has been led by committed and visionary coaching. Ed Stevens, a former Harvard coach, took over the reins from Mechanical Engineering Professor J.P. Othis. Stevens guided the program from 1931 to 1949 and during this time the program gained recognition and respect as a highly competitive crew.
Karl Drlica took over from Coach Stevens and would lead the program for the next 30 years. One of Coach Drlica’s first moves was to establish women as an integral part of the program when he started intramural competition in 1952. OSU was one of the first collegiate programs to support women’s rowing.
The achievements of Coach Drlica and his crews were recognized in 1967 when the Board of Intercollegiate Athletics accepted the men’s heavyweight crew as a varsity sport. Ten years later, Coach Drlica would orchestrate the elevation of women’s and lightweight rowing to varsity status as well.
In 1983 the athletic department hired Dave Emigh to assist with the crew program and in 1985 he was named the head coach. Emigh spent 11 years at OSU and continued to develop the program with the same innovative styles of his predecessors. Under Emigh, the crew achieved stability within the athletic department and firmly established itself as a leader in West Coast rowing.
Fred Honebein joined the Oregon State family in 2004 and led his squad to a ninth place finish at the Intercollegiate Rowing Association Championships. The Beavers’ finish marked the fifth straight year they had finished among the top ten in the nation and the eighth time in ten years.
Steve Todd has been named interim head coach of the Oregon State University men’s rowing program for the 2006-07 season. Todd succeeded former head coach Fred Honebein in June after leading the Beavers to a 14th-place finish at the Intercollegiate Rowing Association national championships. A former rower at the University of Washington, Todd rowed to a national championship in the Huskies' JV8 in 1997 and earned medals in the Varsity boat in 1998 and 1999. Todd has been a part of the Oregon State rowing program for four years as the men’s freshman coach. During his time with the Beavers, Todd’s crews have medaled all four years at the Pac-10 Championships including a silver medal finish in 2003. Tood's 2003 crew of rookies also took second at the San Diego Crew Classic and in the process upset traditional powerhouse Washington. Most recently, Todd’s Freshman 4+ finished fourth at the IRA Regatta in June.
Dave Friedericks is in his first season as the men’s rowing assistant coach. Friedericks, a former member of the U.S. national team, directed the Lake Oswego Community Rowing Center for the past two years. While at Lake Oswego, Friedericks helped grow the club from a group of a dozen members to a membership of 75 with an additional 100 rowers taking classes.
The Oregon State University Men's Varsity 8+ had a 10th place finish at the 2007 Intercollegiate Rowing Association Championships.
[edit] Wrestling
Traditionally, the Oregon State wrestling team has been a national powerhouse, winning their conference championship 44 times and finishing in the NCAA top ten 18 times. They have 12 individual NCAA champion titles (including 2 won by Les Gutches in 1995 and 1996) , and have 81 All-American titles (of which 3 were earned by Gutches in 1994, 1995, and 1996) . Pre-NCAA in 1926, OSU won the Amateur Athletic Association team national championship. Dale Thomas, Oregon State coach from 1957-1990 and National Wrestling Hall of Fame member, holds the NCAA record for most dual meet wins in a coaching career at 616. Additionally, seven OSU alumni have gone on to represent the United States in the Olympics, including in 1924 where Oregon State alumni won both the gold and silver medals in the same weight class. Only 5 of Oregon State's 84 seasons have resulted in a losing record. Oregon State's all-time dual meet record (1909-2006) is 895-286-26,[6] ranked 3rd in the NCAA for most all-time wins. With the retiring after the 2005-06 season of one of OSU's most successful coaches, Joe Wells, National Wrestling Hall of Fame member Jim Zalesky was named head coach.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
National Guard of the United States
The National Guard of the United States is a joint reserve component of the United States Army and the United States Air Force. The National Guard comprises the Army National Guard (ARNG) from the Army and the Air Force's Air National Guard (AFNG). The National Guard is operated under the National Guard Bureau, which is a semi-independent subdivision and managing office under the Department of Defense. The National Guard is headed by the Chief of the National Guard Bureau who is a four-star General [1][2] in the Army or Air Force.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Overview
* 2 Constitutional basis for the National Guard
* 3 Laws covering the National Guard
* 4 Duties and Administrative Organization
* 5 History
o 5.1 Twentieth Century
o 5.2 Twenty-first Century
+ 5.2.1 The Global War On Terrorism
* 6 Presidents who have served in the National Guard
* 7 List of chiefs of the National Guard Bureau
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 External links
[edit] Overview
The Militia Act of 1903 organized the various state militias into the present National Guard system. The Army National Guard is part of the United States Army, comprising approximately one half of its available combat forces and approximately one third of its support organization. The Air National Guard is part of the United States Air Force.
Title 10 of the US Code states:
(a) The militia of the United States consists of all able-bodied males at least 17 years of age and, except as provided in section 313 of title 32, under 45 years of age who are, or who have made a declaration of intention to become, citizens of the United States and of female citizens of the United States who are members of the National Guard.
(b) The classes of the militia are—
(1) the organized militia, which consists of the National Guard and the Naval Militia; and
(2) the unorganized militia, which consists of the members of the militia who are not members of the National Guard or the Naval Militia.[3]
Many states also maintain their own State Defense Forces. These forces are federally recognized, but are separate from the National Guard and are not meant to be federalized, but rather serve the state exclusively, especially when the National Guard is deployed or otherwise unavailable.
Army National Guard units are trained and equipped as part of the U.S. Army; likewise, Air National Guard units are trained and equipped as part of the US Air Force. Both are expected to adhere to the same moral and physical standards as their "full-time" Federal counterparts. The same ranks and insignia are used and National Guardsmen are eligible to receive all United States military awards. The National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in a service member's home state.
[edit] Constitutional basis for the National Guard
National Guardsmen, Penn Station, New York City
National Guardsmen, Penn Station, New York City
The United States National Guard is authorized by the Constitution of the United States. As originally drafted, the Constitution limited the mustering of state militias: without the consent of Congress, states could not "keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace,...or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay." (Article I, Section 10; Clause 3) Congress, however, had a duty to protect states from invasion and domestic violence (Article IV, Section 4).
State militias are not entirely independent, however, because they may be federalized. According to Article I, Section 8; Clause 15, the United States Congress is given the power to pass laws for "calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions." Congress may appropriate funds to support state militias (clause 12), and may:
"provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress." (clause 16)
The President of the United States is the commander-in-chief of the state militias "when called into the actual Service of the United States". (Article II, Section 2).
[edit] Laws covering the National Guard
The United states Congress has enacted various laws which control the National Guard
1. The Militia Act of 1792
Providing for the authority of the President to call out the Militia, and providing federal standards for the organization of the Militia.
For the 111 years that the Militia Act of 1792 remained in effect, it defined the position of the militia in relation to the federal government. The War of 1812 tested this uniquely American defense establishment. To fight the War of 1812, the republic formed a small regular military and trained it to protect the frontiers and coastlines. Although it performed poorly in the offensive against Canada, the small force of regulars backed by a well-armed militia, accomplished its defensive mission well. Generals like Andrew Jackson proved, just as they had in the Revolution, that regulars and militia could be effective when employed as a team.
2. The Militia Act of 1862
Providing for the service of persons of African Descent in the Militia, and the Emancipation of Slaves owned by Confederates.
3. Title 18, U.S. Code, Section 1385: The Posse Comitatus Act of June 18, 1878
Congress' suspension of southern states' right to organize a militia resulted in Posse Comitatus, a limiting of any person's use of the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force in domestic law enforcement. The U.S. Navy and the U.S. Coast Guard, and the National Guard, when NOT in Federal Service, are specifically not limited by this act.
The States revise the military codes - 1881 to 1892
4. The Militia Act of 1903
Affirmed the National Guard as the primary organized reserve force.
5. The National Defense Act, 1916
This act abandoned the idea of an expandable Regular Army and firmly established the traditional concept of the citizens' army as the keystone of the United States defense forces. It established the concept of merging the National Guard, the Army Reserve, and the Regular Army into the Army of the United States in time of war. The act further expanded the National Guard's role, and guaranteed the State militias' status as the Army's primary reserve force. The law mandated use of the term "National Guard" for that force, and the President was given authority, in case of war or national emergency, to mobilize the National Guard for the duration of the emergency. The number of yearly drills increased from 24 to 48 and annual training from five to 15 days. Drill pay was authorized for the first time.
6. The National Defense Act Amendments of 1920
This act established that the chief of the Militia Bureau (later the National Guard Bureau) would be a National Guard officer, that National Guard officers would be assigned to the general staff and that the divisions, as used by the Guard in World War I, would be reorganized.
7. The National Guard Mobilization Act, 1933
Made the National Guard a component of the Army.
8. The National Defense Act of 1947
Section 207 (f) established the Air National Guard, under the National Guard Bureau.
9. The Total Force Policy, 1973
Requires all active and reserve military organizations be treated as a single integrated force; reinforced the original intent of the founding fathers (a small standing army complemented by citizen-soldiers.)[Neutrality disputed — See talk page]
10. The Montgomery Amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1987
provides that a governor cannot withhold consent with regard to active duty outside the United States because of any objection to the location, purpose, type, or schedule of such duty. This law was challenged and upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1990 in Perpich v. Department of Defense.[4])
11. John Warner Defense Authorization Act of 2007 H.R. 5122
Federal law was changed so that the Governor of a state is no longer the sole commander in chief of the National Guard during emergencies within the state. The President of the United States will now be able to take control of a state's National Guard units without the governor's consent.[5] In a letter to Congress all 50 governors opposed the increase in power of the president over the National Guard.[6]
[edit] Duties and Administrative Organization
Seal of the National Guard Bureau (NGB)
Seal of the National Guard Bureau (NGB)
National Guard units can be mobilized at any time by presidential order[citation needed] to supplement regular armed forces, and upon declaration of a state of emergency by the governor of the state or territory in which they serve (in the case of Washington DC, the Commanding General). Unlike Army Reserve members, National Guard members cannot be mobilized individually, except through voluntary transfers and Temporary Duty Assignments (TDY). However, there has been a significant amount of individual activations to support ongoing military operations related to the Global War on Terrorism (beginning in 2001); the legality of this policy is a major issue within the National Guard.
The National Guard Bureau is in Arlington, Va., and is a joint bureau of the United States Department of the Army and the United States Department of the Air Force to conduct all the administrative matters pertaining to the Army National Guard and the Air National Guard. The current chief of the National Guard Bureau is Lieutenant General H. Steven Blum. The chief is the senior uniformed National Guard officer, in charge of developing all policies and advising the Secretaries and Chiefs of Staff of the Army and the Air Force on all National Guard issues. He is appointed by the president in his capacity as Commander in Chief.
[edit] History
A National Guardsman in 1917.
A National Guardsman in 1917.
Throughout the 19th century the regular Army was small, and the militia provided the majority of the troops during the Mexican-American War, the start of the American Civil War, and the Spanish-American War. In 1903, part of the militia was federalized and renamed the National Guard and organized as a Reserve force for the Army. In World War I, the National Guard made up 40 percent of the U.S. combat divisions in France. In World War II the National Guard made up 19 divisions. One hundred forty thousand Guardsmen were mobilized during the Korean War and over 63,000 for Operation Desert Storm. They have also participated in U.S. peacekeeping operations in Somalia, Haiti, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bosnia, and Kosovo as well as for natural disasters, strikes, riots and security for the Olympic Games when they have been in the States.
The federally-controlled National Guard as we know it was officially created in 1916; however, the heritage of the National Guard traces back to English common law and the citizen militias of the British North American colonies. The claim that the National Guard is older than the nation itself, with over three and a half centuries of service, is based on the fact that the modern-day 101st Engineer Battalion and 182nd Infantry Regiment of the Massachusetts Army National Guard are both directly descended from Massachusetts Bay Colony regiments formed over 370 years ago. On December 13, 1636, the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony had ordered that the Colony's scattered militia companies be organized into North, South and East Regiments--with a goal of increasing the militias’ accountability to the colonial government, efficacy, and responsiveness in conflicts with indigenous Pequot Indians. Under this act, white males between the ages of 16 and 60 were obligated to possess arms and to play a part in the defense of their communities by serving in nightly guard details and participating in weekly drills. After the United States came into existence, state militias would develop out of this tradition.
The visit of the Marquis de Lafayette to the U.S., in 1824-25, was in every sense a triumphal procession. The 2nd Battalion, 11th New York Artillery, was one of many militia commands who turned out in welcome. This unit decided to adopt the title "National Guard," in honor of Lafayette's celebrated Garde Nationale de Paris. The Battalion, later the 7th Regiment, was prominent in the line of march on the occasion of Lafayette's final passage through New York en route home to France. Taking note of the troops named for his old command, Lafayette alighted from his carriage, walked down the line, clasping each officer by the hand as he passed. "National Guard" was destined to become the name of the U.S. militia.
[edit] Twentieth Century
Following World War II, the National Guard aviation units became the Air National Guard. There is no Naval National Guard due to the constitutional provision against states having ships of war in time of peace, though Alaska, California, New Jersey, New York, Texas and Ohio have incorporated Naval Militia units, and the United States Coast Guard has military prerogatives in time of war. At this time the National Guard consisted of 27 Divisions; 25 Infantry and two armored, plus scores of smaller units.
The New York National Guard were ordered to respond to the Rochester 1964 race riot by Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller in July of that year, the first such use of the Guard in a Northern city. The California Army National Guard were mobilized by the Governor of California during the Watts Riots, in August 1965, to provide security and help restore order.
Elements of the Ohio Army National Guard were ordered to Kent State University by Ohio's governor Jim Rhodes to quell anti-Vietnam War protests, culminating in their shooting into a crowd of students on May 4, 1970, killing four and injuring nine.
During the LA Riots in 1992, when portions of south central Los Angeles erupted in chaos, overwhelming the LAPD's ability to contain the violence, the California National Guard were mobilized to help restore order. The National Guard were attributed with five shootings of people suspected of violating the curfew order placed on the city.
[edit] Twenty-first Century
National Guard units played a major role in providing security and assisting recovery efforts in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, in September 2005.
In January and February 2007, National Guard troops from 8 states were activated to go help shovel snow, drop hay for starving cattle, deliver food and necessities to stranded people in their houses, and help control traffic and rescue stranded motorists in blizzards dropping feet of snow across the country.[7]
The Air National Guard has more than 106,000 personnel, and the Army National Guard (ARNG) around 325,000 personnel (as of February 2006).[citation needed]
In 2005, National Guard members and reservists were said to comprise a larger percentage of frontline fighting forces than in any war in U.S. history (about 43 percent in Iraq and 55 percent in Afghanistan).[3] There were then 183,366 National Guard members and reservists on active duty nationwide who leave behind about 300,000 dependents, according to U.S. Defense Department statistics.
The Army National Guard is reorganizing into 28 brigade combat teams and 78 support brigades as a part of the Army's transformation plan. When the reorganization is complete, brigades will have 3,000-to-4,000 soldiers whereas the former Army organization was principally structured around large, mostly mechanized, divisions of around 15,000 soldiers each.[8]
In the first quarter of 2007, Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates announced changes to the Guard deployment policy aimed at shorter and more predictable deployments for National Guard troops. "Gates said his goal is for Guard members to serve a one-year deployment no more than every five years. ... Gates is imposing a one-year limit to the length of deployment for National Guard Soldiers, effective immediately.” Prior to this time, Guard troops deployed for a standard one-year deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan would serve for 18 or more months including training and transit time. During the transition to the new policy for all troops in the pipeline, deployed or soon to be deployed, some will face deployments faster than every five years. "The one-to-five year cycle does not include activations for state emergencies."[9]
[edit] The Global War On Terrorism
Prior to the attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001, the National Guard's general policy regarding mobilization was that Guardsmen would be required to serve no more than one year cumulative on active duty (with no more than six months overseas) for each five years of regular drill. Due to strains placed on active duty units following the attacks, the possible mobilization time was increased to 18 months (with no more than one year overseas). Additional strains placed on military units as a result of the invasion of Iraq further increased the amount of time a Guardsman could be mobilized to 24 months. Current Department of Defense policy is that no Guardsman will be involuntarily activated for more than 24 months (cumulative) in one six year enlistment period (this policy is due to change 1 August 2007, the new policy states that soldiers will be given 24 months between deployments of no more than 24 months (individual states have differing policies).[citation needed]
Traditionally, most National Guard personnel serve "One weekend a month, two weeks a year", although a significant number serve in a full-time capacity, in a role called Active Guard and Reserve, or AGR. This slogan has lost most of its relevance since the Iraq War, when up to 20% of total US forces in Iraq and Afghanistan consisted of mobilized personnel of the reserve components.
[edit] Presidents who have served in the National Guard
Historically, National Guard service has been a common trait among presidents of the United States. 20 of America's 43 presidents have served in the National Guard. Among these, 19 have served in the Army Guard and one (George W. Bush) has served in the Air Guard.
George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Andrew Jackson, William Harrison, John Tyler, James Polk, Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, Chester Arthur, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, Harry Truman, and George W. Bush.[10]
[edit] List of chiefs of the National Guard Bureau
Name From To
Colonel Erasmus M. Weaver, Jr. February 14, 1908 March 14, 1911
Brigadier General Robert K. Evans March 15, 1911 August 31, 1912
Major General Albert L. Mills September 1, 1912 September 18, 1916
Major General William A. Mann October 26, 1916 November 26, 1917
Major General Jessie Mcl. Carter November 26, 1917 August 15, 1918
Major General George C. Rickards June 29, 1921 June 28, 1925
Major General Creed C. Hammond June 29, 1925 June 28, 1929
Colonel Ernest R. Redmond (Actg) June 29, 1929 September 30, 1929
Major General William G. Everson October 1, 1929 November 30, 1931
Major General George E. Leach December 1, 1931 November 30, 1935
Colonel Harold J. Weiler (Actg) December 1, 1935 January 16, 1936
Colonel John F. Williams (Actg) January 17, 1936 January 30, 1936
Major General Albert H. Blanding January 31, 1936 January 30, 1940
Major General John F. Williams January 31, 1940 January 30, 1944
Major General John F. Williams (Actg) January 31, 1944 January 31, 1946
Major General Butler B. Miltonberger February 1, 1946 September 29, 1947
Major General Kenneth F. Cramer September 30, 1947 September 4, 1950
Major General Raymond H. Fleming (Actg) September 5, 1950 August 13, 1951
Major General Raymond H. Fleming August 14, 1951 February 15, 1953
Major General Earl T. Ricks (Actg) February 16, 1953 June 21, 1953
Major General Edgar C. Erickson June 22, 1953 May 31, 1959
Major General Winston P. Wilson (Actg) June 1, 1959 July 19, 1959
Major General Donald W. McGowan July 20, 1959 August 30, 1963
Major General Winston P. Wilson August 31, 1963 August 31, 1971
Major General Francis S. Greenlief September 1, 1971 June 23, 1974
Lieutenant General La Vern E. Weber August 16, 1974 August 15, 1982
Lieutenant General Emmett H. Walker, Jr. August 16, 1982 August 15, 1986
Lieutenant General Herbert R. Temple, Jr. August 16, 1986 January 31, 1990
Lieutenant General John B. Conaway February 1, 1990 December 1, 1993
Major General Raymond F. Rees (Actg) January 1, 1994 July 31, 1994
Lieutenant General Edward D. Baca October 1, 1994 July 31, 1998
Lieutenant General Russell C. Davis August 4, 1998 August 3, 2002
Major General Raymond F. Rees (Actg) August 4, 2002 April 10, 2003
Lieutenant General H. Steven Blum April 11, 2003 present
Googleplex Google headquarters in Mountain View, California aerial - Copyright 2018 David Oppenheimer - Performance Impressions aerial photography archives - www.performanceimpressions.com
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The Comstock Lode was the first major U.S. deposit of silver ore, discovered under what is now Virginia City, Nevada on the eastern slope of Mt. Davidson, a peak in the Virginia range. After the discovery was made public in 1859, prospectors rushed to the area and scrambled to stake their claims. Mining camps soon thrived in the vicinity, which became bustling centers of fabulous wealth.
