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visit www.click4wap.com on your mobile! enjoy!
a micro banner for Click4WAP's mobile site.
mobile sites, wap sites, mobile search, wap search, mobile search engines, mobile links, mobile sites, mobile games, mobile casinos, wap search engines, free mobile content, mobile video chat,
Entrance to Building at Google Dublin Office.
You can use this image freely, however under the CC BY 2.0 licence we ask you attribute www.outreachpete.com as the original source.
Google European Headquarters in Dublin
You can use this image freely, however under the CC BY 2.0 licence we ask you attribute www.outreachpete.com as the original source.
Back in 1998, I completed my Master’s. The culmination of a hectic 3 years, juggling family, work and study.
Researching search engines before Google came along later that year and completely changed the landscape
Google logo; rendered with flash/actionscript using circles & lines.
More interesting artworks by Mark Knol can be found here
Search engine traffic is a difficult thing to come across by with out paying for paper per clicks, or ppc. And/or paying for adwords to get search engine traffic which is free. The key to obtaining search engine traffic is your website content.
These two kids were sitting by themselves, against an old wall near the entrance to Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome. From what I could tell, they were sharing iPod ear-buds, so they both listen to the same song...
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Note: this photo was published in a Jan 27, 2009 blog titled "Científicos europeos alertan sobre el uso de reproductores de MP3." It was also published in an Oct 25, 2009 QuoteSnack blog titled "Private action, however radical and satisfying, only becomes political when it is made known."
It was also published in a Mar 10, 2010 blog titled "The Link Wheel Exposed"( I have absolutely no idea what that means...) And a cropped version of the photo was published in what appears to be an undated (Apr 2010) home page of a Swedish website titled dnskola.se/uppdrag/forandra-med-fakta. More recently, the photo was published in a May 12, 2010 blog titled "SEO Sharing Session." And it was published in a May 17, 2010 blog titled "WHY THE MUSIC INDUSTRY WILL LOSE IN ITS FIGHT AGAINST CONTENT SHARING." It was also published in a May 31, 2010 German blog titled "studiVZ plant Musik-Tauschbörse." And it was published in a Jun 23, 2010 blog titled "Sharing modes." It was also published in a Jul 10, 2010 blog titled "Can An Ordinary Joe Make Money On CB?" And it was published in an Aug 14, 2010 Learn 2 Earn Online blog, with the same title as the caption that I used on this Flickr page. It was also published in the Aug 23, Aug 27, Sep 5, Sep 7, and Sep 8, 2010 issues of Profit Quickies 4 Newbies blog, with the same title as the caption that I used on this Flickr page. It was also published in a Sep 15, 2010 Spanish blog titled "TODO LO QUE COMPARTES, AUNQUE TE QUEDE A LA MITAD, TE SABE EL DOBLE DE BUENO. :-)" And it was published in an Oct 7, 2010 blog titled "Why are You not Being Able to Earn Money Online." It was also published in a Nov 26, 2010 blog titled "http://www.marsdd.com/blog/2010/11/26/pushlife-rocks-it-launch-of-listen-in/." And it was published in a Dec 28, 2010 blog titled "Nutzen staff besitzen."
Moving into 2011, the photo was published in a Jan 3, 2011 blog titled "Day 3 — 31 Days of Social Media {Share}." And it was published in a Jan 5, 2011 blog titled "Nice Music 2010 photos." It was also published in a Jan 17, 2011 blog titled "How Can I make Money Online and Build a Business?", as well as a Jan 17, 2011 blog titled "Where to Hear Hungarian Music for Free." And it was published in a Jan 19, 2011 blog titled "À lire et à faire lire : Biens Communs - La Prospérité par le Partage." It was also published in a Jan 23, 2011 blog titled "Read Up On The Latest Wireless Technologies as well as a Jan 24, 2011 blog titled "How Important Are Search Engines To Your Website?"It was also published in a Jan 26, 2011 blog titled "How Online Kids Clothes Can Be Quick And Easy." And, as of early Feb 2011, it appears on the home page of a consulting firm called Artefact. It was also published in a Feb 24, 201 Cool Music Images blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. And it was published in a Mar 13, 2011 blog titlted "Nobodies are the New Somebodies," as well as a Mar 15, 2011 blog titled "Nice Music Photos," and a Mar 16, 2011 blog titled "How to Kill the Music Industry." It was also published in a Mar 20, 2011 blog titled "Musical playlists, It’s not what you like… It’s who you are," as well as a Mar 21, 2011 Cool Learning German Free Online images blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. And it was published in an undated (late Mar 2011) blog titled " 7 Ways to Twitter Heaven." It was also published in a Mar 31, 2011 blog titled "Social Tools: Helping People Share What They Know ." And it was published in an undated (early Apr 2011) Nice Music Marketing Photos blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. It was also published in an Apr 26, 2010 vi.sualize.us blog , as well as an Apr 27, 2011 blog titled "The Music of Many Lands."
After a month or so of peace and quiet, the photo was published again in a Jun 8, 2011 blog titled "Make Money Online Using Any One Of These 3 Methods." It was also published in a Jun 29, 2011 MacBook Lover blog posting titled "Cool iPod Images." And it was published in an Aug 4, 2011 Video Blogging for Profits blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. It was also published in an Aug 29, 2011 blog titled "Muzyka." And it was published in a Sep 10, 2011 Kid's World blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written here on this Flickr page. It was also published in a Nov 11, 2011 blog titled "Nice I Make Funds on the Web Photos," with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page.
Moving into 2012, the photo was published in a Jan 18, 2012 blog titled "Anyone make any money in Big Bear Mining?" And it was published in a Feb 3, 2012 blog titled "Q&A: How to Earn Money Online for Free." It was also published in an undated(mid-Feb 2012) blog titled "Share Your Smoothies." And it was published in a Mar 5, 2012 Mobile Master Pro blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written in this Flickr page. It was also published in a Mar 27, 2012 blog titled "Feds to carriers: Let’s share the airwaves." And it was published in an undated (early Apr 2012) blog titled "Poursuivi parce qu’un de ses contacts a partagé une photo sur son mur Facebook." It was also published in an Apr 14, 2012 bog titled "Best Of Motivational Quotes And Inspirational Quotes." And it was published in a May 9, 2012 blog titled "DIY U: Interview with Anya Kamenetz." It was also published in a Jun 30, 2012 Share this Quote blog, which superimposed a Victor Hugo quote on the photo. And it was published in a Jul 20, 2012 blog titled "Cinco características que debe tener el servicio de música a la carta definitive." It was also published in a Sep 21, 2012 blog titled "Arte Radio : dix ans d’intimité radiophonique." And it was published in a Sep 24, 2012 blog titled "Sound Stories." It was also published in a Sep 29, 2012 SEO-dot-de blog, with the same caption and detailed notes that I had written on this Flickr page. And it was published in a Nov 29, 2012 blog titled "iInformal and online: Peer to peer University (P2PU)." It was also published in a Dec 30, 2012 blog titled "Share Your Experiences and Frugal Tips."
Moving into 2013, the photo was published in a Jan 8, 2013 blog titled "Muzieksmaak kan voorspellen of jongere het criminele pad opgaat ." And it was published in a Feb 12, 2013 blog titled "Friends with benefits: New tool uses Facebook to speed up sharing." It was also published in a Mar 13, 2013 blog titled "Content Marketing: Diese Blogposts teilt man gerne." And it was published in an undated (mid-March 2013) blog titled "Four Unconventional Ways Technology is Improving Music," as well as a Mar 19, 2013 blog titled "恬靜." It was also published in an undated (early Jul 2013) blog titled "Fun Ways to Learn Spanish for Beginners Online." And it was published in an undated (early Aug 2013) blog titled "kDigital Forgetting and Understanding," as well as an Aug 4, 2013 blog titled "Di cose che fanno bene (e male) al cuore." It was also published in a Sep 26, 2013 blog titled "The Greater Crime of Extreme Control of Music." I also found it in a Jul 16, 2013 Swiss blog titled "Sieben Ideen für Ihr Content Marketing."
Moving into 2014, the photo was published in a May 21, 2014 blog titled "Facebook lanza en España su Centro para la Prevención del Acoso." And it was published in an undated (early Nov 2014) Taiwan blog titled "想要人見人愛，到哪都吃得開？2種練習，學習當個體貼的傾聽者！"
Moving into 2015, the photo was published in a Mar 30, 2015 blog titled "Jan Scherman debuterar som satiriker."
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These photos were all taken on Saturday, Dec 6th, after finishing a computer conference in Rome. I spent the morning wandering around the Coliseum and surrounding neighborhood, and then the late afternoon over by the Castel Sant'Angelo, and St. Peters. The swarm of starlings appeared over the river, just before dark, on the way back past the Ponte Sant'Angelo...
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
The September 11, 2001 attacks (often referred to as 9/11) were a series of coordinated suicide attacks by al-Qaeda upon the United States. On that morning, terrorists affiliated with al-Qaeda hijacked four commercial passenger jet airliners.[1][2] The hijackers intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the World Trade Center in New York City, resulting in the collapse of both buildings soon afterward and extensive damage to nearby buildings. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville in rural Somerset County, Pennsylvania after passengers and members of the flight crew on the fourth aircraft attempted to retake control of their plane.
Excluding the 19 hijackers, 2,974 people died as an immediate result of the attacks with another 24 missing and presumed dead. The overwhelming majority of casualties were civilians, including nationals from over 90 different countries. In addition, the death of at least one person from lung disease was ruled by a medical examiner to be a result of exposure to dust from the World Trade Center's collapse, as rescue and recovery workers were exposed to airborne contaminants following the World Trade Center's collapse.
The attacks had major ramifications around the world, with the United States declaring a War on Terrorism in response and launching an invasion of Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, who had been accused of willfully harboring terrorists. The United States passed the USA PATRIOT Act, as many nations around the world strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded law enforcement powers. Stock exchanges were closed for almost a week, and posted enormous losses immediately upon reopening, with airline and insurance industries suffering the greatest financial losses. The economy of Lower Manhattan ground to a halt, as billions of dollars in office space was damaged or destroyed.
The damage to the Pentagon was cleared and repaired within a year, and a small memorial built on the site. Rebuilding the World Trade Center site has been more contentious, with controversy over possible designs as well as the pace of construction. The selection of the Freedom Tower for the site has drawn extensive criticism, forcing the abandonment of some parts of the project.
Attacks
Early in the morning on September 11, 2001, nineteen terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners en route to California from Logan International, Dulles International, and Newark airports.[1] The hijackers flew two of the airliners, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, into the North and South Towers of the World Trade Center.[3] Another group of hijackers flew American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon, and a fourth flight, United Airlines Flight 93, whose ultimate target was the U.S. Capitol building, crashed near Shanksville, Pennsylvania.[4][5]
During the hijacking of the airplanes, some passengers and crew members were able to make phone calls using the cabin GTE airphone service and mobile phones.[6][7] They reported that several hijackers were aboard each plane. The terrorists had reportedly taken control of the aircraft by using knives and box-cutter knives to kill flight attendants and at least one pilot or passenger, including the captain of Flight 11, John Ogonowski.[8] The 9/11 Commission established that two of the hijackers had recently purchased Leatherman multi-function hand tools.[9] Some form of noxious chemical spray, such as tear gas or pepper spray, was reported to have been used on American 11 and United 175 to keep passengers out of the first-class cabin.[10] A flight attendant on Flight 11, a passenger on Flight 175, and passengers on Flight 93 mentioned that the hijackers had bombs, but one of the passengers also mentioned he thought the bombs were fake. No traces of explosives were found at the crash sites. The 9/11 Commission Report believed the bombs were probably fake.[8]
On United Airlines Flight 93, black box recordings revealed that crew and passengers attempted to seize control of the plane from the hijackers after learning through phone calls that similarly hijacked planes had been crashed into buildings that morning.[11][12] According to the transcript of Flight 93's recorder, one of the hijackers gave the order to roll the plane once it became evident that they would lose control of the plane to the passengers.[13] Soon afterward, the aircraft crashed into a field near Shanksville in Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania, at 10:03:11 a.m. local time (14:03:11 UTC). Al-Qaeda leader Khalid Sheikh Mohammed mentioned in a 2002 interview with Yosri Fouda, an al Jazeera journalist, that Flight 93's target was the United States Capitol, which was given the code name "the Faculty of Law".[14]
Three buildings in the World Trade Center Complex collapsed due to structural failure on the day of the attack.[15] The south tower (2 WTC) fell at approximately 9:59 a.m., after burning for 56 minutes in a fire caused by the impact of United Airlines Flight 175.[15] The north tower (1 WTC) collapsed at 10:28 a.m., after burning for approximately 102 minutes.[15] When the north tower collapsed, debris heavily damaged the nearby 7 World Trade Center (7 WTC) building. Its structural integrity was further compromised by fires, and the building collapsed later in the day at 5:20 p.m.[16]
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) launched investigations into the cause of collapse for the three buildings, subsequently expanding the investigation to include questions over measures to prevent progressive collapse, such as fire resistance design and retrofitting of structural steel. The report into 1 WTC and 2 WTC was concluded in October 2005, and the investigation into 7 WTC is ongoing.[17][18] The current NIST hypothesis attributes the collapse to "fire and/or debris induced structural damage."[18]
The attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations and air traffic controllers across the United States. All international civilian air traffic was banned from landing on US soil for three days.[19] Aircraft already in flight were either turned back or redirected to airports in Canada or Mexico. News sources aired unconfirmed and often contradictory reports throughout the day. One of the most prevalent of these reported that a car bomb had been detonated at the U.S. State Department's headquarters in Washington, D.C.[20] Soon after reporting for the first time on the Pentagon crash, CNN and other media also briefly reported that a fire had broken out on the Washington Mall.[21] Another report went out on the AP wire, claiming that a Delta 767—Flight 1989—had been hijacked. This report, too, turned out to be in error; the plane was briefly thought to represent a hijack risk, but it responded to controllers and landed safely in Cleveland, Ohio.
Casualties
There were 2,974 fatalities, excluding the 19 hijackers: 246 on the four planes (from which there were no survivors), 2,603 in New York City in the towers and on the ground, and 125 at the Pentagon.[23][24] An additional 24 people remain listed as missing.[25] All of the fatalities in the attacks were civilians except for 55 military personnel killed at the Pentagon.[26] More than 90 countries lost citizens in the attacks on the World Trade Center.[27]
NIST estimated that approximately 17,400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks, while turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest that 14,154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8:45 a.m.[28][29] The vast majority of people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings, along with 18 individuals who were in the impact zone in the south tower.[30] 1,366 people died who were at or above the floors of impact in the North Tower.[31] According to the Commission Report, hundreds were killed instantly by the impact, while the rest were trapped and died after the tower collapsed.[32] As many as 600 people were killed instantly or were trapped at or above the floors of impact in the South Tower.
At least 200 people jumped to their deaths from the burning towers (as depicted in the photograph "The Falling Man"), landing on the streets and rooftops of adjacent buildings hundreds of feet below.[39] Some of the occupants of each tower above its point of impact made their way upward toward the roof in hope of helicopter rescue, but the roof access doors were locked. No plan existed for helicopter rescues, and on September 11, the thick smoke and intense heat would have prevented helicopters from conducting rescues.[40]
A total of 411 emergency workers who responded to the scene died as they attempted to implement rescue and fire suppression efforts. The New York City Fire Department lost 341 firefighters and 2 FDNY Paramedics.[41] The New York City Police Department lost 23 officers.[42] The Port Authority Police Department lost 37 officers.[43] Private EMS units lost 8 additional EMTs and paramedics.[44][45]
Cantor Fitzgerald L.P., an investment bank on the 101st–105th floors of One World Trade Center, lost 658 employees, considerably more than any other employer.[46] Marsh Inc., located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–101 (the location of Flight 11's impact), lost 295 employees, and 175 employees of Aon Corporation were killed.[47] After New York, New Jersey was the hardest hit state, with the city of Hoboken sustaining the most fatalities.[48]
Weeks after the attack, the estimated death toll was over 6,000.[49] The city was only able to identify remains for approximately 1,600 of the victims at the World Trade Center. The medical examiner's office also collected "about 10,000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead."[50] Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 as workers were preparing to demolish the damaged Deutsche Bank Building.
Damage
In addition to the 110-floor Twin Towers of the World Trade Center itself, numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged, including 7 World Trade Center, 6 World Trade Center, 5 World Trade Center, 4 World Trade Center, the Marriott World Trade Center and St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church.[51] The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned due to the uninhabitable, toxic conditions inside the office tower, and is undergoing deconstruction.[52][53] The Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was also condemned due to extensive damage in the attacks, and is slated for deconstruction.[54] Other neighboring buildings including 90 West Street and the Verizon Building suffered major damage, but have since been restored.[55] World Financial Center buildings, One Liberty Plaza, the Millenium Hilton, and 90 Church Street had moderate damage.[56] Communications equipment atop the North Tower, including broadcast radio, television and two-way radio antenna towers were also destroyed, but media stations were quickly able to reroute signals and resume broadcasts.[51][57] In Arlington County, a portion of the Pentagon was severely damaged by fire and one section of the building collapsed.
Rescue and recovery
The Fire Department of New York City (FDNY) quickly deployed 200 units (half of the department) to the site, whose efforts were supplemented by numerous off-duty firefighters and EMTs.[59][60][61] The New York Police Department (NYPD) sent Emergency Service Units (ESU) and other police personnel.[62] During the emergency response, FDNY commanders, the NYPD, and the Port Authority police had limited ability to share information and coordinate their efforts.[59] The NYPD, FDNY, and Port Authority police did redundant searches for civilians, rather than coordinate efforts among the agencies.[63] As conditions deteriorated, the NYPD received information from its helicopters, and were able to pass along evacuation orders that allowed most of its officers to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed.[62][63] However, radio communications between the NYPD and FDNY were incompatible and the information did not get to FDNY commanders. After the first tower collapsed, FDNY commanders experienced difficulties communicating evacuation orders to firefighters inside the towers due to malfunctioning radio repeater systems in the World Trade Center. 9-1-1 dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along.[60] Within hours of the attack, a massive search and rescue operation was launched. Rescue and recovery efforts took months to complete.
Attackers and their motivation
The attacks were consistent with the overall mission statement of al-Qaeda, as set out in a 1998 fatwā issued by Osama bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, Ahmed Refai Taha, Mir Hamzah, and Fazlur Rahman declaring that it was the "duty of every Muslim" to "kill Americans anywhere."
Al-Qaeda
The origins of al-Qaeda date back to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Soon after the invasion, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan where he helped organize Arab mujahideen and established the Maktab al-Khidamat (MAK) organization to resist the Soviets. In 1989, as the Soviets withdrew, MAK was transformed into a "rapid reaction force" in jihad against governments across the Muslim world. Under the guidance of al-Zawahiri, Osama became more radical.[68] In 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā which called for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia.[69]
In a second fatwā issued in 1998, bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy towards Israel, as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War.[70] Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort violent action against American military and citizenry until the stated grievances are reversed, noting "ulema have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries."
Planning of the attacks
The idea for the September 11 plot came from Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who first presented the idea to bin Laden in 1996.[71] At that point, Bin Laden and al-Qaeda were in a period of transition, having just relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan.[72] The 1998 African Embassy bombings marked a turning point, with bin Laden intent on attacking the United States.[72] In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot.[72] A series of meetings occurred in spring of 1999, involving Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Osama bin Laden, and his deputy Mohammed Atef.[72] Bin Laden provided leadership for the plot, along with financial support.[72] Bin Laden was also involved in selecting people to participate in the plot, including choosing Mohamed Atta as the lead hijacker.[73] As many as 27 members of al-Qaeda attempted to enter the United States to take part in the September 11 attacks.[8] Mohammed provided operational support, such as selecting targets and helping arrange travel for the hijackers.[72] Bin Laden overruled Mohammed, rejecting some potential targets such as the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles[74] because "there was not enough time to prepare for such an operation".[75]
The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States was formed by the United States government and was commonly called the 9/11 Commission. It released its report on July 22, 2004, concluding that the attacks were conceived and implemented by members of al-Qaeda. The Commission stated that "9/11 plotters eventually spent somewhere between $400,000 and $500,000 to plan and conduct their attack, but that the specific origin of the funds used to execute the attacks remained unknown."
Hijackers
Fifteen of the attackers were from Saudi Arabia, two from the United Arab Emirates, one from Egypt, and one from Lebanon.[77] In sharp contrast to the standard profile of suicide bombers, the hijackers were well-educated, mature adults, whose belief systems were fully formed.[78]
Within hours of the attacks, the FBI was able to determine the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers.[79][80] Mohamed Atta's luggage, which did not make the connection from his Portland flight onto Flight 11, contained papers that revealed the identity of all 19 hijackers, and other important clues about their plans, motives, and backgrounds.[81] On the day of the attacks, the National Security Agency intercepted communications that pointed to Osama bin Laden, as did German intelligence agencies.
On September 27, 2001, the FBI released photos of the 19 hijackers, along with information about the possible nationalities and aliases of many.[84] The FBI investigation into the attacks, code named operation PENTTBOM, was the largest and most complex investigation in the history of the FBI, involving over 7,000 special agents.[85] The United States government determined that al-Qaeda, headed by Osama bin Laden, bore responsibility for the attacks, with the FBI stating "evidence linking al-Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks of September 11 is clear and irrefutable".[86] The Government of the United Kingdom reached the same conclusion regarding al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden's culpability for the September 11, 2001 attacks.
Osama bin Laden
Osama bin Laden's declaration of a holy war against the United States, and a fatwā signed by bin Laden and others calling for the killing of American civilians in 1998, are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation to commit such acts.
Bin Laden initially denied, but later admitted, involvement in the incidents.[89][90] On September 16, 2001, bin Laden denied any involvement with the attacks by reading a statement which was broadcast by Qatar's Al Jazeera satellite channel: "I stress that I have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation."[91] This denial was broadcast on U.S. news networks and worldwide.
In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan, in which Osama bin Laden is talking to Khaled al-Harbi. In the tape, bin Laden admits foreknowledge of the attacks.[92] The tape was broadcast on various news networks from December 13, 2001. His distorted appearance on the tape has been attributed to tape transfer artifact.[93]
On December 27, 2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he states, "Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our people," but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks.[94]
Shortly before the U.S. presidential election in 2004, in a taped statement, bin Laden publicly acknowledged al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks on the U.S, and admitted his direct link to the attacks. He said that the attacks were carried out because "we are free…and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours."[95] Osama bin Laden says he had personally directed the 19 hijackers.[96] In the video, he says, "We had agreed with the Commander-General Muhammad Atta, Allah have mercy on him, that all the operations should be carried out within 20 minutes, before Bush and his administration notice."[90] Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows Osama bin Laden with Ramzi Binalshibh, as well as two hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi and Wail al-Shehri, as they make preparations for the attacks.
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed
In a 2002 interview with al Jazeera journalist Yosri Fouda, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement, along with Ramzi Binalshibh, in the "Holy Tuesday operation."[98] The 9/11 Commission Report determined that the animosity towards the United States felt by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the "principal architect" of the 9/11 attacks, stemmed "not from his experiences there as a student, but rather from his violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel."[72] Mohamed Atta shared this same motivation. Ralph Bodenstein, a former classmate of Atta described him as "most imbued actually about... U.S. protection of these Israeli politics in the region."[99] Abdulaziz al-Omari, a hijacker aboard Flight 11 with Mohamed Atta, said in his video will, "My work is a message those who heard me and to all those who saw me at the same time it is a message to the infidels that you should leave the Arabian peninsula defeated and stop giving a hand of help to the coward Jews in Palestine."[100]
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was arrested on March 1, 2003 in Rawalpindi, Pakistan.[101] Mohammed ultimately ended up at Guantanamo Bay. During US hearings in March 2007, which have been "widely criticized by lawyers and human rights groups as sham tribunals", Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks, "I was responsible for the 9/11 operation, from A to Z."
Other al-Qaeda members
In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheik Mohammed" from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui, five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operations details. They are: Osama bin Laden, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Ramzi Binalshibh, Abu Turab Al-Urduni and Mohammed Atef.[104] To date, only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted in connection with the attacks. Bin Laden has not yet been formally indicted for the attacks.[105]
On September 26, 2005, the Spanish high court directed by judge Baltasar Garzón sentenced Abu Dahdah to 27 years of imprisonment for conspiracy on the 9/11 attacks and as part of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. At the same time, another 17 al-Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years.[106][107] On February 16, 2006, the Spanish Supreme Court reduced the Abu Dahdah penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven.
Motive
Many of the eventual findings of the 9/11 Commission with respect to motives have been supported by other experts. Counter-terrorism expert Richard A. Clarke explains in his book, Against All Enemies, that U.S. foreign policy decisions including "confronting Moscow in Afghanistan, inserting the U.S. military in the Persian Gulf," and "strengthening Israel as a base for a southern flank against the Soviets" contributed to al-Qaeda's motives.[109] Others, such as Jason Burke, foreign correspondent for The Observer, focus on a more political aspect to the motive, stating that "bin Laden is an activist with a very clear sense of what he wants and how he hopes to achieve it. Those means may be far outside the norms of political activity [...] but his agenda is a basically political one."[110]
A variety of scholarship has also focused on bin Laden's overall strategy as a motive for the attacks. For instance, correspondent Peter Bergen argues that the attacks were part of a plan to cause the United States to increase its military and cultural presence in the Middle East, thereby forcing Muslims to confront the "evils" of a non-Muslim government and establish conservative Islamic governments in the region.[111] Michael Scott Doran, correspondent for Foreign Affairs, further emphasizes the "mythic" use of the term "spectacular" in bin Laden's response to the attacks, explaining that he was attempting to provoke a visceral reaction in the Middle East and ensure that Muslim citizens would react as violently as possible to an increase in U.S. involvement in their region.