The excavations were carried to depths of more than 3200 feet (1000 m). Between 1859 and 1878, it yielded about $400 million in silver and gold.
It is notable not just for the immense fortunes it generated and the large role those fortunes had in the growth of Nevada and San Francisco, but also for the advances in mining technology that it spurred. The mines declined after 1874.
The discovery of silver
The discovery of silver in Nevada (then western Utah Territory) in 1858 caused considerable excitement in California and throughout the United States. The excitement was the greatest since the discovery of gold in California ten years earlier at Sutter's Mill. According to Dan De Quille, a journalist of the period, "the discovery of silver undoubtedly deserves to rank in merit above the discovery of the gold mines of California, as it gives value to a much greater area of territory and furnishes employment to a much larger number of people".[1]
Gold was discovered in this region in the spring of 1850. It was discovered in Gold Canyon, by a company of Mormon emigrants on their way to the California Gold Rush. After arriving too early to cross the Sierra, they camped on the Carson river in the vicinity of Dayton, Nevada, to wait for the mountain snow to melt. They soon found gold along the gravel river banks by panning, but left when the mountains were passable, as they anticipated taking out more gold on reaching California. Other emigrants followed, camped on the canyon and went to work at mining. However, when the supply of water in the canyon gave out toward the end of summer, they continued across the mountains to California. The camp had no permanent population until the winter and spring of 1852–53, when there were 200 men at work along the gravel banks of the canyon with rockers, Long Toms and sluices.
The gold from Gold Canyon came from quartz veins, toward the head of the vein, in the vicinity of where Silver City and Gold Hill now stand. As the miners worked their way up the stream, they founded the town of Johntown on a plateau. In 1857, the Johntown miners found gold in Six-Mile Canyon, which is about five miles (8 km) north of Gold Canyon. Both of these canyons are on what is now known as the Comstock Lode. The early miners never thought of going up to the head of the ravines to prospect the quartz veins, spending their time on the "free" gold in the lower elevation surface deposits of earth and gravel.
Credit for the discovery of the Comstock Lode is disputed. It is said to have been discovered, in 1857, by Ethan Allen Grosh and Hosea Ballou Grosh, sons of a Pennsylvania clergyman, trained mineralogists and veterans of the California gold fields[2]. Hosea injured his foot and died of septicaemia[3] in 1857. In an effort to raise funds, Allen, accompanied by an associate Richard Maurice Bucke[3], set out on a trek to California with samples and maps of his claim. Henry Tompkins Paige Comstock was left in their stead to care for the Grosch cabin and a locked chest containing silver and gold ore samples and documents of the discovery. Grosch and Bucke never made it to California, getting lost and suffering the fate of severe hardship while crossing the Sierran trails. The two suffered from gangrene and at the hands of a minor-surgeon lost limbs through amputation, a last ditch effort to save the lives of the pair. Allen Grosch died on December 19, 1857[4]. R.M. Bucke lived, but upon his recovery returned to his home in Canada.
When Henry T. P. Comstock learned of the death of the Grosch brothers, he claimed the cabin and the lands as his own. He also examined the contents of the trunk but thought nothing of the documents as he was not an educated man. What he did know is that the gold and the silver ore samples were from the same vein. He continued to seek out diggings of local miners working in the area as he knew the Grosch brothers' find was still unclaimed. Upon learning of a strike on Gold Hill which uncovered some bluish rock (silver ore), Comstock immediately filed for an unclaimed area directly adjacent to this area.
The four miners that discovered the Gold Hill outcropping were James Fennimore ("Old Virginny"), John Bishop ("Big French John"), Aleck Henderson and Jack Yount. Their discovery was actually part of the Comstock Lode, but not a main vein. The four men are therefore credited with the rediscovery of the mine previously found by the Grosch brothers.[4]
In the Spring of 1859, two miners, Peter O'Riley and Patrick McLaughlin, finding all the paying ground already claimed went to the head of the canyon and began prospecting with a rocker on the slope of the mountain near a small stream fed from a neighboring spring. They had poor results in the top dirt as there was no washed gravel, and they were about to abandon their claim when they made the great discovery. They sunk a small, deeper pit in which to collect water to use in their rockers. In the bottom of this hole there was material of a different appearance. When rocked out, they knew they had made their "strike" as the bottom apron was covered with a layer of gold.
In that hole, silver mining in America as we know it was born. In the rocker along with the gold was a large quantity of heavy blue-black material which clogged the rocker and interfered with the washing out of the fine gold. When assayed however, it was determined to be almost pure sulphuret of silver.
In June of the year O'Riley and McLaughlin made their find, Henry T. P. Comstock learned of the two men working on land that Comstock allegely had already claimed for "grazing purposes". Unhappy with his current claim on Gold Hill, Comstock made threats and managed to work himself and his partner, Emanual "Manny" Penrod, into a deal that granted them interest on the claim.[4]
The geographic accounts on the location of the Comstock Lode were muddled and inconsistent. In one report, the gold strike was "on the Eastern fork of Walker's river" and the silver strike "about halfway up the Eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada" and "nine miles West of Carson River."[5]
[edit] Fates of the discoverers
Those who discovered the famous mine were ignorant and not well educated in mineral sciences. The "blue stuff" kept clogging the rockers, and eventually the men grew frustrated and discouraged from their gold mining.
Patrick McLaughlin sold his interest in the Ophir claim for $3,500 which he soon lost. He then worked as a cook at the Green mine in California. He died working at odd jobs.
Emanuel Penrod sold his share of the interest for $8,500 [4].
Peter O'Riley held on to his interests collecting dividends, until selling for about $40,000[4]. He erected a stone hotel on B Street in Virginia City called the Virginia House, and became a dealer of mining stocks. He began a tunnel into the Sierras near Genoa, Nevada, expecting to strike a richer vein than the Comstock. He lost everything, went insane and died in a private asylum in Woodbridge, California.
Comstock traded an old blind horse and a bottle of whiskey for a one-tenth share formerly owned by James Fennimore ("Old Virginny"), but later sold all of his holdings to Judge James Walsh for $11,000 [4]. He opened trade good stores in Carson City and Silver City. Having no education and no business experience, he went broke. After losing all his property and possessions in Nevada, Comstock prospected for some years in Idaho and Montana without success. In September 1870, while prospecting in Big Horn country, near Bozeman, Montana, he committed suicide with his revolver.
Early mining and milling
The ore was first extracted through surface diggings, but these were quickly exhausted and miners had to tunnel underground to reach ore bodies. Unlike most silver ore deposits, which occur in long thin veins, those of the Comstock Lode occurred in discrete masses often hundreds of feet thick. The ore was so soft it could be removed by shovel. Although this allowed the ore to be easily excavated, the weakness of the surrounding material resulted in frequent and deadly cave-ins.
The cave-in problem was solved by the method of square-set timbering invented by Philip Deidesheimer, a German who had been appointed superintendent of the Ophir mine. Previously timber sets consisting of vertical members on either side of the diggings capped by a third horizontal member used to support the excavation. However, the Comstock ore bodies were too large for this method. Instead, as ore was removed it was replaced by timbers set as a cube six feet on a side. Thus, the ore body would be progressively replaced with a timber lattice. Often these voids would be re-filled with waste rock from other diggings after ore removal was complete. By this method of building up squares of framed timbers, an ore vein of any width may be safely worked to any height or depth.
Early in the history of Comstock mining, there were heavy flows of water to contend with. This called for pumping machinery and apparatus, and as greater depth was attained, larger pumps were demanded. All the inventive genius of the Pacific Coast was called into play, and this resulted in construction of some of the most powerful and effective steam and hydraulic pumping equipment to be found anywhere in the world. Initially, the water was cold, but the deeper workings cut into parts of the vein where there were heavy flows of hot water. This water was hot enough to cook an egg or scald a man to death almost instantly. Lives were lost by falling into sumps of this water hot from the vein. The hot water called for fans, blowers and various kinds of ventilation apparatus, as miners working in heated drifts had to have a supply of cool air.
Compressed air for running power drills and for driving fans and small hoisting engines was adopted in the Comstock mines. Diamond drills for drilling long distances through solid rock were also in general use, but were discarded for prospecting purposes, being found unreliable. Several new forms of explosives for blasting were also developed.
Great improvements were also made in the hoisting cages used to extract ore and transport the miners to their work. As the depth of the diggings increased, the hemp ropes used to haul ore to the surface became impractical, as their self-weight became a significant fraction of their breaking load. The solution to this problem came from A. S. Hallidie in 1864 when he developed a flat woven wire rope. This wire rope went on to be used in San Francisco's famous cable cars.
In 1859 the Americans knew nothing about silver mining. In the California placer mines there were a number of Mexicans who had worked silver mines in their own country. Initially, the Comstock miners endeavored to partner with Mexicans, or at least hire a Mexican foreman to take charge of the mine. The Mexicans adopted their methods of arastras, patios and adobe smelting furnaces to process silver ore. These methods proved to be too slow for the Americans and could not process the quantities of ore being extracted. The Americans introduced stamp mills for crushing the ore, and pans to hasten the process of amalgamation. Some of the German miners, who had been educated at the mining academy of Freiberg, were regarded as the best then existing to work with argentiferous ores. They introduced the barrel process of amalgamation and the roasting of ores. While the barrel process was an improvement on the patio, it was found not to be well adapted to the rapid working of the Comstock ores as pan amalgamation. The Comstock eventually developed the Washoe process of using steam-heated iron pans, which reduced the days required by the patio process to hours.
In the early days of pan processing of ores, there were tremendous losses in precious metals and quicksilver (mercury). Almost every millman was experimenting with some secret process for the amalgamation of ore. They tried all manner of trash, both mineral and vegetable, including concoctions of cedar bark and sagebrush tea. At that time, untold millions in gold, silver and quicksilver were swept away into the rivers with the tailings. Although many patterns and forms of amalgamating pans were invented and patented, there was much room for improvement. Improvements were made from time to time, resulting in reductions in losses of metals, but none of the apparatus in use on the Comstock was perfect.
[edit] The days of "bull teams" and the Virginia & Truckee Railroad
Before railroads were built, all freight and passengers were transported by teams of from 10 to 16 horses or mules. Ore was hauled to the mills by these teams, which also brought to the mines all the wood, lumber and timber required. Teams also hauled over the Sierras all the mining machinery, all supplies required by both mines and mills, and goods and merchandise needed by the stores and businesses. Each team hauled trains of from two to four loaded wagons. When the large reduction works of the Ophir Mining Company were in peak operation, lines of teams from one to three miles (5 km) in length moved along the wagon roads, and sometimes blocked Virginia City streets for hours.
In 1859, 1860 and 1861, great quantities of goods were transported across the Sierras to and from California on the backs of mules. When the Central Pacific Railroad line was completed, this hauling was from Virginia City to Reno via the Geiger grade wagon road, for transfer to rail for delivery to points east and west.
Ground was broken on the Virginia and Truckee Railroad on February 19, 1869 and eight months thereafter, the most difficult section from Virginia City to Carson City was completed. Rails were extended North across the Washoe valley, from Carson City to Reno, where it connects with the Central Pacific. Between Virginia City and Carson City, at Mound House, the railroad also connects with the Carson and Colorado Railroad.
[edit] The Virginia City and Gold Hill Water Company
When silver was first discovered on the Comstock, the flow of water from natural springs was adequate to supply the needs of the miners and small towns of Virginia City and Gold Hill, Nevada. As population increased wells were dug for domestic needs, and the water within several mine tunnels was added to the available supply. As the mills and hoisting works multiplied, the demand for water for use in steam boilers became so great that it was impossible to supply it without creating a water shortage among the residents, now thousands in number. In this need, the Virginia City and Gold Hill Water Company was formed, being the first non-mining incorporation on the Comstock Lode.
Water from wells and tunnels in the surrounding mountains was soon exhausted. It became imperative to look toward the main range of the Sierra Nevada mountains, where there was an inexhaustible supply. Between the Sierra and the Virginia ranges lay the Washoe Valley, a great trough nearly 2,000 feet (610 m) in depth. Herman Schussler, a Swiss trained engineer of great repute who had planned water works in San Francisco, was brought to the Comstock to plan and design the new works. Surveys were made in 1872, the first sections of pipe laid June 11, 1873 and the last on July 25 the same year.[citation needed]
The initial pipe was made of wrought iron, a total length of over 7 miles (11 km), with an interior diameter of 12 inches (300 mm) and a capacity of 92,000 gallons per hour. The pipe traversed the Washoe Valley in the form of an inverted siphon, and at the lowest point having a pressure of 1,720 feet (520 m) of water, or 800 pounds per square inch. The inlet being 465 feet (142 m) above the outlet, the water is forced through the pipe at tremendous pressure. Water was brought to the inlet in the Sierra Nevada range from sources of supply in two large covered flumes, and at the outlet end of the pipe was delivered in two large flumes a distance of 12 miles (19 km) to Virginia City. The pipe was constructed of sheets of wrought iron riveted together, each section fastened with three rows of rivets. Lead was used to secure the joints between each pipe section. The first flow of water reached Gold Hill and Virginia City on August 1, 1873 with great fanfare. This accomplishment was the greatest pressurized water system in operation in the world, having superseded the water system at Cherokee Flat also designed by Schussler.[citation needed]
The water company laid an additional pipe alongside the first in 1875, and a third pipe in 1877. These pipes of lap welded joints delivered more water, there being less friction of rivet heads upon the water. Additional flumes were also constructed to diversify and improve reliability of supply.
The Sutro Tunnel
While there was a scarcity of water on the surface, there was an excess of water underground in all the mines. Floods in the mines were sudden and miners narrowly escaped being drowned by vast underground reservoirs that were unexpectedly tapped. Intrusion of scalding-hot water into the mines was a large problem, and the expense of water removal increased as depths increased. To overcome these troubles, Adolph Sutro conceived the idea of running a drain tunnel under the Comstock Lode from the lowest possible point. A survey was made by Schussler and work commenced in October 1869. The Sutro Tunnel was completed from the valley near Dayton through nearly four miles of solid rock to meet the Comstock mines approximately 1,650 feet (500 m) beneath the surface. From the main tunnel, branches were run north and south along the vein a distance of over two miles (3 km), connecting to various mines. The tunnel was 16 ft (4.9 m) wide and 12 ft (3.7 m) high. Drain flumes were sunk in the floor and over these were two tracks for horse carts. It required over eight years to complete construction. The tunnel provided drainage and ventilation for the mines as well as gravity-assisted ore removal. However, by the time the tunnel reached the Comstock area mines, most of the ore above 1,650 feet (500 m) had already been removed and the lower workings were 1,500 feet (460 m) deeper still. Although virtually no ore was removed through the tunnel, the drainage it provided greatly decreased the operating costs of the mines served. The ventilation problems were solved at about the same time by the use of pneumatic drills.
Big Bonanzas
Peak production from the Comstock occurred in 1877, with the mines producing over $14,000,000 of gold and $21,000,000 of silver that year. Production decreased rapidly thereafter, and, by 1880, the Comstock was considered to be played out. The deepest depth was struck, in 1884, in the Mexican winze at 3,300 feet (1,000 m) below the surface. Underground mining continued sporadically until 1922, when the last of the pumps was shut off causing the mines to flood. Re-processing of mill tailings continued through the 1920s, and exploration in the area continued through the 1950s.
Comstock's silver mines were criticised for the way that their share prices were manipulated on the San Francisco stock exchanges, and for the way that insiders skimmed the profits to the detriment of the common shareholders. Insiders used rumors or assessments to drive share prices down, buy up the cheap shares, then spread rumors of large new silver finds to increase prices once more so that they could sell their shares at a profit. Mining company managers also issued contracts to themselves for timber, and water. Ore from the mines was commonly processed by ore mills owned by the company insiders, who were accused of keeping part of the silver they extracted for themselves, and refusing to make an accounting.
Nevada is commonly called the "Silver State" because of the silver produced from the Comstock Lode. However, since 1878, Nevada has been a relatively minor silver producer, with most subsequent bonanzas consisting of more gold than silver.
[edit] Comstock kings
George Hearst, a highly successful California prospector, became head of Hearst, Haggin, Tevis and Co., the largest private mining firm in the United States, owned and operated the Ophir mine, on the Comstock Lode, as well as other gold and silver mining interests in California, Nevada, Utah, South Dakota and Peru. Hearst was a member of the California State Assembly and became a United States Senator from California. George Hearst was the father of the famed newspaperman, William Randolph Hearst.
William Chapman Ralston, founder of the Bank of California, financed a number of mining operations, repossessed some of those mines as their owners defaulted, and ultimately made enormous profits from the Comstock Lode.
William Sharon, a business partner of William Chapman Ralston, was the Nevada agent for the Bank of California, and acquired Ralston's assets when his financial empire collapsed. William Sharon became the second United States Senator from Nevada.
William M. Stewart, who abandoned mining to become an attorney in Virginia City, Nevada, participated in mining litigation and the development of mining on the Comstock Lode. As Nevada became a state in 1864, Stewart assisted in developing the state constitution and became the first United States Senator from Nevada.
Silver baron Alvinza Hayward, known in his lifetime as "California's first millionaire", held a significant interest in the Comstock lode after 1864.
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1917 Lincoln City, Oregon Tsunami
A tsunami (pronounced /tsuːˈnɑːmi/) is a series of waves created when a body of water, such as an ocean, is rapidly displaced. Earthquakes, mass movements above or below water, some volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions, landslides, underwater earthquakes, large asteroid impacts and testing with nuclear weapons at sea all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The effects of a tsunami can be devastating due to the immense volumes of water and energy involved. Since meteorites are small, they will not generate a tsunami.
The Greek historian Thucydides was the first to relate tsunamis to submarine quakes,[1] [2] but understanding of the nature of tsunamis remained slim until the 20th century and is the subject of ongoing research.
Many early geological, geographic, oceanographic etc; texts refer to "Seismic sea waves" - these are now referred to as "tsunami."
Some meteorological storm conditions - deep depressions causing cyclones, hurricanes; can generate a storm surge which can be several metres above normal tide levels. This is due to the low atmospheric pressure within the centre of the depression. As these storm surges come ashore the surge can resemble a tsunami, inundating vast areas of land. These are not tsunami. Such a storm surge inundated Burma or, Myanmar in May 2008.
Terminology
The term tsunami comes from the Japanese meaning harbor ("tsu", 津) and wave ("nami", 波). [a. Jap. tsunami, tunami, f. tsu harbour + nami waves. - Oxford English Dictionary]. For the plural, one can either follow ordinary English practice and add an s, or use an invariable plural as in Japanese. Tsunamis are common throughout Japanese history; approximately 195 events in Japan have been recorded.
A tsunami has a much smaller amplitude (wave height) offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometers long), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about 300 mm above the normal sea surface. A tsunami can occur at any state of the tide and even at low tide will still inundate coastal areas if the incoming waves surge high enough.
Tsunamis are often referred to popularly as tidal waves. This term is inaccurate because tsunamis are not related to tides and its use is discouraged by geologists and oceanographers; however, it is worth noting that the term tsunami is no more accurate because tsumanis are not limited to harbours.
Causes
A tsunami can be generated when converging or destructive plate boundaries abruptly move and vertically displace the overlying water. It is very unlikely that they can form at divergent (constructive) or conservative plate boundaries. This is because constructive or conservative boundaries do not generally disturb the vertical displacement of the water column. Subduction zone related earthquakes generate the majority of all tsunamis.
On 1st April, 1946 a Magnitude 7.8 (Richter Scale) earthquake occurred near the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. It generated a tsunami which inundated Hilo on the island of Hawai'i with a 14 m high surge. The area where the earthquake occurred is where the Pacific Ocean floor is subducting (or being pushed downwards) under Alaska.
Examples of tsunami being generated at locations away from convergent boundaries include - Storegga during the Neolithic era, Grand Banks 1929, Papua New Guinea 1998 (Tappin, 2001). In the case of the Grand Banks and Papua New Guinea tsunamis an earthquake caused sediments to become unstable and subsequently fail. These slumped and as they flowed down slope a tsunami was generated. These tsunami did not travel transoceanic distances.
It is not known what caused the Storegga sediments to fail. It may have been due to overloading of the sediments causing them to become unstable and they then failed solely as a result of being overloaded. It is also possible that an earthquake caused the sediments to become unstable and then fail. Another theory is that a release of gas hydrates (methane etc.,) caused the slump.
The "Great Chilean earthquake" (19:11 hrs UTC) 22nd May 1960 (9.5 Mw), the 27th March 1964 "Good Friday earthquake" Alaska 1964 (9.2 Mw), and the "Great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake" (00:58:53 UTC) 26th December 2004 (9.2 Mw), are recent examples of powerful megathrust earthquakes that generated a tsunami that was able to cross oceans. Smaller (4.2 Mw) earthquakes in Japan can trigger tsunami that can devastate nearby coasts within 15 minutes or less.
In the 1950s it was hypothesised that larger tsunamis than had previously been believed possible may be caused by landslides, explosive volcanic action e.g., Santorini, Krakatau, and impact events when they contact water. These phenomena rapidly displace large volumes of water, as energy from falling debris or expansion is transferred to the water into which the debris falls at a rate faster than the ocean water can absorb it. They have been named by the media as "mega-tsunami."
Tsunami caused by these mechanisms, unlike the trans-oceanic tsunami caused by some earthquakes, may dissipate quickly and rarely affect coastlines distant from the source due to the small area of sea affected. These events can give rise to much larger local shock waves (solitons), such as the landslide at the head of Lituya Bay 1958, which produced a wave with an initial surge estimated at 524m. However, an extremely large gravitational landslide might generate a so called "mega-tsunami" that may have the ability to travel trans-oceanic distances. This though is strongly debated and there is no actual geological evidence to support this hypothesis.
Signs of an approaching tsunami
There is often no advance warning of an approaching tsunami. However, since earthquakes are often a cause of tsunami, any earthquake occurring near a body of water may generate a tsunami if it occurs at shallow depth, is of moderate or high magnitude, and the water volume and depth is sufficient. In Japan moderate - 4.2 Magnitude earthquakes can generate tsunami which can inundate the area within 15 minutes.
If the first part of a tsunami to reach land is a trough (draw back) rather than a crest of the wave, the water along the shoreline may recede dramatically, exposing areas that are normally always submerged. This can serve as an advance warning of the approaching tsunami which will rush in faster than it is possible to run. If a person is in a coastal area where the sea suddenly draws back (many survivors report an accompanying sucking sound), their only real chance of survival is to run for high ground or seek the high floors of high rise buildings.
In the 2004 tsunami that occurred in the Indian Ocean drawback was not reported on the African coast or any other western coasts it inundated, when the tsunami approached from the east. This was because of the nature of the wave - it moved downwards on the eastern side of the fault line and upwards on the western side. It was the western pulse that inundated coastal areas of Africa and other western areas.
80% of all tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but are possible wherever large bodies of water are found, including inland lakes. They may be caused by landslides, volcanic explosions, bolides and seismic activity.
Indian Ocean Tsunami According to an article in "Geographical" magazine (April 2008), the Indian Ocean tsunami of 26th December 2004 was not the worst that the region could expect. Professor Costas Synolakis of the Tsunami Research Center at the University of Southern California co-authored a paper in "Geophysical Journal International" which suggests that a future tsunami in the Indian Ocean basin could affect locations such as Madagascar, Singapore, Somalia, Western Australia and many others. The Boxing Day tsunami killed over 300,000 people with many bodies either being lost to the sea or unidentified. Some unofficial estimates have claimed that approximately 1 million people may have died directly or indirectly solely as a result of the tsunami.
Warnings and prevention
A tsunami cannot be prevented or precisely predicted - even if the right magnitude of an earthquake occurs in the right location. Geologists, Oceanographers and Seismologist analyse each earthquake and based upon many factors may or may not issue a tsunami warning. However, there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and there are many systems being developed and in use to reduce the damage from tsunami. One of the most important systems that is used and constantly monitored are bottom pressure sensors. These are anchored and attached to buoys. Sensors on the equipment constantly monitor the pressure of the overlying water column - this can be deduced by the simple calculation of:
F = Gdh
where F = the overlying force or pressure in Newtons per metre square, G is the acceleration due to gravity, d = the density of the water and h = the height of the water column.
G = 9.8 m s2, d = 1.1 x 103 kg m3 and h is the depth of water in metres
Hence for a water column of 5,000 m depth the overlying pressure is equal to 9.8 x 1.1 x 103 x 5 x 103 or about 5.4 x 10 7 N m2 or about 5.7 Million tonnes per metre square.
In instances where the leading edge of the tsunami wave is the trough, the sea will recede from the coast half of the wave's period before the wave's arrival. If the slope of the coastal seabed is shallow, this recession can exceed many hundreds of meters. People unaware of the danger may remain at or near the shore out of curiosity, or for collecting fish from the exposed seabed. During the Indian Ocean tsunami of 26th December 2004, the sea withdrew and many people then went onto the exposed sea bed to investigate. Pictures taken show people on the normally submerged areas with the advancing wave in the background. Most people who were on the beach were unable to escape to high ground and died.
Regions with a high risk of tsunami may use tsunami warning systems to detect tsunami and warn the general population before the wave reaches land. On the west coast of the United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signs advise people of evacuation routes.
The Pacific Tsunami Warning System is based in Honolulu. It monitors all sesimic activity that occurs anywhere within the Pacific. Based up the magnitude and other information a tsunami warning may be issued. It is important to note that the subduction zones around the Pacific are seismically active, but not all earthquakes generate tsunami and for this reason computers are used as a tool to assist in analysing the risk of tsunami generation of each and every earthquake that occurs in the Pacific Ocean and the adjoining land masses.
As a direct result of the Indian Ocean tsunami, a re-appraisal of the tsunami threat of all coastal areas is being undertaken by national governments and the United Nations Disaster Mitigation Committee. A tsunami warning system is currently being installed in the Indian Ocean.
Computer models can predict tsunami arrival - observations have shown that predicted arrival times are usually within minutes of the predicted time. Bottom pressure sensors are able to relay information in real time and based upon the readings and other information about the seismic event that triggered it and the shape of the seafloor (bathymetry) and coastal land (topography), it is possible to estimate the amplitude and therefore the surge height, of the approaching tsunami. All the countries that border the Pacific Ocean collaborate in the Tsunami Warning System and most regularly practice evacuation and other procedures to prepare people for the inevitable tsunami. In Japan such preparation is a mandatory requirement of government, local authorities, emergency services and the population.
Some zoologists hypothesise that animals may have an ability to sense subsonic Rayleigh waves from an earthquake or a tsunami. Some animals seem to have the ability to detect natural phenomena and if correct, careful observation and monitoring could possibly provide advance warning of earthquakes, tsunami etc. However, the evidence is controversial and has not been proven scientifically. There are some unsubstantiated claims that animals before the Lisbon quake were restless and moved away from low lying areas to higher ground. Yet many other animals in the same areas drowned. The phenomenon was also noted in Sri Lanka in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The following two references whilst relevant, are media and not scientific - (BBC, [1]) (Kenneally, [2]). It is possible that certain animals (e.g., elephants) may have heard the sounds of the tsunami as it approached the coast. The elephants reaction was to move away from the approaching noise - inland. Some humans, on the other hand, went to the shore to investigate and many drowned as a result.
It is not possible to prevent a tsunami. However, in some tsunami-prone countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. Japan has implemented an extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5 m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated coastal areas. Other localities have built floodgates and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunami. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunami often surge higher than the barriers. For instance, the Okushiri, Hokkaidō tsunami which struck Okushiri Island of Hokkaidō within two to five minutes of the earthquake on July 12, 1993 created waves as much as 30 m (100 ft) tall - as high as a 10-story building. The port town of Aonae was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life. (This reference is Japanese - [3])
The effects of a tsunami may be mitigated by natural factors such as tree cover on the shoreline. Some locations in the path of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami escaped almost unscathed as a result of the tsunami's energy being absorbed by trees such as coconut palms and mangroves. In one striking example, the village of Naluvedapathy in India's Tamil Nadu region suffered minimal damage and few deaths as the wave broke up on a forest of 80,244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002 in a bid to enter the Guinness Book of Records. [4] Environmentalists have suggested tree planting along stretches of seacoast which are prone to tsunami risks. It would take some years for the trees to grow to a useful size, but such plantations could offer a much cheaper and longer-lasting means of tsunami mitigation than the construction of artificial barriers.
Tsunami in History
Main article: Historic tsunami
Historically speaking, tsunami are not rare, with at least 25 tsunami occurring in the last century. Of these, many were recorded in the Asia-Pacific region - particularly Japan. The Boxing Day Tsunami in 2004 caused approx. 350,000 deaths and many more injuries.
As early as 426 B.C. the Greek historian Thucydides inquired in his book History of the Peloponnesian War about the causes of tsunami, and argued rightly that it could only be explained as a consequence of ocean earthquakes.[1] He was thus the first in the history of natural science to correlate quakes and waves in terms of cause and effect:[2]
The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the earthquake. At the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen.[3]
The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (Res Gestae 26.10.15-19) describes the typical sequence of a tsunami including an incipient earthquake, the sudden retreat of the sea and a following gigantic wave on the occasion of the 365 A.D. tsunami devastating Alexandria.[4] [5]
Tsunami and the Bible
Some recent work by scholars (Egyptologists, Israeli and others), geologists and oceanographers (including Dr Iain Stewart of University of Plymouth, UK), indicates that the Santorini eruption (about 1615 BC) may have caused the devastation of the Egyptian armies that is mentioned in the Exodus. The Exodus is dated as occurring between 1290 and 1340 BC. It is unlikely that the details were recorded in the immediate aftermath and there was probably a delay in the writing of the account. While there is a discrepancy of about 300 years, given the circumstances surrounding the dating of the Santorini eruption, it is possible that the two events did coincide. Further support for this is that the southeastern corner of the Mediterranean was marshland prior to the construction of the Suez Canal and was a known source of reeds. Is the "Red Sea" a wrong interpretation of the "Reed Sea," and did the Santorini or Minoan eruption coincide with the Exodus? There is ongoing research into this including drilling boreholes to look for tsunamite - the deposit left by tsunamis and other evidence to support or disprove this theory.
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Beaverton is a city in Washington County, Oregon, United States, seven miles west of Portland in the Tualatin River Valley. As of 2007, its population is estimated to be 85,560,[3] 9.1% more than the 2000 census figure of 76,129. This makes it the second-largest city in the county and Oregon's sixth-largest city. Beaverton's controversial annexation plans during the next decade are likely to result in major growth in both population and area.
History
According to Oregon Geographic Names, Beaverton got its name because of the settlement's proximity to a large body of water resulting from beaver dams.
The area of Tualatin Valley which became Beaverton was originally the home of a Native American tribe known as the Atfalati which settlers mispronounced as Tualatin. The Atfalati population dwindled in the latter part of the 18th century, and the prosperous tribe was no longer dominant in the area by the 19th century when settlers arrived.
19th century
The natives had a village called Chakeipi, meaning Place of the Beaver, and early settlers referred to it as "Beaverdam". Early settlers include the Hall Family from Kentucky, the Denneys who lived on their claim near present-day Scholls Ferry Road and Hall Blvd, and Orin S. Allen, from western New York, who resided at SW Allen and Hall Blvd.[4]
* 1847: Lawrence Hall (for whom Hall Boulevard is named) purchased 640 acres (2.6 km²) in Beaverdam and built a grist mill with his brother near present-day Walker Road. His was the first land claim in the area.
* 1849: Thomas Denney came to the area and built its first sawmill; Denny Road is named after him.
* 1860: A toll plank road from Portland to Beaverton was completed over a trail called Canyon Road.
* 1868: Joshua Welch, George Betts, Charles Angel, W.P. Watson, John Henry and other settlers of the area laid out what is now known as Beaverton hoping they could bring a railroad to an area once described as "mostly swamps & marshes connected by beaver dams to create what looked like a huge lake."
* 1872: Beaverton's first post office opened under George Betts, the first postmaster, in his general store. Betts Street, where the current post office now stands, is named in honor of him.
* 1893: The city of Beaverton, with a population of 400, was officially incorporated. Alonzo Cady, a local businessman, served as the first mayor.
20th century
Beaverton was an early home to automobile dealerships. A Ford Motor Company dealership was established there in 1915; it was purchased by Guy Carr in 1923 and over the years Carr expanded it into several locations throughout Beaverton.
In the early 1920s, Beaverton was home to Premium Picture Productions, a movie studio which produced about fifteen films. This site was later converted into an airfield known as Watts Airport and thereafter as Bernard's Airport.
The town's first library opened in 1925. Originally on the second floor of the Cady building, it has moved repeatedly; in 2000 it was moved to its current location on Hall Boulevard and 5th.
In the 1980s a light rail system was proposed[5] to connect Beaverton to downtown Portland, as part of Metro's plans for the region's transportation. In 1992, voters approved funding for Westside MAX; the project began construction in 1994 and was completed in 1998, with stations located at Millikan Way MAX station Merlo Road and Southwest 158th Avenue, Beaverton Creek, Beaverton Central, and the Beaverton Transit Center.
21st century
In December 2004, the city and Washington County announced an "interim plan" which will lead to Beaverton becoming the second-largest city in Oregon, second only to Portland.[6] The "interim" plan actually covers a period of more than ten years; from the county's perspective[6], the plan supports its strategy of having cities and special districts provide urban services. From the city's perspective[citation needed], it supports its strategy of continued annexation, beginning with areas already surrounded by the city, which Oregon state law allows to be annexed without landowner approval. Nike led a legal and lobbying effort to resist the annexation.[7] The lobbying effort succeeded quickly, with the Oregon Legislative Assembly enacting Senate Bill 887[8] which prohibit Beaverton from annexing Nike without Nike's consent. Nike continued its legal efforts, which as of July 2006 has cost Beaverton taxpayers over $360,000.[9]
The city and county also agreed to work on ending the "double taxation" of Beaverton property owners who subsidize urban services provided to residents of unincorporated area.
Several nearby unincorporated neighborhoods, even some considered Portland neighborhoods, are affected during the plan's first decade, including Cedar Hills, West Slope, Raleigh Hills and Garden Home. Property owned by Providence St. Vincent Medical Center, and Tektronix would also be affected.
Neighborhoods affected after the plan's first ten years include Bethany, Cedar Mill, and Aloha. If all areas covered by the plan were to be immediately incorporated into Beaverton, the city's present-day population would be 280,000.
Many of these neighborhoods actively oppose annexation because of Beaverton's higher taxation and controversial policing methods (including undercover seatbelt enforcement and photo radar). Court and electoral fights could delay Beaverton's annexation plans.
In 2006, the Murrayhill Little League baseball team qualified for the 2006 Little League World Series, the first Oregon team in 48 years to go that far. Murrayhill advanced to the semifinals before losing; the third-place game was rained out and not rescheduled. In addition, a Junior Softball team from Beaverton went to 2006 World Series in Kirkland, Washington, ending in sixth place.
Economy
Reser's Fine Foods, processor and distributor of fresh prepared foods, has headquartered in Beaverton since 1960. Leupold & Stevens, maker of rifle scopes and other specialty optics, has been located in Beaverton since 1968. Beaverton is home to the world headquarters of Nike, Inc. Its headquarters are located on an unincorporated area inside, but excluded from, Beaverton city limits. Cedar Hills Crossing is a shopping mall within the city of Beaverton.
As part of the Silicon Forest, Beaverton is the home to numerous technology organizations and companies.
Including:
* Open Source Development Labs and the
* Linux Technology Center of IBM (formerly Sequent Computer Systems).[10]
* Tektronix
* Maxim Integrated Products
Geography
Beaverton is located at [show location on an interactive map] 45°28′47″N, 122°48′36″W (45.479686, -122.809954)[11].
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 16.3 sq mi (42.3 km²), none of which is covered with water.
Demographics
As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 76,129 people, 30,821 households, and 18,646 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,664.5/sq mi (1,801.1/km²). There were 32,500 housing units at an average density of 1,991.3/sq mi(768.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 78.31% White, 9.65% Asian, 1.74% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 0.36% Pacific Islander, 5.53% from other races, and 3.74% from two or more races. 11.12% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 30,821 households out of which 32.3% had children younger than age 18 living with them, 46.8% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.07.
In the city the population was spread out with 25.0% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 35.2% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 9.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 97.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $47,863, and the median income for a family was $60,289. Males had a median income of $41,683 versus $31,204 for females. The per capita income for the city was $25,419. About 5.0% of families and 7.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.5% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over.
Education
The public schools of Beaverton are part of the Beaverton School District. Private schools in the area include German American School, Holy Trinity School, Jesuit High School, Saint Cecilia Grade School, Southwest Christian School, Valley Catholic School, Valley Catholic Middle School, and WoodHaven School.
Colleges and universities
* Cambridge College institute of technology
Googleplex Google headquarters in Mountain View, California aerial - Copyright 2018 David Oppenheimer - Performance Impressions aerial photography archives - www.performanceimpressions.com
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Wisconsin Dells is a city located in south-central Wisconsin, with a population of 2,418 as of the 2000 census. Wisconsin Dells is located partially within four counties: Adams County, Columbia County, Juneau County, Sauk County. The city takes its name from the Dells of the Wisconsin River, a spectacular glacially-formed gorge that features striking sandstone rock formations along the banks of the Wisconsin River. Together with nearby Lake Delton, the city forms an area known as "the Dells," a very popular Midwestern tourist destination, and becoming one of the United States top family destinations. Yearly, the Dells area boasts an estimated 5 million annual visitors.[3]
With 18 indoor waterparks and 3 outdoor waterparks in the Dells area, Wisconsin Dells proclaims itself as the "Waterpark Capital of the World". It is home to the largest outdoor waterpark in the U.S., Noah's Ark. It has over 70 acres of waterslides. The Dells is also home to some of the nation's largest Indoor Waterpark resorts, the Kalahari Resort, the Great Wolf Lodge and the Wilderness. Kalahari's indoor waterpark features 125,000 square feet (11,600 m²) of waterpark space. Some other attractions in "the Dells" include the Dells Boat Tours, Mt. Olympus Water & Theme Park, many golf courses, mini golf, go-karts, water sports, horseback riding, the Tommy Bartlett Thrill Show, the Ho-Chunk Casino and many other places of interest. Most attractions are located on the Strip, otherwise known as the Wisconsin Dells Parkway. Accommodations range from economical motels to RV parks, to chain hotels, and to themed resorts featuring indoor and outdoor waterparks and other amenities.