Aftermath
Immediate national response
The 9/11 attacks had immediate and overwhelming effects upon the people of the United States. Many police officers and rescue workers elsewhere in the country took leaves of absence to travel to New York City to assist in the process of recovering bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers.[113] Blood donations across the U.S. also saw a surge in the weeks after 9/11.[114][115] For the first time in history, all nonemergency civilian aircraft in the United States and several other countries including Canada were immediately grounded, stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world.[116] Any international flights were closed to American airspace by the Federal Aviation Administration, causing flights to be redirected to other countries. Canada was one of the main recipients of diverted flights and launched Operation Yellow Ribbon to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers.
War on Terrorism
The NATO council declared that the attacks on the United States were considered an attack on all NATO nations and, as such, satisfied Article 5 of the NATO charter.[118] In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, the Bush administration declared a war on terrorism, with the stated goals of bringing Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda to justice and preventing the emergence of other terrorist networks. These goals would be accomplished by means including economic and military sanctions against states perceived as harboring terrorists and increasing global surveillance and intelligence sharing. The second-biggest operation of the U.S. Global War on Terrorism outside of the United States, and the largest directly connected to terrorism, was the overthrow of the Taliban rule of Afghanistan by a U.S.-led coalition. The United States was not the only nation to increase its military readiness, with other notable examples being the Philippines and Indonesia, countries that have their own internal conflicts with Islamist terrorism.[119][120] U.S. officials speculated on possible involvement by Saddam Hussein immediately afterwards.[121] Although these suspicions were unfounded, the association contributed to public acceptance for the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Domestic response
Following the attacks, President Bush's job approval rating soared to 86%.[122] On September 20, 2001, the U.S. president spoke before the nation and a joint session of the United States Congress, regarding the events of that day, the intervening nine days of rescue and recovery efforts, and his intent in response to those events. In addition, the highly visible role played by New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani won him high praise nationally and in New York.[123] Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist victims of the attacks, with the task of providing financial assistance to the survivors of the attacks and to the families of victims. By the deadline for victim's compensation, September 11, 2003, 2,833 applications had been received from the families of those killed.[124]
Contingency plans for the continuity of government and the evacuation of leaders were also implemented almost immediately after the attacks.[116] Congress, however, was not told that the United States was under a continuity of government status until February 2002.[125]
Within the United States, Congress passed and President Bush signed the Homeland Security Act of 2002, creating the Department of Homeland Security, representing the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary history. Congress also passed the USA PATRIOT Act, stating that it would help detect and prosecute terrorism and other crimes. Civil liberties groups have criticized the PATRIOT Act, saying that it allows law enforcement to invade the privacy of citizens and eliminates judicial oversight of law-enforcement and domestic intelligence gathering.[126][127][128] The Bush Administration also invoked 9/11 as the reason to initiate a secret National Security Agency operation, "to eavesdrop on telephone and e-mail communications between the United States and people overseas without a warrant."
Hate crimes
Numerous incidents of harassment and hate crimes were reported against Middle Easterners and other "Middle Eastern-looking" people, particularly Sikhs, because Sikh males usually wear turbans, which are stereotypically associated with Muslims in the United States. There were reports of verbal abuse, attacks on mosques and other religious buildings (including the firebombing of a Hindu temple) and assaults on people, including one murder: Balbir Singh Sodhi was fatally shot on September 15, 2001. He, like others, was a Sikh who was mistaken for a Muslim.
Muslim American reaction
Top Muslim organizations in the United States were swift to condemn the attacks on 9/11 and called "upon Muslim Americans to come forward with their skills and resources to help alleviate the sufferings of the affected people and their families". Top organizations include: Islamic Society of North America, American Muslim Alliance, American Muslim Council, Council on American-Islamic Relations, The Islamic Circle of North America, and the Shari'a Scholars Association of North America. In addition to massive monetary donations, many Islamic organizations launched blood drives and provided medical assistance, food, and residence for victims.[131]
Following the attacks, 80,000 Arab and Muslim immigrants were fingerprinted and registered under the Alien Registration Act of 1940. 8,000 Arab and Muslim men were interviewed, and 5,000 foreign nationals were detained under Joint Congressional Resolution 107-40 authorizing the use of military force "to deter and prevent acts of international terrorism against the United States."
International response
The attacks were denounced by mainstream media and governments worldwide. Across the globe, nations offered pro-American support and solidarity.[133] Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries, including Afghanistan, condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception, with an immediate official statement that "the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity."[134] Another publicized exception was the celebration of some Palestinians.[135]
Approximately one month after the attacks, the United States led a broad coalition of international forces in the removal of the Taliban regime for harboring the al-Qaeda organization.[136] The Pakistani authorities moved decisively to align themselves with the United States in a war against the Taliban and al-Qaeda. Pakistan provided the United States a number of military airports and bases for its attack on the Taliban regime and arrested over 600 supposed al-Qaeda members, whom it handed over to the United States.[137]
Numerous countries, including the UK, India, Australia, France, Germany, Indonesia, China, Canada, Russia, Pakistan, Jordan, Mauritius, Uganda and Zimbabwe introduced "anti-terrorism" legislation and froze the bank accounts of businesses and individuals they suspected of having al-Qaeda ties.[138][139] Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries, including Italy, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines arrested people they labeled terrorist suspects for the stated purpose of breaking up militant cells around the world.[140][141] In the U.S., this aroused some controversy, as critics such as the Bill of Rights Defense Committee argued that traditional restrictions on federal surveillance (e.g. COINTELPRO's monitoring of public meetings) were "dismantled" by the USA PATRIOT Act.[142] Civil liberty organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union and Liberty argued that certain civil rights protections were also being circumvented.[143][144] The United States set up a detention center at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, to hold what they termed "illegal enemy combatants". The legitimacy of these detentions has been questioned by, among others, the European Parliament, the Organization of American States, and Amnesty International.
Conspiracy theories
Various conspiracy theories have emerged subsequent to the attacks suggesting that individuals inside the United States knew the attacks were coming and deliberately chose not to prevent them, or that individuals outside of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda planned or carried out the attacks.[148] The community of civil engineers generally accepts the mainstream account that the impacts of jets at high speeds in combination with subsequent fires, rather than controlled demolition, led to the collapse of the Twin Towers.
Investigations
9/11 Commission
The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission), chaired by former New Jersey Governor Thomas Kean,[150] was formed in late 2002 to prepare a full and complete account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks, including preparedness for, and the immediate response to, the attacks. On July 22, 2004, the 9/11 Commission issued the 9/11 Commission Report. The commission and its report have been subject to various forms of criticism.
Collapse of the World Trade Center
A federal technical building and fire safety investigation of the collapses of the Twin Towers and 7 WTC has been conducted by the United States Department of Commerce's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The goals of this investigation were to investigate why the buildings collapsed, the extent of injuries and fatalities, and the procedures involved in designing and managing the World Trade Center.[153]
The report concluded that the fireproofing on the Twin Towers' steel infrastructures was blown off by the initial impact of the planes and that, if this had not occurred, the towers would likely have remained standing.[154] Gene Corley, the director of the original investigation, commented that "the towers really did amazingly well. The terrorist aircraft didn’t bring the buildings down; it was the fire which followed. It was proven that you could take out two thirds of the columns in a tower and the building would still stand." [155] The fires weakened the trusses supporting the floors, making the floors sag. The sagging floors pulled on the exterior steel columns to the point where exterior columns bowed inward. With the damage to the core columns, the buckling exterior columns could no longer support the buildings, causing them to collapse. In addition, the report asserts that the towers' stairwells were not adequately reinforced to provide emergency escape for people above the impact zones. NIST stated that the final report on the collapse of 7 WTC will appear in a separate report.[156][157] This was confirmed by an independent study by Purdue University.
Internal review of the CIA
The Inspector General of the CIA conducted an internal review of the CIA's pre-9/11 performance, and was harshly critical of senior CIA officials for not doing everything possible to confront terrorism, including failing to stop two of the 9/11 hijackers, Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, as they entered the United States and failing to share information on the two men with the FBI.[159]
In May 2007, senators from both the Democratic Party and the Republican Party drafted legislation that would openly present an internal CIA investigative report. One of the backers, Senator Ron Wyden stated "The American people have a right to know what the Central Intelligence Agency was doing in those critical months before 9/11.... I am going to bulldog this until the public gets it." The report investigates the responsibilities of individual CIA personnel before and after the 9/11 attacks. The report was completed in 2005, but its details have never been released to the public.
Long-term effects
Economic aftermath
The attacks had a significant economic impact on the United States and world markets. The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), the American Stock Exchange, and NASDAQ did not open on September 11 and remained closed until September 17. When the stock markets reopened, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (“DJIA”) stock market index fell 684 points, or 7.1%, to 8921, its biggest-ever one-day point decline.[161] By the end of the week, the DJIA had fallen 1,369.7 points (14.3%), its largest one-week point drop in history.[162] U.S. stocks lost $1.4 trillion in value for the week.[162] In New York City, there were approximately 430,000 lost job months and $2.8 billion in lost wages, which occurred in the three months following the 9/11 attacks. The economic effects were mainly focused on the city's export economy sectors.[163] The GDP for New York City was estimated to have declined by $27.3 billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002. The Federal government provided $11.2 billion in immediate assistance to the Government of New York City in September 2001, and $10.5 billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs.[164]
The 9/11 attacks also had great impact on small businesses in Lower Manhattan, located near the World Trade Center. Approximately 18,000 small businesses were destroyed or displaced after the attacks. The Small Business Administration provided loans as assistance, while Community Development Block Grants and Economic Injury Disaster Loans were other ways that the Federal Government provided assistance to small business effected by the 9/11 attacks.[164] 31.9 million square feet of Lower Manhattan office space was either damaged or destroyed.[165] Many questioned whether these lost jobs would ever be restored, and whether the damaged tax base could ever recover.[166] Economic studies of the effects of 9/11 have confirmed that the impact of the attacks on the Manhattan office market as well as on office employment was more limited than initially expected because of the strong need for face-to-face interaction in the financial services industry.[167][168]
North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased significantly upon its reopening. The attacks led to nearly a 20% cutback in air travel capacity, and severely exacerbated financial problems in the struggling U.S. airline industry.
Health effects
The thousands of tons of toxic debris resulting from the collapse of the Twin Towers consisted of more than 2,500 contaminants, including known carcinogens.[170][171] This has led to debilitating illnesses among rescue and recovery workers, which many claim to be directly linked to debris exposure.[172][173] For example, NYPD Officer Frank Macri died of lung cancer that spread throughout his body on September 3, 2007; his family contends the cancer is the result of long hours on the site and they have filed for line-of-duty death benefits, which the city has yet to rule on.[174] Health effects have also extended to some residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown.[175] Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust caused by the World Trade Center's collapse and the victims' names will be included in the World Trade Center memorial.[176] There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development. Due to this potential hazard, a notable children's environmental health center is currently analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse, and were living or working near the World Trade Center towers.[177]
Legal disputes over the attendant costs of illnesses related to the attacks are still in the court system. On October 17, 2006, federal judge Alvin Hellerstein rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city.[178] Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly following the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the aftermath of the attacks, was heavily criticized for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe.[179] President Bush was criticized for interfering with EPA interpretations and pronouncements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks.[180] In addition, Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater Wall Street area.
Rebuilding
On the day of the attacks, Giuliani proclaimed, "We will rebuild. We're going to come out of this stronger than before, politically stronger, economically stronger. The skyline will be made whole again."[182] Debris removal officially ended in May 2002.[183] The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation, responsible for rebuilding the World Trade Center site, has been criticized for doing little with the enormous funding directed to the rebuilding efforts.[184][185] On the sites of the totally destroyed buildings, one, 7 World Trade Center, has a new office tower which was completed in 2006. The Freedom Tower is currently under construction at the site and at 1,776 ft (541 m) upon completion in 2011, will become the one of the tallest buildings in North America, behind the Chicago Spire and the CN Tower in Toronto. Three more towers are expected to be built between 2007 and 2012 on the site, and will be located one block east of where the original towers stood. The damaged section of the Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks.
Memorials
In the days immediately following the attacks, many memorials and vigils were held around the world.[187][188][189] In addition, pictures were placed all over Ground Zero. A witness described being unable to "get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed. Their pictures are everywhere, on phone booths, street lights, walls of subway stations. Everything reminded me of a huge funeral, people quiet and sad, but also very nice. Before, New York gave me a cold feeling; now people were reaching out to help each other.”
One of the first memorials was the Tribute in Light, an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers which projected two vertical columns of light into the sky.[191] In New York, the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site. The winning design, Reflecting Absence, was selected in August 2006, and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers, surrounded by a list of the victims' names in an underground memorial space.[192] Plans for a museum on the site have been put on hold, following the abandonment of the International Freedom Center after criticism from the families of many victims.[193]
At the Pentagon, an outdoor memorial is currently under construction, which will consist of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon.[194] When the Pentagon was rebuilt in 2001-2002, a private chapel and indoor memorial were included, located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building.[195] At Shanksville, a permanent Flight 93 National Memorial is in planning stages, which will include a sculpted grove of trees forming a circle around the crash site, bisected by the plane's path, while wind chimes will bear the names of the victims.[196] A temporary memorial is located 500 yards (450 meters) from the Flight 93 crash site near Shanksville.[197] Many other permanent memorials are being constructed around the world and a list is being updated as new ones are completed.[198] In addition to physical monuments, scholarships and charities have been established by the victims' loved ones, along with many other organizations and private figures.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
The United States Coast Guard (USCG) is a branch of the United States armed forces and one of seven uniformed services. In addition to being a military branch at all times, it is unique among the armed forces in that it is also a maritime law enforcement agency (with jurisdiction both domestically and in international waters) and a federal regulatory agency. It is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security.
As one of the five armed forces and the smallest armed service of the United States, its stated mission is to protect the public, the environment, and the United States economic and security interests in any maritime region in which those interests may be at risk, including international waters and America's coasts, ports, and inland waterways.
The Coast Guard has many statutory missions, which are listed below in this article.
Overview
Description
The Coast Guard, in its literature, describes itself as "a military, maritime, multi-mission service within the Department of Homeland Security dedicated to protecting the safety and security of America." It differs from the other armed services of the US in that the other four armed services are components of the Department of Defense.
In addition, the Coast Guard has separate legal authority than the other four armed services. The Coast Guard operates under Title 10 of the United States Code and its other organic authorities, e.g., Titles 6, 14, 19, 33, 46, etc., simultaneously. Because of its legal authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with 14 USC 1-3, and Title 10.
Role
The United States Coast Guard has a broad and important role in homeland security, law enforcement, search and rescue, marine environmental pollution response, and the maintenance of river, intracoastal and offshore aids to navigation (ATON). Founded by Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Cutter Service on August 4, 1790, it lays claim to being the United States' oldest continuous seagoing service. As of October 2006, the Coast Guard has approximately 46,000 men and women on active duty, 8,100 reservists, 7,000 full time civilian employees and 30,000 active auxiliarists.[1]
While most military services are either at war or training for war, the Coast Guard is deployed every day. When not in war, the Coast Guard has duties that include maritime law enforcement, maintaining aids to navigation, marine safety, and both military and civilian search and rescue—all in addition to its typical homeland security and military duties, such as port security.
The service's decentralized organization and readiness for missions that can occur at any time on any day, is often lauded for making it highly effective, extremely agile and very adaptable in a broad range of emergencies. In a 2005 article in TIME Magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, "the Coast Guard's most valuable contribution to [a military effort when catastrophe hits] may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit." Wil Milam, a rescue swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, "In the Navy, it was all about the mission. Practicing for war, training for war. In the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself."[2]
The Coast Guard's motto is Semper Paratus, meaning "Always Ready". The service has participated in every U.S. conflict from 1790 through to today, including landing US troops on D-Day and on the Pacific Islands in World War II, in extensive patrols and shore bombardment during the Vietnam War, and multiple roles in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Maritime interception operations, coastal security, transportation security, and law enforcement detachments are its major roles in Iraq.
The formal name for a member of the Coast Guard is "Coast Guardsman", irrespective of gender. An informal name is "Coastie." "Team Coast Guard" refers to the three branches of the Coast Guard as a whole: the regulars, the Coast Guard Reserve, and the civilian volunteers of the Coast Guard Auxiliary.
Search and Rescue
See National Search and Rescue Committee
Search and Rescue (SAR) is one of the Coast Guard's oldest missions. The National Search and Rescue Plan[3] designates the United States Coast Guard as the federal agency responsible for maritime SAR operations, and the United States Air Force as the federal agency responsible for inland SAR. Both agencies maintain Rescue Coordination Centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for both military and civilian search and rescue.
* USCG Rescue Coordination Centers
National Response Center
Operated by the U.S. Coast Guard, the National Response Center (NRC) is the sole U.S. Government point of contact for reporting environmental spills, contamination, and pollution
The primary function of the National Response Center (NRC) is to serve as the sole national point of contact for reporting all oil, chemical, radiological, biological, and etiological discharges into the environment anywhere in the United States and its territories. In addition to gathering and distributing spill data for Federal On-Scene Coordinators and serving as the communications and operations center for the National Response Team, the NRC maintains agreements with a variety of federal entities to make additional notifications regarding incidents meeting established trigger criteria. The NRC also takes Terrorist/Suspicious Activity Reports and Maritime Security Breach Reports. Details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan.[4]
* U.S. National Response Team
Authority as an armed service
The five uniformed services that make up the Armed Forces are defined in 10 U.S.C. § 101(a)(4):
“ The term “armed forces” means the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. ”
The Coast Guard is further defined by 14 U.S.C. § 1:
“ The Coast Guard as established January 28, 1915, shall be a military service and a branch of the armed forces of the United States at all times. The Coast Guard shall be a service in the Department of Homeland Security, except when operating as a service in the Navy. ”
Coast Guard organization and operation is as set forth in Title 33 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
On February 25, 2003, the Coast Guard was placed under the Department of Homeland Security. The Coast Guard reports directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security. However, under 14 U.S.C. § 3 as amended by section 211 of the Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation Act of 2006, upon the declaration of war and when Congress so directs in the declaration, or when the President directs, the Coast Guard operates under the Department of Defense as a service in the Department of the Navy. 14 U.S.C. § 2 authorizes the Coast Guard to enforce federal law. Further, the Coast Guard is exempt from and not subject to the restrictions of the Posse Comitatus Act which restrict the law enforcement activities of the other four military services within United States territory.
On October 17, 2007, the Coast Guard joined with the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps to adopt a new maritime strategy called A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower that raised the notion of prevention of war to the same philosophical level as the conduct of war.[5] This new strategy charted a course for the Navy, Coast Guard and Marine Corps to work collectively with each other and international partners to prevent regional crises, manmade or natural, from occurring or reacting quickly should one occur to avoid negative impacts to the United States. During the launch of the new U.S. maritime strategy at the International Seapower Symposium at the U.S. Naval War College, 2007, Coast Guard Commandant Admiral Thad Allen said the new maritime strategy reinforced the time-honored missions the service carried out in this U.S. since 1790. "It reinforces the Coast Guard maritime strategy of safety, security and stewardship, and it reflects not only the global reach of our maritime services but the need to integrate and synchronize and act with our coalition and international partners to not only win wars ... but to prevent wars," Allen said.
Authority as a law enforcement agency
14 U.S.C. § 89 is the principal source of Coast Guard enforcement authority.
14 U.S.C. § 143 and 19 U.S.C. § 1401 empower US Coast Guard Active and Reserves members as customs officers. This places them under 19 U.S.C. § 1589a, which grants customs officers general law enforcement authority, including the authority to:
(1) carry a firearm;
(2) execute and serve any order, warrant, subpoena, summons, or other process issued under the authority of the United States;
(3) make an arrest without a warrant for any offense against the United States committed in the officer's presence or for a felony, cognizable under the laws of the United States committed outside the officer's presence if the officer has reasonable grounds to believe that the person to be arrested has committed or is committing a felony; and
(4) perform any other law enforcement duty that the Secretary of the Treasury may designate.
The U.S. Government Accountability Office Report to the House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary on its 2006 Survey of Federal Civilian Law Enforcement Functions and Authorities identified the U.S. Coast Guard as one of 104 federal components employed which employed law enforcement officers.[7] The Report also included a summary table of the authorities of the U.S. Coast Guard's 192 special agents and 3,780 maritime law enforcement boarding officers.[8]
Coast Guardsmen have the legal authority to carry their service-issued firearms on and off base, thus giving them greater flexibility when being called to service. This is not always done, however, in practice; at many Coast Guard stations, commanders prefer to have all service-issued weapons in armories. Still, one court has held that Coast Guard boarding officers are qualified law enforcement officers authorized to carry personal firearms off-duty for self-defense.[9]
As members of a military service, Coast Guardsmen on active and reserve service are subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice and receive the same pay and allowances as members of the same pay grades in the other uniformed services.
History
Main article: History of the United States Coast Guard
Marines holding a sign thanking the US Coast Guard after the battle of Guam.
Marines holding a sign thanking the US Coast Guard after the battle of Guam.
The roots of the Coast Guard lie in the United States Revenue Cutter Service established by Alexander Hamilton under the Department of the Treasury on August 4, 1790. Until the re-establishment of the United States Navy in 1798, the Revenue Cutter Service was the only naval force of the early U.S. It was established to collect taxes from a brand new nation of patriot smugglers. When the officers were out at sea, they were told to crack down on piracy; while they were at it, they might as well rescue anyone in distress.[10]
"First Fleet" is a term occasionally used as an informal reference to the US Coast Guard, although as far as one can detect the United States has never in fact officially used this designation with reference either to the Coast Guard or any element of the US Navy. The informal appellation honors the fact that between 1790 and 1798, there was no United States Navy and the cutters which were the predecessor of the US Coast Guard were the only warships protecting the coast, trade, and maritime interests of the new republic.[11]
The modern Coast Guard can be said to date to 1915, when the Revenue Cutter Service merged with the United States Life-Saving Service and Congress formalized the existence of the new organization. In 1939, the U.S. Lighthouse Service was brought under its purview. In 1942, the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation was transferred to the Coast Guard. In 1967, the Coast Guard moved from the Department of the Treasury to the newly formed Department of Transportation, an arrangement that lasted until it was placed under the Department of Homeland Security in 2003 as part of legislation designed to more efficiently protect American interests following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.
In times of war, the Coast Guard or individual components of it can operate as a service of the Department of the Navy. This arrangement has a broad historical basis, as the Guard has been involved in wars as diverse as the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, and the American Civil War, in which the cutter Harriet Lane fired the first naval shots attempting to relieve besieged Fort Sumter. The last time the Coast Guard operated as a whole under the Navy was in World War II. More often, military and combat units within the Coast Guard will operate under Navy operational control while other Coast Guard units will remain under the Department of Homeland Security.
Organization
Main article: Organization of the United States Coast Guard
The headquarters of the Coast Guard is at 2100 Second Street, SW, in Washington, D.C. In 2005, the Coast Guard announced tentative plans to relocate to the grounds of the former St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington. That project is currently on hold because of environmental, historical, and congressional concerns. As of July 2006, there are several possible locations being considered, including the current headquarters location.
Personnel
Commissioned Officer Corps
There are many routes by which individuals can become commissioned officers in the US Coast Guard. The most common are:
United States Coast Guard Academy
Main article: United States Coast Guard Academy
The United States Coast Guard Academy is located on the Thames River in New London, Connecticut. It is the only military academy to which no Congressional or presidential appointments are made. All cadets enter by open competition utilizing SAT scores, high school grades, extracurricular activities, and other criteria. About 225 cadets are commissioned ensigns each year. Graduates of the Academy are obligated to serve five years on active duty. Most graduates (about 70%) are assigned to duty aboard a Coast Guard cutter after graduation, either as Deck Watch Officers (DWO) or as Student Engineers. Smaller numbers are assigned to flight training (about 10% of the class) or to shore duty at Coast Guard Sectors, Districts, or Area headquarters unit.
Officer Candidate School
In addition to the Academy, prospective officers may enter the Coast Guard through the Officer Candidate School (OCS) at the Coast Guard Academy in New London, Connecticut. OCS is a rigorous 17-week course of instruction which prepares candidates to serve effectively as officers in the United States Coast Guard. In addition to indoctrinating students into a military life-style, OCS also provides a wide range of highly technical information necessary for performing the duties of a Coast Guard officer.
Graduates of the program typically receive a commission in the Coast Guard at the rank of Ensign, but some with advanced graduate degrees can enter as Lieutenant (junior grade) or Lieutenant. Graduating OCS officers entering Active Duty are required to serve a minimum of three years, while graduating Reserve officers are required to serve four years. Graduates may be assigned to a ship, flight training, to a staff job, or to an operations ashore billet. However, first assignments are based on the needs of the Coast Guard. Personal desires and performance at OCS are considered. All graduates must be available for worldwide assignment.
In addition to United States citizens, foreign cadets and candidates also attend Coast Guard officer training. OCS represents the source of the majority of commissions in the Coast Guard, and is the primary channel through which enlisted ranks can ascend to the officer corps.
Direct Commission Officer Program
The Coast Guard's Direct Commission Officer course is administered by Officer Candidate School. Depending on the specific program and background of the individual, the course is three, four or five weeks long. The first week of the five-week course is an indoctrination week. The DCO program is designed to commission officers with highly specialized professional training or certain kinds of previous military experience. For example, lawyers entering as JAGs, doctors, intelligence officers, and others can earn commissions through the DCO program. (Chaplains are provided to the Coast Guard by the US Navy.)
College Student Pre-Comissioning Initiative (CSPI)
The College Student Pre-Commissioning Initiative (CSPI) is a scholarship program for college sophomores. This program provides students with valuable leadership, management, law enforcement, navigation and marine science skills and training. It also provides full payment of school tuition, fees, textbooks, a salary, medical insurance and other benefits during a student's junior and senior year of college. The CSPI program guarantees training at Officer Candidate School (OCS) upon successful completion of all program requirements. Each student is expected to complete his/her degree and all Coast Guard training requirements. Following the completion of OCS and commission as a Coast Guard officer, each student will be required to serve on active duty (full time) as an officer for 3 years.
Benefits: Full tuition, books and fees paid for two years, monthly salary of approximately $2,000, medical and life insurance, 30 days paid vacation per year, leadership training.
ROTC
Unlike the other armed services, the Coast Guard does not sponsor an ROTC program. It does, however, sponsor one Junior ROTC ("JROTC") program at the MAST Academy.
Chief Warrant Officers
Highly qualified enlisted personnel from E-6 through E-9, and with a minimum of eight years of experience, can compete each year for appointment as a Chief Warrant Officer (or CWO). Successful candidates are chosen by a board and then commissioned as Chief Warrant Officers (CWO-2) in one of sixteen specialties. Over time Chief Warrant Officers may be promoted to CWO-3 and CWO-4. The ranks of Warrant Officer (WO-1) and CWO-5 are not currently used in the Coast Guard. Chief Warrant Officers may also compete for the Chief Warrant Officer to Lieutenant program. If selected, the officer will be promoted to Lieutenant (O-3E). The "E" designates over four years active duty service as a Warrant Officer or Enlisted member and entitles the member to a higher rate of pay than other lieutenants.
Enlisted
Newly enlisted personnel are sent to 8 weeks of Basic Training at the Coast Guard Training Center Cape May in Cape May, New Jersey.
The current nine Recruit Training Objectives are:
* Self-discipline
* Military skills
* Marksmanship
* Vocational skills and academics
* Military bearing
* Physical fitness and wellness
* Water survival and swim qualifications
* Esprit de corps
* Core values (Honor, Respect, and Devotion to Duty)
Service Schools
Following graduation, most members are sent to their first unit while they await orders to attend advanced training in Class "A" Schools, in their chosen rating, the naval term for Military Occupational Specialty (MOS). Members who earned high ASVAB scores or who were otherwise guaranteed an "A" School of choice while enlisting can go directly to their "A" School upon graduation from Boot Camp.
[edit] The Coast Guard Maritime Law Enforcement Academy
The Coast Guard Maritime Law Enforcement Academy is located at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC) in Charleston, South Carolina, following relocation and merger of the former Law Enforcement School at Yorktown, Virginia, and the former Boarding Team Member School at Petaluma, California.
The Academy presents five courses:
* Boarding officer
* Boarding team member, which is a small part of the boarding officer course
* Radiation detection course, which is a level II operator coruse
* Vessel inspection class for enforcing Captain of the Port orders.
Training ranges from criminal law and the use of force to boarding team member certification to the use of radiation detection equipment. Much of the training is live, using handguns with laser inserts or firing non-lethal rounds.[12]
[edit] Petty Officers
Petty officers follow career development paths very similar to those of US Navy petty officers.
[edit] Chief Petty Officers
Enlisted Coast Guard members who have reached the pay grade of E-7, or Chief Petty Officer, must attend the U.S. Coast Guard Chief Petty Officer Academy at Training Center Petaluma in Petaluma, California, or an equivalent Department of Defense school, in order to be advanced to pay grade E-8. United States Air Force master sergeants, as well as international students representing their respective maritime services, are also eligible to attend the Academy. The basic themes of this school are:
* Professionalism
* Leadership
* Communications
* Systems thinking and lifelong learning
Equipment
The equipment of the USCG consists of thousands of vehicles (boats, ships, helicopters, fixed-winged aircraft, automobiles), communication systems (radio equipment, radio networks, radar, data networks), weapons, infrastructure such as United States Coast Guard Air Stations and local Small Boat Stations, each in a large variety.
Main article: Equipment of the United States Coast Guard
Symbols
Core values
The Coast Guard, like the other armed services of the United States, has a set of core values which serve as basic ethical guidelines to Coast Guard members. As listed in the recruit pamphlet, The Helmsman,[13] they are:
* Honor: Absolute integrity is our standard. A Coast Guardsman demonstrates honor in all things: never lying, cheating, or stealing. We do the right thing because it is the right thing to do—all the time.
* Respect: We value the dignity and worth of people: whether a stranded boater, an immigrant, or a fellow Coast Guard member; we honor, protect, and assist.
* Devotion to Duty: A Coast Guard member is dedicated to five maritime security roles: Maritime Safety, Maritime Law Enforcement, Marine Environmental Protection, Maritime Mobility and National Defense. We are loyal and accountable to the public trust. We welcome responsibility.
Coast Guard Ensign
The Coast Guard Ensign (flag) was first flown by the Revenue Cutter Service in 1799 to distinguish revenue cutters from merchant ships. The order stated the Ensign would be "16 perpendicular stripes, alternate red and white, the union of the ensign to be the arms of the United States in a dark blue on a white field." (There were 16 states in the United States at the time).
The purpose of the flag is to allow ship captains to easily recognize those vessels having legal authority to stop and board them. This flag is flown only as a symbol of law enforcement authority and is never carried as a parade standard.
Coast Guard Standard
The Coast Guard Standard is used in parades and carries the battle honors of the U.S. Coast Guard. It was derived from the jack of the Coast Guard ensign which used to fly from the stern of revenue cutters. The emblem is a blue eagle from the coat of arms of the United States on a white field. Above the eagle are the words "UNITED STATES COAST GUARD;" below the eagle is the motto, "SEMPER PARATUS" and the inscription "1790."
Racing Stripe
The Racing Stripe was designed in 1964 by the industrial design office of Raymond Loewy Associates to give the Coast Guard a distinctive, modern image and was first used in 1967. The symbol is a narrow blue bar, a narrow white stripe between, and a broad red[15] bar with the Coast Guard shield centered. The stripes are canted at a 64 degree angle, coincidentally the year the Racing Stripe was designed. The Stripe has been adopted for the use of other coast guards, such as the Canadian Coast Guard, the Italian Guardia Costiera, the Indian Coast Guard, and the Australian Customs Service. Auxiliary vessels maintained by the Coast Guard also carry the Stripe in inverted colors.
[edit] Semper Paratus
The official march of the Coast Guard is "Semper Paratus" (Latin for "Always Ready"). An audio clip can be found at [3].
Missions
The Coast Guard carries out five basic roles, which are further subdivided into eleven statutory missions. The five roles are:
* Maritime safety (including search and rescue)
* Maritime mobility
* maritime security
* National defense
* Protection of natural resources
The eleven statutory missions, found in section 888 of the Homeland Security Act are:
* Ports, Waterways and Coastal Security (PWCS)
* Counter Drug Law Enforcement
* Migrant Interdiction
* Other Law Enforcement (foreign fisheries)
* Living Marine Resources (domestic fisheries)
* Marine (maritime) Safety
* Marine (maritime) Environmental Protection
* Ice Operations
* Aids to Navigation (ATON)
* Defense Readiness
* Marine (maritime) Environmental Response
The OMEGA navigation system and the LORAN-C transmitters outside the USA were also run by the United States Coast Guard. The U.S. Coast Guard Omega Stations at Lamoure, North Dakota and Kāne'ohe, Hawai'i (Oahu) were both formally decommissioned and shut down on September 30, 1997.
[edit] Uniforms
In 1972, the current Coast Guard dress blue uniform was introduced for wear by both officers and enlisted personnel; the transition was completed during 1974. (Previously, a U.S. Navy-style uniform with Coast Guard insignia was worn.) Relatively similar in appearance to the old-style U.S. Air Force uniforms, the uniform consists of a blue four-pocket single breasted jacket and trousers in a slightly darker shade. A light-blue button-up shirt with a pointed collar, two front button-flap pockets, "enhanced" shoulder boards for officers, and pin-on collar insignia for Chief Petty Officers and enlisted personnel is worn when in shirt-sleeve order (known as "Tropical Blue Long"). It is similar to the World War II-era uniforms worn by Coast Guard Surfmen. Officer rank insignia parallels that of the U.S. Navy but with the gold Navy "line" star being replaced with the gold Coast Guard Shield and with the Navy blue background color replaced by Coast Guard blue. Enlisted rank insignia is also similar to the Navy with the Coast Guard shield replacing the eagle on collar and cap devices. Group Rate marks (stripes) for junior enlisted members (E-3 and below) also follow U. S. Navy convention with white for seaman, red for fireman, and green for airman. In a departure from the U. S. Navy conventions, all petty Officers E-6 and below wear red chevrons and all Chief Petty Officers wear gold. Unlike the US Navy, officers and CPO's do not wear khaki; all personnel wear the same color uniform. See USCG Uniform Regulations [4] for current regulations.
Coast Guard officers also have a white dress uniform, typically used for formal parade and change-of-command ceremonies. Chief Petty Officers, Petty Officers, and enlisted rates wear the standard Service Dress Blue uniform for all such ceremonies, except with a white shirt (replacing the standard light-blue). A white belt may be worn for honor guards. A mess dress uniform is worn by members for formal (black tie) evening ceremonies.
The current working uniform of a majority of Coast Guard members is the Operational Dress Uniform (ODU). The ODU is similar to the Battle Dress Uniform of other armed services, both in function and style. However, the ODU is in a solid dark blue with no camouflage patterns and does not have lower pockets on the blouse. The ODU is worn with steel-toed boots in most circumstances, but low-cut black or brown boat shoes may be prescribed for certain situations. The former dark blue working uniform has been withdrawn from use by the Coast Guard but may be worn by Auxiliarists until no longer serviceable. There is a second phase of Operational Dress Uniforms currently in the trial phases. This prototype resembles the current Battle Dress blouse, which is worn on the outside, rather than tucked in.
Coast Guard members serving in expeditionary combat units such as Port Security Units, Law Enforcement Detachments, and others, wear working operational uniforms that resemble Battle Dress uniforms, complete with "woodland" or "desert" camouflage colors. These units typically serve under, or with, the other armed services in combat theaters, necessitating similar uniforms.
Enlisted Coast Guardsmen wear the combination covers for full dress, a garrison cover for Class "B," wear, and a baseball-style cover either embroidered with "U.S. Coast Guard" in gold block lettering or the name of their ship, unit or station in gold, for the ODU uniform. Male and female company commanders (the Coast Guard equivalent of Marine Corps drill instructors) at Training Center Cape May wear the traditional "Smokey the Bear" campaign hat.
A recent issue of the Reservist magazine was devoted to a detailed and easy to understand graphical description of all the authorized uniforms.
[edit] Issues
The Coast Guard faces several issues in the near future.
Lack of coverage affects many areas with high maritime traffic. For example, local officials in Scituate, Massachusetts, have complained that there is no permanent Coast Guard station, and the presence of the Coast Guard in winter is vital. One reason for this lack of coverage is the relatively high cost of building storm-proof buildings on coastal property; the Cape Hatteras station was abandoned in 2005 after winter storms wiped out the 12-foot (3.7 m) sand dune serving as its protection from the ocean. Faced with these issues the Coast Guard has contracted with General Dynamics C4 System to provide a complete replacment of their 1970's era radio equipment. Rescue 21 is the United States Coast Guard’s advanced command, control and communications system. Created to improve the ability to assist mariners in distress and save lives and property at sea, the system is currently being installed in stages across the United States. The nation's existing maritime search and rescue (SAR) communications system has been in operation since the early 1970s. Difficult to maintain, increasingly unreliable and prone to coverage gaps, this antiquated system no longer meets the safety needs of America's growing marine traffic. In addition, it is incapable of supporting the Coast Guard's new mission requirements for homeland security, which require close cooperation with Department of Defense agencies as well as federal, state and local law enforcement authorities. Modernizing this system enhances the safety and protection of America's waterways.
Lack of strength to meet its assigned missions is being met by a legislated increase in authorized strength from 39,000 to 45,000. In addition, the volunteer Auxiliary is being called to take up more non-combatant missions. However, volunteer coverage does have limits.
Aging vessels are another problem, with the Coast Guard still operating some of the oldest naval vessels in the world. In 2005, the Coast Guard terminated contracts to upgrade the 110-foot (33.5 m) Island Class Cutters to 123-foot (37.5 m) cutters because of warping and distortion of the hulls. In late 2006, Admiral Thad Allen, Commandant of the Coast Guard, decommissioned all eight 123-foot (37 m) cutters due to dangerous conditions created by the lengthening of the hull- to include compromised watertight integrity. The Coast Guard has, as a result of the failed 110 ft (34 m) conversion, revised production schedules for the Fast Response Cutter (FRC). Of the navies and coast guards of the world's 40 largest navies, the U.S. Coast Guard's is the 38th oldest.[16]
Live fire exercises by Coast Guard boat and cutter crews in the U.S. waters of the Great Lakes attracted attention in the U.S. and Canada. The Coast Guard had proposed the establishment of 34 locations around the Great Lakes where live fire training using vessel-mounted machine guns were to be conducted periodically throughout the year. The Coast Guard said that these exercises are a critical part of proper crew training in support of the service's multiple missions on the Great Lakes, including law enforcement and anti-terrorism. Those that raised concerns about the firing exercises commented about safety concerns and that the impact on commercial shipping, tourism, recreational boating and the environment may be greater than what the Coast Guard had stated. The Coast Guard took public comment and conducted a series of nine public meetings on this issue. After receiving more than 1,000 comments, mostly opposing the Coast Guard's plan, the Coast Guard announced that they were withdrawing their proposal for target practice on the Great Lakes, although a revised proposal may be made in the future.[17][18][19][20][21]
[edit] Deployable Operations Group (DOG)
The Deployable Operations Group is a recently formed Coast Guard command. The DOG brings numerous existing deployable law enforcement, tactical and response units under a single command headed by a rear admiral. The planning for such a unit began after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and culminated with its formation on July 20th, 2007. The unit will contain several hundred highly trained Coast Guardsmen. Its missions will include maritime law enforcement, anti-terrorism, port security, and pollution response. Full operational capability is planned by summer 2008.[22]
[edit] Coast Guard Auxiliary
Main article: United States Coast Guard Auxiliary
The United States Coast Guard Auxiliary is the uniformed volunteer component of the United States Coast Guard, established on June 23, 1939. It works within the Coast Guard in carrying out its noncombatant and non-law enforcement missions. As of November 18, 2007 there were 30,074 active Auxiliarists. The Coast Guard has assigned primary responsibility for most recreational boating safety tasks to the Auxiliary, including public boating safety education and voluntary vessel safety checks. In recent history prior to 1997, Auxiliarists were limited to those tasks and on-water patrols supporting recreational boating safety.
In 1997, however, new legislation authorized the Auxiliary to participate in any and all Coast Guard missions except military combat and law enforcement. 33 CFR 5.31 states that: Members of the Auxiliary, when assigned to specific duties shall, unless otherwise limited by the Commandant, be vested with the same power and authority, in execution of such duties, as members of the regular Coast Guard assigned to similar duties.
Auxiliarists may support the law enforcement mission of the Coast Guard but do not directly participate in it. Auxiliarists and their vessels are not allowed to carry any weapons while serving in any Auxiliary capacity; however, they may serve as scouts, alerting regular Coast Guard units. Auxiliarists use their own vessels (i.e. boats) and aircraft, in carrying out Coast Guard missions, or apply specialized skills such as Web page design or radio watchstanding to assist the Coast Guard. When appropriately trained and qualified, they may serve upon Coast Guard vessels.
Auxiliarists undergo one of several levels of background check. For most duties, including those related to recreational boating safety, a simple identity check is sufficient. For some duties in which an Auxiliarist provides direct augmentation of Coast Guard forces, such as tasks related to port security, a more in-depth background check is required. Occasionally an Auxiliarist will need to obtain a security clearance through the Coast Guard in order to have access to classified information in the course of assigned tasking.
The basic unit of the Auxiliary is the Flotilla, which has at least 10 members and may have as many as 100. Five Flotillas in a geographical area form a Division. There are several divisions in each Coast Guard District. The Auxiliary has a leadership and management structure of elected officers, including Flotilla Commanders, Division Captains, and District Commodores, Atlantic and Pacific Area Commodores, and a national Commodore. However, legally, each Auxiliarist has the same 'rank', Auxiliarist.
In 2005, the Coast Guard transitioned to a geographical Sector organization. Correspondingly, a position of 'Sector Auxiliary Coordinator' was established. The Sector Auxiliary Coordinator is responsible for service by Auxiliarists directly to a Sector, including augmentation of Coast Guard Active Duty and Reserve forces when requested. Such augmentation is also referred to as force multiplication.
Auxiliarists wear the similar uniforms as Coast Guard officers with modified officers' insignia based on their office: the stripes on uniforms are silver, and metal insignia bear a red or blue "A" in the center. Unlike their counterparts in the Civil Air Patrol, Auxiliarists come under direct orders of the Coast Guard.
[edit] Coast Guard Reserve
Main article: United States Coast Guard Reserve
The United States Coast Guard Reserve is the military reserve force of the Coast Guard. The Coast Guard Reserve was founded on February 19, 1941. Like most military reserve units, Coast Guard reservists normally train on a schedule of one weekend a month and an additional 15 days each summer, although many work other days of the week, and often more frequently than just two days a month. Unlike the other armed services, many Coast Guard reservists possess the same training and qualifications as their active duty counterparts, and as such, can be found augmenting active duty Coast Guard units every day, rather than just serving in a unit made up exclusively of reservists.
During the Vietnam War and shortly thereafter, the Coast Guard considered abandoning the Reserve program, but the force was instead reoriented into force augmentation, where its principal focus was not just reserve operations, but to add to the readiness and mission execution of every day active duty personnel.
Since September 11, 2001, over 8,500 Reservists have been activated and served on tours of active duty. Coast Guard Port Security Units are entirely staffed with Reservists, except for five to seven active duty personnel. Additionally, most of the staffing the Coast Guard provides to Naval Coastal Warfare units are reservists.
The Reserve is managed by the Director of Reserve and Training, RDML Cynthia A. Coogan.
[edit] Medals and honors
See also: Awards and decorations of the United States military
One Coast Guardsman, Douglas Albert Munro, has earned the Medal of Honor, the highest military award of the United States.[23]
Six Coast Guardsmen have earned the Navy Cross and numerous men and women have earned the Distinguished Flying Cross.
The highest peacetime decoration awarded within the Coast Guard is the Homeland Security Distinguished Service Medal; prior to the transfer of the Coast Guard to the Department of Homeland Security, the highest peacetime decoration was the Department of Transportation Distinguished Service Medal. The highest unit award available is the Presidential Unit Citation.
In wartime, members of the Coast Guard are eligible to receive the U.S. Navy version of the Medal of Honor. A Coast Guard Medal of Honor is authorized but has not yet been developed or issued.
In May 2006, at the Change of Command ceremony when Admiral Thad Allen took over as Commandant, President George W. Bush awarded the entire Coast Guard, including the Coast Guard Auxiliary, the Coast Guard Presidential Unit Citation with hurricane device, for its efforts after Hurricane Katrina.
[edit] Organizations
[edit] Ancient Order of the Pterodactyl
Those who have piloted or flown in U.S. Coast Guard aircraft under official flight orders may join the Ancient Order of the Pterodactyl ("Flying Since the World was Flat").
[edit] USCGA Alumni Association
The United States Coast Guard Academy Alumni Association is devoted to providing service to and promoting fellowship among all U.S. Coast Guard Academy alumni and members of the Association.
Membership Types: Academy graduates and those who have attended the Academy are eligible for Regular membership; all others interested in the Academy and its Corps of Cadets are eligible for Associate membership. (Website)
[edit] Coast Guard CW Operators Association
The Coast Guard CW Operators Association (CGCWOA) is a membership organization comprised primarily of former members of the United States Coast Guard who held the enlisted rating of Radioman (RM) or Telecommunications Specialist (TC), and who employed International Morse Code (CW) in their routine communications duties on Coast Guard cutters and at shore stations. (Website)
[edit] Publications
The Coast Guard maintains a library of publications for public use as well as publications for Coast Guard and Auxiliary use.
Coast Guard, COMDTPUB P5720.2, is the regular publication for Coast Guardsmen.
[edit] Notable Coast Guardsmen and others associated with the USCG
Source: U.S. Coast Guard
* Derroll Adams, folk musician
* Nick Adams, actor
* Beau Bridges, actor
* Lloyd Bridges, actor
* Sid Caesar, comedian
* Lou Carnesecca, basketball coach, St. John's University
* Howard Coble, U.S. Congressman, North Carolina
* Chris Cooper, actor
* Richard Cromwell, actor
* Walter Cronkite, newscaster
* William D. Delahunt, U.S. Congressman, Massachusetts
* Jack Dempsey, professional boxer
* Buddy Ebsen (1908–2003), actor, comedian, dancer
* Blake Edwards, writer, director, producer
* Edwin D. Eshleman (1920-1985), former U.S. Congressman, Pennsylvania
* Arthur Fiedler, conductor
* Arthur A. Fontaine, captain, college sailing national champion, ISCA Hall of Fame
* Charles Gibson, newscaster
* Arthur Godfrey, entertainer
* Otto Graham, professional football player and coach
* Alex Haley, author of Roots and Coast Guard chief journalist
* Weldon Hill, pseudonym of William R. Scott, author of novel Onionhead, based on his World War II Coast Guard service
* William Hopper, actor
* Tab Hunter, actor
* Harvey E. Johnson, Jr., Vice Admiral, Deputy Director FEMA
* Steve Knight, Vocalist for Flipsyde
* Duke Paoa Kahanamoku, athlete, actor
* Jack Kramer, tennis professional
* Jacob Lawrence, artist
* Victor Mature, actor
* Douglas Munro, the only Coast Guardsman to be awarded the Medal of Honor
* Frank Murkowski, former governor and former U.S. Senator, Alaska
* Sam Nunn, former U.S. Senator, Georgia
* Arnold Palmer, professional golfer
* Ed Parker, martial artist
* Claiborne Pell, former U.S. Senator, Rhode Island
* Cesar Romero, actor
* Sloan Wilson, writer
* Dorothy C. Stratton first director of the SPARS
* Gene Taylor, U.S. Congressman, Mississippi
* Ted Turner, businessman
* Rudy Vallee, entertainer
* Tom Waits, musician and actor
* Thornton Wilder, writer
* Gig Young, actor
* Popeye, Cartoon character, had tattoos and uniforms signifying he was in the USCG. "Popeye the Sailor Meets Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves" shows him under a USCG sign.
[edit] Popular culture
The Coast Guard has been featured in several television series, such as Baywatch, CSI: Miami, and Deadliest Catch; and in film. A comedy, Onionhead, portrayed Andy Griffith as a Coast Guard recruit. The 2000 film The Perfect Storm depicted the rescue operations of the USCGC Tamaroa (WMEC-166) as one of its subplots. Special Counter-Drugs helicopters known as HITRONs are seen in action on Bad Boys II. In the 2005 family comedy Yours, Mine, and Ours, Dennis Quaid plays a fictional U.S. Coast Guard Academy superintendent who marries a character played by Rene Russo and together have 18 children. The 2006 film The Guardian, starring Kevin Costner and Ashton Kutcher, was based on the training and operation of Coast Guard Rescue Swimmers. Additionally, a Coast Guard cutter and its commander and crew figured prominently in Tom Clancy's book Clear and Present Danger. The 2008 fourth season of the television series Lost erroneously depicted air crash survivors being transported to Hawaii in a Coast Guard HC-130 aircraft, however since the survivors had landed on the Indonesian island of Sumba (In the Indian Ocean thousands of miles from any Coast Guard district), arrangements for their repatriation would have been the business of the US State Department.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
Shipping container architecture is a form of architecture utilizing steel shipping containers as structural element, because of their inherent strength, wide availability and relatively low cost.
Advantages
Strength and durability
Shipping containers are in many ways an ideal building material. They are designed to carry heavy loads and support heavy loads when they are stacked in high columns. They are also designed to resist harsh environments - they are transported globally on ocean going vessels or can be covered in road salt when transported on roads.
Modular
All shipping containers are made to the same standard measurements and as such they provide modular elements that can be combined into larger structures. This simplifies design, planning and transport. As they are already designed to interlock for ease of mobility during transportation, structural construction is completed by simply emplacing them. Due to the containers' modular design additional construction is as easy as stacking more containers. They can be stacked up to 12 high when empty.
Transport
Pre-fabricated modules can also be easily transported by ship, truck or rail, because they already conform to standard shipping sizes.
Availability
Used shipping containers are available across the globe. In cases where a company or country receives more containers than it can use to ship in the return directions these containers have no real use, since it is not cost effective to return empty containers to their origin.