History
Wisconsin Dells was founded as Kilbourn City in 1857 by Byron Kilbourn, who is notable for also founding Kilbourntown, one of the three original towns at the confluence of the Milwaukee, Menomonee, and Kinnickinnic Rivers that joined to become Milwaukee. Before the establishment of Kilbourn City, the region around the dells of the Wisconsin River was primarily a lumbering area until 1851, when the La Crosse and Milwaukee Railroad was chartered with Kilbourn as its president. The railroad made plans to bridge the Wisconsin River near the river's dells, and a boomtown named Newport sprang up at the expected site of the bridge in 1853. The population of this new city quickly swelled to over 2,000, but when the railroad finally came through the area in 1857 it took nearly everyone by surprise by crossing the river a mile upstream from the site of Newport. As a result, Newport was rapidly turned into a ghost town as the settlers flocked to the new city at the site of the railroad bridge, Kilbourn City. Gradually, tourism became a large part of Kilbourn City. To make it easier for tourists to identify Kilbourn City with the natural landscape it was famous for, the name of the city was changed to Wisconsin Dells.
Because of the scenery provided by the dells of the Wisconsin River, Kilbourn City quickly became a popular travel destination in the Midwest. In 1875, early landscape photographer H. H. Bennett established a studio in the city and took several photos of the sandstone formations in the dells, including many stereoscopic views. Prints of these photographs were distributed across the United States, further enhancing the status of Kilbourn City as a destination for sightseers. Taking advantage of this, Bennett began offering to take souvenir pictures of visitors to the dells, becoming one of the first to capitalize on the area's burgeoning tourist trade. Today, the H. H. Bennett Studio is an historic site operated by the Wisconsin Historical Society.
The dells region remained primarily a place for sightseers to escape the bustle of the city for many decades. In 1856, Leroy Gates began taking tourists on boat tours of the Wisconsin Dells. These boat tours were given using wooden rowboats until 1873 when the first steamboat, the Modocawanda, was used. By 1894, gasoline powered tourboats were used for the tours. In 1908, the Kilbourn Dam was installed despite protests from people such as H. H. Bennett, separating the Dells into the Upper and Lower Dells. Since the time of LeRoy Gates, the Dells Boat Tours have gone through many owners. Some of these previous companies were The Riverview Boat Line, The Olson Boat Line (owned by Jack B. Olson), and The Dells Boat Company.
A few other events of interest took place during this time, including the June 16, 1911, impact of a 772-gram stony meteorite in rural Columbia County near the city, damaging a barn. In 1931 Kilbourn City was renamed Wisconsin Dells after the natural feature which was drawing so many visitors to the town. As the twentieth century progressed, new attractions would begin to draw even more tourists.
In 1946 a Milwaukee native named Mel Flath brought the first DUKW to the Wisconsin Dells. It was an impulse buy which he made at a government auction in California; The trips purpose was to purchase war surplus trucks. Mel opened the "Dells Amphibian Line" which gave 90 minute tours in the Wisconsin River, exposing tourists to the area's famous sandstone formations. Mel would eventually sell his duck fleet to the Associated Boat lines in 1952, which renamed themselves, the Wisconsin Ducks, Inc. In 1952 the Wisconsin Ducks, Inc. began offering tours of the river dells and adjacent areas using decommissioned amphibious DUKW vehicles from World War II. Jack B. Olson started the Wisconsin Ducks, Inc.; they remain one of the area's most popular attractions. However, duck competition was far from over after the 1952 sale. Mel Flath would open up a duck ride again briefly from 1964 - 1966. When he was bought out again, the Soma Boat Company opened up their own duck ride on Mirror Lake, near Lake Delton, WI, which they called the Aquaducks. In response to the competition, Wisconsin Ducks, Inc. took on the name "Original Wisconsin Ducks." The Aquaducks existed from 1968 until their sale to the boat lines in 1976. In 1977 yet another duck ride began, this time by Mel Flath's daughter and son-in-law, George and Suzanne Field, named Dells Duck Tours, Inc. operating from the same property Mel did 30 years prior. This time sporting a red, white and blue exterior, these ducks, while not the "original" ducks that were first brought here, were still actual World War II production models. Today, the Dells Duck Tours, Inc. are known as the Dells Army Ducks after a paint scheme change in 2002.
Lake Delton, Wisconsin Dells' sister city to the south, gradually became popular as the Dells attractions spread out. In 1952, a new traveling performance from Chicago called the "Tommy Bartlett's Thrill Show" came to Lake Delton on its second stop. Following the show's huge success in the city, the show's owner, Tommy Bartlett, chose to keep the performances permanently in Wisconsin Dells. To promote the show, Bartlett gave away bumper stickers advertising his thrill show and the city, effectively spreading word about the area across the nation. Soon more attractions followed to serve the ever-increasing number of tourists, along with countless hotels, shops, and restaurants.
Beginning in the late 1970s and continuing to the present, the Dells area (Wisconsin Dells and Lake Delton) has become a waterpark mecca. Noah's Ark Waterpark opened in Lake Delton in 1979, and has grown to become the largest and the eighth most visited waterpark in the U.S. Other outdoor amusement and water parks followed, featuring water slides, mini golf, roller coasters, go-karts, and other attractions. In 1994 the Polynesian Resort Hotel opened the area's first indoor water park. Since then, the number of combination resort/indoor water parks in the Dells area has swelled, with each new indoor park a bit larger than the last, in an effort to claim the "world's largest" title for the resort. Several others have come including Mount Olympus Water and Theme Park, Wilderness Territory, Great Wolf Lodge, Chula Vista Resort, and the Kalahari Resort. In 2005, Big Chief merged with the former Family Land Water Park and Treasure Island Hotel to create a large themepark on the border of Lake Delton and Wisconsin Dells, complete with a hotel, arcades, rollercoasters, go-karts, and waterslides under the banner of Mount Olympus Water and Theme Park. The Kalahari Resort is a large African-themed resort which boasts the largest indoor water park in the United States.
State Temperature Record
On July 13, 1936, the temperature in Wisconsin Dells reached 114 °F (46 °C), the highest temperature ever recorded in Wisconsin.
Geography
ccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.4 square miles (11.4 km²), of which, 4.2 square miles (10.7 km²) of it is land and 0.2 square miles (0.6 km²) of it (5.68%) is water. According to the Wisconsin Department of Administration, on January 19, 2004 the city annexed land from the Town of Lyndon in Juneau County, thus expanding the city to include area in four counties.
Demographics
As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 2,418 people, 1,019 households, and 609 families residing in the city. The population density was 583.1 people per square mile (225.0/km²). There were 1,178 housing units at an average density of 284.1/sq mi (109.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 97.56% White, 0.37% African American, 0.87% Native American, 0.25% Asian, 0.33% from other races, and 0.62% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.70% of the population.
There were 1,019 households out of which 26.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.5% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.2% were non-families. 34.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.93.
In the city the population was spread out with 22.0% under the age of 18, 7.8% from 18 to 24, 27.3% from 25 to 44, 23.6% from 45 to 64, and 19.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females there were 87.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.7 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $35,699, and the median income for a family was $46,304. Males had a median income of $29,830 versus $22,553 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,447. About 4.0% of families and 7.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.7% of those under age 18 and 3.0% of those age 65 or over.
Transportation
Wisconsin Dells (Amtrak station)
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The United States Navy (USN) is the branch of the United States armed forces responsible for conducting naval operations and is one of seven uniformed services. The U.S. Navy currently has over 335,000 personnel on active duty and 128,000 in the Navy Reserve. It operates 280 ships in active service and more than 3,700 aircraft.[1]
The United States Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was disbanded shortly thereafter. The United States Constitution provided the legal basis for a seaborne military force by giving Congress the power "to provide and maintain a navy".[2] Depredations against American shipping by Barbary Coast corsairs spurred Congress to employ this power[3] by passing the Naval Act of 1794 ordering the construction and manning of six frigates. The U.S. Navy came into international prominence in the 20th century, especially during World War II. It was a part of the conflict from the onset of American military involvement—the attack on Pearl Harbor—to Japan's official surrender on the deck of the USS Missouri. In the subsequent Cold War, the U.S. Navy evolved into a nuclear deterrent and crisis response force while preparing for a possible global war with the Soviet Union.
The 21st century United States Navy maintains a sizable presence in the world, deploying in such areas as East Asia, Southern Europe, and the Middle East. Its ability to project force onto the littoral regions of the world, engage in forward areas during peacetime, and rapidly respond to regional crises makes it an active player in American foreign and defense policy. The United States Navy is the largest in the world with a tonnage greater than that of the next 17 largest combined,[4] and has a budget of $127.3 billion for the 2007 fiscal year.[5] The US Navy also possesses the world's largest carrier fleet, with 11 carriers in service and 2 under construction.
The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, which is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Navy. The Department of the Navy is, itself, a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The highest ranking Navy officer is the Chief of Naval Operations.
History
Origins
In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, the establishment of an official navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, and make it easier to seek out support from foreign countries. Detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the world's preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking.[3]
While Congress deliberated, it received word that two unarmed British supply ships from England were heading towards Quebec without escort. A plan was drawn up to intercept the ships, however the armed vessels to be used were owned not by Congress, but by individual colonies. Of greater significance, then, was an additional plan to equip two ships that would operate under the direct authority of Congress to capture British supply transports. This was not carried out until October 13, 1775, when George Washington announced that he had taken command of three armed schooners under Continental authority to intercept any British supply ships near Massachusetts. With the revelation that vessels were already sailing under Continental control, the decision to add two more was made easier;[6] the resolution was adopted and October 13 would later become known as the United States Navy's official birthday.[7]
The Continental Navy achieved mixed results; it was successful in a few individual engagements and raided many British merchant vessels, but it lost 24 ships[8]and at one point was reduced to two in active service.[9] As Congress turned its attention after the conflict towards securing the western border of the new United States, a standing navy was considered to be dispensable because of its high operating costs and its limited number of national roles.[3]
[edit] From reestablishment to the Civil War
The United States would be without a navy for nearly a decade — a state of affairs that exposed its merchant ships to a series of attacks by Barbary pirates. The sole armed maritime presence between 1790 and the launching of the U.S. Navy's first warships in 1797 was the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service (USRCS), the primary "ancestor" of the U.S. Coast Guard. Although USRCS Cutters conducted operations against these pirates, the depredations far outstripped the abilities of the USRCS and Congress ordered the construction and manning of six frigates on March 27, 1794;[8] three years later the first three were welcomed into service: the USS United States, USS Constellation and USS Constitution.
USS Constitution battles HMS Guerriere in the War of 1812.
USS Constitution battles HMS Guerriere in the War of 1812.
Following an undeclared Quasi-War with France, the U.S. Navy saw substantial action in the War of 1812, where it was able to defeat three rival British frigates in a six month period and lost two frigates to the British Navy with another being burned on the ways to prevent capture and did record victories in freshwater battles at Lake Champlain and Lake Erie. The U.S. Navy was not strong enough to prevent the British from blockading American ports and landing troops at will.[3] After the war, the U.S. Navy again focused its attention on protecting American shipping assets, sending squadrons to the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, South America, Africa, and the Pacific.[8] The United States went to war in 1846 against Mexico and the Navy contributed by instituting a blockade, assisting the American takeover of California, and participating in the U.S. military's first large-scale amphibious operation at Vera Cruz.[3] The United States Navy established itself as a player in American foreign policy through the actions of Commodore Matthew Perry in Japan, which resulted in the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.
Naval power would play a significant role during the Civil War, where the Union had a distinct advantage over the Confederacy on the seas.[3] A Union blockade on shipping handicapped the Southern effort throughout the conflict. The two American navies would help usher in a new era in world naval history by putting ironclad warships into combat for the first time. The Battle of Hampton Roads in 1862, which pitted USS Monitor against CSS Virginia, became the first engagement between two steam-powered ironclads.[9] Soon after the war, however, the U.S. Navy slipped into obsolescence because of neglect.
[edit] 20th century
The Great White Fleet demonstrates US naval power in 1907, it was the first proof that the US Navy had blue-water capability
The Great White Fleet demonstrates US naval power in 1907, it was the first proof that the US Navy had blue-water capability
A modernization program beginning in the 1880s brought the U.S. into the first rank of the world's navies by the end of the century. In 1907, most of the Navy's battleships, with several support vessels, dubbed the Great White Fleet, were showcased in a 14-month circumnavigation of the world. Ordered by President Theodore Roosevelt, it was a mission designed to demonstrate the Navy's capability to extend to the global theater.[8]
The Navy saw little action during World War I, but grew into a formidable force in the years before World War II. Though ultimately unsuccessful, Japan attempted to allay this strategic threat with the late-1941 surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Following American entry into the war, the U.S. Navy grew tremendously as the United States was faced with a two-front war on the seas. It achieved notable acclaim in the Pacific Theater in particular, where it was instrumental to the Allies' successful "island hopping" campaign.[9] The U.S. Navy participated in many significant battles, including the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway, the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the Battle of Leyte Gulf, and the Battle of Okinawa. By 1943, the Navy's size was larger than the combined fleets of all the other combatant nations in World War II.[10] By war's end in 1945, the United States Navy had added hundreds of new ships, including 18 aircraft carriers and 8 battleships, and had over 70% of the world's total numbers and total tonnage of naval vessels of 1,000 tons or greater.[11][12]
USS Yorktown (CV-5) under attack at the Battle of Midway in World War II.
USS Yorktown (CV-5) under attack at the Battle of Midway in World War II.
With the potential for armed conflict with the Soviet Union during the Cold War, the U.S. Navy continued to advance technologically by developing new weapons systems, ships, and aircraft. United States naval strategy changed to that of forward deployment in support of U.S. allies with an emphasis on carrier battle groups.[13] The Navy was a major participant in the Vietnam War, blockaded Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis, and, through the use of ballistic missile submarines, became an important aspect of the United States' nuclear strategic deterrence policy. The United States Navy conducted various combat operations in the Persian Gulf against Iran in 1987 and 1988, most notably Operation Praying Mantis. The Navy was extensively involved in Operation Urgent Fury, Operation Desert Shield, Operation Desert Storm, the Bosnia and Kosovo campaigns, Operation Desert Fox, and Operation Southern Watch.
[edit] 21st century
The United States Navy continues to be a major support to American interests in the 21st century. Since the end of the Cold War, it has shifted its focus from a large-scale war with the Soviet Union to special operations and strike missions in regional conflicts.[14] The Navy participated in Operation Enduring Freedom, the Iraq War, and the ongoing War on Terrorism largely in this capacity. Development continues on new ships and weapons, including the CVN-21 aircraft carrier and the Littoral combat ship. Because of its size, weapons technology, and ability to project force far from American shores, the current U.S. Navy remains a potent asset for the United States Commander-in-Chief (the President of the United States).
[edit] Organization
Simplified flowchart of U.S. Navy command structure
Simplified flowchart of U.S. Navy command structure
The Navy falls under the administration of the Department of the Navy, under civilian leadership of the Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV). The most senior naval officer is the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), a four-star admiral who is immediately under and reports to the Secretary of the Navy. At the same time, the Chief of Naval Operations is one of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which is the second-highest deliberatory body of the armed forces after the United States National Security Council, although it only plays an advisory role to the President and does not nominally form part of the chain of command. The Secretary of the Navy and Chief of Naval Operations are responsible for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping the Navy so that it is ready for operation under the command of the Unified Combatant Commanders.
[edit] Operating forces
Main articles: United States Navy operating forces organization and List of units of the United States Navy
There are nine components to the operating forces of the U.S. Navy: Atlantic Fleet, Pacific Fleet, Naval Forces Central Command, Naval Forces Europe, Naval Network Warfare Command, Navy Reserve, Naval Special Warfare Command, Operational Test and Evaluation Forces, and Military Sealift Command. Fleets in the United States Navy take on the role of force provider; they do not carry out military operations independently, rather they train and maintain naval units that will subsequently be provided to the naval forces component of each Unified Combatant Command. While not widely publicized, groups of ships departing U.S. waters for operational missions gain a Task force type designation, almost always with the Second or Third Fleets. On entry into another numbered fleet's area of responsibility, they are redesignated as a task group from that fleet. For example, a carrier task group departing the Eastern Seaboard for the Mediterranean might start out as Task Group 20.1; on entry into the Mediterranean, it might become Task Group 60.1.
USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63) docks at the U.S. navy base in Yokosuka, Japan.
USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63) docks at the U.S. navy base in Yokosuka, Japan.
The United States Navy has five active numbered fleets — Second, Third, Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh — that are each led by a three-star Vice Admiral. These five fleets are further grouped under Fleet Forces Command (the former Atlantic Fleet), Pacific Fleet, Naval Forces Europe, and Naval Forces Central Command, whose commander also doubles as Commander Fifth Fleet; these four commands are led by four-star full Admirals. The First Fleet existed after the Second World War from 1947 at least, but it was redesignated Third Fleet in early 1973.[15] In early 2008, the United States Navy reactivated the Fourth Fleet to control operations in the area controlled by Southern Command, which consists of U.S. assets in and around Central and South America.[16]
[edit] Shore establishments
Shore establishment commands exist to support the mission of the afloat fleets through the use of facilities on land. Focusing on logistics and combat-readiness, they are essential for the full, smooth, and continuous operation of operating forces. The variety of commands reflect the complexity of the modern U.S. Navy and range from naval intelligence to personnel training to maintaining repair facilities. Two of the major logistics and repair commands are Naval Sea Systems Command and Naval Air Systems Command. Other commands such as the Office of Naval Intelligence, the United States Naval Observatory, and the Navy War College are focused on intelligence and strategy. Training commands include the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center and the United States Naval Academy.
The Navy maintains several "Naval Forces Commands" which operate naval shore facilities and serve as liaison units to local ground forces of the Air Force and Army. Such commands are answerable to a Fleet Commander as the shore protector component of the afloat command. During times of war, all Naval Forces Commands augment to become task forces of a primary fleet. Some of the larger Naval Forces Commands in the Pacific Ocean include Commander Naval Forces Korea (CNFK), Commander Naval Forces Marianas (CNFM), and Commander Naval Forces Japan (CNFJ).
The hospital ship USNS Mercy anchored near Jolo, Philippines.
The hospital ship USNS Mercy anchored near Jolo, Philippines.
[edit] Military Sealift Command
Main article: Military Sealift Command
Military Sealift Command (MSC) serves not only the United States Navy, but the entire Department of Defense as the ocean carrier of materiel during peacetime and war. It transports equipment, fuel, ammunition, and other goods essential to the smooth function of United States armed forces worldwide. Up to 95% of all supplies needed to sustain the U.S. military can be moved by Military Sealift Command.[17] MSC operates approximately 120 ships with 100 more in reserve and is unique in that its ships are manned not by active duty Navy personnel, but by civil service or contract merchant mariners.