Cost
Many used containers are available at a cost that is relatively low compared to a finished structure built by other labour-intensive means such as bricks and mortar — which also require larger more expensive foundations. Construction involves very little labour and a used shipping containers requiring only simple modification can be purchased from major transportation companies for as little as $900 USD each. Even when purchased brand new they seldom cost more than $6000 USD.
Disadvantages
Temperature
Steel conducts heat very well; containers used for human occupency in an environment with extreme temperature variations will normally have to be better insulated than most brick, block or wood structures. Spraying two coats of a Ceramic powder additive in spray paint a insulation value of R-28 thermal efficiency can be achieved, thus no traditional insulation is required for heat or cold.[citation needed]
Labour
The welding and cutting of steel is considered to be specialized labour and can increase construction costs, yet overall the costs are still lower than conventional construction.
Construction site
The containers will, in most cases, be delivered by truck and then must be emplaced by a crane or forklift. Traditional brick, block and lumber construction will also be delivered by truck. However, these materials often require a forklift to remove the pallets of materials, and might need a crane to lift them to upper stories.
Building permits
The use of steel for construction, while prevalent in industrial construction, is currently not yet widely used for residential structures. Obtaining building permits may be troublesome in some regions due to municpalities not having seen this application before.
Examples
Many structures based on shipping containers have already been constructed, and their uses, sizes, locations and appearances vary widely.
When futurist Stewart Brand needed a place to assemble all the material he needed to write How Buildings Learn, he converted a shipping container into office space, and wrote up the conversion process in the same book.
In 2006, Southern California Architect Peter DeMaria [1], designed the first two story shipping container home in the U.S. as an approved structural system under the strict guidelines of the nationally recognized Uniform Building Code (UBC).
Several architects, such as Adam Kalkin have built original homes, using discarded shipping containers for their parts or using them in their original form, or doing a mix of both.[2]
In 2000, the firm Urban Space Management completed the project called Container City I in the Trinity Buoy Wharf area of London. The firm has gone on to complete additional container-based building projects, with more underway. In 2006, the Dutch company Tempohousing[3] finished in Amsterdam the biggest container village in the world[4]: 1,000 student homes from modified shipping containers from China.
In 2002 standard ISO shipping containers began to be modified and used as stand-alone on-site wastewater treatment plants [5]. The use of containers creates a cost-effective, modular, and customizable solution to on-site wastewater treatment and eliminates the need for construction of a separate building to house the treatment system.
Markets
Empty shipping containers are commonly used as market stalls and warehouses in the countries of the former USSR.
The biggest shopping mall or organized market in Europe is made up of alleys formed by stacked containers, on 170 acres (69 ha) of land, between the airport and the central part of Odessa, Ukraine. Informally named "Tolchok" and officially known as the Seventh-Kilometer Market it has 16,000 vendors and employs 1,200 security guards and maintenance workers.
In Central Asia, the Dordoy Bazaar in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, almost entirely composed of double-stacked containers, is of comparable size. It is popular with travelers coming from Kazakhstan and Russia to take advantage of the cheap prices and plethora of knock-off designers.
Other uses
* Press Boxes[1]
* Emergency hurricane shelters for thoroughbred horses
* Concession Stands[2]
* Fire Training Facility[3]
* Military Training Facility[4]
* Emergency shelters
* School buildings
* Urban homes
* Rural homes
* Apartment and office buildings
* Artists' studios
* Stores
* Large houses
* Moveable exhibition spaces on rails
* Telco hubs
* Bank vaults
* Medical clinics
* Radar stations
* Shopping malls
* Sleeping rooms
* Recording Studios
* Abstract art
* Transportable factories
* Data centers (in the form of Project Blackbox)
* Experimental labs
* Clandestine Cannabis gardens
* Combatant Temporary Containment (ventilated)
* Bathrooms
* Showers
* Workshops
* Intermodal sealed storage on ships, trucks, and trains
* House Foundations on unstable seismic zones
* Elevator/stairwell shafts
Containers used for housing and other architecture
In North America, containers are in many ways an ideal building material, because they are strong, durable, stackable, cuttable, movable, modular, plentiful and relatively cheap. It is not surprising then that architects as well as laypeople have utilized them to build homes, offices, apartments, schools, dormitories, artists' studios, emergency shelters and many other uses. They are also used to provide temporary secure spaces on construction sites and other venues on "as is" basis instead of building shelters.
During the 1991 Gulf War ("Desert Storm"), containers saw considerable nonstandard uses, not only as makeshift shelters but also for the transportation of Iraqi prisoners of war. Holes were cut in the containers to allow for ventilation and there were no reported ill effects from this method. Containers continue to be used for military shelters, often additionally fortified by adding sandbags to the side walls to protect against weapons such as rocket-propelled grenades ("RPGs").
The abundance and relative cheapness during the last decade comes from the deficit in manufactured goods coming from North America in the last two decades. These manufactured goods come to North America from Asia and, to a lesser extent, Europe, in containers that often have to be shipped back empty ("deadhead"), at considerable expense. It is often cheaper to buy new containers in China and elsewhere in Asia, and to try to find new applications for the used containers that have reached their North American cargo destination.
See also
* Containerization
* Prefab
"Google is one of My Favorite Things."
This may be the strangest choice yet but for someone who has loved to "look things up" since I was a child and got sent to check the dictionary, Google is a miracle. I love finding out anything I want or need to know just by going to this search engine and asking it to find my answer. Available in seconds! I truly love Google.
(Week 52, the last week of personal challenge, "My Favorite Things".) Thanks for following along all year!
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
The United States Air Force (USAF) is the aerial warfare branch of the armed forces and one of the seven uniformed services. Initially born as the United States Army Air Corps, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947.[3] It was the last branch of the U.S. military to be formed.
The USAF is the largest, most technologically advanced air force in the world, with about 5,778 manned aircraft in service (4,093 USAF; 1,289 Air National Guard; and 396 Air Force Reserve);[4] approximately 156 Unmanned Combat Air Vehicles, 2130 Air-Launched Cruise Missiles,[5] and 450 Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles; and as of 30 September 2007, had 328,600 personnel on active duty, 117,497 in the Selected and Individual Ready Reserves, and 106,700 in the Air National Guard. In addition, the Air Force employs 168,900 civilian personnel including indirect hire of foreign nationals.[6]
In 2007, the USAF implemented a large Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF will reduce the service's current size from 333,000 active duty personnel, to 316,000, which will be the smallest since the attack on Pearl Harbor, according to former Air Force Chief of Staff General Michael Moseley.[7] The current size of the active-duty force is roughly 70% of that of the USAF at the end of the first Gulf War in 1991.[8]
Not all of the United States' military combat aircraft are operated by the USAF. The Army operates its own helicopters, mostly for support of ground combatants; it as well maintains a small fleet of fixed wing aircraft (mostly Unmanned Aerial Vehicles). The Navy is responsible for a multitude of aircraft, including integrated air wing combat aircraft operating aboard its 11 aircraft carriers and also many maritime patrol and transport aircraft stationed at multiple Naval air stations around the world. The Marine Corps operates its own combat and transport aircraft in support of its ground mission and often in conjunction with Naval Aviation. The Coast Guard also maintains transport and search-and-rescue aircraft (SARA), which may be used in a combat and law enforcement role. All branches of the U.S. military operate helicopters.
The Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force who heads administrative affairs. The Department of the Air Force is a division of the Department of Defense, headed by the Secretary of Defense. The highest ranking military officer in the Department of the Air Force is the Chief of Staff of the Air Force.
Mission
1. According to the National Security Act of 1947 (61 Stat. 502) which created the Air Force:
In general the United States Air Force shall include aviation forces both combat and service not otherwise assigned. It shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The Air Force shall be responsible for the preparation of the air forces necessary for the effective prosecution of war except as otherwise assigned and, in accordance with integrated joint mobilization plans, for the expansion of the peacetime components of the Air Force to meet the needs of war.
2. §8062 of Title 10 US Code (10 USC 8062) defines the purpose of the Air Force as:
* to preserve the peace and security, and provide for the defense, of the United States, the Territories, Commonwealths, and possessions, and any areas occupied by the United States;
* to support national policy;
* to implement national objectives;
* to overcome any nations responsible for aggressive acts that imperil the peace and security of the United States.
3. The stated mission of the USAF today is to "deliver sovereign options for the defense of the United States of America and its global interests — to fly and fight in Air, Space, and Cyberspace".
Search and rescue
The National Search and Rescue Plan designates the United States Coast Guard as the federal agency responsible for maritime search-and-rescue (SAR) operations, and the United States Air Force Auxiliary Civil Air Patrol responsible for inland SAR.[10] Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort.
History
The United States Air Force became a separate military service on September 18, 1947, with the implementation of the National Security Act of 1947.[11] The Act created the United States Department of Defense, which was composed of three branches, the Army, Navy and a newly-created Air Force.[12] Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was divided between the Army (for land-based operations) and the Navy, for sea-based operations from aircraft carrier and amphibious aircraft. The Army created the first antecedent of the Air Force in 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual separation 40 years later. The predecessor organizations of today's U.S. Air Force are:
* Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps (August 1, 1907 to July 18, 1914)
* Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps (July 18, 1914 to May 20, 1918)
* Division of Military Aeronautics (May 20, 1918 to May 24, 1918)
* U.S. Army Air Service (May 24, 1918 to July 2, 1926)
* U.S. Army Air Corps (July 2, 1926 to June 20, 1941) and
* U.S. Army Air Forces (June 20, 1941 to September 17, 1947)
Wars
The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts, and operations since, and before, its conception; these include:
* World War I[13] Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
* World War II[14] United States Army Air Forces
* The Cold War
* The Korean War
* The Vietnam War
* Operation Eagle Claw
* Operation Urgent Fury
* Operation Eldorado Canyon
* The United States invasion of Panama
* The Gulf War
* Operation Northern Watch
* Operation Southern Watch
* The Kosovo War
* Operation Enduring Freedom
* Operation Iraqi Freedom
Humanitarian operations
The U.S. Air Force has taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following:[15]
* Berlin Airlift (Operation Vittles), 1948-1949
* Operation Safe Haven, 1956-1957
* Operations Babylift, New Life, Frequent Wind, and New Arrivals, 1975
* Operation Provide Comfort, 1991
* Operation Sea Angel, 1991
* Operation Provide Hope, 1992-1993
* Operation Unified Assistance, December 2004 - April 2005
Administrative organization
The Air Force is one of three service departments, and is managed by the (civilian) Department of the Air Force. Guidance is provided by the Secretary of the Air Force(SECAF) and the Secretary's staff and advisors. The military leadership is the Air Staff, led by the Chief of Staff.
USAF direct subordinate commands and units are the Field Operating Agency (FOA), Direct Reporting Unit (DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency.
The Major Command (MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. Including the Air Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has nine major commands, and a tenth, Air Force Cyber Command, in process. The Numbered Air Force (NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused), Air Division (also now unused), Wing, Group, Squadron, and Flight.
Force structure
Headquarters, United States Air Force, The Pentagon, Arlington, Virginia
* Air Combat Command (ACC), headquartered at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia
o First Air Force, headquartered at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida
o Eighth Air Force, headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana
o Ninth Air Force, headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina
o Twelfth Air Force, headquartered at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona
* Air Education and Training Command (AETC), headquartered at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas
o Second Air Force, headquartered at Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi
o Nineteenth Air Force, headquartered at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas
* Air Force Cyber Command (Provisional) (AFCYBER), interim location at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana
o Twenty Fourth Air Force
* Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC), headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
* Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC), headquartered at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia
o Fourth Air Force, headquartered at March Air Reserve Base, California
o Tenth Air Force, headquartered at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas
o Twenty-Second Air Force, headquartered at Dobbins Air Reserve Base, Georgia
* Air Force Space Command (AFSPC), headquartered at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado
o Fourteenth Air Force, headquartered at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California
o Twentieth Air Force, headquartered at F. E. Warren Air Force Base, Wyoming
* Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC), headquartered at Hurlburt Field, Florida
o Twenty-Third Air Force, headquartered at Hurlburt Field, Florida
* Air Mobility Command (AMC), headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois
o Eighteenth Air Force, headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois
* United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE), headquartered at Ramstein Air Base, Germany
o Third Air Force, headquartered at Ramstein Air Base, Germany
o Seventeenth Air Force, headquartered at Sembach Annex, Germany
* Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), headquartered at Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii
o Fifth Air Force, headquartered at Yokota Air Base, Japan
o Seventh Air Force, headquartered at Osan Air Base, Republic of Korea
o Eleventh Air Force, headquartered at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska
o Thirteenth Air Force, headquartered at Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii
The permanent establishment of the USAF, as of 30 September 2006,[16] consisted of:
* Active duty forces:
o 57 flying wings, 8 space wings, and 55 non-flying wings
o 9 flying groups, 8 non-flying groups
+ 134 flying squadrons, 43 space squadrons
* Air Force Reserve
o 35 flying wings, 1 space wing
o 4 flying groups
+ 67 flying squadrons, 6 space squadrons
* Air National Guard
o 87 flying wings
+ 101 flying squadrons, 4 space squadrons
The United States Air Force and its Air Reserve Components field a total of 302 flying squadrons.
Operational organization
The above organizational structure is responsible for the peacetime Organization, Equipping, and Training of aerospace units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the National Command Authority directs a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their peacetime alignment to a Regional Combatant Commander (CCDR). In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency to USTRANSCOM unless chopped to a Regional CCDR.
Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force
CHOPPED units are referred to as "forces". The top-level structure of these forces is the Air and Space Expeditionary Task Force (AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of aerospace forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in the COCOM's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the most strategic air assets in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as the Joint Forces Air Component Commander (JFACC).
Commander, Air Force Forces
The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior Air Force officer responsible for the employment of Air Power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission.
Air Operations Center
The Air Operations Center (AOC) is the JFACC's Command and Control (C²) center. This center is responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives.
Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons
The AETF generates air power to support COCOM objectives from Air Expeditionary Wings (AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions.
Vocations
The vast majority of Air Force members remain on the ground. There are hundreds of support positions which are necessary to the success of a mission.
The classification of an Air Force job is the Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC). They range from flight combat operations such as a gunner, to working in a dining facility to ensure that members are properly fed. There are many different jobs in fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties, enlisted aircrew, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations, security forces, and search and rescue specialties.
Perhaps the most dangerous Air Force jobs are Explosive Ordnance Disposal, Pararescue, Combat Control, Combat Weather and Tactical Air Control Party, who deploy with infantry and special operations units who disarm bombs, rescue downed or isolated personnel, call in air strikes and set up landing zones in forward locations. Most of these are enlisted positions. Other jobs have seen increasing combat, and have been billed "Battlefield Airmen". These include EOD, Vehicle operators, and OSI.
Nearly all enlisted jobs are "entry level," meaning that the Air Force provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular job, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Training. After Basic Military Training, new Air Force members attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command is responsible for nearly all technical training.
Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 31 days of tech school training, while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is 1 year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over 10 separate divisions; sometimes taking students close to 2 years to complete. Some AFSC's have even shorter or longer training.
Aircraft
Main article: List of active United States military aircraft
B-2 Spirit
B-2 Spirit
F-22 Raptors
F-22 Raptors
CV-22 Ospreys
CV-22 Ospreys
C-17 Globemaster III
C-17 Globemaster III
Current aircraft of the USAF
The United States Air Force has over 7,500 aircraft commissioned as of 2004. Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while the U.S. Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army/Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer to United States Department of Defense Aerospace Vehicle Designations.
Attack (Close Air Support)
* O/A-10A/C Thunderbolt II
* AC-130H/U Spectre/Spooky II
[edit] Bomber
* B-1B Lancer
* B-2A Spirit
* B-52H Stratofortress
[edit] Transport, Special Operations
* An-26 Curl
* C-5A/B/C/M Galaxy
* C-12C/D/F Huron
* C-17A Globemaster III
* C-20A/B/C Gulfstream III
* C-20G/H Gulfstream IV
* C-21A Learjet
* C-22B
* VC-25A (Air Force One)
* C-26B Metroliner
* C-29A
* C-32A
* C-37A/B
* C-38 Courier
* C-40B Clipper
* C-41A Aviocar
* C-130E/H/J Hercules
* HC-130H/N
* LC-130H
* MC-130E/H/W Combat Talon/Combat Spear
* WC-130J
* C-135C/E/K Stratolifter
* NC-135B/E/W
* VC-137C
* CN-235-100[19]
* E-9A
* CV-22B Osprey
* TC-18E
* TC-135S/W
* WC-135C/W
[edit] AWACS, Electronic Warfare
* E-3B/C Sentry
* E-4B
* E-8C JSTARS
[edit] Fighter
* F-15A/B/C/D Eagle
* F-15E Strike Eagle
* F-16C/D Fighting Falcon
* F-22A Raptor
* F-35 Lightning II
[edit] Helicopter
* MH-53J/M Pave Low III/IV
* HH-60G Pave Hawk
* UH-1N Iroquois
[edit] Tanker
* KC-10A Extender
* KC-135E/R/T Stratotanker
[edit] Reconnaissance
* OC-135B
* M/RQ-1A/B Predator
* RQ-4A Global Hawk
* MQ-9 Reaper
* RC-135S/U/V/W
* U-2R/S "Dragon Lady"
[edit] Trainer
* NT-39A/B Sabreliner
* T-1A Jayhawk
* T-6 Texan II
* (A)T-38A/B/C Talon
* Boeing T-43
* TG-3A
* TG-4A
* TG-7A
* TG-9A
* TG-10B/C/D
* TG-11A
* TG-15A/TG-15B
* UC-26C
* UV-18A/B Twin Otter
* UV-20A Chiricua
* U-28A
* F-5 Freedom Fighter
Training
All enlisted Airmen must undergo basic military training (BMT), which takes place at Lackland AFB, Texas.
Air Force Fitness Test
Main article: United States Air Force Fitness Test
The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the body composition, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the United States Air Force. As part of the Fit to Fight program, the Air Force adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was established on January 1, 2004, and replaces the annual ergo-cycle test that the Air Force had used for several years. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based on performance consisting of four components: waist circumfirence, the crunch, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 100; a passing score is anything over 75 points.
Culture
Uniforms
Main article: United States Air Force uniform
United States Air Force personnel wear uniforms which are distinct from those of the other branches of the United States Armed Forces. The current uniform is an olive drab/black/brown and tan combination called the Battle Dress Uniform (BDU). Members deployed to an AOR wear a variation of the BDU, tan and brown in color, called the Desert Camouflage Uniform (DCU). A new uniform called the Airman Battle Uniform (ABU) is scheduled to completely replace the BDU and DCU by November 2011. The ABU is currently readily available at most Base Exchanges or Military Clothing Stores.
Awards and badges
In addition to basic uniform clothing, various badges are used by the USAF to indicate a job assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-based awards. Over time, various badges have been discontinued and are no longer distributed.
Grade Structure and Insignias
The standard USAF uniform is also decorated with an insignia to designate rank. USAF rank is divided between enlisted airmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from "airman basic" to the commissioned rank of general. Promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval. Promotions among enlisted men and non-commissioned officers rankings are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons. Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five (only in war-time) stars.
For cadet rank at the U.S. Air Force Academy, see United States Air Force Academy Cadet Insignia.
Slogans & Creeds
The United States Air Force has had numerous recruiting slogans to include "Nothing Comes Close" and Uno Ab Alto. For many years, the U.S. Air Force used "Aim High" as its recruiting motto; more recently, they have used "Cross Into the Blue", "We've been waiting for you" and "Do Something Amazing",[20] and the newest one, "Above All".[21] Each wing, group, or squadron usually has its own motto(s). Information and logos can usually be found on the wing, group, or squadron websites.[22]
The Airman's Creed is a statement introduced in the spring of 2007 to summarize the culture of the Air Force.
Air Force Core Values: Integrity First, Service Before Self, Excellence In All We Do
To help further knowledge of their mission and functions, the Air Force has also produced videos, such as "Setting the Conditions for Victory" and "How We Fight",[23] to outline the Air Force role in the war on terrorism and how the service succeeds in its domains of air, space and cyberspace. The Above All campaign continues to support the message of "air, space and cyberspace" dominance.
Junk Jet has developed an archive impossible that transports, in print format, net based works, or fragments of works showing collections, series, animations, applications, and reflecting anti-heart texts on the net and its new forms of art, design, and architecture. N°5, the net.heart issue, has transferred internet things from their digital space into a paper jet. This transportation procedure relies on documents in a similar way as the museum relies on photograph and video documenting performance arts. And Junk Jet believes that this analogue documentation is in no way inferior to pseudo-preserving techniques of data migration, emulation, or reprogramming. At the end, Junk Jet says: Transportation is not so much about the artwork as object, but rather about the indication of the subjective decision of the artist. In this sense Junk Jet is a Russian conceptualist.
www.facebook.com/pages/Junk-Jet/298633638983
With wireless contributions by Adam Cruces, Agathe Andre, Alessandro Bava, Alexei Shulgin, Angela Genusa, Angelo Plessas, Aureliano Segundo, Asli Serbest, Aristide Antonas, Artie Vierkant, Ball-Nogues, Bärbel Jetter, Bea Fremderman, Beatriz Ramo, Ben Aqua, Ben Vickers, Billy Rennekamp, Bonno van Doorn, Brad Troemel, Bryan Boyer, Carsten Güth, Christian Oldham, Christine Nasz and Stefanie Hunold, Constant Dullaart, Dennis Knopf, Eilis Mcdonald, Fabien Mousse, Gene McHugh, Greg J. Smith, Hanne Mugaas, Jacob Engblom, Jasper Elings, JODI, Jonas Lund, Jordan Tate, Katja Novitskova, Laimonas Zakas, Lenox Twins, m-a-u-s-e-r, Marisa Olson, Michael Schoner, Mike Ruiz, Mimi Zeiger, Mona Mahall, Natalie Bookchin, Nicholas O'Brien, Nicolas Sassoon, NIEI, NLarchitects, Olia Lialina, Palace Palace, Rafaël Rozendaal Ricardo Scofidio, Parker Ito, Patrick Cruz, Pieterjan Grandry, Raphael Bastide, Sam Hancocks, Sarah Weis, Something Fantastic, Sterling Crispin, Theo Seemann, Will Brand, Wyne Veen
Edited by Mona Mahall and Asli Serbest
N°5 comes with a Poster: "Home Buttons by Architects"
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
Japanese Americans (日系アメリカ人, Nikkei Amerikajin?) are Americans of Japanese heritage. Japan is a western Pacific Ocean multi-archipelagic nation east of China in Asia. Japanese Americans are a subgroup of East Asian Americans, which is further a subgroup of Asian Americans. Okinawa, a former independent nation, was annexed by Japan in the late nineteenth century. Japanese Americans have historically been among the three largest Asian American communities, but in recent decades have become the sixth largest (at roughly 1,204,205, including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity). In the 2000 census, the largest Japanese American communities were in California with 394,896, Hawaii with 296,674, Washington with 56,210, New York with 45,237, and Illinois with 27,702. Each year, about 7,000 new Japanese immigrants enter United States ports, making up about 4% of immigration from Asia; net migration, however, is significantly lower because some older Japanese Americans have been moving to Japan.
Cultural profile
Generations
Japanese Americans have special names for each of their generations in the United States. The first generation of immigrants, born in Japan or Okinawa before moving to the United States, is called Issei (一世). The second generation is Nisei (二世), third is Sansei (三世), fourth is Yonsei (四世) and fifth is Gosei (五世). The term Nikkei (日系) was coined by Japanese American sociologists and encompasses all of the world's Japanese immigrants across generations.
Languages
Issei and many Nisei speak Japanese or Okinawan in addition to English as a second language. In general, later generations of Japanese Americans speak English as their first language, though some do learn Japanese later as a second language. In Hawaii however, where Nisei are about one-fifth of the whole population, Japanese is a major language, spoken and studied by many of the state's residents across ethnicities. It is taught in private Japanese language schools as early as the second grade. As a courtesy to the large number of Japanese tourists (from Japan), Japanese subtexts are provided on place signs, public transportation, and civic facilities. The Hawaii media market has a few locally produced Japanese language newspapers and magazines, however these are on the verge of dying out, due to a lack of interest on the part of the local (Hawaii-born) Japanese population. Stores that cater to the tourist industry often have Japanese-speaking personnel. To show their allegiance to the U.S., many Niseis and Sanseis intentionally avoided learning Japanese. But as many of the later generations find their identities in both Japan and America, studying Japanese is becoming more popular than it once was.
Education
Japanese American culture places great value on education. Across generations, parents tend to instill their children with a deep value for higher education. As a result of such cultural ambition, math and reading scores on standardized tests often exceed national averages.[citation needed] They fill gifted classrooms and have the largest showing of any ethnic group in nationwide Advanced Placement testing each year.[citation needed]
Most Japanese Americans obtain advanced college degrees. Japanese Americans once again face stereotyping as dominating the sciences in colleges and universities across the United States, while in reality, there is an equal distribution of Japanese Americans across academic disciplines in the arts and humanities in addition to the sciences.
Intermarriage
Before the 1960s, the trend of Japanese Americans marrying partners outside their racial or ethnic group was generally low, as well a great many traditional Issei parents encouraged Nisei to marry only within their ethnic/cultural group and arrangements to purchase and invite picture brides from Japan to relocate and marry Issei or Nisei males was commonplace.[citation needed]
In California and other western states until the end of world war II, there were attempts to make it illegal for Japanese and other Asian Americans to marry whites or Caucasians, but those laws are declared unconstitutional by the US supreme court the same manner like anti-miscegenation laws prevented whites from marrying African-Americans in the 1960s.
According to a 1990 statistical survey by the Japan Society of America, the Sansei or third generations have an estimated 20 to 30 percent out-of-group marriage, while the 4th generation or Yonsei approaches nearly 50 percent. The rate for Japanese women to marry Caucasian and other Asian men is becoming more frequent, but lower rates for Hispanic and American Indian men (although the number of Cherokee Indians in California with Japanese ancestry is much reported), and with African-American men is even smaller.
During the WWII Internment era, the US Executive Order 9066 had an inclusion of orphaned infants with "one drop of Japanese blood" (as explained in a letter by one official) or the order stated anyone at least one eighth Japanese (descended from any intermarriage) lends credence to the argument that the measures were racially motivated, rather than a military necessity.
There were sizable numbers of Korean-Japanese, Chinese-Japanese, Filipino-Japanese, Mexican-Japanese, Native Hawaiian-Japanese and Cherokee-Japanese in California according to the 1940 US census whom were eligible for internment as "Japanese" to indicate the first stage of widespread intermarriage of Japanese Americans, including those who passed as "white" or half-Asian/Caucasian.
Religion
Japanese Americans (commonly) practice a wide range of religions, including Mahayana Buddhism (Jodo Shinshu, Jodo Shu, Nichiren, and Zen forms being most prominent) which is the majority, Shinto, and Christianity. In many ways, due to the longstanding nature of Buddhist and Shinto practices in Japanese society, many of the cultural values and traditions commonly associated with Japanese tradition have been strongly influenced by these religious forms.
A large number of the Japanese American community continue to practice Buddhism in some form, and a number of community traditions and festivals continue to center around Buddhist institutions. For example, one of the most popular community festivals is the annual Obon Festival, which occurs in the summer, and provides an opportunity to reconnect with their customs and traditions and to pass these traditions and customs to the young. These kinds of festivals are most popular in communities with large populations of Japanese Americans, such as in southern California or Hawaiʻi. It should be noted however, that many Japanese people both in and out of Japan are secular as Shinto and Buddhism is most often practiced by rituals such as marriages or funerals, and not through faithful worship, as defines religion for many Americans.
For Japanese American Christians, the church is one of the most important cultural foundations. In California, Hawaiʻi and Washington, congregations can be composed entirely of Japanese Americans. In the rest of the country they tend to be accepted in predominately white churches.
Celebrations
Japanese American celebrations tend to be more sectarian in nature and focus on the community-sharing aspects. An important annual festival for Japanese Americans is the Obon Festival, which happens in July or August of each year. Across the country, Japanese Americans gather on fair grounds, churches and large civic parking lots and commemorate the memory of their ancestors and their families through folk dances and food. Carnival booths are usually set up so Japanese American children have the opportunity to play together.
History
The history of Japanese Americans begins in the mid nineteenth century.
* 1841, June 27 Captain Whitfield, commanding a New England sailing vessel, rescues five shipwrecked Japanese sailors. Four disembark at Honolulu, however Manjiro Nakahama stays on board returning with Whitfield to Fairhaven, Massachusetts. After attending school in New England and adopting the name John Manjiro, he later became an interpreter for Commodore Matthew Perry.
* 1850, seventeen survivors of a Japanese shipwreck were saved by the American freighter Auckland. They became the first Japanese people to reach California. In 1852, the group was sent to Macau to join Commodore Matthew Perry as a gesture to help open diplomatic relations with Japan. One of them, Joseph Heco (Hikozo Hamada) went on to become the first Japanese person to become a naturalized US citizen.
* 1861 The utopian minister Thomas Lake Harris of the Brotherhood of the New Life visits England, where he meets Nagasawa Kanaye, who becomes a convert. Nagasawa returns to the US with Harris and follows him to Fountaingrove in Santa Rosa, California. When Harris leaves the Californian commune, Nagasawa became the leader and remained there until his death in 1932.
* 1869, A group of Japanese people arrive at Gold Hills, California and build the Wakamatsu Tea and Silk Colony. Okei becomes the first recorded Japanese woman to die and be buried in the US.
* 1890, The first wave of Japanese immigrants arrives to provide labor in Hawaiʻi sugarcane and pineapple plantations, California fruit and produce farms.
* 1893 The San Francisco Education Board attempts to introduce segregation for Japanese American children, but withdraws the measure following protests by the Japanese government.
* 1900s, Japanese immigrants begin to lease land and sharecrop.
* 1902, Yone Noguchi publishes the The American Diary of a Japanese Girl, the first Japanese American novel.
* 1907, Gentlemen's Agreement between United States and Japan that Japan would stop issuing passports for new laborers.
* 1908, Japanese picture brides enter the United States.
* 1913, California Alien Land Law of 1913 ban Japanese from purchasing land; whites threatened by Japanese success in independent farming ventures.
* 1924, United States Immigration Act of 1924 banned immigration from Japan.
* 1930s, Issei become economically stable for the first time in California and Hawaiʻi.
* 1941, Japan air force attacked Honolulu; U.S. Federal government arrests Japanese community leaders.
* 1942, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066 on February 19, uprooting Japanese Americans on the west coast to be sent to Internment camps.
* 1943, Japanese American soldiers from Hawaiʻi join the U.S. Army 100th Battalion arrive in Europe.
* 1944, Ben Kuroki became the only Japanese-American in the U.S. Army Air Force to serve in combat operations in the Pacific Ocean theater of World War II.
* 1944, U.S. Army 100th Battalion merges with the all-volunteer Japanese American 442nd Regimental Combat Team.
* 1945, 442nd Regimental Combat team awarded 18,143 decorations, including 9,486 Purple Hearts, becoming the most decorated military unit in United States history.
* 1959, Daniel K. Inouye becomes the first Japanese American in Congress.
* 1962, Minoru Yamasaki is awarded the contract to design the World Trade Center, becoming the first Japanese American architect to design a supertall skyscraper in the United States
* 1963, Daniel K. Inouye becomes the first Japanese American in the US Senate.
* 1965, Patsy T. Mink becomes the first woman of color in Congress.
* 1971, Norman Y. Mineta elected mayor of San Jose, California; becomes first Asian American mayor of a major US city.
* 1974, George R. Ariyoshi becomes the first Japanese American governor in the State of Hawaiʻi.
* 1976, Samuel Ichiye (S. I.) Hayakawa of California and Spark Matsunaga of Hawaiʻi become the second and third Japanese American US Senators.
* 1978, Ellison S. Onizuka becomes the first Asian American astronaut. Onizuka was one of the seven astronauts to die in the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
* 1980, Congress creates Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians to investigate World War II unjust policies against Japanese Americans.
* 1983, Commission reports that Japanese American internment was not a national security necessity.
* 1988, U.S. President Ronald Reagan signs the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, apologizing for Japanese American internment and providing reparations of $20,000 to each victim.
* 1992, Kristi Yamaguchi becomes the first Japanese American to win an Olympic Gold medal, in women's figure skating.
* 1994, Mazie K. Hirono becomes the first Japanese immigrant elected state lieutenant governor.
* 1996, A. Wallace Tashima becomes the first Japanese American appointed to the United States court of appeals, in the Ninth Circuit.
* 1998, Chris Tashima becomes the first Japanese American (American-born) actor to win an Academy Award (Visas and Virtue).
* 1999, Gen. Eric Shinseki becomes the first Asian American U.S. military chief of staff.
* 2000, Norman Y. Mineta becomes the first Asian American appointed to the U.S. Cabinet, working as Commerce Secretary (2000-2001) and Transportation Secretary (2001-2006).
Immigration
People from Japan began migrating to the U.S. in significant numbers following the political, cultural, and social changes stemming from the 1868 Meiji Restoration. Particularly after the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, Japanese immigrants were sought by industrialists to replace the Chinese immigrants. In 1907, the "Gentlemen's Agreement" between the governments of Japan and the U.S. ended immigration of Japanese workers (i.e., men), but permitted the immigration of spouses of Japanese immigrants already in the U.S. The Immigration Act of 1924 banned the immigration of all but a token few Japanese.
The ban on immigration produced unusually well-defined generational groups within the Japanese American community. Initially, there was an immigrant generation, the Issei, and their U.S.-born children, the Nisei. The Issei were exclusively those who had immigrated before 1924. Because no new immigrants were permitted, all Japanese Americans born after 1924 were--by definition--born in the U.S. This generation, the Nisei, became a distinct cohort from the Issei generation in terms of age, citizenship, and English language ability, in addition to the usual generational differences. Institutional and interpersonal racism led many of the Nisei to marry other Nisei, resulting in a third distinct generation of Japanese Americans, the Sansei. Significant Japanese immigration did not occur until the Immigration Act of 1965 ended 40 years of bans against immigration from Japan and other countries.
The Naturalization Act of 1790 restricted naturalized U.S. citizenship to "free white persons," which excluded the Issei from citizenship. As a result, the Issei were unable to vote, and faced additional restrictions such as the inability to own land under many state laws.
Japanese Americans were parties in several important Supreme Court decisions, including Ozawa v. United States (1922) and Korematsu v. United States (1943). Korematsu is the origin of the "strict scrutiny" standard, which is applied, with great controversy, in government considerations of race since the 1989 Adarand Constructors v. Peña decision.
In recent years, immigration from Japan has been more like that from Western Europe: low and usually related to marriages between U.S. citizens and Japanese (usually Japanese women), with some via employment preferences. The number is on average 5 to 10 thousand per year, and is similar to the amount of immigration to the U.S. from Germany. This is in stark contrast to the rest of Asia, where family reunification is the primary impetus for immigration. Japanese Americans also have the oldest demographic structure of any non-white ethnic group in the U.S.; in addition, in the younger generations, due to intermarriage with whites, non-whites, and other Asian groups, part-Japanese are more common than full Japanese, and it appears as if this physical assimilation will continue at a rapid rate.
Internment
During WWII, an estimated 120,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese residing in the United States were forcibly interned in ten different camps across the US, mostly in the west. The internments were based on the race or ancestry rather than activities of the interned. Families, including children, were interned together.
For the most part, the internees remained in the camps until the end of the war, when they left the camps to rebuild their lives in the West Coast. Several Japanese Americans have started lawsuits against the U.S. government regarding what they perceive as a wrongful internment. The lawsuits have dragged on for decades.
World War II Service
Many Japanese Americans served with great distinction during World War II in the American forces. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team/100th Infantry Battalion is one of the most highly decorated unit in U.S. military history. Composed of Japanese Americans, the 442nd/100th fought valiantly in the European Theater. The 522nd Nisei Field Artillery Battalion was one of the first units to liberate the prisoners of the Nazi concentration camp at Dachau. Hawaiʻi Senator Daniel K. Inouye is a veteran of the 442nd. Additionally the Military Intelligence Service consisted of Japanese Americans who served in the Pacific Front.
Redress
In the U.S., the right to redress is defined as a constitutional right, as it is decreed in the First Amendment to the Constitution.
Redress may be defined as follows:
* 1. the setting right of what is wrong: redress of abuses.
* 2. relief from wrong or injury.
* 3. compensation or satisfaction from a wrong or injury.
Reparation is defined as:
* 1. the making of amends for wrong or injury done: reparation for an injustice.
* 2. Usually, reparations. compensation in money, material, labor, etc., payable by a defeated country to another country or to an individual for loss suffered during or as a result of war.
* 3. restoration to good condition.
* 4. repair. (“Legacies of Incarceration,” 2002)
The campaign for redress against internment was launched by Japanese Americans in 1978. The Japanese American Citizens’ League (JACL) asked for three measures to be taken as redress: $25,000 to be awarded to each person who was detained, an apology from Congress acknowledging publicly that the U.S. government had been wrong, and the release of funds to set up an educational foundation for the children of Japanese American families. Under the 2001 budget of the United States, it was also decreed that the ten sites on which the detainee camps were set up are to be preserved as historical landmarks: “places like Manzanar, Tule Lake, Heart Mountain, Topaz, Amache, Jerome, and Rohwer will forever stand as reminders that this nation failed in its most sacred duty to protect its citizens against prejudice, greed, and political expediency” (Tateishi and Yoshino 2000). Each of these concentration camps was surrounded by barbed wire and contained at least ten thousand forced detainees.
Life under United States policies before and after World War II
Like most of the American population, Japanese immigrants came to the U.S. in search of a better life. Some planned to stay and build families here in the states, while others wanted to save money from working stateside to better themselves in the country from which they had come. Before the Attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese residents experienced a moderate level of hardship that was pretty typical for any minority group at the time.
Farming
Japanese Americans have made significant contributions to the agriculture of the western United States, particularly in California and Hawaii. Nineteenth century Japanese immigrants introduced sophisticated irrigation methods that enabled the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers on previously marginal lands.
While the Issei (1st generation Japanese Americans) prospered in the early 20th century, most lost their farms during the internment. Although this was the case, Japanese Americans remain involved in these industries today, particularly in southern California and to some extent, Arizona by the areas' year-round agricultural economy, and descendants of Japanese pickers who adapted farming in Oregon and Washington state.
Japanese American detainees irrigated and cultivated lands nearby the World War II internment camps, which were located in desolate spots such as Poston, in the Arizona desert, and Tule Lake, California, at a dry mountain lake bed. Due to their tenacious efforts, these farm lands remain productive today.
Politics
Japanese Americans have shown strong support for candidates in both political parties. Leading up to the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election, Japanese Americans narrowly favored Democrat John Kerry by a 42% to 38% margin over Republican George W. Bush.
Neighborhoods and communities
The US west coast
* Central Valley, California region:
o Bakersfield, California
o Fresno, California
o Merced, California
o Stockton, California
o Butte County, California
o Sutter County, California
* Hawaii, where a quarter of the population is of Japanese descent.
* Los Angeles, California, includes the Little Tokyo section
* Monterey County, California, especially Salinas, California
* Sacramento, California, as well Florin, California
* San Diego, California
* San Francisco, California, notably the Japantown section.
* San Francisco Bay Area, the main concentration of Nisei and Sansei in the 20th century:
o Alameda County
o Contra Costa County
o San Mateo County
o San Jose, California
o Walnut Creek, California, located east of Oakland, California
* Santa Barbara, California
* Santa Cruz County, California
* Santa Rosa, California
* Seattle, Washington
* Bellevue, Washington
* Tacoma, Washington
* Portland, Oregon
* Willamette Valley, Oregon
* Yakima Valley, Washington
* Southern California has sporadic Japanese American communities:
o Anaheim, California and Orange County
o Fontana, California in the Inland Empire
o Pasadena, California in the Los Angeles' San Gabriel Valley
o Palm Desert, California, also the Japanese developed the year-round agricultural industries in the Coachella Valley and Imperial Valley
o Torrance, California in the Los Angeles' South Bay area
Outside the US west coast
* Arlington, Texas
* Boise, Idaho
* Boston, Massachusetts
* Chicago, Illinois
* Denver, Colorado, note Sakura Square
* Gallup, New Mexico, IN WWII the city fought to prevent the internment of its 800 Japanese residents.
* Las Vegas, Nevada
* New York City, New York
* Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
* Phoenix, Arizona
* Southern Arizona, part of the "exclusion area" for Japanese internment during WWII along with the Pacific coast states.
* Washington, DC
* Yuma County, Arizona
Notable individuals
After the Territory of Hawaiʻi's statehood in 1959, Japanese American political empowerment took a step forward with the election of Daniel K. Inouye to Congress. Inouye's success led to the gradual acceptance of Japanese American leadership on the national stage, culminating in the appointments of Eric Shinseki and Norman Y. Mineta, the first Japanese American military chief of staff and federal cabinet secretary, respectively.
Many Japanese Americans have also gained prominence in the arts and sciences. These include Minoru Yamasaki, architect of the World Trade Center, and Ellison Onizuka, the first Asian American astronaut and the mission specialist aboard Challenger at the time of its explosion. Poet laureate of San Francisco Janice Mirikitani has published three volumes of poems. Artist Sueo Serisawa helped establish the California Impressionist style of painting.
Japanese Americans first made an impact in Olympic sports in the late 1940s and in the 1950s. Harold Sakata won a weightlifting silver medal in the 1948 Olympics, while Japanese Americans Tommy Kono (weightlifting), Yoshinobu Oyakawa (100-meter backstroke), and Ford Konno (1500-meter freestyle) each won gold and set Olympic records in the 1952 Olympics. Konno won another gold and silver swimming medal at the same Olympics and added a silver medal in 1956, while Kono set another Olympic weightlifting record in 1956. Also at the 1952 Olympics, Evelyn Kawamoto won two bronze medals in swimming.
More recently, Eric Sato won gold (1988) and bronze (1992) medals in volleyball, while his sister Liane Sato won bronze in the same sport in 1992. Hapa Bryan Clay won the silver medal in the 2004 decathlon and was the sport's 2005 world champion. Apolo Anton Ohno won five Olympic medals in short-track speed skating (two gold) in 2002 and 2006, as well as a world cup championship.
In figure skating, Kristi Yamaguchi won three national championships (one individual, two in pairs), two world titles, and the 1992 Olympic Gold medal. Rena Inoue took first place in the 2004 and 2006 U.S. Figure Skating Championships Pairs competition. Mirai Nagasu won the 2008 U.S. national championship at the age of 14.
In distance running, Miki (Michiko) Gorman won the Boston and New York City marathons twice in the 1970s. A former American record holder at the distance, she is the only woman to win both races twice, and is the only woman to win both marathons in the same year.
In professional sports, Wataru Misaka broke the NBA color barrier in the 1947-48 season, when he played for the New York Knicks. Misaka also played a key role in Utah's NCAA and NIT basketball championships in 1944 and 1947. Lindsey Yamasaki was the first Asian American to play in the WNBA and finished off her NCAA career with the third-highest career 3-pointers at Stanford University.
Hikaru Nakamura became the youngest American ever to earn the titles of National Master (age 10) and International Grandmaster (age 15) in chess. In 2004, at the age of 16, he won the U.S. Chess Championship.
Japanese Americans now anchor TV newscasts in markets all over the country. Notable anchors include Tritia Toyota, Adele Arakawa, David Ono, Kent Ninomiya, and Lori Matsukawa.
George Takei (of Star Trek fame) and Pat Morita (Happy Days) helped pioneer acting roles for Asian Americans while playing secondary roles on the small screen during the 1960s and 1970s. Today, Masi Oka plays a prominent role in the NBC series Heroes and Grant Imahara appears on the Discovery Channel series MythBusters.
Notable Japanese American musicians include singer, actress and Broadway star Pat Suzuki, rapper Mike Shinoda of Linkin Park and Fort Minor, guitarist James Iha of Smashing Pumpkins fame, singer, voice actress and Japanese expatriate Mari Iijima, Shodo Artist, J-Poet, Gravure Idols and BURN Flame Miki Ariyama and famous J-pop superstar Hikaru Utada
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
A wide variety of weapons were used by the different armies operating in the Vietnam War, which included the opposing Army of the Republic of Viet Nam (ARVN) and People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN) known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) during the war, the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF), better known as the Viet Cong (VC), as well as all services of the U.S. military, the South Korean and Australian armies, and a variety of irregular troops armed and equipped by both sides. The ARVN and Koreans were armed with U.S. Army weapons, some of which, such as the M1 Carbine, were substitute standard weapons dating from World War II. The PAVN (NVA), although having inherited a miscellany of American, French, and Japanese weapons from earlier stages of the conflict, were largely armed and supplied by its Warsaw Pact allies. In addition some weapons were manufactured in Vietnam, notably anti-personnel explosives, the K-50 (a PPSh-41 variant), and “home-made” versions of the RPG-2.
ARVN, US, Australian, and New Zealand weapons
Chemical weapons
* 1. Agent Orange (Dioxin)
In 1961 and 62 the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy vegetation in South Vietnam. Between 1961 and 1967 the US Air Force sprayed 12 million US gallons of concentrated herbicides (mainly Agent Orange) over 6 million acres (24,000 km²) of foliage and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South Vietnam's land. In 1997, an article published by the Wall Street Journal reported that up to half a million children were born with dioxin related deformities, and that the birth defects in South Vietnam were fourfold those in the North. The use of Agent Orange may have been contrary to international rules of war at the time. It is also of note that the most likely victims of such an assault would be small children. A 1967 study by the Agronomy Section of the Japanese Science Council concluded that 3.8 million acres (15,000 km²) of land had been destroyed, killing 1000 peasants and 13,000 livestock.
Small arms
1. Edged weapons(Combat knives, bayonet)
* Randall No. 1
* Gerber Mark II
* M1 bayonet
* M6 bayonet
* M7 bayonet
* KA-BAR (USMC)
* KCB70 bayonet (Limited use with Stoner 63 rifle only)
2. Pistols & Revolvers
* FNH Browning H-P Mk III pistol - used by Australian and New Zealand forces
* Smith & Wesson Mark 22 Mod.0 "Hush Puppy" - Suppressed pistol used by SEALs, among others
* Colt M1911A1 pistol
* S & W Model 15 (USAF M-15) carried by USAF SPs (Security Police Units)
* S & W models 12
* S & W Aircrewman model (a models 37 with 2 inch barrels and alluminium drum)
3. Machine Pistols/Submachine Guns
* F-1 sub-machine gun - used by Australian forces
* Owen sub-machine gun - used by Australian soldiers until it was replaced by the M-16 rifle later on during the war
* Sterling L2A3 sub-machine gun - used by both Australian and New Zealand forces, in particular the Australian Army's Special Air Service Regiment and the New Zealand Army's Special Air Service Squadron. Australian and New Zealand SAS units and the U.S. Navy SEALs also utilised the silenced version of the Sterling sub-machine gun (the L34A1) on commando missions.
* Walther MP (MPL), often suppressed for action behind the enemy's lines
* Smith & Wesson M76 a copy of the Carl Gustav M/45, used by US Navy SEALs and ARVN (South Vietnam)
* Thompson M1A1 - In limited use by Americans and South Vietnamese
* M3/A1 'Grease Gun' - Used by Americans and ARVN (South Vietnam)
* Sten,(silenced) used only by U.S. and Australian Special Forces
* Ingram MAC-10, used only by U.S. Special Forces
* Beretta Model 12, used only by CIA and U.S. Special Forces
4. Assault Rifles
* Colt CAR-15, XM177, Colt m653, Short assault rifle
* Armalite and Colt rifle AR15/M16 - main rifle since 1963
* Harrington & Richardson T223 a copy of the HK 33 - used by U.S. Navy SEALs
5. Battle Rifles
* M1/M2 Carbine in early time of the war, by ARVN, South Vietnamese Marine Corps and Republic of Korea Marine Corps
* M1 Garand in early time of the war, by ARVN, South Vietnamese Marine Corps and Republic of Korea Marine Corps
* M-14 rifle - used mainly by U.S. Marine Corps from the beginning of war to March - November 1967 but also US Army infantry (not Cavalry or Airborne) units in 1965, then replaced by M-16s
* L1A1 Self Loading Rifle (SLR) - Used by Australian and New Zealand soldiers in Vietnam
* Springfield M1903
* Ithaca 37 pump-action shotgun
* Remington 870 pump-action shotgun
* Remington 11-48 semi-automatic shotgun
* (The shotguns were used as an individual weapon during jungle patrol; infantry units are (were) authorized a shotgun by TO & E (Table of Organization & Equipment). Shotguns were not general issue to all infantrymen, but were select issue, such as one per squad, etc.)
6. Sniper Rifles
* Winchester Model 70 bolt-action sniper rifles - used by U.S. Marine Corps snipers
* M-40 sniper rifle - used by U.S. Marine Corps snipers
* M21 Sniper Weapon System (or XM21 in test phase) - an accurized version of M-14
* Springfield M1903A4 sniper rifle
7. Machine guns
* Stoner M63a Commando & Mark 23 Mod.0 - used by U.S. Navy SEALs and tested by Force Recon
* Saco Defence M60 GPMG (General Purpose Machine Gun), also known as "Pig"
* M1918A2 Browning Automatic Rifle, Caliber .30 known as BAR
* Browning M1919-A6 medium machine gun
* Browning M2HB .50cal Heavy Machine Gun
8. Grenades and Mines
* Mark 2 Fragmentation Hand/Rifle Grenade
* Claymore M18A1 is an anti-personnel mine
* M61 Fragmentation Hand Grenade
* WP M34 grenade White Phosphorus Hand Grenade is a smoke grenade that uses white phosphorus, which, when in contact with air ignites and creates white smoke. The white phosphorus was also a useful, if cruel way to dislodge the Viet Cong from tunnels or other enclosed spaces as the burning white phosphorus absorbs oxygen, causing the victims to suffocate or suffer serious burns.