[edit] Naval Special Warfare Command
Main article: Naval Special Warfare Command
U.S. Naval Special Warfare Command was commissioned April 16, 1987, at Naval Amphibious Base Coronado in San Diego, California. As the Naval component to the United States Special Operations Command headquartered in Tampa, Florida. Naval Special Warfare Command provides vision, leadership, doctrinal guidance, resources and oversight to ensure component maritime special operations forces are ready to meet the operational requirements of combatant commanders. The NSW has 5,400 total active-duty personnel, including 2,450 SEALs and 600 Special Warfare Combatant-craft Crewmen. NSW also calls upon a 1,200-person reserve of approximately 325 SEALs, 125 SWCC and 775 support personnel.
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Charities and relief agencies raised over $657 million in the three weeks following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the vast bulk going to immediate survivors and victims' families. While this is a rather large sum, it is small compared to the many billions of dollars paid by the government and private insurance companies.
Government assistance
In the morning hours of September 21, the Congress approved a bill to prop up the airline industry and establish a federal fund for victims. The cost of the mostly open-ended fund reached $7 billion (the average payout was $1.8 million per family). Victims of earlier terrorist attacks, including those linked to al-Qaida, were not included in the fund—nor were those who would not surrender the right to hold the airlines legally responsible.
American Red Cross
From the donations to the Emergency Relief Fund, as of 19 November 2001, the American Red Cross granted 3,165 checks to 2,776 families totaling $54.3 million.
172,612 cases were referred to mental health contacts. The 866-GET INFO number received 29,820 calls. As of 3:10 p.m. November 20, 2001, there had been 1,592,295 blood donations since September 11.
Fire Donations took charitable contributions on behalf of firefighters, EMS, and rescue workers.
Other charitable drives
* In the Washington, D.C. area (Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area), Giant Food offered to match contributions made in-store up to $1 million.
* For the families of the 79 employees of the Windows of the World Restaurant: Windows of Hope Family Relief Fund, c/o David Berdon & Company, 415 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10017.
* Arista Records re-released singer Whitney Houston's recording of "The Star Spangled Banner" as a charity single following the attacks, with all profits going towards the firefighters and victims of the attacks. Mariah Carey also recorded a charity single, "Never Too Far/Hero Medley", released on the Virgin Records label.
* In Ireland, the National Fire Brigade Committee opened a disaster fund to raise money for the families of those injured or killed in the attacks.
Emergency supplies
On Thursday and Friday, September 14-15 September 2001, various relief supplies for the World Trade Center relief effort were collected from the New York City area, and dropped off at the Javits Convention Center or at a staging area at Union Square. By Saturday morning, enough supplies (and volunteers) were collected.
Memorial funds
Many families and friends of victims have set up memorial funds and projects to give back to their communities and change the world in honor of their loved ones' lives. Examples include:
* Beyond the 11th
* The Peter M. Goodrich Memorial Foundation
* Our Voices Together
* September 11th Families for Peaceful Tomorrows
* Heroic Choices (originally the Todd M. Beamer Foundation)
* Tuesday's Children
Search Engine Marketing Bendigo
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PO Box 1320, 41 Williamson St
Bendigo, VIC, Australia 3450
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Chinook winds, often just called chinooks, is now normally a reference to Föhn winds[1] in the interior West of North America, where the Canadian Prairies and Great Plains meet various mountain ranges, although the original usage is in reference to wet, warm coastal winds in the Pacific Northwest..[2]
Chinook winds are so named because they come from the country of the Chinook Native Americans: the lower Columbia River, west of the Rocky Mountains. The term originated in the local argot of the fur trade, which spread it to the prairies.
A popular (but entirely false) myth is that Chinook means "snow eater", as a strong Chinook can make snow one foot deep almost vanish in one day. The snow partly melts and partly evaporates in the dry wind. Chinook winds have been observed to raise winter temperature, often from below −20°C (−4°F) to as high as 10°C to 20°C (50°F to 68°F) for a few hours or days, then temperatures plummet to their base levels. The greatest recorded temperature change in 24 hours was caused by Chinook winds on January 15, 1972, in Loma, Montana; the temperature rose from -48°C (-56°F) to 9°C (49°F).
The digraph in Chinook is pronounced as in the word "church" in some regions of the Pacific Coast, but as in French (i.e., shinook) in other regions of the Pacific Coast (e.g. Seattle) and on the prairies. This is because the French-speaking voyageurs of the fur companies brought the term from the mountains.
In Canada
Where chinooks occur most frequently
Where chinooks occur most frequently
Chinooks are most prevalent over southern Alberta in Canada, especially in a belt from Pincher Creek and Crowsnest Pass through Lethbridge, which get 30 to 35 chinook days per year on average. Chinooks become less frequent further south in the United States, and are not as common north of Red Deer, but occur as far north as Grande Prairie in northwestern Alberta and Fort St. John in northeastern British Columbia, and as far south as Albuquerque, New Mexico
In winters since the 1980s, chinooks and warmer weather have all but banished winter to just a few spells of sharp cold of one or two weeks, and some midwinter months have averaged high temperatures over 5°C (41°F), similar to the West Coast of British Columbia, where Canada's warmest winters are found.
In southern Alberta, most of the winter can be spent with little or no snow on the ground. In Calgary, there is snow about 59% of the time on Christmas, compared to 88% for Edmonton.[3]. In Canada, only the West Coast of British Columbia and southern Ontario have fewer white Christmases than southern Alberta.
In Lethbridge, Chinook winds can gust in excess of hurricane force (120 km/h or 75 mph), strong enough to shatter car windows through air pressure differential.[citation needed] On November 19, 1962, an especially powerful chinook there gusted to 171 km/h (107 mph).
In Pincher Creek, the temperature rose by 41°C (from -19°C to 22°C) in one hour in 1962.[4] Also, trains have been known to be derailed by chinook winds there. During the winter, driving can be treacherous as the wind blows snow across roadways sometimes causing roads to vanish and snowdrifts to pile up higher than 1 meter. Empty semi trucks driving along Highway 3 and other routes in Southern Alberta have been known to be blown over by the high gusts of wind caused by chinooks.
Calgary is also well known for getting many chinooks, as the Bow Valley in the Canadian Rockies west of the city acts as a natural wind tunnel funneling the chinook winds.
In February 1992, Claresholm, Alberta hit 24°C (75°F) — one of Canada's highest February temperatures.
[edit] Chinooks versus the Arctic air mass
In mid-winter, the chinook can seem to do battle with the Arctic air mass at times. It is not unheard of for people in Lethbridge to complain of −20°C (−4°F) temperatures while those in Cardston, just 77 kilometers (48 miles) down the road, enjoy +10°C (50°F) temperatures in shorts and T-shirts. This clash of temperatures can remain stationary, or move back and forth, in the latter case causing such fluctuations as a warm morning, a bitterly cold afternoon, and a warm evening. A curtain of fog often accompanies the clash between warm to the west and cold to the east.
It has been reported on a local TV historical program[specify] that many years ago Cardston once reported a curtain of fog remaining over Main Street for many hours. The west side of town was balmy with melting snow, while the east side of town was bitterly cold.[citation needed]
In Calgary, recent winters have seen situations where the airport in the northeast part of the city is reporting around −20°C (−4°F) and the southwest part of the city is sitting at +7°C (45°F).[citation needed]
[edit] Chinook arch
One of the most striking features of the chinook is the chinook arch, which is a band of stationary stratus clouds caused by air rippling over the mountains due to orographic lifting. To those unfamiliar with the chinook, the chinook arch may look like a threatening storm cloud at times. However, they rarely produce rain or snow. They can also create stunning sunrises and sunsets.
The stunning colors seen in the chinook arch are quite common. Typically the colors will change throughout the day, starting with yellow, orange, red and pink shades in the morning as the sun comes up, gray shades in the mid day changing to pink/red colors, and then orange/yellow hues just before the sun sets.
How chinooks occur
The Chinook is a Föhn wind, a rain shadow wind which results from the subsequent adiabatic warming of air which has dropped most of its moisture on windward slopes (orographic lift). As a consequence of the different adiabatic rates of moist and dry air, the air on the leeward slopes becomes warmer than equivalent elevations on the windward slopes.
As moist winds from the Pacific are forced to rise over the mountains, the moisture in the air is condensed and falls out as precipitation, while the air cools at the moist adiabatic rate of about 3.5° per 1000 feet. The dried air then descends on the leeward side of the mountains, warming at the dry adiatatic rate of about 5.5° per 1000 feet. [5]
The turbulence of the high winds also can prevent the normal nocturnal temperature inversion from forming on the lee side of the slope, allowing nighttime temperatures to remain elevated.[5]
Quite often, when the West Coast is being hammered by rain, the windward side of the Rockies is being hammered by snow (as the air loses its moisture), and the leeward side of the Rockies in Alberta is basking in a chinook.
Two common cloud patterns seen during this time are:
* A chinook arch overhead
and/or
* A bank of clouds (also referred to as a cloud wall) obscuring the mountains to the west. It would appear to be an approaching storm, but it does not advance any further east.
[edit] The Manyberries chinook
Often, a chinook is preceded by a "Manyberries chinook" during the end of a cold spell. This southeast wind (named for a small village, now a hamlet, in southeastern Alberta, from where the wind seems to originate) can be fairly strong and cause bitter windchill and blowing snow. The wind will eventually swing around to the southwest and the temperature rises sharply as the real chinook arrives.
The Chinook in British Columbia
The term Chinook Wind is also used in British Columbia, and is the original usage, being brought to Alberta by the fur-traders and rooted in the lore of coastal tribes.[6] Such winds are extremely wet and warm and come from the southwest, and are also known as the Pineapple Express since they are of subtropical origin, roughly from the area of Hawaii. The air associated with a west coast Chinook is stable; this minimizes wind gusts and often keeps winds light in sheltered areas. In exposed areas, fresh gales are frequent during a Chinook, but strong gale or storm force winds are uncommon (most of the region's stormy winds come when a fast westerly jet stream lets air masses from temperate and subarctic latitudes clash).
Typically a weatherman in Vancouver might say "the Chinook is going to last for another five days, so expect heavy rain for the next week. The mountains [i.e. for skiing] will be rainy to the alpine, so expect lots of slush on the slopes." But when a Chinook comes in when an Arctic air mass is holding steady over the Coast, the tropical damp brought in suddenly cools and falls, penetrating the frozen air and coming down in volumes of powder, sometimes to sea level. Snowfalls and the cold spells that spawned them only last a few days during a Chinook, as the weather blows in from the southwest and rains out the snow, which melts quickly and is gone within a week.
The effects on the Interior of the province when a Chinook is in effect are the reverse. In a rainy spell, most of the heavy moisture will be soaked out by the ramparts of mountains before the air mass reaches the Canyon and the Thompson River-Okanagan area. The effects are similar to those of an Alberta Chinook, though not to the same extreme, in part because the Okanagan is relatively warmer than the Prairies, and because of the additional number of precipitation-catching mountain ranges in between Kelowna and Calgary. And when the Chinook brings snow on the Coast during a period of coastal cold, bright but chilly weather in the Interior will give way to a slushy melting of snow because of the warm spell more than because of rain.
The word is in common usage among local fishermen and people in communities along the British Columbia Coast. The term is also used in the Puget Sound area of Washington. It is important to note that Chinook is not pronounced as it is east of the Rockies - shinook - but is in the original coastal pronunciation tshinook. [7]
An outflow wind is more or less the opposite of BC/Pacific Northwest Chinook. These are called a squamish in certain areas, rooted in the direction of such winds coming down out of Howe Sound, home to the Skwxwu7mesh people, and in Alaska are called a williwaw. They consist of cold air streams from the continental air mass pouring out of the interior plateau via certain river valleys and canyons penetrating the Coast Mountains towards the coast.
[edit] Pronunciation in BC and the Pacific Northwest
In British Columbia and parts of the Pacific Northwest, the word Chinook is pronounced with a tshi-. In Central Washington, Alberta, and the rest of Canada, it is pronounced with a shi-, as in French. This difference may be because it was the Métis employees of the Hudson's Bay Company, who were familiar with the Chinook people and country, brought the name east of the Cascades and Rockies, along with their own ethnified pronunciation. Early records are clear that tshinook was the original pronunciation, before the word's transmission east of the Rockies.[8]
[edit] First nations myth of B.C.
Native legend of the Lil'wat subgroup of the St'at'imc tells of a girl named Chinook-Wind, who married Glacier, and moved to his country, which was in the area of today's Birkenhead River.[9][10] She pined for her warm sea-home in the southwest, and sent a message to her people. They came to her in a vision in the form of snowflakes, and told her they were coming to get her. They came in great number and quarrelled with Glacier over her, but they overwhelmed him and she went home with them in the end.
While on the one hand this tale tells a tribal family-relations story, and family/tribal history as well, it also seems to be a parable of a typical weather pattern of a southwesterly wind at first bringing snow, then rain, and also of the melting of a glacier, perhaps the Place Glacier near Birken Lake or the once-great Birkenhead River glacier 10,000 years ago, when most of this region was icefield. Thus it also tells of a migration of people to the area, (or a war, depending on how the details of the legend might be read, with Chinook-Wind taking the part of Helen in a First Nations parallel to the Trojan War).
[edit] Gardening
The frequent midwinter thaws in Great Plains chinook country are more of a bane than a blessing to gardeners. Plants can be visibly brought out of dormancy by persistent chinook winds, or have their hardiness reduced even if they appear to be remaining dormant. In either case, they become vulnerable to later cold waves. Many plants which do well at Winnipeg (where constant cold maintains dormancy all winter) are difficult in the Alberta chinook belt; examples include basswood, some apple, raspberry and saskatoon varieties, and Amur maple. Trees in the Chinook affected areas of Alberta are known to be small and grow much less than trees in areas not affected by Chinooks. This is once again caused by the 'off and on' dormancy through out winter.
[edit] Health
It is said that chinook winds can cause a sharp increase in the number of migraine headaches suffered by the locals and are often called "chinook headaches". At least one study conducted by the department of clinical neurosciences at the University of Calgary supports that belief.[11] It is also popularly believed they can increase irritability and sleeplessness. In mid-winter, over major centers such as Calgary, chinooks can often override cold air in the city, trapping the pollutants in the cold air and causing inversion smog. At such times, it is possible for it to be cold at street level and much warmer at the tops of the skyscrapers and in higher terrain.[citation needed]
[edit] Folklore
There are two especially famous chinook folk tales that most people in southern Alberta probably know in some form from childhood stories.
* A man rode his horse to church, only to find just the steeple sticking out of the snow. So, he tied his horse to the steeple with the other horses, and went down the snow tunnel to attend services. When everybody emerged from the church, they found that a chinook had melted all of the snow, and their horses were now all dangling from the church steeple.
* A man was riding his sleigh to town when a chinook overcame him. He kept pace with the wind, and while the horses were running belly deep in snow, the sleigh rails were running in mud up to the buckboard. The cow that was tied behind was kicking up dust.
[edit] Records
Loma, Montana boasts as having the most extreme recorded temperature change in a 24-hour period. On January 15, 1972, the temperature rose from −54 °F (-48 °C) to 49 °F (9 °C), a 103 °F (57 °C) change in temperature; a dramatic example of the regional Chinook wind in action.
The Black Hills of South Dakota are home to the world's fastest recorded rise in temperature. On January 22, 1943, at about 7:30am MST, the temperature in Spearfish, SD was -4 °F (-20 °C). The chinook kicked in, and two minutes later the temperature was 45 °F (7 °C) above zero. The 49 degree (27 °C) rise in two minutes set a world record that is still on the books. By 9:00am, the temperature had risen to 54 °F (12 °C). Suddenly, the chinook died down and the temperature tumbled back to -4 °F. The 58 degree drop took only 27 minutes.
The aforementioned 107 mph / 171 km/h wind in Alberta and other local wind records west of the 100th meridian on the Great Plains of the United States and Canada, as well as instances of the record high and low temperature for a given day of the year being set on the same date are largely the result of these winds.
On rare occasions chinook winds generated on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains have reached or passed the Mississippi River.
[edit] Chinook and Föhn wind in the United States
Chinooks are more accurately called Föhn winds by meteorologists and climatologists, and, regardless of name, can occur in most places on the leeward side of a nearby mountain range. They are called "chinook winds" throughout most of western North America, particularly the Rocky Mountain region. Montana in particular has a significant amount of Chinook winds across much of the state during the winter months, but particularly coming off of the Rocky Mountain Front in the north and west-central areas of the state.
One such wind occurs in the Cook Inlet region in Alaska as air moves over the Chugach Mountains between Prince William Sound and Portage Glacier. Anchorage residents often believe that the warm winds which melt snow and leave their streets slushy and muddy are a midwinter gift from Hawaii, following a common mistake that the warm winds come from the same place as the similar winds in coastal southern British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon.
East of the Rockies, Great Plains states such as South Dakota also see Chinook-style winds, particularly east of smaller mountain ranges, such as the Black Hills.
Chinooks also occur in Colorado, especially near Denver, where winds blowing over the Front Range have raised winter temperatures from below freezing to around 50 °F (10 °C) in just a few hours. There are also Chinook winds in and around other cities in the Rocky Mountain states, including Billings, Salt Lake City and Albuquerque.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
The Great Seal of the United States is used to authenticate certain documents issued by the United States federal government. The phrase is used both for the physical seal itself (which is kept by the United States Secretary of State), and more generally for the design impressed upon it. The Great Seal was first used publicly in 1782.
The design on the obverse of the great seal is the national coat of arms of the United States.[1] It is officially used on documents such as United States passports, military insignia, embassy placards, and various flags. As a coat of arms, the design has official colors; the physical Great Seal itself, as affixed to paper, is monochrome.
Since 1935, both sides of the Great Seal appear on the reverse of the one-dollar bill.
Design
Obverse
The main figure on the obverse (or front) of the seal is the coat of arms of the United States, a bald eagle with its wings outstretched (or "displayed," in heraldic terms). From the eagle's perspective, it holds a bundle of 13 arrows in its left talon, (referring to the 13 original states), and an olive branch, in its right talon, together symbolizing that the United States of America has "a strong desire for peace, but will always be ready for war." (see Olive Branch Petition). Although not specified by law, the olive branch is usually depicted with 13 leaves and 13 olives, again representing the 13 original states. The eagle has its head turned towards the olive branch, said to symbolize a preference for peace. In its beak, the eagle clutches the motto E pluribus unum ("Out of Many, One"). Over its head there appears a "glory" with 13 mullets (stars) on a blue field. In the current (and several previous) dies of the great seal, the 13 stars above the eagle are arranged in rows of 1-4-3-4-1, forming a six-pointed star.
The shield the eagle bears on its breast, though sometimes drawn incorrectly, has two main differences from the American flag. First, it has no stars on the blue chief (though other arms based on it do: the chief of the arms of the United States Senate may show 13 or 50 , and the shield of the 9/11 Commission has, sometimes, 50 mullets on the chief). Second, unlike the American flag, the outermost stripes are white, not red; so as not to violate the heraldic rule of tincture.
The 1782 resolution of Congress adopting the arms, still in force, legally blazoned the shield as "Paleways of 13 pieces, argent and gules; a chief, azure." As the designers recognized, this is a technically incorrect blazon under traditional English heraldic rules, since in English practice a vertically striped shield would be described as "paly," not "paleways," and it could not be striped of an uneven number. A more technically proper blazon would have been argent, six pallets gules... (six red stripes on a white field), but the phrase used was chosen to preserve the reference to the 13 original states.
Reverse
The 1782 resolution adopting the seal describes the image on the reverse as "A pyramid unfinished. In the zenith an eye in a triangle, surrounded by a glory, proper." The pyramid is conventionally shown as consisting of 13 layers of blocks to refer to the 13 original states. There are also 13 sides shown on the ribbon. The adopting resolution provides that it is inscribed on its base with the date MDCCLXXVI (1776) in Roman numerals. Where the top of the pyramid should be, the Eye of Providence watches over it. Two mottos appear: Annuit Cœptis signifies that the Eye of Providence has "approved of (our) undertakings."[2] Novus Ordo Seclorum, freely taken from Virgil, means "a new order of the ages." It is incorrectly rendered as "New World Order" by some theorists, and "a new secular order" by others. The word seclorum does not mean "secular," as one might assume, but is the genitive (possessive) plural form of the word saeculum, meaning (in this context) generation, century, or age. Saeculum did come to mean "age, world" in late, Christian, Latin, and "secular" is derived from it, through secularis. However, the adjective "secularis," meaning "worldly," is not equivalent to the genitive plural seclorum, meaning "of the ages."[3]. The reverse has never been cut (as a seal) but appears, for example, on the back of the one-dollar bill.
The Eye of Providence, or "all-seeing eye," was a well-known classical symbol of the Renaissance. The eye in a triangle design originally was suggested by Pierre Eugene du Simitiere, and later heraldist William Barton improved upon the design. In Du Simitière's original sketch, two figures stand next to a shield with the all-seeing pyramid above them. The August 20, 1776 report of the first Great Seal Committee describes the seal as "Crest The Eye of Providence in a radiant Triangle whose Glory extends over the Shield and beyond the Figures."
Abstract of all elements counting 13
In honor of the fact that there were originally 13 states in the Union, items consisting of this number is a common motif in the seal. There are:
* 13 stars (in the "glory" above the eagle's head)
* 13 stripes on the shield
* 13 arrows in the eagle’s talon
* 13 letters in the mottos "e pluribus unum" and "annuit cœptis" (apparently coincidental; there are 52 characters on the whole seal, which is itself evenly divisible by 13)
* 13 olive leaves (by custom, not by law)
* 13 olives on the branch (by custom, not by law)
* 13 brick levels of the pyramid (by custom, not by law)
* 13 sides showing on the ribbon (by custom, not by law)
History
On July 4, 1776, the same day that independence from Great Britain was declared by the thirteen states, the Continental Congress named the first committee to design a Great Seal, or national emblem, for the country. Similar to other nations, The United States of America needed an official symbol of sovereignty to formalize and seal (or sign) international treaties and transactions. It took six years and three committees in order for the Continental Congress to agree on a design.
The first of these committees consisted of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams. Each of these men proposed a design for the seal. Franklin chose an allegorical scene that demonstrated the motto, "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God," where there is a depiction of the biblical story of the Exodus, when the Children of Israel are confronted by Pharaoh and achieve their liberation from slavery in Egypt. Jefferson suggested a depiction of the Children of Israel in the wilderness, led by a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night for the front of the seal; and Hengest and Horsa, the two brothers who were the legendary leaders of the first Anglo-Saxon settlers in Britain, for the reverse side of the seal. Adams chose the painting known as the "Judgment of Hercules" where the young Hercules must choose to travel either on the flowery path of self-indulgence or the rugged, more difficult, uphill path of duty to others and honor to himself. Congress ultimately chose none of these initial designs.[4] An additional design was submitted by a consultant to this committee, Pierre Du Simitière, and two design elements of in his design appear in the final design (the "Eye of Providence" and the motto E Pluribus Unum - Out of Many, One).[5]
Two other committees were formed, but they too could not agree on a final design. Finally the problem was turned over to Charles Thomson, the Secretary of the Congress, who merged elements from all three previous attempts. Congress finally approved Thomson's integrated design on June 20, 1782, still in use today; and had it engraved into brass matrices, which were about 2.25 inches in diameter.
On September 16, 1782 Thomson used these matrices for the first time, to verify signatures on a document that authorized George Washington to negotiate an exchange of prisoners. Thomson took care of the Seal until the U.S. Constitution installed the new federal government in 1789, when he passed it over to the Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson. All subsequent Secretaries of State have been responsible for applying the Seal to diplomatic documents.
The first matrices of the seal were replaced in 1841 when they became too worn to be effective.
There have been a total of seven re-engravings of the Seal since the original, which is now on display in the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
Symbolism
Upon close inspection one may notice strong symbolic themes used in the seal. For example, the shield is reminiscent of the national flag, and the Bald Eagle is a well-known national symbol of the United States.[6]
The pyramid symbolizes strength and duration, and the arrows, as well as the olive branches, represent the power of war and peace together.[citation needed]
Among unanswered questions is if there is any historical significance of the six pointed star pattern formed by the glory of stars above the eagle's head on the obverse side. Beginning in 1841, the individual stars themselves were drawn with only five points, rather than six.[7]
That of the reverse is murkier. Some conspiracy theorists believe the eye atop the pyramid to have its origins in Masonic iconography.[8] However, the pyramid is not a Masonic symbol and while the eye is used by the Masons, it is also a common symbol in Christian iconography. More importantly, the seal was not designed by a Mason. Benjamin Franklin was the only Mason among the various Great Seal committees,[9] and his ideas were not adopted.
Current seal
The obverse side of the Great Seal is used to emboss the design on international treaties and other official United States Government documents. It is stored in the Exhibit Hall of the U.S. Department of State inside a locked glass enclosure. An officer from the State Department does the actual sealing of documents after the U.S. Secretary of State has countersigned the President's signature. It is used approximately 2,000 to 3,000 times a year.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
The National Civil War Museum, located at One Lincoln Circle at Reservoir Park in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, is a permanent, nonprofit educational institution created to promote the preservation of material culture and sources of information that are directly relevant to the American Civil War of 1861–1865, and the aftermath period of the war as related to Civil War Veterans' service organizations, including the Grand Army of the Republic, United Confederate Veterans and the Daughters of the Confederacy to 1920. The museum also serves as the National Headquarters for the Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW), the legal successor to the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR).
Location
The museum is located in a two-story brick building in Harrisburg's Reservoir Park. The exhibits and self-guided tour begin on the second floor of the museum (first ten galleries) and continue on the first floor (last seven galleries and theater). A gift shop, temporary exhibit gallery, and museum support are on the first floor. A "Walk of Valor," consisting of red bricks bearing the names of Civil War veterans who have been honored by their surviving descendants, contributes to the museum's memorial-like grounds.
Exhibits
The museum's exhibits are designed to tell "the entire story of the American Civil War ... without bias to the Union or Confederate causes".[1] The exhibition covers the period from 1850 to 1876, with its major focus on the Civil War years of 1861 to 1865. The majority of the collection of over 24,000 artifacts, photographs, documents, manuscripts, and other printed matter was acquired between 1994 and 1999 by the city of Harrisburg, under Mayor Stephen R. Reed, who is the museum's founder. Part of the rationale for the museum's location is Harrisburg's relative closeness to Gettysburg, and the many tourists who visit there.
The museum's galleries are as follows:
1. A House Divided, 1850–1860 (examines the events leading up to the Civil War);
2. American Slavery: The Peculiar Institution, 1850–1860 (how nineteenth century Americans saw slavery);
3. First Shots, 1861 (Fort Sumter);
4. Making of Armies (recruiting, training, and equipping both armies);
5. Weapons and Equipment (with many artifacts);
6. Campaigns and Battles of 1861-1862 (early campaigns and the tactics, strategies. and logistics);
7. Battle Map, 1861–1862 (emphasis on how geography and topography affected troop movements);
8. Camp Curtin (the Civil War's largest Union camp, located in Harrisburg);
9. Why Men Fought, 1861–1863 (motivations of soldiers on both sides);
10. Civil War Music (displays of musical instruments and recorded music to listen to);
11. Gettysburg, 1863 (a turning point of the war);
12. Costs of War (Civil War medicine);
13. Women in the War (women's various roles);
14. Navy (focuses on maritime engagements);
15. Campaigns and Battles of 1864–1865 (the last years of the Civil War);
16. Battle Map, 1863-1865 (from Stones River to Appomattox);
17. Lincoln: War & Remembrance (remembering the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln, and veterans' roles after the war).
A video We the People focuses on ten characters from all walks of life and their fates before, during, and after the war. It is presented in segments in galleries 1, 4, 9, 14 and concludes in the theater.
Please Note: Photography is permitted in the exhibit areas. However, for the protection of the artifacts, camera flash must be turned off! Videography is not permitted.
Artifacts
The museum contains a large collection of original artifacts, including weapons, uniforms, camp and personal effects and similar items. Among the many articles on display are:
* portable writing kit of General Winfield Scott
* 1852 Sharps carbine and a pike head from the raid on Harper’s Ferry
* last battle map used by General Robert E. Lee during the Appamatox campaign
* pen used by Governor Wise to sign John Brown’s death warrant
* Lincoln’s leather hat box used on the 1860 (first term) campaign trail
* two of three know sabers of General J.E.B. Stuart's including one presented by his cousin on Stuart’s wedding
* sleeve of General George Pickett removed from his coat after he was wounded at the Battle of Gaines’ Mill, traces of blood are visible
* shadow box of relics once in possession of “Stonewall” Jackson, including hair from his horse, “Little Sorell”, wood from his chair, and cloth from his desk
* Major General George McClellan’s saddle, used when he was General-In-Chief of the Union army
* Lee’s hat cord and Bible, inscribed in his hand, used for almost 20 years, until its capture four days before Lee’s surrender at Appomatox
* sword belt presented to General Ulysses S. Grant to commemorate the capture of Vicksburg
* gauntlet worn by “Stonewall” Jackson earlier in the war
* Bowie knife captured from one of “Mosby’s Rangers”
* doeskin riding gauntlets belonging to Lee
* chair taken from the captured Confederate White House
* kepi belonging to Major General Pickett
* a lock of hair belonging to and a post-war painting of General George Pickett passed down through his family
* bullet-ridden fence post from along the Harrisburg Road in Gettysburg
* various other rifles, revolvers, officer’s swords, and munitions later discovered on battlefields
* rare chains, iron shackles, and bracelets from the antebellum slave trade, including a slave collar with remnants of the original linen interior lining
* wooden saddle & tack box used by Grant
* memorabilia from Civil War veterans reunions
* collection of memorabilia from Lincoln’s assassination including a lock of Lincoln’s hair, a sash from the funeral train, (the original) telegram ordering the arrest of John Wilkes Booth, a ticket to that night’s production(?) of “Our American Cousin”(?) at Ford’s Theatre, a replica of his “life mask”, and a fragment of Mary Todd Lincoln’s dress that she wore the night of the assassination
* the key to Libby Prison, a prison used for Federal officers
* lead bullets, complete with teeth marks, given to patients in anticipation of pain during surgery
* stateroom plaque inscribed “D.G. Farragut, USN” carried by him from stateroom to stateroom during his naval career
* a Lincoln Administration China plate and lantern from Lincoln’s home in Springfield, Illinois.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
The Warrior Brotherhood Veterans Motorcycle Club
is a not-for-profit fraternal organization. It was formed to provide a fraternal organization for qualified military veterans who have served, or are currently serving, in the Armed Forces of the United States or US Allied Nations.
The membership of the organization is comprised entirely of active duty, reserve, and national guard veterans who have served HONORABLY in a theater of operations. The organization is established to provide a strong sense of pride and mutual support for Veterans who have served their country. The organization will also promote a positive image of military Veterans as well as motorcyclists.
WE ARE PROUD TO BE A BROTHERHOOD OF WARRIORS
There are universal truths that inspire men. These truths are written in the histories of all great nations, and address directly the influence of the "Warrior Class” on the traditions shaping the character of a nation. Our nation's greatness was created out of the traditions of brave men who served the cause of freedom. They formed the foundation for our constitution, the meaning, and might behind our nation's laws. The Warrior Brotherhood Veterans MC is part of that tradition. We have each served out country and risked our lives in its defense, and in the tradition of warriors around the world; we adhere to a different code, different customs, and different protocols. The love we bear for our nation is forever strong.
ABOUT THE WARRIOR BROTHERHOOD VETERANS MOTORCYCLE CLUB
We are about pride and unity among our nations military Veterans. It is our mission, as a Veterans organization, to focus attention locally, nationally, and internationally on the positive contributions made by military Veterans.
We believe our duty and our opportunity to support our fellow Veterans did not end with military service. So through our actions, our community involvement, and our dedication to this cause, we hope to perpetuate the feeling of pride and belonging among our warrior brothers.
As Veterans and as bikers, we are not alone in this endeavor. We recognize that no single organization can provide for the needs of all Veterans. We are but one of many, and in the spirit of Warrior Brotherhood we support all organizations, clubs, and veterans-rights groups whose sole mission is to perpetuate pride, brotherhood, and respect for and among our nations Veterans.
As proud members of the Warrior Brotherhood Veterans Motorcycle Club, we are bound by our honor, the warrior code, and the laws of this great nation, to promote a positive image for all Veterans. We welcome the membership of any veteran who has served their country honorably, and who believes in the Warrior Code.
We do not lead.
We do not follow.
We are brothers.
We ride for all Veterans.
I don't believe that you can explain in words, what brotherhood means to the veteran biker... If you feel it, you will know. It doesn't come when you buy a motorcycle, it's not part of the warranty nor the leathers you wear. It does not come when your break-in mileage comes around, or when you attend your first motorcycle function. It does come with Respect, Honor, and Devotion to those who would stand by your side in good times & bad. It comes when your brothers accept that you are deserving of respect, trust, and faithful to the those who have risked their life in defense of their country. If it never comes, the Brotherhood is not for you.... If it does, be proud.
THE WAY OF THE WARRIOR
This unwritten Code of the Warrior contends that the true warrior must hold loyalty, courage, veracity, compassion, and honor as important, above all else. An appreciation and respect for life is also imperative, as it adds balance to the warrior character in each of us. Warriors who have experienced the bitter taste of combat may appear aloof. They seek an inner truth. Something to explain being fierce and deadly in combat and yet so gentle and compassionate with children and loved ones. It is the ultimate human paradox that exists in every warrior. The truth of this inner conflict is so profound, it is understood only by another warrior.
HONOR & COURAGE
"If you are able, save for them a place inside of you and save one backward glance when you are leaving for the places they can no longer go.
Be not ashamed to say you loved them, though you may not have always. Take what they have thought you with their dying and keep it with your own.
And in the time when men decide and feel safe to call the war insane, take one moment to embrace those gentle heroes you left behind."
"Through these fields of destruction
Baptism of fire
I witnessed your suffering
As the battles raged higher
And though it did hurt me
In the fear and alarm
You did not desert me
My brothers in arms"
Dire Straights
We wear the image of our campaign ribbons as the centerpiece of our colors. Korea, Vietnam, Granada, Bosnia, Desert Storm, Iraq War, Afghanistan, and the National Defense medal to name a few. Each ribbon is different, but each one represents the Warrior Brotherhood. We earned those ribbons by serving our nation proudly and honorably, and will not surrender those colors to anyone.
As a Tax Exempt Veterans Organization, we seek no territory, we have no hidden agendas. We believe in every Veterans right to ride in peace. We will defend that right without fail.
THE VETERAN
Some veterans bear visible signs of their service: a missing limb, a jagged scar, a certain look in the eye. Others may carry the evidence inside them: a pin holding a bone together, a piece of shrapnel in the leg - or perhaps another sort of inner steel: the soul's ally forged in the refinery of adversity.
Except in parades, however, the men and women who have kept America safe wear no badge or emblem. You can't tell a vet just by looking.
What Is A Vet?
He is the cop on the beat who spent six months in Saudi Arabia sweating two gallons a day making sure the armored personnel carriers didn't run out of fuel. He is the barroom loudmouth, dumber than five wooden planks, whose overgrown frat-boy behavior is outweighed a hundred times in the cosmic scales by four hours of exquisite bravery in combat.
She is the nurse who fought against futility and went to sleep sobbing every night for two solid years in Da Nang.
He is the POW who went away one person and came back another - or didn't come back AT ALL.
He is the Quantico drill instructor who has never seen combat - but has saved countless lives by turning slouchy, no-account rednecks and gang members into Marines, and teaching them to watch each other's backs.
He is the parade-riding Legionnaire who pins on his ribbons and medals with a prosthetic hand. He is the career quartermaster who watches the ribbons and medals pass him by.
He is the three anonymous heroes in The Tomb Of The Unknowns, whose presence at the Arlington National Cemetery must forever preserve the memory of all the anonymous heroes whose valor dies unrecognized with them on the battlefield or in the ocean's sunless deep.
He is the old guy bagging groceries at the supermarket, palsied now and aggravatingly slow, who helped liberate a Nazi death camp and who wishes all day long that his wife were still alive to hold him when the nightmares come.
He is an ordinary and yet an extraordinary human being. A person who offered some of his life's most vital years in the service of his country, and who sacrificed his ambitions so others would not have to sacrifice theirs.
He is a soldier and a savior and a sword against the darkness, and he is nothing more than the finest, greatest testimony on behalf of the finest, greatest nation ever known.
So remember, each time you see someone who has served our country, just lean over and say Thank You. That's all most people need, and in most cases it will mean more than any medals they could have been awarded or were awarded.
Two little words that mean a lot,
"THANK YOU."
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Equipment
The equipment of the USCG consists of thousands of vehicles (boats, ships, helicopters, fixed-winged aircraft, automobiles), communication systems (radio equipment, radio networks, radar, data networks), weapons, infrastructure such as United States Coast Guard Air Stations and local Small Boat Stations, each in a large variety.
Main article: Equipment of the United States Coast Guard
[edit] Symbols
[edit] Core values
The Coast Guard, like the other armed services of the United States, has a set of core values which serve as basic ethical guidelines to Coast Guard members. As listed in the recruit pamphlet, The Helmsman,[9] they are:
* Honor: Absolute integrity is our standard. A Coast Guardsman demonstrates honor in all things: never lying, cheating, or stealing. We do the right thing because it is the right thing to do—all the time.
* Respect: We value the dignity and worth of people: whether a stranded boater, an immigrant, or a fellow Coast Guard member; we honor, protect, and assist.
* Devotion to Duty: A Coast Guard member is dedicated to five maritime security roles: Maritime Safety, Maritime Law Enforcement, Marine Environmental Protection, Maritime Mobility and National Defense. We are loyal and accountable to the public trust. We welcome responsibility.[10]
[edit] Coast Guard Ensign
Coast Guard Ensign
Coast Guard Ensign
The Coast Guard Ensign (flag) was first flown by the Revenue Cutter Service in 1799 to distinguish revenue cutters from merchant ships. The order stated the Ensign would be "16 perpendicular stripes, alternate red and white, the union of the ensign to be the arms of the United States in a dark blue on a white field." (There were 16 states in the United States at the time).