* M18 grenade Smoke Hand Grenade
9. Grenade Launcher
* M79 grenade launcher
* China Lake NATIC a pump-action grenade launcher - used by U.S. Navy SEALs
* XM148 grenade launcher
* M20 Super Bazooka used mainly by U.S. Marine Corps before introduction of M72 LAW
* M72 LAW (Light Anti-Tank Weapon)
* Mk.19 Automatic Grenade Launcher
* FIM-43 Redeye MANPADS (Man-Portable Air-Defence System)
Artillery
* 57-mm, 75-mm, 90mm, and 106-mm Recoilless rifle
* 75 mm and M102 105 mm Howitzer
* 60 mm, 81 mm, and 107 mm, commonly referred to as the four deuce (4.2 inch mortar)Mortar
* M2 105 mm howitzer
* M109 155 self-propelled howitzer
* M107 175mm self-propelled
* M110 8-inch self-propelled howitzer
Artillery ammunition
* Beehive rounds
* White phosphorus (marking round)"Willy Peter"
* HE, general purpose (High Explosive)
* Canister
Ground Attack & bomber aircraft
* Douglas A-1 Skyraider carrier borne propeller driven dive bomber
* Cessna A-37 Dragonfly
* Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter
* Douglas A-4 Skyhawk carrier borne light attack plane
* Grumman A-6 Intruder carrier borne all weather medium bomber
* Ling-Temco-Vought A-7 Corsair II carrier borne ground attack plane
* General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark Fighter/Bomber
* Boeing B-52 Stratofortress heavy bomber
* Martin B-57 Canberra medium bombers - used by the U.S. Air Force
* English Electric/GAF Canberra B.20 medium bomber - used by the Royal Australian Air Force
* Bell AH-1 Cobra attack helicopter
* Boeing/Vertol CH-47 Chinooks and Bell UH-1 "Huey" played in gunship role
* Douglas AC-47 Spooky Gunship
* Lockheed AC-130 "Spectre" Gunship
* Fairchild AC-119G "Shadow" Gunship
* Fairchild AC-119K "Stinger" Gunship
Fighter aircraft
Mainly used to protect (fighter escort) bombers over North Vietnam's sky. Some fighters also served as fighter-bombers.
* McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II carrier and land based fighter plane
* Chance-Vought F-8 Crusader carrier borne fighter
* Republic F-105 Thunderchief fighter plane
* North American F-100 Super Sabre fighter plane
* McDonnell Douglas F-101 Voodoo (RF-101) fighter/reconnaissance plane
* Convair F-102 Delta Dagger fighter
* Lockheed F-104 Starfighter fighter
Cargo & transport aircraft
* Chase C-123 Provider cargo plane
* Lockheed C-130 Hercules cargo plane
* Lockheed C-141 Starlifter cargo plane
* Bell UH-1 Huey helicopters in several configurations
* Lockheed C-5 Galaxy cargo plane
* De Havilland Canada DHC-4/C-7 Caribou cargo plane - used extensively by the U.S. Air Force and the Royal Australian Air Force in Vietnam
* Boeing/Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight
* Kaman H-2 Seasprite helicopter
* Sikorsky H-3 Sea King
* Sikorsky UH-34 Seahorse Transport/Cargo helicopter
* Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopter
* Sikorsky CH-54 Skycrane helicopter
* Bell OH-58 Kiowa Transport/ Observation helicopter
* Hughes OH-6 Cayuse Transport/ Observation helicopter
* Kaman H-43 Huskie Transport/cargo helicopter
Aircraft Ordnance
See also: List of Bombs in the Vietnam War
* GBUs
* CBUs
* BLU-82 Daisy cutter
* Napalm
* Bomb, 250 lb, 500 lb, 750 lb, 1000 lb, HE (high explosive), general purpose
* Rocket, aerial, HE (High Explosive), 2.75 inch
* M61 Vulcan, 20 mm
* Minigun, 7.62 mm
* M197 Gatling gun, 20mm
Vehicles
* M38A1 1/4 ton jeep
* Ford M151 MUTT 1/4 ton Military Utility Tactical Truck (jeep)
* Dodge M37, 3/4 ton (pick-up truck)
* Truck, cargo/troops, 2 1/2 ton (deuce and a half)
* Truck, cargo/troops, 5 ton
* M520 Goer Truck, Cargo, 8-ton, 4x4
* Land Rover short and long wheelbase Australian and New Zealand forces.
Armoured fighting vehicles
Tanks
* M24 Chaffee light tank
* M41 Walker Bulldog light tank
* M48 Patton medium tank
* M551 Sheridan airborne reconnaissance assault vehicle, currently referred to as a light tank
* Centurion main battle tank - used by the Australian Army
Other vehicles
* M113 APC (Armored Personnel Carrier)
* M113 ACAV Armoured Cavalry Assault Vehicle
* M8 Greyhound,used only by (ARVN)
* LVTP5 Landing Craft
* M50 Ontos
* Cadillac Gage V-100 Commando
* Mark I PBRs (Patrol Boat River)
* LARC-LX
* BARC
* AMTRAC'S, amphibious tractors, US Marine Corps
* M-114 Reconnaissance vehicle
* M42 Duster (M-41 light tank hull, with a naval twin 40MM mounted on an open turret)
* Monitor, heavily gunned riverine craft
* Swift Boat, (PCF) Patrol Craft Fast
* ASPB, Assault Support Patrol Boat, (known as Alpha boats)
* Cessna O-1 Bird dog, observation plane
* Cessna O-2 Skymaster, observation plane
* North American OV-10 Bronco, attack/observation plane
Gunship
Vehicles ( commonly cargo ), armed with automatic weapons.
* Boeing/ Vertol CH-47 Chinook Gunship
* Gun trucks, 2 1/2 ton (deuce an a half), and 5 ton cargo trucks with quad .50 cal machinguns mounted in the back
* M16 Halftracks with quad .50 cal machineguns in the back
* Gun jeeps, 1/4 tons with mounted M-60 machineguns
* Bell UH-1 Huey Gunships
* Land Rover, short and long wheelbase, with single and twin M60 machineguns. Aust. and NZ forces
PAVN (NVA)(VC) weapons
The PAVN, or NVA (North Vietnamese Army), VC (Viet Cong-Southern communist guerrillas) as they were commonly referred to during the war, largely used standard Warsaw Pact weapons. All Warsaw Pact weapons used by the North Vietnamese, also included Chinese Communist variants, which were referred to as CHICOM's by the US military. This distinction was in recognition of Taiwan (Nationalist China), a US ally.
Small arms
1. Pistols
* Nagant M1895
* Makarov PM semi-automatic pistol
* Stechkin APS selective fire (single shot/automatic) pistol
* Tokarev TT-33 semi-automatic pistol
* Mauser C-96 Mod.1916
2. Machine-Pistols/Sub Machine-guns
* Škorpion vz. 61
* PPS-43
* PPSh-41
* MAT-49
3. Assault Rifle
* Sturmgewehr 44 (WW2 German assault rifle, imported in limited numbers by the Russians and used by the Viet Cong)
* AK-47 (Soviet Union)
* Chicom Type 56 (Communist Chinese)
* Sa vz.58 (Imported into North Vietnam by the Soviets from Czechoslovakia)
4. Battle Rifle
* Mosin-Nagant bolt-action rifles and carbines - both Soviet (e.g. M-1891/1930 rifles, M-1938 carbines, and M-1944 carbines) and Red Chinese (e.g. The CHICOM Type 53 carbine (a CHICOM copy of the M-1944 carbine)) versions.
* Mauser Karabiner 98k bolt-action rifles - came from various sources. A number of Mauser Kar-98ks that were in the hands of the NLF and the NVA were captured from and/or left behind by French forces from the First Indochina War. Later, Mauser Kar-98ks used by NVA and NLF came from the Soviet Union due to the Soviets capturing large numbers of these rifles from the Germans during and after World War II and were providing them as military aid to pro-Moscow nations and Marxist movements.
* SKS semi-automatic rifles - both Soviet and Red Chinese versions. The Red Chinese versions of the SKS are known as the Type 56 Carbine.
* Tokarev SVT-40 semiautomatic rifle
5. Sniper Rifle
* Mosin-Nagant with PU or PO scope
* Dragunov Sniper Rifle SVD-63 with PSO-1 scope
6. Machine-guns
* RPK light machine guns
* RPD light machine guns - both Soviet and Red Chinese versions.
* Degtyarev DP28, DPM and RP-46 - both Soviet and Red Chinese versions.
* Vz. 59
* MG 34
* Type 11 Light Machine Gun
* Type 24 machine gun
* Type 26 light machine gun
* Type 30 light machine gun
* Type 99 light machine gun
* Fusil-Mitrailleur Mle 1915 'CSRG', 'Chauchat'
7. Hand-Grenade and Mines
* F1 grenades (Limonka)
* RG-42 grenades
* RGD-33 grenades
* POMZ-2 mines
* TMB-2 mines
* TM-41 mines
8. Portable Grenade Launcher
* RPG-2 rocket-propelled grenades
* RPG-7 rocket-propelled grenades
Artillery
* ZPU-4 quad 14.5 mm anti-aircraft machine gun
* ZU-23 quad 23 mm anti-aircraft cannon
* M1939 37 mm anti-aircraft gun
* S-60 57 mm anti-aircraft gun
* 82 mm and 120 mm mortars (M1938)
* 122 mm Katyusha Rockets
* 120 mm guns
Vehicles
* MiG-21 jet fighter
* MiG-19 jet fighter, used in limited numbers
* MiG-17 jet fighter
* MiG-15 jet fighter, used in limited numbers
* AN-2 aircraft
* Mi-4 helicopter
* Mi-8 helicopter
* PT-76 amphibious tank
* BTR-50 APC
* BMP-1 APC
* ZSU-23-4 anti-aircraft self-propelled systems
* T-34/85 medium tank, used in limited numbers
* T-55 main battle tanks
* ZSU-57-2 anti-aircraft self-propelled system, fielded in limited numbers.
Substitute standard weapons used by Irregular forces
Small arms
* Arisaka rifles, bolt action
* M1 Garand rifle, semi-automatic
* M1 carbines, semi-automatic
* Springfield M1903 bolt-action rifles
* MAS-36 rifles
* MAS-49 rifles
* MAT-49 submachine gun and local variants
* MP40 submachine guns
* PPS-43 submachine gun and local variants
* Swedish K submachine guns
* Mosin-Nagant bolt-action rifles and carbines
* Mauser Karabiner 98k bolt-action rifles
Other
M6 bayonet U.S. Used on M-14
M1 Bayonet U.S. and ARVN Used on M1 Garand, M1 Carbine, and M-14
M7 Bayonet U.S. Use with the M-16
Other types of knives, bayonets, and blades.
A wide variety of anti-personnel landmines and booby traps were used in the Vietnam war, including punji stakes.
This is the image I download from How the WebOS evolves?? by Nova Spivack. (N.B. Nova have requested that the link is provided here, as he would update these as & when. So please check back & follow this link here.)
Thanks is due to Nova Spivack for putting this image up. I am sure all of you on the web may not be concern about the technicality of the evolutions.
But we are all into the era & it is closely related to our daily lives.
In my own words since 1980's in Nagoya Technology for The future conference.
The over many thousands years of human civilizations have never actually change. The things that happening are with the electronics; communications & Computing Technology.
We are going to redefine our real real estate based on the bits & bytes that we owned. Not the per square foots of real estate that we talking about in the era before present.
As the Web era marching into Web2.0 & web3.0 even as Nova put it here web4.0...etc.
Nothing going to change is the basic model of human communications; networking & Knowledge. Except it would be Very Highly distributed & Highly Intelligence.
With the overflow of informations on the web & search engines, human would need the artificial intelligent to assist in whatever we do, including decision & course of action.
I am sure you would be proud that you are here in the flickr community , actively contributing to the success with the like minds & the flickr-Yahoo team.
The future is certain.
One To All!!
All To One!!
Junk Jet has developed an archive impossible that transports, in print format, net based works, or fragments of works showing collections, series, animations, applications, and reflecting anti-heart texts on the net and its new forms of art, design, and architecture. N°5, the net.heart issue, has transferred internet things from their digital space into a paper jet. This transportation procedure relies on documents in a similar way as the museum relies on photograph and video documenting performance arts. And Junk Jet believes that this analogue documentation is in no way inferior to pseudo-preserving techniques of data migration, emulation, or reprogramming. At the end, Junk Jet says: Transportation is not so much about the artwork as object, but rather about the indication of the subjective decision of the artist. In this sense Junk Jet is a Russian conceptualist.
www.facebook.com/pages/Junk-Jet/298633638983
With wireless contributions by Adam Cruces, Agathe Andre, Alessandro Bava, Alexei Shulgin, Angela Genusa, Angelo Plessas, Aureliano Segundo, Asli Serbest, Aristide Antonas, Artie Vierkant, Ball-Nogues, Bärbel Jetter, Bea Fremderman, Beatriz Ramo, Ben Aqua, Ben Vickers, Billy Rennekamp, Bonno van Doorn, Brad Troemel, Bryan Boyer, Carsten Güth, Christian Oldham, Christine Nasz and Stefanie Hunold, Constant Dullaart, Dennis Knopf, Eilis Mcdonald, Fabien Mousse, Gene McHugh, Greg J. Smith, Hanne Mugaas, Jacob Engblom, Jasper Elings, JODI, Jonas Lund, Jordan Tate, Katja Novitskova, Laimonas Zakas, Lenox Twins, m-a-u-s-e-r, Marisa Olson, Michael Schoner, Mike Ruiz, Mimi Zeiger, Mona Mahall, Natalie Bookchin, Nicholas O'Brien, Nicolas Sassoon, NIEI, NLarchitects, Olia Lialina, Palace Palace, Rafaël Rozendaal Ricardo Scofidio, Parker Ito, Patrick Cruz, Pieterjan Grandry, Raphael Bastide, Sam Hancocks, Sarah Weis, Something Fantastic, Sterling Crispin, Theo Seemann, Will Brand, Wyne Veen
Edited by Mona Mahall and Asli Serbest
N°5 comes with a Poster: "Home Buttons by Architects"
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
Vancouver is a city on the north bank of the Columbia River in the U.S. state of Washington and the county seat of Clark County. In 2007, the United States Census Bureau estimated that the city's population was 160,800.[3] It is part of the Portland-Vancouver metropolitan area.
The larger city of Vancouver, British Columbia is located 305 miles (491 km) north of Vancouver, Washington. Both cities were named for sea captain George Vancouver, but the Canadian city was not incorporated until 1886, nearly thirty years after Vancouver, Washington, and more than sixty years after the name Fort Vancouver was first used. City officials have periodically suggested changing the city's name to Fort Vancouver, Vancouver USA, or even Old Vancouver to reduce confusion with Vancouver, British Columbia. Washington residents distinguish between the two cities by referring to the Canadian Vancouver as "Vancouver, B.C." Current mayor Royce Pollard is an advocate of the unofficial moniker "America's Vancouver."
History
The Vancouver area was inhabited by a variety of Native American tribes, most recently the Chinook and Klickitat nations, with permanent settlements of timber longhouses.[4] The Chinookan and Klickitat names for the area were reportedly Skit-so-to-ho and Ala-si-kas, respectively, meaning "land of the mud-turtles".[5] First European contact was in 1775, with approximately half of the indigenous population dead from small pox before the Lewis and Clark expedition camped in the area in 1806.[4] Within another fifty years, other actions and diseases such as measles, malaria and influenza had reduced the Chinookan population from an estimated 80,000 to "to a few dozen refugees, landless, slaveless and swindled out of a treaty."[4]
Meriwether Lewis wrote that the Vancouver area was "the only desired situation for settlement west of the Rocky Mountains." The first permanent European settlement did not occur until 1824, when Fort Vancouver was established as a fur trading post of the Hudson's Bay Company. From that time on, the area was settled by both the US and Britain under a "joint occupation" agreement. Joint occupation ended on June 15, 1846, with the signing of the Oregon Treaty, which gave the United States full control of the area. The City of Vancouver was incorporated on January 23, 1857 and in 2007 marks its sesquicentennial.[6]
Based on an act in the 1859-1860 legislature, Vancouver was briefly the capital of the Washington Territory, before being returned to Olympia, Washington by a 2-1 ruling of the territory's supreme court, in accordance with Isaac Stevens' preference and concern that proximity to Oregon might give its southern neighbor undue influence.[7][8][9]
U.S. Army Captain (and future President) Ulysses S. Grant was quartermaster at what was then known as Columbia Barracks for 15 months beginning in September 1852. Soon after leaving Vancouver, he resigned from the army and did not serve again until the outbreak of the American Civil War. Other notable generals to have served in Vancouver include George B. McClellan, Philip Sheridan, Oliver O. Howard and 1953 Nobel Peace Prize recipient George Marshall.
Army presence in Vancouver was very strong, as the Department of the Columbia built and moved to Vancouver Barracks, the military reservation for which stretched from the river to what is currently Fourth Plain Boulevard and was the largest Army base in the region until surpassed by Fort Lewis, 120 miles (190 km) to the north. Built on the old company gardens and skirmish range, Pearson Army Field (later Pearson Field Airport) was a key facility, and at one point the US Army Signal Corps operated the largest spruce cut-up plant in the world to provide much-needed wood for airplanes. Vancouver became the end point for two ultra-long flights from Moscow, USSR over the North Pole. The first of these flights was performed by Valery Chkalov in 1937 . Chkalov was originally scheduled to land at an airstrip in nearby Portland, OR, but redirected at the last minute to Vancouver's Pearson Airfield. Today there is a street named for him in Vancouver.
Separated from Oregon until 1917, when the Interstate Bridge began to replace ferries, Vancouver had three shipyards just downstream which produced ships for World War I before World War II brought an enormous economic boom. An Alcoa aluminum plant opened on September 2, 1940, using inexpensive power from the nearby New Deal hydropower turbines at Bonneville Dam. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Henry Kaiser opened a shipyard next to the U.S. Army reserve, which by 1944 employed as many as 36,000 people in a twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week production of liberty ships, LST's, and "baby flat tops". This influx of shipyard workers boosted the population from 18,000 to over 80,000 in just a few months, leading to the creation of the Vancouver Housing Authority and six new residential developments: Fruit Valley, Fourth Plain Village, Bagley Downs, Ogden Meadows, Burton Homes and McLoughlin Heights. Each of these was later incorporated into the city, and are well-known neighborhoods, while the neighboring "shipyard city" of Vanport, Oregon, would be destroyed by the Memorial Day flood of 1948.
In 1956, Willie Nelson moved to Vancouver to begin his musical career, recording "Lumberjack". The single sold fairly well, but did not establish a career. Nelson continued to work as a radio announcer in Vancouver and sing in clubs. He sold a song called "Family Bible" for $50; the song was a hit for Claude Gray in 1960, has been covered widely and is often considered a gospel music classic.
Vancouver has recently experienced conflicts with other Clark County communities because of rapid growth in the area. As a result of urban growth and annexation, Vancouver is often thought of as split between two areas, East and West Vancouver, divided by NE Andresen Road. West Vancouver is home to downtown Vancouver and some of the more historical parts of the city, as well as recent high-density mixed-use development.
More than one-third of the Vancouver urban area's population has spilled into an unincorporated urban area north of its city limits, including the communities of Hazel Dell, Felida, Orchards and Salmon Creek. If county leaders had approved a major annexation plan in 2006, Vancouver would have passed Tacoma and Spokane to become the state's second-largest city.
Downtown revitalization
In 1997 the city of Vancouver decided to dedicate the next 15-20 years to redevelop and revitalize a huge portion of the downtown core. The first projects started in the early 2000s with the construction of many tall condominium structures around Esther Short park and in the Uptown Village neighborhood. The most lauded outside investment was the construction of a Hilton hotel directly across from the park. Currently the city is building a new shopping complex, including a Fred Meyer, just outside of the downtown core. The Columbian newspaper is in the final stages of building a new seven-story building adjacent to the Hilton. There are plans in the future for a new development along C Street in downtown that would include a new library, a new Marriott hotel and roughly 250 new condominiums, along with other projects remain processing to start:
* Riverwest - Mixed use project which includes a condominiums building, hotel/condominiums building, offices building, and a new main library.
* The Luxe - 6 story offices and condominiums building.
* Waterfront Redevelopment - Which include 10K Residents Envision, Retails, Offices, Parks, and more.
* Prestige Plaza - 6 story building which includes condominiums and offices.
Geography and climate
Vancouver is located at 45°38'1" North, 122°36'11" West (45.633743, -122.603011)[12] just north of the Columbia River, just west of where the Columbia River Gorge bisects the volcanic Cascade Range and just east of where the Willamette River enters the Columbia. When clouds do not blanket the Puget-Willamette trough formed by the Cascade and Coast Range, Mount Hood, Mount Saint Helens and Mount Adams are all visible from somewhere in Vancouver.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 46.1 square miles (119.5 km²), of which, 42.8 square miles (110.8 km²) of it is land and 3.3 square miles (8.7 km²) of it is water. The total area is 7.14% water.
Vancouver lies just north of Portland, Oregon and shares a similar climate, with certain key exceptions. High pressures east of the Cascade Range create something of a venturi effect, leading to cold east winds down the Columbia River Gorge. Unsheltered by the Willamette Valley, Vancouver has historically seen colder temperatures, including "silver thaw" storms where freezing rain cakes limbs and power lines. Such storms can paralyze Vancouver, frequently froze the river and in 1916 cut electric power in the city for almost two weeks. Close proximity to the river was also a concern for flooding, before dams constricted the river, destroying features such as Celilo Falls. Periodic floods have been a nuisance, with two of the most destructive in June of 1894 and May, 1948. The 1948 Memorial Day flood almost topped the Interstate Bridge's support piers and completely destroyed nearby Vanport, Oregon. Other unusual storms include the Columbus Day windstorm of 1962 and an April 5, 1972 tornado which rated F3 on the Fujita scale, striking a local school. A F1 tornado stuck on January 10, 2008 just after noon causing moderate damage along a 2-mile path from Vancouver Lake to the unicnorporated Hazel Dell area. No injuries or deaths were caused, however, moderate damage to a number of structures was reported as well as numerous uprooted large trees. The warmer counter-part to these cold gorge winds is the Pineapple Express, a subtropical jet stream that brings warm moist air from the southern Pacific Ocean.
Because of its proximity to Portland, many people who live in Vancouver work in Portland. In 2003, 70% of workers in Vancouver worked in Clark County. Those who live in Clark County and work in Oregon have to pay Oregon's relatively high income tax. (Washington State does not have such a tax.) Additionally, they may choose to shop in Portland to take advantage of a wider variety of shopping choices, and the fact that Oregon has no sales tax. However, there is a risk in such avoidance because Washington does have a use tax that is due on all purchases made in Oregon that are then returned to Washington. Vancouver residents "shop at their own risk" when attempting to avoid the sales tax in Oregon although the rule is rarely, if ever, enforced and currently there are no checkpoints when crossing back into Washington from Portland.
Because many Vancouver residents work in Portland, Oregon there is typically significant rush hour traffic congestion on two bridges that cross the Columbia River, the Interstate Bridge and the Glenn Jackson Bridge. In 2006 there were 278,043 weekday vehicle crossings on the two bridges.
Demographics
As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 143,560 people, 56,628 households, and 36,298 families living in the city. The population density is 3,354.7 people per square mile (1,295.4/km²). There were 60,039 housing units at an average density of 1,403.0/sq mi (541.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 84.81% White, 2.50% African American, 0.97% Native American, 4.51% Asian, 0.54% Pacific Islander, 2.86% from other races, and 3.80% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.29% of the population. 16.4% were of German, 9.2% English, 8.4% Irish and 7.9% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 84.7% spoke English, 4.8% Spanish, 2.8% Russian, 1.2% Ukrainian and 1.0% Vietnamese as their first language.
There were 56,628 households out of which 33.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.3% were married couples living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.9% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.06.
In the city the population was spread out, with 26.7% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 32.1% from 25 to 44, 20.6% from 45 to 64, and 10.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 96.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $41,618, and the median income for a family was $47,696. Males had a median income of $37,306 versus $26,940 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,192. 9.4% of families and 12.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.1% of those under the age of 18 and 8.2% of those 65 and older.
Economy
The economy of Vancouver has paralleled that of the region generally. Moving from a salmon and trade-based indigenous economy by the Chinook people, the Hudson's Bay Company pioneered extractive industries such as the fur trade and timber. Subsistence agricultural gave way to market and export crops such as apples, strawberries and prunes. Largely bypassed by the railroad in the 1880's, when the Oregon Steam Navigation company would ferry trains across the river downstream from St. Helens, Oregon to Kalama, Washington, early downtown development was focused around Washington Street (where ferries arrived), lumber and Vancouver Barracks activities such as a large spruce mill for manufacturing airplanes. A 1908 railroad swing bridge across the Columbia allowed greater industrial developments such as the Standifer Shipyard during the first world war. With the Interstate Bridge and Bonneville Dam Vancouver saw an industrial boom in the 1940's, including the Kaiser shipyard and Alcoa, as well as a Boise Cascade paper mill, just west of the Interstate Bridge.[14]
As the old growth forests were depleted and heavy industry left the United States, Vancouver's economy has largely changed to high tech and service industry jobs, with many residents commuting to Portland, Oregon. As of 2007, the largest employers in Clark County are government agencies (including school districts) and Kroger corporation's Fred Meyer grocery stores. Rounding out the list are "high tech" manufacturers such as Hewlett-Packard, WaferTech, SEH America and labor subcontractors such as Volt Services Group. Vancouver also contains the corporate headquarters for Nautilus, Inc. and The Holland (parent company of the Burgerville, USA restaurant chain).[15]
Downtown is home to a variety of independently-owned small businesses, while outer areas are dominated by clone town strip malls and franchise stores.
Vancouver is also increasingly popular with retirees, partially because of its proximity to Portland and Washington's lack of a state income tax.