The purpose of the flag is to allow ship captains to easily recognize those vessels having legal authority to stop and board them. This flag is flown only as a symbol of law enforcement authority and is never carried as a parade standard. See [2]
[edit] Coast Guard Standard
Parade Standard of the U.S. Coast Guard
Parade Standard of the U.S. Coast Guard
The Coast Guard Standard is used in parades and carries the battle honors of the U.S. Coast Guard. It was derived from the jack of the Coast Guard ensign which used to fly from the stern of revenue cutters. The emblem is a blue eagle from the coat of arms of the United States on a white field. Above the eagle are the words "UNITED STATES COAST GUARD;" below the eagle is the motto, "SEMPER PARATUS" and the inscription "1790."
[edit] Racing Stripe
Racing Stripe
Racing Stripe
The Racing Stripe was designed in 1964 by the industrial design office of Raymond Loewy Associates to give the Coast Guard a distinctive, modern image and was first used in 1967. The symbol is a narrow blue bar, a narrow white stripe between, and a broad red[11] bar with the Coast Guard shield centered. The stripes are canted at a 64 degree angle, coincidentally the year the Racing Stripe was designed. The Stripe has been adopted for the use of other coast guards, such as the Canadian Coast Guard, the Italian Guardia Costiera, the Indian Coast Guard, and the Australian Customs Service. Auxiliary vessels maintained by the Coast Guard also carry the Stripe in inverted colors.
[edit] Semper Paratus
The official march of the Coast Guard is "Semper Paratus" (Latin for "Always Ready"). An audio clip can be found at
Missions
The Coast Guard carries out five basic roles, which are further subdivided into eleven statutory missions. The five roles are:
* Maritime safety (including search and rescue)
* Maritime mobility
* maritime security
* National defense
* Protection of natural resources
The eleven statutory missions, found in section 888 of the Homeland Security Act are:
* Ports, Waterways and Coastal Security (PWCS)
* Counter Drug Law Enforcement
* Migrant Interdiction
* Other Law Enforcement (foreign fisheries)
* Living Marine Resources (domestic fisheries)
* Marine (maritime) Safety
* Marine (maritime) Environmental Protection
* Ice Operations
* Aids to Navigation (ATON)
* Defense Readiness
* Marine (maritime) Environmental Response
The OMEGA navigation system and the LORAN-C transmitters outside the USA were also run by the United States Coast Guard. The U.S. Coast Guard Omega Stations at Lamoure, North Dakota and Kāne'ohe, Hawai'i (Oahu) were both formally decommissioned and shut down on September 30, 1997.
[edit] Uniforms
In 1972, the current Coast Guard dress blue uniform was introduced for wear by both officers and enlisted personnel (Prior to 1972, they wore U.S. Navy-style uniforms with Coast Guard insignia). Relatively similar in appearance to the old-style U.S. Air Force uniforms, the uniform consists of a blue four-pocket single breasted jacket and trousers in a slightly darker shade. A light-blue button-up shirt with a pointed collar, two front button-flap pockets, "enhanced" shoulder boards for officers, and pin-on collar insignia for Chief Petty Officers and enlisted personnel is worn when in shirt-sleeve order (known as "Tropical Blue Long"). It is similar to the World War II-era uniforms worn by Coast Guard Surfmen. Officer rank insignia parallels that of the U.S. Navy but with the gold Navy "line" star being replaced with the gold Coast Guard Shield and with the Navy blue background color replaced by Coast Guard blue. Enlisted rank insignia is also similar to the Navy with the Coast Guard shield replacing the eagle on collar and cap devices. Group Rate marks (stripes) for junior enlisted members (E-3 and below) also follow U. S. Navy convention with white for seaman, red for fireman, and green for airman. In a departure from the U. S. Navy conventions, all petty Officers E-6 and below wear red chevrons and all Chief Petty Officers wear gold. Unlike the US Navy, officers and CPO's do not wear khaki; all personnel wear the same color uniform. See USCG Uniform Regulations [4] for current regulations.
Coast Guard officers also have a white dress uniform, typically used for formal parade and change-of-command ceremonies. Chief Petty Officers, Petty Officers, and enlisted rates wear the standard Service Dress Blue uniform for all such ceremonies, except with a white shirt (replacing the standard light-blue). A white belt may be worn for honor guards. A mess dress uniform is worn by members for formal (black tie) evening ceremonies.
The current working uniform of a majority of Coast Guard members is the Operational Dress Uniform (ODU). The ODU is similar to the Battle Dress Uniform of other armed services, both in function and style. However, the ODU is in a solid dark blue with no camouflage patterns and does not have lower pockets on the blouse. The ODU is worn with steel-toed boots in most circumstances, but low-cut black or brown boat shoes may be prescribed for certain situations. The former dark blue working uniform has been withdrawn from use by the Coast Guard but may be worn by Auxiliarists until no longer serviceable. There is a second phase of Operational Dress Uniforms currently in the trial phases. This prototype resembles the current Battle Dress blouse, which is worn on the outside, rather than tucked in.
Coast Guard members serving in expeditionary combat units such as Port Security Units, Law Enforcement Detachments, and others, wear working operational uniforms that resemble Battle Dress uniforms, complete with "woodland" or "desert" camouflage colors. These units typically serve under, or with, the other armed services in combat theaters, necessitating similar uniforms.
Enlisted Coast Guardsmen wear the combination covers for full dress, a garrison cover for Class "B," wear, and a baseball-style cover either embroidered with "U.S. Coast Guard" in gold block lettering or the name of their ship, unit or station in gold, for the ODU uniform. Male and female company commanders (the Coast Guard equivalent of Marine Corps drill instructors) at Training Center Cape May wear the traditional "Smokey the Bear" campaign hat.
A recent issue of the Reservist magazine was devoted to a detailed and easy to understand graphical description of all the authorized uniforms.
[edit] Issues
The Coast Guard faces several issues in the near future.
Lack of coverage affects many areas with high maritime traffic. For example, local officials in Scituate, Massachusetts, have complained that there is no permanent Coast Guard station, and the presence of the Coast Guard in winter is vital. One reason for this lack of coverage is the relatively high cost of building storm-proof buildings on coastal property; the Cape Hatteras station was abandoned in 2005 after winter storms wiped out the 12-foot (3.7 m) sand dune serving as its protection from the ocean.
Lack of strength to meet its assigned missions is being met by a legislated increase in authorized strength from 39,000 to 45,000. In addition, the volunteer Auxiliary is being called to take up more non-combatant missions. However, volunteer coverage does have limits.
Aging vessels are another problem, with the Coast Guard still operating some of the oldest naval vessels in the world. In 2005, the Coast Guard terminated contracts to upgrade the 110-foot (33.5 m) Island Class Cutters to 123-foot (37.5 m) cutters because of warping and distortion of the hulls. In late 2006, Admiral Thad Allen, Commandant of the Coast Guard, decommissioned all eight 123-foot (37 m) cutters due to dangerous conditions created by the lengthening of the hull- to include compromised watertight integrity. The Coast Guard has, as a result of the failed 110 ft (34 m) conversion, revised production schedules for the Fast Response Cutter (FRC). Of the navies and coast guards of the world's 40 largest navies, the U.S. Coast Guard's is the 38th oldest.[12]
Live fire exercises by Coast Guard boat and cutter crews in the U.S. waters of the Great Lakes attracted attention in the U.S. and Canada. The Coast Guard had proposed the establishment of 34 locations around the Great Lakes where live fire training using vessel-mounted machine guns were to be conducted periodically throughout the year. The Coast Guard said that these exercises are a critical part of proper crew training in support of the service's multiple missions on the Great Lakes, including law enforcement and anti-terrorism. Those that raised concerns about the firing exercises commented about safety concerns and that the impact on commercial shipping, tourism, recreational boating and the environment may be greater than what the Coast Guard had stated. The Coast Guard took public comment and conducted a series of nine public meetings on this issue. After receiving more than 1,000 comments, mostly opposing the Coast Guard's plan, the Coast Guard announced that they were withdrawing their proposal for target practice on the Great Lakes, although a revised proposal may be made in the future.
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The United States Air Force Memorial honors the service of the personnel of the United States Air Force and its predecessors. The Memorial is located in Arlington, Virginia, on the grounds of Fort Myer near The Pentagon, at the intersection of Columbia Pike and South Joyce Street. It was the last project of American architect James Ingo Freed (known for the design of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) with the firm Pei Cobb Freed & Partners for the United States Air Force Memorial Foundation.
History
In January 1992, the Air Force Memorial Foundation was incorporated to pursue the development of a Memorial that would honor the people in the United States Air Force. In December 1993, President William Clinton signed Pub.L. 103-163 authorizing the Air Force Memorial. In 1994, the National Capital Memorial Commission approved a site adjacent to Marshall Drive and State Route 110, down the hill from the Netherlands Carillon, known as Arlington Ridge. Fund raising and detailed designs began.
Because the site was near the United States Marine Corps Memorial, which is just north of the Carillon, various Marine groups were briefed on the plans without voicing objections. However, on July 30, 1997, Congressman Gerald B.H. Solomon (R-NY), a Marine veteran, introduced a bill to prohibit the construction of any monument, memorial or other structure "within view" of the Iwo Jima Memorial. The Air Force Association organized support for the memorial on behalf of its membership and Air Force veterans, and the issue became a polarizing one between the services.
On September 16, 1997, the Friends of Iwo Jima and Solomon filed for a Temporary Restraining Order against the construction of the Air Force Memorial, which was dismissed on June 15, 1998. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit then dismissed the appeal of that decision on May 7, 1999. Faced with the cost of litigation and the opposition of prominent former Marines in Congress, the Foundation agreed to move the Memorial to its present site on the grounds of Fort Myer just south of Arlington National Cemetery.[1]
Fireworks at the U.S. Air Force Memorial dedication ceremony
Fireworks at the U.S. Air Force Memorial dedication ceremony
On December 28, 2001, President George W. Bush signed the Defense Authorization Bill, which included a rider directing the Department of Defense to make available to the Air Force Memorial Foundation up to three acres of the Naval Annex property for use as the location for the Air Force Memorial. Formal groundbreaking of the site was held in September 2004. Construction of the spires began in February 2006 and was completed in seven months. The Memorial was dedicated on October 14, 2006, with approximately 30,000 persons attending. The keynote address was delivered by President Bush, a former F-102 Delta Dagger pilot. The first official ceremony at the Memorial was held the next day when Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne laid a memorial wreath for fallen airmen beneath the spires.[2]
"To all who have climbed sunward and chased the shouting wind, America stops to say: your service and your sacrifice will be remembered forever, and honored in this place by the citizens of a free and grateful nation." —President George Bush at acceptance ceremony.
Design
The Memorial itself is 280 feet high and appears to be soaring; its array of stainless steel arcs against the sky evokes the image of "contrails of the Air Force Thunderbirds as they peel back in a precision 'bomb burst' maneuver." Only three of the four contrails are depicted, as the absent fourth evokes the missing man formation traditionally used at Air Force funeral fly-overs. [4]
The spire structure consists of stainless steel plates with high-strength concrete filling the lower 2/3rds of each spire. The upper third is hollow stainless steel.[5] At the transition between concrete and hollow steel portions, dampers are provided to dissipate wind sway energy and eliminate the risk of aerodynamic instability. Each damper consists of a lead ball weighing about a ton each, allowed to roll inside a steel box. The structural design of the memorial was completed by engineering consultancy Arup.
At the entrance from the west stands four eight-foot tall bronze statutes of the Memorial’s Honor Guard, sculpted by Zenos Frudakis. This is linked by a bluestone path to the Glass Contemplation Wall, a glazed independent panel with the images of four F-16's flying in a Missing man formation engraved on both sides of the 5-ply panel, situated on the north side of the Memorial so that the north inscription wall is visible through it, and is the only part of the memorial that depicts aircraft.[6]
The base of the Memorial is framed by two inscription walls located at each end of the central lawn. The walls are 56 feet in length, 10 feet in height and one foot thick. Both walls are made of polished, highly-reflective monolithic Jet Mist granite and both include a two and a half inch outer inscription panel made from Absolute Black granite. The north wall bears the names of Air Force recipients of the Medal of Honor, and the south wall bears inspirational quotations regarding core values, particularly the Air Force's three core values: "integrity first, service before self, and excellence in all we do".[7]
Although the current design is somewhat overshadowed by the Navy Annex at Fort Myer, that facility is slated for demolition by 2010 with the site to be used for the southward expansion of Arlington National Cemetery.
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Products
Official 50 flavors
Jelly Belly officially has 50 flavors that are made year-round. Seasonal flavors, such as candy cane, are only produced at specific times of the year. Additionally, Jelly Belly frequently produces "rookie" flavors that sometimes are added to the jelly beans in the 50 official flavors if they become popular enough.
Rookie Flavor
Jelly Belly usually produces new prototype flavors that occasionally are added to flavors in the Official 50 group. Previous rookie flavors include:
* Apricot
* Buttered Toast - discontinued[citation needed]
* Chocolate Cherry Cake
* Honey Biscuit
* TABASCO Cinnamon
* Baked Bean
* Garlic
The latest rookie is:
* Pomegranate
* Dark Chocolate - to be introduced Spring, 2008
Jelly Belly Sours
Jelly Belly makes ten sour flavors of Jelly Belly beans, sometimes found in single flavors, but most often packaged in dedicated boxes and bags:
* Sour Cherry
* Sour Watermelon
* Sour Blueberry
* Sour Lemon
* Sour Orange
* Sour Peach
* Sour Strawberry
* Sour Raspberry
* Sour Grape
* Sour Apple
[edit] Bertie Bott's Every Flavor Beans
Bertie Bott's Every Flavor Beans
Bertie Bott's Every Flavor Beans
Bertie Bott's Every Flavor Beans were based on a product featured in the Harry Potter book series. The company discontinued this line in 2007.
[edit] BeanBoozled
BeanBoozled jelly beans come in 20 flavors: 10 weird and wild flavors matched up with 10 look-alike tasty flavors. Hence, one might not know when he or she will be "bamboozled" by a weird flavor. A key on the back of each box gives clues to the surprises found inside, but the beans look so similar, every bite can catch one off-guard.[7] Released January 2008, the flavors (some of which have appeared in the Bertie Bott's Every Flavor Beans sets) include the following:
* "Skunk Spray" which looks like the also included "Licorice"
* "Pencil Shavings" which looks like the also included "Top Banana"
* "Moldy Cheese" which looks like the also included "Caramel Corn"
* "Baby Wipes" which looks like the also included "Coconut"
* "Toothpaste" which looks like the also included "Berry Blue"
* "Rotten Egg" which looks like the also included "Buttered Popcorn"
* "Ear Wax" which looks like the also included "Cafe Latte"
* "Booger" which looks like the also included "Juicy Pear"
* "Vomit" which looks like the also included "Peach"
* "Black Pepper" which looks like the also included "Plum"
[edit] Soda Pop Shoppe
In early 2007 Jelly Belly introduced Soda Pop Shoppe flavours based on soft drink brands marketed by Cadbury Schweppes Americas Beverages. The six flavours include Dr Pepper, 7-Up, A&W Root Beer, A&W Cream Soda, Orange Crush, and Grape Crush. They were available in now discontinued single flavour novelty pop bottle shaped containers and can still be had in mixed variety packages.
[edit] Sweet Rocks
In 2006 Jelly Belly made Sweet Rocks available in conjunction with the release of the animated movie The Ant Bully. Now discontinued, Sweet Rocks jelly beans included 4 Ant Bully flavors in a 20 flavor mix.
* Aika Root
* Lawn Clippings
* Caterpillar
* Ant Hill
* dirt
* Caramel Apple
* Strawberry Jam
* Very Cherry
* Bubble Gum
* Buttered Popcorn
* Carmel Corn
* Watermelon
* Candy Floss
* Lemon Drop
* Red Apple
* Grape
* Top Banana
* Tutti-Fruiti
* Berry Blue
* Chocolate Pudding
* Toasted Marshmallow
[edit] Sugar-free jelly beans
Jelly Belly also produces sugar-free jelly beans that come in ten flavors:
* Cherry
* Sizzling cinnamon
* Green Apple
* Juicy pear
* Lemon
* Licorice
* Pineapple
* Buttered popcorn
* Strawberry
* Tangerine
Kiwi
Red Apple
In addition to sugar-free jelly beans, most varieties were formerly certified kosher and pareve by the KO organization[8] kosher service, which would make the product considered suitable for strict vegetarians as well. During Summer 2007, Jelly Belly announced that it would switch all of their products to the Orthodox Union ('OU') Kosher certification.[9]
[edit] Sport Beans
Sport Beans are a line of jelly beans specially formulated for athletes to consume during training or sports activity. They contain electrolytes, carbs, and vitamins B and C,[10] and they currently come in four flavors:
* Lemon lime
* Orange
* Fruit punch
* Berry blue
[edit] Extreme Sport Beans
In November 2007, Extreme Sports Beans were released. They are being marketed as "energizing" jelly beans, and they contain electrolytes, vitamins and 50 mg of caffeine per serving.[10] These jelly beans come in two flavors:
* Cherry
* Watermelon
[edit] Belly Flops
In the process of making Jelly Belly beans some of the beans stick together, are too large or too small, making them not meet the standards of quality. These imperfect beans, rather than being scrapped, are repackaged as Belly Flops. Belly Flops are sold in either five ounce or two pound packages at the Jelly Belly factory, other select stores such as factory outlets, and online at the Jelly Belly Outlet. Five ounce packages can sometimes be found in dollar stores. Belly Flops come in mixes, and are not sold by the flavor.
[edit] JBz
JBz are a candy manufactured by The Jelly Belly Candy Company. They are chocolate candies with a flavored shell, similar to M&M's. The shell flavors are all based on Jelly Belly jelly bean flavors. There are five flavors designed to pair with the chocolate:
* Cappuccino
* Fudge brownie
* Coconut
* Vanilla
* Caramel
[edit] Fruit Gems
Jelly Belly now also makes Fruit Gems under license from Sunkist.
[edit] Fruit Sours
The sour balls come in grape, cherry, orange, lemon, and apple. They have a jell center, soft panned shell and each have a "sour" flavor. Each ball is about the size of an old fashioned gumball.
[edit] Unbearably HOT Cinnamon Bears
Jelly Belly also produces sugar-coated hot cinnamon candies in the shape of gummi bears.
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The Port of Oakland has just completed construction of the USS Potomac berthing improvement as well as a new berth for the U.S. Lighthouse Society's vessel the Lightship Relief. This $740,000 project includes a new shore side ADA access facility for the USS Potomac now accessible from the foot of Clay Street in Oakland next to the Oakland Fire Station. The Potomac has been restored and been available to the public with tours and charters and shore side docent lead history tours for the past 10 years, however this is the first time the facility accessing the vessel complies completely with ADA access requirements. In addition a new public access walkway was completed along the shoreline from Clay Street west to the Howard Terminal Pier. Within a matter of a few weeks the Lightship Relief will assume its new public berth in Jack London Square and will be open to the public. The Port is very happy with new improvements featuring great close up vistas of the operating terminal, additional shoreline walkway and the beautiful railings that the Port has used throughout Jack London Square.
A little history on the Lightship
Built: 1951
Decommissioned: 1975
The Lightship Relief was commissioned in 1951 as Light Vessel No. 605, and was built by the Rice Brothers Shipyard in Boothbay, Maine. She first went into service as Lightship Overfalls off Delaware until 1960 when she was transferred to the Blunts reef station off Cape Mendocino, California. Then in 1969 she became Relief , relieving all west coast lightships when they left the station for overhaul. Decommissioned by the Coast Guard in 1975, she was given to the City of Olympia, Washington in 1976. The city sold the vessel to Mr. Alan Hosking of Woodside, California in 1979 and he donated the ship to the U.S. Lighthouse Society in 1986. Well over 10,000 hours have been spent restoring the vessel by Society members. The ship has many historical artifacts on board, and has been designated as a National Historic Landmark by the U.S. Department of the Interior.
Relief is 128 feet long, with a beam of 30 feet, a draft of 11 feet and a displacement of 617 tons. She is propelled by an Atlas Imperial 8 cylinder diesel engine (450 HP) and single screw. She has a speed of 11.5 knots with a range of 22,000 miles.
Find more information about the Lightship Relief on the Internet Public Library site: (http://www.ipl.org/div/light/PAC/LtShipRelief.html)
A little history on the USS Potomac
Please visit the website (www.usspotomac.org)
The U.S.S. Potomac originally was built in 1934 as the Coast Guard cutter Electra. The 165-foot-long vessel, weighing 376 gross tons and with a cruising speed of 10 to 13 knots, was converted to the presidential yacht U.S.S. Potomac by Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who had her recommissioned as a U.S. Navy vessel in 1936. As former Assistant Secretary of the Navy, FDR had a deep love for the sea and the Navy tradition. He hated to fly and preferred to travel by train or ship throughout his presidency.
FDR suffered from sinusitis most of his adult life. Particularly during the sultry summers days in Washington, D.C., he preferred to cruise on the U.S.S. Potomac rather than stay in the White House. The U.S.S. Potomac gave the nation's 32nd president much-needed respite from the cares of governing the United States through the Great Depression and World War II. He loved holding informal strategy sessions with close advisors and Congressional leaders in the privacy and seclusion of the yacht. Recreation aboard the vessel included fishing, poker games and family gatherings, and he spent endless hours on board with his beloved stamp collection.
A paraplegic since he was stricken in 1921 with polio at the age of 39, FDR's greatest fear was being caught in a fire and being unable to escape. He therefore preferred the U.S.S. Potomac, an all-steel vessel, to the all-wood Sequoia, the 100-ton ornate yacht used by his predecessor Herbert Hoover. FDR installed a hand-operated elevator inside a false stack, and the president - who had developed an extremely strong upper body - was able to use pulleys to move up and down between the saloon and upper boat deck.
There are a few records of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt coming aboard her husband's "Floating White House." In 1941, she celebrated her 57th birthday with family members aboard the U.S.S. Potomac. She also came aboard during the June 1939 visit by the United Kingdom's King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. The two couples cruised past Williamsburg, Virginia, and George Washington's home at Mt. Vernon during their outing on the Potomac. Other royalty to board the presidential yacht included Crown Princess Martha of Norway, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands and Crown Prince Gustav of Sweden.
At least one of FDR's famed radio broadcasts originated from the U.S.S. Potomac, on March 29, 1941.
In August of 1941, four months before Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, FDR boarded the U.S.S. Potomac ostensibly for a fishing trip and a visit to Martha's Vineyard. The President secretly was transferred to the heavy cruiser U.S.S. Augusta that evening, where he met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill for the first time. During this top-secret rendezvous, the two world leaders forged the principles of the Atlantic Charter which formed the Allied partnership during World War II, and what Roosevelt called the "United Nations" to plan the post-war peace. With the United States' direct involvement in the war at the end of 1941, the president's recreational use of the U.S.S. Potomac decreased.
After FDR's death in April 1945, the U.S.S. Potomac began a long and ignominious decline from her former role in world affairs. The vessel fell into private hands and in 1980 was seized by U.S. Customs for her role as a front for drug smugglers in San Francisco. Eventually, the proud vessel's hull was pierced and she sank at Treasure Island.
She was refloated by the Navy two weeks later and sold to the Port of Oakland for just $15,000. The Port of Oakland spearheaded a cooperative effort with organized labors, maritime corporations and dedicated volunteers to complete a $5 million restoration.
The Association for the Preservation of the Presidential Yacht Potomac now operates this National Historic Landmark as an active memorial to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and the momentous times through which he led our nation.
Secrets revealed of the Abode of Chaos (112 pages, adult only) >>>
"999" English version with English subtitles is available >>>
HD movie - scenario thierry Ehrmann - filmed by Etienne Perrone
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voir les secrets de la Demeure du Chaos avec 112 pages très étranges (adult only)
999 : visite initiatique au coeur de la Demeure du Chaos insufflée par l'Esprit de la Salamandre
Film HD d'Etienne PERRONE selon un scénario original de thierry Ehrmann.
courtesy of Organ Museum
©2011 www.AbodeofChaos.org
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Junk Jet has developed an archive impossible that transports, in print format, net based works, or fragments of works showing collections, series, animations, applications, and reflecting anti-heart texts on the net and its new forms of art, design, and architecture. N°5, the net.heart issue, has transferred internet things from their digital space into a paper jet. This transportation procedure relies on documents in a similar way as the museum relies on photograph and video documenting performance arts. And Junk Jet believes that this analogue documentation is in no way inferior to pseudo-preserving techniques of data migration, emulation, or reprogramming. At the end, Junk Jet says: Transportation is not so much about the artwork as object, but rather about the indication of the subjective decision of the artist. In this sense Junk Jet is a Russian conceptualist.
www.facebook.com/pages/Junk-Jet/298633638983
With wireless contributions by Adam Cruces, Agathe Andre, Alessandro Bava, Alexei Shulgin, Angela Genusa, Angelo Plessas, Aureliano Segundo, Asli Serbest, Aristide Antonas, Artie Vierkant, Ball-Nogues, Bärbel Jetter, Bea Fremderman, Beatriz Ramo, Ben Aqua, Ben Vickers, Billy Rennekamp, Bonno van Doorn, Brad Troemel, Bryan Boyer, Carsten Güth, Christian Oldham, Christine Nasz and Stefanie Hunold, Constant Dullaart, Dennis Knopf, Eilis Mcdonald, Fabien Mousse, Gene McHugh, Greg J. Smith, Hanne Mugaas, Jacob Engblom, Jasper Elings, JODI, Jonas Lund, Jordan Tate, Katja Novitskova, Laimonas Zakas, Lenox Twins, m-a-u-s-e-r, Marisa Olson, Michael Schoner, Mike Ruiz, Mimi Zeiger, Mona Mahall, Natalie Bookchin, Nicholas O'Brien, Nicolas Sassoon, NIEI, NLarchitects, Olia Lialina, Palace Palace, Rafaël Rozendaal, Ricardo Scofidio, Parker Ito, Patrick Cruz, Pieterjan Grandry, Raphael Bastide, Sam Hancocks, Sarah Weis, Something Fantastic, Sterling Crispin, Theo Seemann, Will Brand, Wyne Veen
Edited by Mona Mahall and Asli Serbest
N°5 comes with a Poster: "Home Buttons by Architects"
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
Virginia City is an unincorporated community that is the county seat of Storey County, Nevada, United States. It is part of the Reno–Sparks Metropolitan Statistical Area.
Geography
Virginia City is located at [show location on an interactive map] 39°18′37″N, 119°38′57″W[1].
History
Virginia City is one of the oldest established cities in Nevada. Like many cities and towns in the state, Virginia City was a mining boomtown; in fact it is one of the most famous boomtowns in the Old West as it virtually appeared overnight as a result of the Comstock Lode silver strike of 1859. During its peak, Virginia City had a population of nearly 30,000 residents. When the Comstock Lode ended in 1898, the city's population declined sharply.
Virginia City could be considered the birthplace of Mark Twain, as it was here in 1863 that writer Samuel Clemens, then a reporter on the local Territorial Enterprise newspaper, first used his famous pen name.[citation needed]
Historical data in The Virginia City Historical documents, point out that newspaper writer Samuel Clemens, was "mugged" one night as he walked over the hill from the south while returning to Virginia City (probably after consuming alcoholic beverages at the home of friends.) The evidence shown points out that this was one of the reasons that persuaded him to relocate elsewhere. The highwaymen with the common "Stand and deliver!" relieved Mr. Clemens of his watch and money he had with him. This evidence is found in the newspaper office and the veracity of the robbery is likely valid as it is reported as a crime in the (period)newspaper. As a motivation for his leaving, it is just speculation since the date of the robbery is prior but close to his leaving and beginning his writing career in earnest at a more developed city. This robbery (10 Nov 1863) turns out to have been a practical joke played on Sam Clemens by his "friends", to give him "material" to write about!. He did not appreciate the joke, but at least he got his belongings back, especially his gold watch worth $300), which had great "sentimental" value to him. (Reference:page 167, Ch.16 "Mark Twain - A Life" Ron Powers 2005, Free Press, 722pp hardback). Sam Clemens also mentions the incident in his own book "Roughing It", (published Feb 1872) - and he was still sore about it(Ibid)!
Virginia City had the first elevator between California and Chicago.[citation needed]
In the 1950s, two Virginia City neighbors got into a dispute.[2] When one of the men built a new house, the other bought the lot next to it and built a house less than twelve inches from his neighbor's house in spite to deprive the neighbor of both view and breeze.[2] The Virginia City Spite House still is standing and occupied.[2]
Film history
Virginia City is near the site of the fictional Ponderosa Ranch on the Western television drama Bonanza. As such, the show's characters made visits to the town regularly -- or at least to the flat Hollywood backlot town.
It was the locale of a 1940 Errol Flynn movie set during the Civil War.
Elmar Bartlmae (Dir.): Virginia City und die wahre Geschichte des Wilden Westens. Dokumentation, France 2007, Arte-TV, May 26th, 2007 (the real history...; French, German)
Scary...But True, a paranormal TV series, featured Virginia City in one episode. Many of the inhabitants of Virginia City claimed on camera that the whole city is haunted by spirits.
Virginia City Historic District
Virginia City was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961.[3]name="nrhpinv2">Charles Snell and Marilynn Larew (April 21, 1978), National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Virginia City Historic DistrictPDF (1.01 MiB), National Park Service and Accompanying 50 or so photos from 1968, 1971, 1978 and other dates.PDF (4.82 MiB) This in effect created a Virginia City Historic District.
Today, Virginia City is but a shadow of its former glory, however, it still draws over 2 million visitors per year. It is one of the nation's larger[citation needed] National Historic Landmarks and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Keeping with tradition, Virginia City does not have any chain stores or fast food restaurants.[citation needed]
Virginia City Locals
Virginia city consists of a population of 1,000 people in the town and 4,000 in Storey County. It has 1 elementary school, 1 middle school, and 1 high school. Many locals work at the shops in town that cater to tourists, while others seek jobs in the surrounding cities. Popular hangouts for teens include the swimming pool and restaurants. Basketball is very popular, with the high school possessing the most state championship titles in Nevada. The middle school is passing on the tradition by winning four league titles in two years between the varsity and junior varsity teams. Most of the population leaves during the winter.
Virginia City Hillclimb
There is an annual hillclimb that runs from Silver City to Virginia City via Highway 341 (a truck route) that is put on jointly between the Ferrari Club of America Pacific Region and the Northern California Shelby Club. Originally the event was put on by the SCCA and took a totally different route; before the truck route was constructed cars would run up Highway 342, past the Gold Hill Hotel and other landmarks. Highway 342 is now the return route for cars that have completed their runs up Highway 341. The hillclimb covers 5.2 miles, climbing 1260 feet and passing through 21 corners.
Darcy Farrow
Darcy Farrow, a folk song written by Steve Gillette and Tom Campbell mentions Virginia City and other places and landmarks in the area (including Yerington, the Carson Valley, and the Truckee River). The most popular version was performed by John Denver.
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Search Engine Marketing Bendigo
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PO Box 1320, 41 Williamson St
Bendigo, VIC, Australia 3450
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~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
History
The roots of the Coast Guard lie in the United States Revenue Cutter Service established by Alexander Hamilton under the Department of the Treasury on August 4, 1790. Until the re-establishment of the United States Navy in 1798, the Revenue Cutter Service was the only naval force of the early U.S. It was established to collect taxes from a brand new nation of patriot smugglers. When the officers were out at sea, they were told to crack down on piracy; while they were at it, they might as well rescue anyone in distress.[7]
"First Fleet" is a term occasionally used as an informal reference to the US Coast Guard, although as far as one can detect the United States has never in fact officially used this designation with reference either to the Coast Guard or any element of the US Navy. The informal appellation honors the fact that between 1790 and 1798, there was no United States Navy and the cutters which were the predecessor of the US Coast Guard were the only warships protecting the coast, trade, and maritime interests of the new republic.[8]
The modern Coast Guard can be said to date to 1915, when the Revenue Cutter Service merged with the United States Life-Saving Service and Congress formalized the existence of the new organization. In 1939, the U.S. Lighthouse Service was brought under its purview. In 1942, the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation was transferred to the Coast Guard. In 1967, the Coast Guard moved from the Department of the Treasury to the newly formed Department of Transportation, an arrangement that lasted until it was placed under the Department of Homeland Security in 2003 as part of legislation designed to more efficiently protect American interests following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.
In times of war, the Coast Guard or individual components of it can operate as a service of the Department of the Navy. This arrangement has a broad historical basis, as the Guard has been involved in wars as diverse as the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, and the American Civil War, in which the cutter Harriet Lane fired the first naval shots attempting to relieve besieged Fort Sumter. The last time the Coast Guard operated as a whole under the Navy was in World War II. More often, military and combat units within the Coast Guard will operate under the Navy while other Coast Guard units will remain under the Department of Homeland Security.
[edit] Organization
Main article: Organization of the United States Coast Guard
The headquarters of the Coast Guard is at 2100 Second Street, SW, in Washington, D.C. In 2005, the Coast Guard announced tentative plans to relocate to the grounds of the former St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington. That project is currently on hold because of environmental, historical, and congressional concerns. As of July 2006, there are several possible locations being considered, including the current headquarters location.
[edit] Personnel
[edit] Commissioned Officer Corps
There are many routes by which individuals can become commissioned officers in the US Coast Guard. The most common are:
[edit] United States Coast Guard Academy
Main article: United States Coast Guard Academy
The United States Coast Guard Academy is located on the Thames River in New London, Connecticut. It is the only military academy to which no Congressional or presidential appointments are made. All cadets enter by open competition utilizing SAT scores, high school grades, extracurricular activities, and other criteria. About 225 cadets are commissioned ensigns each year. Graduates of the Academy are obligated to serve five years on active duty. Most graduates (about 70%) are assigned to duty aboard a Coast Guard cutter after graduation, either as Deck Watch Officers (DWO) or as Student Engineers. Smaller numbers are assigned to flight training (about 10% of the class) or to shore duty at Coast Guard Sectors, Districts, or Area headquarters unit.
[edit] Officer Candidate School
In addition to the Academy, prospective officers may enter the Coast Guard through the Officer Candidate School (OCS) at the Coast Guard Academy in New London, Connecticut. OCS is a rigorous 17-week course of instruction which prepares candidates to serve effectively as officers in the United States Coast Guard. In addition to indoctrinating students into a military life-style, OCS also provides a wide range of highly technical information necessary for performing the duties of a Coast Guard officer.
Graduates of the program typically receive a commission in the Coast Guard at the rank of Ensign, but some with advanced graduate degrees can enter as Lieutenant (junior grade) or Lieutenant. Graduating OCS officers entering Active Duty are required to serve a minimum of three years, while graduating Reserve officers are required to serve four years. Graduates may be assigned to a ship, flight training, to a staff job, or to an operations ashore billet. However, first assignments are based on the needs of the Coast Guard. Personal desires and performance at OCS are considered. All graduates must be available for worldwide assignment.
In addition to United States citizens, foreign cadets and candidates also attend Coast Guard officer training. OCS represents the source of the majority of commissions in the Coast Guard, and is the primary channel through which enlisted ranks can ascend to the officer corps.
[edit] Direct Commission Officer Program
The Coast Guard's Direct Commission Officer course is administered by Officer Candidate School. Depending on the specific program and background of the individual, the course is three, four or five weeks long. The first week of the five-week course is an indoctrination week. The DCO program is designed to commission officers with highly specialized professional training or certain kinds of previous military experience. For example, lawyers entering as JAGs, doctors, intelligence officers, and others can earn commissions through the DCO program. (Chaplains are provided to the Coast Guard by the US Navy.)
[edit] College Student Pre-Comissioning Initiative (CSPI)
The College Student Pre-Commissioning Initiative (CSPI) is a scholarship program for college sophomores. This program provides students with valuable leadership, management, law enforcement, navigation and marine science skills and training. It also provides full payment of school tuition, fees, textbooks, a salary, medical insurance and other benefits during a student's junior and senior year of college. The CSPI program guarantees training at Officer Candidate School (OCS) upon successful completion of all program requirements. Each student is expected to complete his/her degree and all Coast Guard training requirements. Following the completion of OCS and commission as a Coast Guard officer, each student will be required to serve on active duty (full time) as an officer for 3 years.
Benefits: Full tuition, books and fees paid for two years, monthly salary of approximately $2,000, medical and life insurance, 30 days paid vacation per year, leadership training.
[edit] ROTC
Unlike the other armed services, the Coast Guard does not sponsor a ROTC program. It does, however, sponsor one Junior ROTC ("JROTC") program at the MAST Academy.
[edit] Chief Warrant Officers
Highly qualified enlisted personnel from E-6 through E-9, and with a minimum of eight years of experience, can compete each year for appointment as a Chief Warrant Officer (or CWO). Successful candidates are chosen by a board and then commissioned as Chief Warrant Officers (CWO-2) in one of sixteen specialties. Over time Chief Warrant Officers may be promoted to CWO-3 and CWO-4. The ranks of Warrant Officer (WO-1) and CWO-5 are not currently used in the Coast Guard. Chief Warrant Officers may also compete for the Chief Warrant Officer to Lieutenant program. If selected, the officer will be promoted to Lieutenant (O-3E). The "E" designates over four years active duty service as a Warrant Officer or Enlisted member and entitles the member to a higher rate of pay than other lieutenants.
[edit] Enlisted
Newly enlisted personnel are sent to 9 weeks of Basic Training at the Coast Guard Training Center Cape May in Cape May, New Jersey.
The current nine Recruit Training Objectives are:
* Self-discipline
* Military skills
* Marksmanship
* Vocational skills and academics
* Military bearing
* Physical fitness and wellness
* Water survival and swim qualifications
* Esprit de corps
* Core values (Honor, Respect, and Devotion to Duty)
Following graduation, most members are sent to their first unit while they await orders to attend advanced training, in Class "A" Schools, in their chosen rating, the naval term for Military Occupational Specialty (MOS). Members who earned high ASVAB scores or who were otherwise guaranteed an "A" School of choice while enlisting can go directly to their "A" School upon graduation from Boot Camp.
Petty officers follow career development paths very similar to those of US Navy petty officers.
Enlisted Coast Guard members who have reached the pay grade of E-7, or Chief Petty Officer, must attend the U.S. Coast Guard Chief Petty Officer Academy at Training Center Petaluma in Petaluma, California, or an equivalent Department of Defense school, to be advanced to pay grade E-8. United States Air Force master sergeants, as well as international students representing their respective maritime services, are also eligible to attend the Academy. The basic themes of this school are:
* Professionalism
* Leadership
* Communications
* Systems thinking and lifelong learning
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