Education
Public schools
Vancouver has two school districts:
The Vancouver School District covers most of west Vancouver and has six high schools: Hudson's Bay High School, Columbia River High School, Fort Vancouver High School, Lewis and Clark High School, Skyview High School, and the Vancouver School of Arts and Academics (grades 6-12). It also has six middle schools: Alki Middle School, Discovery Middle School, Gaiser Middle School, Jason Lee Middle School, Thomas Jefferson Middle School, and McLoughlin Middle School.
The Evergreen School District covers most of east Vancouver and has four high schools: Evergreen High School, Mountain View High School, Heritage High School, and Union High School.
Vancouver is also home to the Washington School for the Deaf and Washington State School for the Blind
Private schools
* Cascadia Montessori School - Montessori school offering 1st through 8th grade
* Clark County Christian School - Pre-School through 12th grade
* Columbia Adventist Academy - 9th through 12th grade
* Columbia Ridge Baptist Academy- 1st through 12th grade
* Cornerstone Christian School - NS through 8th grade
* Firm Foundation Christian School - Pre-K through 9th grade
* The Gardner School - Pre-K through 8th Grade
* Kings Way Christian School - Pre-School through 11th grade
* Our Lady of Lourdes - Private Catholic school offering kindergarten through 8th grade
* Vancouver Christian High School - Private Christian High School 9th through 12th grade
* Vancouver Community Christian - Kindergarten through 12th grade
* St. Joseph Catholic Grade School - Kindergarten through 8th grade
Colleges and universities
* Clark College (two year)
* Washington State University, Vancouver
Architecture and notable buildings
Mother Joseph was one of the first architects in the region, and because of its relatively long history, Vancouver contains a variety of buildings. Homes vary from Victorians and craftsman bungalows downtown, to small wartime tract housing and ranch-styles mid-town, with rural styles and "McMansions" in the outer ring. In addition to the reconstructed Fort Vancouver at the Fort Vancouver National Historic Site, the city was named one of the National Register of Historic Places' "Dozen Distinctive Destinations" for 2003.[16]
Other notable buildings in Vancouver include:
* The Covington House at 4201 Main Street, a log cabin and boarding school built in approximately 1848
* Officers Row, including The Grant House (first house on the Columbia Barracks) and the Queen Anne-style 1866 Marshall House
* Mother Joseph's Providence Academy, constructed in 1874, where Evergreen Boulevard crosses Interstate 5
* Saint James Church (originally part of the Quebec diocese), saw its first Roman Catholic mass celebrated August 16, 1885
* The Carnegie Library at Sixteenth and Main, which opened on New Year's Eve, 1909, to showcase its unusual electric lights
* The 1914 Chicago-style U.S. National Bank (now the Heritage Building) at Fifth and Main
* The 1916 U.S. Post Office at 1211 Daniels Street
* The vertical-lift Interstate Bridge, which opened on Valentine's Day, 1917, Oregon's 58th anniversary
* The 1935 art deco telephone exchange building at Eleventh and Washington
* The 1941 Clark County courthouse, designed by prolific local architect Day Hillborn
* Smith Tower, a round downtown apartment building for the elderly, built in 1965
Many of these buildings have been re-purposed. The 1867 Slocum House, an Italianate villa style residence originally built one block south of its current location in Esther Short Park. It was moved to its present location at Esther Short Park in 1966 and now houses a community theatre company.[17] The Carnegie Library was expanded in the 1940's, becoming the Clark County historical museum after a new library was built in 1963.[1] Other buildings have been torn down for urban renewal or renovated to house professional offices such as lawyers and accountants.
Public libraries
Fort Vancouver Regional Library District
Annual events
Each Fourth of July, Vancouver hosts a fireworks display on the grounds of Fort Vancouver National Historic Site that draws many people to the city. The display, which typically runs for 45 minutes, is the largest west of the Mississippi River.
Late August features the Vancouver Wine and Jazz Festival in Esther Short Park, the largest jazz festival in SW Washington.
Each September sees St. Joseph Catholic School host the Vancouver Sausage Fest, drawing attendance upwards of 100,000 over three days.
Arts groups
* The Vancouver Area Theatre Alliance incorporating: The Old Slocum House Theatre Company, Magenta Theatre, Vancouver OnStage The New Blue Parrot and Clark College's theatre department.
* Vancouver Community Band [2]
* The Felida Players Group - founded in 2006 by Will and Molly Sloan.
* Junior Symphony of Vancouver
* Vancouver Symphony Orchestra - a regional orchestra
* Arts Equity Inc. at The Main Street Theatre - Vancouver's first professional theater
* Bravo! Vancouver - a monthly orchestral/chorale concert series -
Local media
* The Columbian
* The local Comcast franchise has various public-access television channels, including FVTV, and CVTV[3]
* The Oregonian (based in Portland, Oregon; this paper also covers some southwest Washington news)
* The Vancouver Business Journal covers local business news[4]
* The Vancouver Voice is southwest Washington's only alternative periodical
Nearby cities
* Portland, Oregon
* Battle Ground, Washington
* Camas, Washington
* Washougal, Washington
* Ridgefield, Washington
Transportation
Vancouver has two interstate freeways, I-5 and I-205, both of which run North–South, into Portland, Oregon. It also has two heavily travelled state highways within the city limits. SR 14 begins at I-5 in downtown Vancouver and makes its way east. It is a freeway all the way until Camas. SR 500 begins from I-5 at 39th Street in north Vancouver, travels east connecting with I-205, and continues east into the suburb of Orchards where the freeway terminates at Fourth Plain Road, and meets with the south end of north-southbound 117th Ave.,SR 503. A third state highway, SR 501, starts at I-5 and heads west through downtown and continues along a path that runs between the Columbia River and Vancouver Lake.
The Port of Vancouver operates a port on the Columbia River, which separates Oregon to the south and Washington to the north. It handles over 400 ocean-going vessels annually, as well as a number of barges which ply the river and its tributaries as far as Lewiston, Idaho.
The area's mass transit system is C-TRAN, the Clark County Public Transportation Benefit Area Authority, which operates 135 buses, vanpools, and paratransit vehicles. There are also a number of express routes into Portland's downtown.
In 1994, Clark County voters defeated a ballot measure to extend Portland's MAX Light Rail system north into Vancouver [5]. Portland extended the MAX line in 2004 as far north as the Multnomah County Expo Center in north Portland, approximately 1-mile (2 km) south of downtown Vancouver.
Vancouver has always been well served by rail; current freight railroads operating in Vancouver include the BNSF, Union Pacific Railroad, and the local shortline Lewis and Clark Railway.
Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Vancouver. The Amtrak station is in west Vancouver. Amtrak train 11, the southbound Coast Starlight, is scheduled to depart Vancouver at 1:08pm with service to Portland, Oregon, Sacramento, California, Emeryville, California (with bus connection to San Francisco), and Los Angeles. Amtrak train 14, the northbound Coast Starlight, is scheduled to depart Vancouver at 4:36pm daily with service to Kelso-Longview, Centralia, Olympia-Lacey, Tacoma and Seattle. Amtrak train 27, the westbound Empire Builder, is scheduled to depart Vancouver at 9:18am daily with service to Portland. Amtrak train 28, the eastbound Empire Builder, is scheduled to depart Vancouver at 5:07pm daily with service to Spokane, Washington, Grand Forks, North Dakota, St Paul-Minneapolis, and Chicago. Amtrak Cascades trains, operating as far north as Vancouver, British Columbia and as far south as Eugene, Oregon, serve Vancouver several times daily in both directions.
Pearson Field Airport, located near downtown Vancouver, is the main airport serving the city. The airport is intended primarily for general aviation without any commercial air service. The nearest commercial airport is Portland International Airport (PDX).
In 2008, Vancouver passed a citywide law requiring anyone on a wheeled device such as a bicycle, skateboard, scooter or skates to wear a helmet while on any sidewalk, street, trail or other public property. Many local cyclists opposed the law as a misuse of city funds and police efforts, as well as encroachment on personal freedoms. Despite some reservations from the public, the Vancouver City Council passed the measure 5-1.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
The United States Merchant Marine refers to the fleet of US civilian-owned merchant ships—operated by either the government or the private sector, that are engaged in commerce or transportation of goods and services in and out of the navigable waters of the United States. The Merchant Marine is responsible for transporting cargo and passengers during peace time. In time of war, the Merchant Marine[1] is an auxiliary to the Navy, and can be called upon to deliver troops and supplies for the military.
The people of the Merchant Marine are called merchant mariners, and officers are commissioned into the United States Maritime Service. The Merchant Marine is a civilian auxiliary of the U.S. Navy, but not a uniformed service, except in times of war when, in accordance with the Merchant Marine Act of 1936, mariners are considered military personnel. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill into law making veterans of merchant mariners who serve in war.
As of 2006, the United States merchant fleet numbered 465 ships[2] and approximately 69,000 people. Seven hundred ships owned by American interests but registered, or flagged, in other countries are not included in this number.
The federal government maintains fleets of merchant ships via organizations such as Military Sealift Command and the National Defense Reserve Fleet. In 2004, the Federal government employed approximately 5% of all American water transportation workers.[3]
In the 19th and 20th centuries, a number of laws were enacted that fundamentally changed the course of American merchant shipping. These laws put an end to practices such as flogging and shanghaiing, and increased shipboard safety and the standard of living. The United States Merchant Marine is also governed by several international conventions to promote safety and prevent pollution.
Background
Merchant mariners move cargo and passengers between nations and within the United States, operate and maintain deep-sea merchant ships, tugboats, towboats, ferries, dredges, excursion vessels, and other waterborne craft on the oceans, the Great Lakes, rivers, canals, harbors, and other waterways.
Captains, mates, and pilots supervise ship operations on domestic waterways and the high seas. A captain is in overall command of a vessel, and supervises the work of all other officers and crew. The captain orders the ship's course and speed, maneuvers to avoid hazards, and continuously monitors the ship's position. Captains oversee crew members who steer the vessel, determine its location, operate engines, communicate with other vessels, perform maintenance, handle lines, and operate the ship's equipment. Captains and their department heads[4] ensure that proper procedures and safety practices are followed, ensure that machinery is in good working order, and oversee the loading and discharging of cargo and passengers. They also maintain logs and other records tracking the ships' movements, efforts at controlling pollution, and cargo and passengers carried.
The mates direct a ship's routine operation for the captain during the shifts, which are called watches. Mates stand watch for specified periods, usually 4 hours on and 8 hours off.[5] When more than one mate is necessary aboard a ship, they typically are designated chief mate or first mate, second mate, third mate, and so forth. Mates also supervise the ship's crew. They monitor cargo loading and unloading to ensure proper stowage, and supervise crew members engaged in maintenance and the vessel's upkeep.
Pilots guide ships in and out of confined waterways, such as harbors, where a familiarity with local conditions is of prime importance.[6] Harbor pilots are generally independent contractors who accompany vessels while they enter or leave port, and may pilot many ships in a single day.
Ship's engineers operate, maintain, and repair propulsion engines, boilers, generators, pumps, and other machinery. Merchant marine vessels usually have four engineering officers: A chief engineer and a first, second, and third assistant engineer. Assistant engineers stand periodic watches, overseeing the safe operation of engines and machinery.
Deck officers and ship's engineers are usually trained at maritime academies.[7] However, women were barred from entry to U.S. maritime academies until 1974, when the California Maritime Academy admitted women as cadets.[8] It is becoming increasingly difficult for unlicensed mariners to earn a merchant marine license[9] due to increased requirements for formal training. To do so, a mariner must have sufficient sea time in a qualified rating and complete specified testing and training, such as that required by STCW.
Able seamen and ordinary seamen operate the vessel and its deck equipment under the officers' supervision and keep their assigned areas in good condition.[10] They stand watch, looking out for other vessels and obstructions in the ship's path, as well as for navigational aids such as buoys and lighthouses. They also steer the ship, measure water depth in shallow water, and maintain and operate deck equipment such as lifeboats, anchors, and cargo-handling gear. On tankers, mariners designated as pumpmen hook up hoses, operate pumps, and clean tanks. When arriving at or leaving a dock, they handle the mooring lines. Seamen also perform routine maintenance chores, such as repairing lines, chipping rust, and painting and cleaning decks. On larger vessels, a boatswain, or head seaman will supervise the work.
Marine oilers and more experienced qualified members of the engine department, or QMEDs, maintain the vessel in proper running order in the engine spaces below decks, under the direction of the ship's engineering officers. These workers lubricate gears, shafts, bearings, and other moving parts of engines and motors; read pressure and temperature gauges; record data; and sometimes assist with repairs and adjust machinery. Wipers are the entry-level workers in the engine room, holding a position similar to that of ordinary seamen of the deck crew. They clean and paint the engine room and its equipment and assist the others in maintenance and repair work. With more experience they become oilers and firemen.
A typical deep-sea merchant ship has a captain, three mates, a chief engineer and three assistant engineers, plus six or more unlicensed seamen, such as able seamen, oilers, QMEDs, and cooks or food handlers.[11] Other unlicensed positions on a large ship may include electricians and machinery mechanics.
History
The history of ships and shipping in North America goes back at least as far as when Leif Erikson established a short-lived settlement called Vinland in present day Newfoundland. An actual shipping industry gradually came into being as colonies grew and trade with Europe increased. As early as the 15th century, Europeans were shipping horses, cattle and hogs to the Americas.
Spanish colonies began to form as early as 1565 in places like St. Augustine, Florida, and later in Santa Fe, New Mexico, San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco. English colonies like Jamestown began to form as early as 1607. The connection between the American colonies and Europe, with shipping as its only conduit, would continue to grow unhindered for almost two hundred years.
The first wartime role of an identifiable United States merchant marine first took place on June 12, 1775 in and around Machias, Maine. A group of citizens, hearing the news from Concord and Lexington, captured the British schooner HMS Margaretta. The citizens, in need of critical supplies, were given an ultimatum: either load the ships with lumber to build British barracks in Boston, or go hungry. They chose to fight.[13]
Word of this revolt reached Boston, where the Continental Congress and the various colonies issued Letters of Marque to privateers.[14] The privateers interrupted the British supply chain all along the eastern seaboard of the United States and across the Atlantic Ocean. These actions by the privateers predates both the United States Coast Guard and the United States Navy, which were formed in 1790 and 1797, respectively.
Some civilian mariners have earned the Merchant Marine Expeditionary Medal in the Iraq War.
Some civilian mariners have earned the Merchant Marine Expeditionary Medal in the Iraq War.
The Merchant marine was active in subsequent wars, from the Confederate commerce raiders of the American Civil War, to the First and Second Battle of the Atlantic in World War I and World War II. 3.1 million tons of merchant ships were lost in World War II, mariners dying at a rate of 1 in 24. All told, 733 American cargo ships were lost[15] and 8,651 of the 215,000 who served perished on troubled waters and off enemy shores.
Merchant shipping also played its role in the wars in Vietnam and Korea. From just six ships under charter when the Korean war began, this total peaked at 255. In September 1950, when the U.S. Marine Corps went ashore at Inchon, 13 USNS cargo ships, 26 chartered American, and 34 Japanese-manned merchant ships, under the operational control of Military Sea Transportation Service participated in the invasion.
During the Vietnam War, ships crewed by civilian seamen carried 95% of the supplies used by the American Armed Forces. Many of these ships sailed into combat zones under fire. In fact, the SS Mayaguez incident involved the capture of mariners from the American merchant ship SS Mayaguez.[16]
During the first Gulf War, the merchant ships of the Military Sealift Command (MSC) delivered more than 11 million metric tons of vehicles, helicopters, ammunition, fuel and other supplies and equipment during the war. At one point during the war, more than 230 government-owned and chartered ships were involved in the sealift.
Government-owned merchant vessels from the National Defense Reserve Fleet (NDRF) have supported emergency shipping requirements in seven wars and crises. During the Korean War, 540 vessels were activated to support military forces. A worldwide tonnage shortfall from 1951 to 1953 required over 600 ship activations to lift coal to Northern Europe and grain to India. From 1955 through 1964, another 600 ships were used to store grain for the Department of Agriculture. Another tonnage shortfall following the Suez Canal closing in 1956 caused 223 cargo ship and 29 tanker activations from the NDRF. During the Berlin crisis of 1961, 18 vessels were activated, which remained in service until 1970. The Vietnam conflict required the activation of 172 vessels.[17]
Since 1977, the Ready Reserve Fleet has taken over the brunt of the work previously handled by the National Defense Reserve Fleet. The RRF made a major contribution to the success of Operation Desert Shield/Operation Desert Storm from August 1990 through June 1992, when 79 vessels were activated to meet military sealift requirements by carrying 25% of the unit equipment and 45% of the ammunition needed.[17]
Two RRF tankers, two RO/RO ships and a troop transport ship were needed in Somalia for Operation Restore Hope in 1993 and 1994. During the Haitian crisis in 1994, 15 ships were activated for Operation Uphold Democracy operations. In 1995 and 1996, four RO/RO ships were used to deliver military cargo as part of U.S. and U.K. support to NATO peace-keeping missions.[17]
Four RRF ships were activated to provide humanitarian assistance for Central America following Hurricane Mitch in 1998. Three RRF ships currently support the Afloat Prepositioning Force with two specialized tankers and one dry cargo vessel capable of underway replenishment for the Navy’s Combat Logistics Force.[17]
In 2003, 40 RRF ships were used in support of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. This RRF contribution was significant and included sealifting equipment and supplies into the theatre of combat operations, which included combat support equipment for the Army, Navy Combat Logistics Force, and USMC Aviation Support equipment. By the beginning of May 2005, RRF cumulative support included 85 ship activations that logged almost 12,000 ship operating days, moving almost 25% of the equipment needed to support the U.S. Armed Forces liberation of Iraq.[17]
MSC is also involved in the current Iraq War, having delivered 61 million square feet (5.7 km²) of cargo and 1.1 billion US gallons (4,200,000 m³) of fuel by the end of the first year alone. Merchant mariners are being recognized for their contributions in Iraq. For example, in late 2003, Vice Adm. David Brewer III, commander of Military Sealift Command, awarded the officers and crewmembers of the Motor Vessel Bennett the Merchant Marine Expeditionary Medal.[18]
The RRF was called upon to provide humanitarian assistance to gulf coast areas following Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita landfalls in September 2006. The Federal Emergency Management Agency requested a total of eight vessels to support relief efforts. Messing and berthing was provided for refinery workers, oils spill response teams, longshoremen. One of the vessels provided electrical power.
Today's merchant fleet
The commercial fleet
As of 2006, the United States merchant fleet had 465 privately-owned ships of 1,000 gross register tons or over. Two hundred ninety-one (291) of these were dry cargo ships, 97 were tankers, and 77 passenger ships. Of those American-flagged ships, 51 were foreign owned. Seven hundred American-owned ships are flagged in other nations.[19][20]
2005 statistics from the United States Maritime Administration focus on the larger segment of the fleet: ships of 10,000 metric tons of deadweight (DWT) and over. 245 privately owned American-flagged ships are of this size, and 153 of those meet the Jones Act criteria.[21]
U.S. sealift capability viewed over time shows a steep drop in the number of ships in the merchant marine fleet. Observers point to the World War II era as the peak for the U.S. fleet. During the post-war year of 1950, for example, U.S. carriers represented about 43 percent of the world's shipping trade. By 1995, the American market share had plunged to 4 percent, according to a 1997 report by the U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO).[22] CBO further notes in the report that "the number of U.S.-flag vessels has dropped precipitously--from more than 2,000 in the 1940s and 850 in 1970 to about 320 in 1996."
A diminishing U.S. fleet comes in the face of surge in international sea trade. For instance, worldwide demand for natural gas and the subsequent spike in related international trade presents a job growth opportunity for today's U.S. mariners aboard liquefied natural gas (LNG) tankers. A 2007 agreement signed by the United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) sets uniform LNG training standards at U.S. maritime training facilities. Uniform training standards will help U.S. mariners compete for jobs aboard LNG tankers, estimated to number more than 370 worldwide at the close of 2007, according to MARAD.[23]
However, despite projection of an eight-fold increase in U.S. imported LNG by 2025, the worldwide LNG fleet does not include a single U.S. flagged vessel.[24] Moreover, only five U.S. deepwater LNG ports were operational in 2007, although permits have been issued for four additional ports, according to MARAD.[24]
Further limiting potential job growth in the U.S. fleet is the fact that ranks of qualified seamen to serve on ships continue to shrink. Recruitment efforts to attract younger mariners to replace retiring crews have failed to stem the shortage.[25] MARAD describes the gap between sealift crewing needs and available unlicensed personnel as "reaching critical proportions, and the long term outlook for sufficient personnel is also of serious concern."[26]
Seagoing jobs of the future for U.S. mariners may not necessarily be on U.S.-flagged ships. American-trained mariners are being sought after by international companies to operate foreign-flagged vessels, according to Julie A. Nelson, deputy maritime administrator of the U.S. Department of Commerce.[27]. For example, Shell International and Shipping Company Ltd. has announced that it will be recruiting U.S. seafarers to crew its growing fleet of tankers.[28] Further signs of the globalization of the mariner profession is evidenced by an agreement signed in 2007 between Overseas Shipholding Group and the Maritime Administration that will allow American maritime academy cadets to train aboard OSG's international flag vessels.
The federal fleet
Military Sealift Command (MSC) is an arm of the Navy that serves the entire Department of Defense as the ocean carrier of materiel during peacetime and war. It transports equipment, fuel, ammunition, and other goods essential to the smooth function of United States armed forces worldwide. Up to 95% of all supplies needed to sustain the U.S. military can be moved by Military Sealift Command.[30] MSC operates approximately 120 ships with 100 more in reserve. All ships are manned by civil service or contract merchant mariners, estimated to number more than 8,000.[31] MSC tankers and freighters have a long history of also serving as re-supply vessels in support of civilian research at McMurdo Station, Antarctica, and at other polar operations, including Greenland.
Civilian-crewed MSC ships annually re-supply McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Here the USNS Southern Cross (T-AK-285) is seen during cargo operations alongside a floating ice pier.
Civilian-crewed MSC ships annually re-supply McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Here the USNS Southern Cross (T-AK-285) is seen during cargo operations alongside a floating ice pier.
The National Defense Reserve Fleet (NDRF)[32] acts as a reserve of cargo ships for national emergencies and defense. Consisting of 2,277 ships at its peak in 1950, the NDRF fleet now numbers only 251 ships.[33]
NDRF vessels are now staged[34] at the James River, Beaumont and Suisun Bay fleet sites and other designated locations. A Ready Reserve Force[35] component of NDRF was established in 1976 to provide rapid deployment of military equipment. This force currently has 58 vessels, down from a peak of 102 in 1994.[17]
In 2004, the Federal government employed approximately 5% of all water transportation workers, most of whom worked on Military Sealift Command supply ships.
Important laws
A few laws have shaped the development of the U.S. merchant marine. Chief among them are the "Seamen's Act of 1915," the "Merchant Marine Act of 1920" (commonly referred to as the "Jones Act"), and the "Merchant Marine Act of 1936".
The Seamen's Act of 1915
The Seaman's Act[36] significantly improved working conditions for American seamen.[37] The brainchild of International Seamen's Union president Andrew Furuseth, the Act was sponsored in the Senate by Robert Marion La Follette and received significant support from Secretary of Labor, William B. Wilson.
Among other things, the Act:
1. abolished the practice of imprisonment for seamen who deserted their ship
2. reduced the penalties for disobedience
3. regulated a seaman's working hours both at sea and in port
4. established a minimum quality for ship's food
5. regulated the payment of seamen's wages
6. required specific levels of safety, particularly the provision of lifeboats
7. required a minimum percentage of the seamen aboard a vessel to be qualified Able Seamen
8. required a minimum of 75% of the seamen aboard a vessel to understand the language spoken by the officers
The Act's passage was attributed to union lobbying, increased tensions immediately before World War I, and raised public consciousness of safety at sea due to the sinking of the RMS Titanic three years prior.
The Jones Act
The "Merchant Marine Act of 1920," often called The "Jones Act," requires U.S.-flagged vessels be built in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens, and documented under the laws of the United States.[39] It also requires that all officers and 75% of the crew must be U.S. citizens. Vessels satisfying these requirements comprise the "Jones Act Fleet," and only these vessels may engage in "cabotage," or carrying passengers or cargo between two U.S. ports.[40]
Another important aspect of the Act is that it allows injured sailors to obtain damages from their employers for the negligence of the shipowner, the captain, or fellow members of the crew.
The Merchant Marine Act
The Merchant Marine Act of 1936 was enacted "to further the development and maintenance of an adequate and well-balanced American merchant marine, to promote the commerce of the United States, to aid in the national defense, to repeal certain former legislation, and for other purposes."
Specifically, the Act established the United States Maritime Commission and required a United States Merchant Marine that consists of U.S.-built, U.S.-flagged, U.S.-crewed and U.S.-owned vessels capable of carrying all domestic and a substantial portion of foreign water-borne commerce which can serve as a naval auxiliary in time of war or national emergency.
The act also established federal subsidies for the construction and operation of merchant ships. Two years after the Act was passed, the U.S. Merchant Marine Cadet Corps, the forerunner to the United States Merchant Marine Academy, was established.
International regulations
Federal law requires the merchant marine to adhere to a number of international conventions. The International Maritime Organization has been either the source or a conduit for a number of these regulations.
The principal International Conventions are:
* SOLAS 74: International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea.
* MARPOL 73/78: International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978.
* ICLL 66: International Convention on Load Lines, as revised in 1966
* 72 COLREGS: International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea.
* STCW 95: International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW).
* SAR 79: International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue.[41]
A list of IMO conventions adopted in the United States is available at the U.S. Coast Guard's Maritime Safety Center website
www.navcen.uscg.gov/marcomms/imo/msc_resolutions/default.htm
Noted U.S. Merchant Mariners
Merchant seamen have gone on to make their mark on the world in a number of interesting ways, for example, Douglass North went from seaman to navigator to winner of the 1993 Nobel Prize in Economics.
American merchant seamen have earned the Medal of Honor in the Korean War, George H. O'Brien, Jr. and Vietnam War, Lawrence Joel; and one went on to become the "Father of the American Navy", John Paul Jones.
Since World War II, a number of merchant seamen have become notorious criminals. William Colepaugh was convicted as a Nazi spy in World War II. George Hennard was a mass murderer who claimed twenty-four victims on a rampage at Luby's Cafeteria in Killeen, Texas. Perry Smith's own murderous rampage was made famous in Truman Capote's non-fiction novel In Cold Blood.
Mariners are well represented in the visual arts. Seaman Haskell Wexler would later win two Academy Awards, the latter for a biography of his shipmate Woody Guthrie. Merchant seaman Johnny Craig was already a working comic book artist before he joined up, but Ernie Schroeder would not start drawing comics until after returning home from World War II.
Merchant sailors have also made a splash in the world of sport. In football, with the likes of Dan Devine and Heisman Trophy winner Frank Sinkwich. In track and field, seamen Cornelius Cooper Johnson and Jim Thorpe both won Olympic medals, though Thorpe did not get his until thirty years after his death. Seamen Jim Bagby, Jr. and Charlie Keller went on to Major League Baseball. Drew Bundini Brown was Muhammad Ali's assistant trainer and cornerman, and Joe Gold went on to make his fortune as the bodybuilding and fitness guru of Gold's Gym.
Writer Ralph Ellison was a merchant mariner as were prominent members of the Beat movement Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, Bob Kaufman, Dave Van Ronk and Herbert Huncke. Perhaps it is not surprising that the writers of Moby Dick, The American Practical Navigator, and Two Years Before the Mast were merchant mariners. It might be surprising that the writer of Cool Hand Luke and co-writer of Borat were.
A number of merchant mariners from World War II ended up playing well-known television characters. The list includes Raymond Bailey, who played Milburn Drysdale on The Beverly Hillbillies, Archie Bunker on All in the Family, Columbo on Columbo, Jim Rockford on The Rockford Files, Steve McGarret on Hawaii Five-O, Uncle Jesse Duke on The Dukes of Hazzard, and Cheyenne Bodie on Cheyenne.
Songwriter and lyricist Jack Lawrence was a mariner during World War II, and wrote the official United States Merchant Marine song "Heave Ho! My Lads, Heave Ho!" while a young lieutenant stationed at Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, in 1943.
Robert Kiyosaki lays claim of being a mariner. Paul Teutul, Sr., the founder of Orange County Ironworks and Orange County Choppers is a Vietnam War veteran of the United States merchant marine.
Fictional accounts
The United States merchant marine has been featured in a number of movies. Action in the North Atlantic is a 1943 film featuring Humphrey Bogart, Raymond Massey, and Alan Hale as merchant mariners fighting the Battle of the Atlantic in World War II. Other WWII fare includes The Long Voyage Home starring John Wayne, and the television documentary The Men Who Sailed the Liberty Ships.
Other movies set in the United States merchant marine include Lifeboat, Wake of the Red Witch, The Sea Chase, The Last Voyage, Morituri, and The Wreck of the Mary Deare.
The characters Bo Brady and Steve "Patch" Johnson were merchant mariners on the soap opera Days of Our Lives.
The character Tom Wingfield leaves his family to join the merchant marine in the play The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams.
James Edward Dougherty was Marilyn Monroe's first husband.
Popeye was a merchant mariner before joining first the U.S. Coast Guard, and then the U.S.Navy.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
Fire apparatus
A fire apparatus, fire engine, fire truck, or fire appliance is a vehicle designed to assist in fighting fires, by transporting firefighters to the scene, and providing them with access, water or other equipment. In some areas, the terms fire engine and fire truck represent different types of fire fighting apparatus.
Types
Fire engine
The fire engine may have several methods of pumping the water to the fire. The most common method is to pass water through hoses to the fire, from an array of valves.
The vehicle may also have a fixed pumping "cannon" (called a fire monitor or deluge), which can direct the water as pointed by the operator. The horizontal and vertical range of the monitor arrangement usually is limited and appropriate only for specific tasks, such as airport fires. Monitors have been used as water cannons for crowd control.
A fire engine may have an on-board water reservoir, allowing it to fight a fire immediately upon arrival, or may be completely reliant on external sources, such as fire hydrants, water tender, river or reservoir, by using draft water suction.
A development is the use of an impulse fire-extinguishing system (IFEX), in which the water is highly pressurised into a vaporous mist, creating a cooling effect that is more efficient than that of water alone.[1]
A modern fire engine is usually a multi-purpose vehicle carrying professionals and equipment for a wide range of fire-fighting and rescue tasks. Therefore, most fire engines carry equipment such as ladders, pike poles, axes, Halligans, fire extinguishers, and ventilating equipment.
The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) was the first to introduce the "squad" concept for an engine[citation needed] and developed the "rescue pumper. A typical FDNY squad has a 500 U.S. gallon (1900-L) water tank and specialized rescue equipment, but carries less hose than a standard engine.[2] Since its introduction in New York, several other American cities have adopted the vehicles, sometimes calling them rescue engines.
[edit] Turntable ladder
The turntable ladder, also known as an aerial ladder, or sometimes abbreviated to simply TL is the best-known form of specialized fire apparatus (sometimes known as a fire truck), and is used to gain access to fires occurring at height, where conventional ladders carried on other appliances might not reach.
The name is derived from the fact that the large ladder is mounted on a turntable on the back of a truck or lorry, allowing it to pivot around a stable base, which in turn allows a much greater ladder length to be achieved). In order to increase its length, the ladder is telescopic. Modern turntable ladders are hydraulic or pneumatic in operation. A ladder also can be mounted behind the cab. This is called "mid ship". This arrangement allows a shorter wheel base for truck, and also can be more stable in some conditions.
The turntable ladder units replaced the stand alone wheel mounted long ladders which were seen on fire engines before the widespread use of hydraulics.
The key functions of a turntable ladder are:
* Allowing access or egress of firefighters and casualties at height
* Providing a high level water point for firefighting (elevated master stream)
* Providing a working platform from which tasks such as ventilation or overhaul can be executed
Historic freestanding ladder on wheels - phased out to be replaced by a turntable ladder
Historic freestanding ladder on wheels - phased out to be replaced by a turntable ladder
While the traditional characteristic of a 'fire truck' was a lack of water pumping or storage, many modern turntable ladders have a water pumping function to them (and some have their own on board supply reservoir), and may have a pre-piped waterway running the length of the ladder, to allow the firefighters at the top a stream of water. In some cases, there may also be a monitor at the top of the ladder for ease of use. Other appliances may simply have a trackway which will hold a manually run hose reel securely, and prevent it from falling to the ground.
Some turntable ladders may have a basket or platform (sometimes known as a bucket) mounted at the top of the ladder, as on a hydraulic platform, and these are called tower ladders. These can provide a secure place for a firefighter to operate equipment from, and allow multiple people to be carried (including rescued persons).
A tiller truck, also known as a tractor drawn aerial, is a specialised turntable ladder appliance mounted on a semi-trailer truck. It has separate steering wheels for front and rear wheels (the steering device for the rear is sometimes a tiller rather than a true steering wheel). This truck is often used in areas with narrow streets that prevent longer single-vehicle trucks from entering. Some cities, including Los Angeles, California, San Francisco, California, Baltimore, Maryland, Seattle, Washington and New York City, New York rely heavily on them.
In some areas, the turntable ladder appliance may be termed a 'hook and ladder' vehicle, as it will carry an array of ladders and hooks. Hooks are used most commonly for pulling drywall or plaster walls away from framing members to expose hidden fire, and to allow access for extinguishing the fire. Hooks can also be used for pulling siding, breaking windows, etc. Technically, any vehicle carrying hooks and ladders could be considered a hook and ladder vehicle.
[edit] Quint and Quad
QUINT 29 of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue serves areas of Palm Beach County, Florida.
QUINT 29 of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue serves areas of Palm Beach County, Florida.
In some areas, the turntable ladder may be known as a quad or quint, as it is capable of performing multiple tasks (pump, water tank, fire hose, aerial device, and ground ladders) with each of these functions making up one of its five (quint) or four (quad) cabilities.
[edit] Hydraulic platforms
Telescoping hydraulic platform mounted on firefighting appliance.
Telescoping hydraulic platform mounted on firefighting appliance.
A hydraulic platform, also known as articulating booms, snorkels, platform trucks or sometimes shortened to just HP, is a specialized aerial work platform designed for firefighting use. They have a number of functions, which follow the same principles as the turntable ladder, providing high level access and elevated water pump positions.
Some hydraulic platforms are articulated, which allows the arm to bend in one or more places, giving it the ability to go 'up and over' an obstacle (such as a building roof). There are non-articulated platforms, based on standard aerial work platforms, although the most common type is the tower ladder (mentioned above in the Turntable ladder section). Hydraulic platforms (articulated or not) may still have a ladder arrangement fitted to the arm, primarily as an emergency measure. In some jurisdictions these can be denoted ladder platforms.
Most hydraulic platforms are designed to reach a height of around 33 metres (100 feet), although larger models are capable of reaching heights of over 100 metres (328 feet).[3]
Many hydraulic platforms are fitted with additional equipment in the platform itself, which can include a control panel, lighting equipment, a fixed water outlet or monitor, power outlets or compressed air outlets (allowing the fixing of rescue equipment, such as the jaws of life). Many platforms are also adapted or capable of carrying a stretcher. Some units have video systems and remote control in case of dangerous chemical fires.
Some hydraulic platforms might also be designated as a quad or quint engine, as it is capable of performing multiple tasks (pump, water tank, fire hose, aerial device, and ground ladders)
[edit] Aerial water towers
In some instances, fire departments may have a specialised aerial water tower, the purpose of which is to deploy an elevated master stream of water, although it does not provide any access for firefighters. In most departments, this function is now performed by a hydraulic platform or turntable ladder, so this type of appliance is quite rare, and most examples of this type of unit are historical. The historical units of this type were usually manually or mechanically raised and lowered using friction drums or ratchet mechanisms.[4]
[edit] Water tenders
A tanker giving water to the hydraulic platform vehicle.
A tanker giving water to the hydraulic platform vehicle.
A water tender, which can also be known as a tanker truck or water bowser is a specialist fire appliance with the primary purpose of transporting large amounts of water to a scene. These are especially useful in rural areas where fire hydrants are not readily available.
Most tenders have an on-board pumping system. This pump is often not of sufficient power to fight fires (as it is designed to be attached to a fire engine), but is more often used to draw water in to the tender from hydrants or other water sources. In some areas, the tenders are used to pump water during floods, and may be fitted with a heavier duty pump for this purpose.
Most water tenders are designed to carry loads of 1000 gallons (approx. 3800 litres) or more. In the US, 1000 gallons is the requirement in the NFPA standards[5]. Some may carry up to or even upwards of 5000 gallons (more than 20 000 litres) of water - with a trailer even more [6][7][8].
[edit] Wildland fire appliances
Wildland firefighting requires unique vehicles that can climb mountain roads, be self-reliant, and have high clearances for wheels and suspension. Wildland fire engines and wildland fire tenders may have lower capacities to carry water, but can be deployed to fight fires in environments where urban fire trucks would be unable to operate due to rugged terrain.
In heavily forested areas, a special kind of fire truck known as a brush truck is used. They are usually trucks with off-road capabilities for traversing rough terrain in order to reach the fire.
[edit] Airport crash tender
Dragon 1 of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue at Palm Beach International Airport in West Palm Beach, Florida.
Dragon 1 of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue at Palm Beach International Airport in West Palm Beach, Florida.
An airport crash tender is a fire engine designed for use at aerodromes and airports in aircraft accidents.
The features include a good acceleration, ability to move on rough terrains outside the runway and airport area, large water capacity, foam tank, a high-capacity pump, and water/foam monitors with a good throw distance. Newer AR-FF vehicles also incorporate Twin Agent nozzles/injection systems to inject a stream of Purple-K dry chemical into the AFFF foam stream "knocking-down" the fire faster. Some also have Halotron tanks with handlines for situations that require a clean agent to be utilized. These features give the airport crash tenders a capability to reach an airplane rapidly, and rapidly put out large fires with jet fuel involved.
Some tenders have an elevated extended extinguishing arm called a Snozzle, giving a possibility to raise a water/foam cannon into the height of approx. 10 - 20 meters. Some arms have reinforced nozzles that can puncture through superficial structures of an aeroplane to fight a fire inside the fuselage. [9].
Airport crash tender using a puncture nozzle to spray inside of an airframe. At bottom left is a closeup of the head of the nozzle showing the puncture nozzle (top), a standard nozzle (bottom), a light and a thermal imager (left and right).
Airport crash tender using a puncture nozzle to spray inside of an airframe. At bottom left is a closeup of the head of the nozzle showing the puncture nozzle (top), a standard nozzle (bottom), a light and a thermal imager (left and right).
ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) has given standards and recommended practices on rescue fire fighting categories of civil aerodromes [10][11]. National aviation authorities may have given even further requirements on aerodrome rescue and fire services.
The rescue fire services are based on a critical aircraft based on a statistical analysis of movements (take-offs and landings) on the airport. The aerodrome category is based on the size of the biggest aircraft taking a movement on the aerodrome. In addition, the number of movements of the critical aircraft is calculated, and the category can be decreased by one if the number of movements is lower than the standard describes. There are also minimum category levels based on e.g. the number of seats in the critical aircraft.
Depending on the airport category, the standards determine the minimum number of rescue fire-fighting vehicles. In addition, requirements are given on the water and foam capacities, discharge rates for foam solutions, and minimum dry chemical powder (complementary agent) amounts, reserve stocks of fire fighting agents, ability to operate on rough terrain, and acceleration of the air crash tenders. The end of each runway has to be achieved in a response time of two minutes, and any part of the movement area has to be achieved in a response time not exceeding three minutes.
[edit] Rescue Unit
A Rescue Unit of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue in Palm Beach County, Florida.
A Rescue Unit of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue in Palm Beach County, Florida.
A heavy rescue vehicle, often referred to as a rescue company, rescue squad, heavy rescue, or simply, fire engine is a type of specialty firefighting or EMS (Emergency Medical Services) apparatus. Essentially giant toolboxes on wheels, they are primarily designed for technical rescue situations such as auto accidents, rope rescues, swiftwater rescues, or collapses.
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association in the U.S.) regulation 1006 and 1670 give guidelines and regulations for the operation of heavy rescue vehicles and also state that all "rescuers" must have medical training to perform any technical rescue operation, including cutting the vehicle itself[12][13]. In most rescue environments, fire department personnel conduct rescue operations working hand-in-hand with medical personnel such as EMT or paramedics.
In addition to fire brigades and rescue departments, e.g. tram or railway companies may have their own heavy rescue squads specialized to tram or train accidents [14][15]. For example, railway rescue squads may carry very specialized equipment for railway accidents like hydraulic jacks with capacity for lifting locomotives or even move them horizontally, and equipment for tank car accidents [16].
[edit] Hazardous Materials Appliances
Some fire departments keep special appliances for dealing with hazardous materials. These are of several types, from those used to clean spilled oil on streets and highways, to full decontamination units, designed to clean victims and rescuers of contaminants after an incident.
[edit] Logistical Support Appliances
A hookloader in action in Helsinki, Finland. (Click for more facts of this unit)
A hookloader in action in Helsinki, Finland. (Click for more facts of this unit)
Many fire departments operate a number of vehicles in specialised logistical functions. These can be stand alone vehicles, or may be modular, such as with the use of a 'hookloader' system
Sometimes hookloaders are used for seldom-used equipment. A hookloader can load a container very rapidly and act as a special unit with lower investment costs. For example, the Helsinki Rescue Department in Finland has several hookloader trucks and more than 40 containers including a water container, a hose container, an oil destruction container.[17] Containers may also carry a command post, material for catastrophes, hoses and pumps for forest fires, even field hospitals, or for example, high-power pumps.
[edit] Other apparatus
Other fire apparatus include:
* Squad/Utility Unit
* Foam Tenders/Foam Tankers
* Command and Control units
* Dive or Water Rescue units
* Specialist tracked units[18],
* Water craft support such as rigid-hulled inflatable boats, hovercraft or hydrocopters.[19][20][21]
[edit] Other functions
In some communities a fire apparatus, often a paramedic engine, will be used to carry first responder firefighters, paramedics or EMTs to medical emergencies because of their faster response times due to forward staging in the city compared to ambulances coming from hospitals [22][23]. This sometimes puzzles people who see a fire apparatus race past but do not see any fire, but medical calls often outnumber fire calls for such departments. Fire departments may also have lifeguards in places like Los Angeles County, CA.
[edit] Design and construction
The discharge and intake valves on the side of a fire engine.
The discharge and intake valves on the side of a fire engine.
Many fire appliances around the world are based on standard truck or lorry models, which are upgraded to the specifications required by the purchasing department. In the United States, a majority of fire trucks are specially designed from the chassis to the cab and body. This has led to the use of the term custom fire truck, as opposed to a commercial chassis and cab.
Modifications a fire appliance might undergo include adjustments for higher durability, removal of any speed limiter, and adjustments for long periods of idling at a higher temperature. This may be accomplished by heavy duty suspensions, brakes, tires, alternator, transmission and cooling systems. It is also usual to upgrade the capacity of the electrics of the vehicle, in order to accommodate the use of additional electrical and electronic equipment.
Fire appliances have audible and visual warnings, to protect themselves from traffic, and make themselves seen to other units at an incident.
In many countries, use of the audible and visual warnings affords the driver a degree of exemption from road traffic laws (such as the right to exceed speed limits, treat red stop lights as give way etc.) and may also infer a duty on other motorists to move out of the direction of passage of the fire vehicle (or face possible prosecution).
[edit] Visual warnings
Visual warnings on a fire appliance can be of two types - either passive or active.
[edit] Passive visual warnings
A Compressed Air Foam System tanker.
A Compressed Air Foam System tanker.
The passive visual warnings involve the use of high contrast patterns. Older vehicles (and those in developing countries) are more likely to have their patterns painted on, whereas modern appliances often carry retro-reflective designs which reflect light from car headlights or torches. Popular patterns include 'checker board' (alternate coloured squares, sometimes called 'battenburg markings', named after a type of cake), chevrons (arrowheads - often pointed towards the front of the vehicle if on the side, or pointing vertically upwards if on the rear) or stripes (along the side - these were the first type or retro-reflective devices introduced, as the original retro-reflective material came only in tape form). In some countries, in addition to retro-reflective markings, vehicles are now painted a bright yellow or orange, although in many other countries, red remains a popular colour for fire engines.
Another passive marking is the word FIRE, RESCUE or local language variant spelled out in reverse on the front of the vehicle. This enables drivers of other vehicles to more easily identify an approaching fire service vehicle in their rear view mirrors. The appliance may also display a telephone number which may be used to summon assistance, along with the name of the operating department or station identifier.
[edit] Active visual warnings
The active visual warnings are usually in the form of flashing coloured lights (also known as 'beacons' or 'lightbars'). These flash in order to attract the attention of other road users as the fire appliance approaches, or to provide warning to motorists approaching a stopped appliance in a dangerous position on the road. Common colours for fire warning beacons are blue and red. The beacons can be made to flash, the original method was to place a spinning mirror which moves around a light bulb, called a 'rotating beacon'. More modern methods include the use of strobe lights, which are usually brighter, and can be programmed to produce specific patterns (such as a left -> right pattern when parked on the left hand side of the road, indicating to other road users that they should move out away from the vehicle). There is also the more widespread use of LED flashing lights as they are low profile and low energy. More information on Emergency vehicle equipment.
[edit] Audible warnings
In addition to visual warnings, most appliances are also fitted with audible warnings, sometimes known as sirens, which can alert people and vehicles to the presence of an emergency vehicle before they can be seen. The first audible warnings were mechanical bells, mounted to either the front or roof of the truck. Most vehicles are now fitted with electronic sirens, which can produce a range of different noises. Fire service driving training often includes the use of different noises depending on traffic conditions and manoeuvre being performed. For instance, on a clear road, approaching a junction, the 'wail' setting may be used, which gives a long up and down variation, with an unbroken tone, whereas, in heavy slow traffic, a 'yelp' setting may be preferred, which is like a wail, but sped up. The speakers for modern sirens can be located in several places on the vehicle, including being integral to the lightbar, or hidden in the grille. Some vehicles may also be fitted with airhorn audible warnings.
A development is the use of the RDS system of car radios, whereby the vehicle can be fitted with a short range FM transmitter, set to RDS code 31, which interrupts the radio of all cars within range, in the manner of a traffic broadcast, but in such a way that the user of the receiving radio is unable to opt out of the message (as with traffic broadcasts). This feature is built in to all RDS radios for use in national emergency broadcast systems, but short range units on emergency vehicles can prove an effective means of alerting traffic to their presence, although is not able to alert pedestrians and non-RDS radio users.
[edit] Additional equipment
Firefighters may also have a range of additional equipment available to them, which may include:
* Two Way Radio - One of the most important pieces of equipment. Many services have moved from traditional UHF/VHF sets, which can be monitored externally, to more secure systems, such as those working on a GSM system, such as TETRA
* Mobile Data Terminal - Many appliances are fitted with Mobile Data Terminals (or MDTs), which are connected wirelessly to a central computer, and enable firefighters to call up details such as incident logs, maps of locations or exclusion zones.
* Evidence gathering CCTV - Some fire vehicles can be fitted with video cameras used to record activity. They may also be fitted with sound recording facilities. This is used for the protection of the crew (and evidence of any assaults or intimidation of the firefighters) or can be used as evidence relating to the incident itself.
* Ramming pads - These rubberised pads are fitted to the chassis of the appliance, to allow the vehicle to be used as a battering ram, or to push other vehicles off the road in an emergency.
[edit] Crew assignment
Hazardous materials response vehicle of the A.C.T. Fire Brigade.
Hazardous materials response vehicle of the A.C.T. Fire Brigade.
Engines are normally staffed with at least three people - an officer, a driver who usually operates the pump, and a firefighter. Preferably, an engine will carry a second firefighter, to increase effectiveness in safely attacking a fire. In some countries, such as Finland, an engine carries the unit leader, an engineer and one or two pairs of firefighters [24]. Since firefighting takes places in a very hot and hostile environment with high risks, fire fighters work as pairs, and at least one more pair of firefighters is needed on scene for the safety and shifting.
In the United Kingdom, firefighters are arranged in fire and rescue services - historically known as brigades, and usually organised at county, city or combined level. These are divided into either commands or areas, in some cases divisions, then stations, which range in size but in almost every instance have at least one pumping appliance. In addition, general purpose engine stations may have specialist vehicles such as turntable ladders, hydraulic platforms, foam tenders, etc. The number of personnel at a station varies depending on the number of applainces, and whether it is full time, day manned or retained. Generally, the crew of an average sized pump is around 5, but in any case it can be no less than four and no more than six.
In cities of the United States, firefighters are generally deployed into fire companies specializing in certain tasks. Most common are engine companies and ladder, or "truck", companies. In addition, large cities frequently staff rescue companies. By definition, each company is led by an officer (a captain or lieutenant) who commands several firefighters. Staffing of fire companies varies by jurisdiction and frequently by company type. In large cities, fire company staffing may vary from as few as three to as many as six personnel. In suburban and rural areas of the United States, the legal organization to which volunteers belong is usually called a company; one company may operate several pieces of apparatus. Duties of volunteers are often less specialized than those of city firefighters, because it is less predictable who will be available for a given emergency, so more flexibility is needed.
In New Zealand the standard crew consists of four - the OIC, driver and two others. They are numbered OIC,1,2 and 3, with the OIC in the front passengers seat and number 1 directly behind them. number 3 is the driver. The crew has specific tasks in a water drill, decided by where they are sitting. At call-outs, there may be five on an appliance, but only four have allotted tasks with the fifth person being spare.
History
Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the first fire pump around the second century B.C., and an example of a force-pump possible used for a fire-engine is mentioned by Heron of Alexandria. The fire pump was reinvented in Europe during the 1500s, reportedly used in Augsburg in 1518 and Nuremberg in 1657. A book of 1655 inventions mentions a steam engine (called fire engine) pump used to "raise a column of water 40 feet [12 m]", but there was no mention of whether it was portable.
1906 horse-drawn steam fire engine in England. The water is pumped onto the fire by a double-acting onboard steam engine.
1906 horse-drawn steam fire engine in England. The water is pumped onto the fire by a double-acting onboard steam engine.
Colonial laws in America required each house to have a bucket of water on the front stoop during fires at night. These buckets were intended for use by the initial "bucket brigade" that would throw the water at fires.
Philadelphia obtained a hand-pumped fire engine in 1719, years after Boston's 1654 model appeared there, made by Joseph Jencks, but before New York's two engines arrived from London.
By 1730, Newsham, in London, had made successful fire engines; the first used in New York City (in 1731) were of his make (six years before formation of the NYC volunteer fire department). The amount of manpower and skill necessary for firefighting prompted the institution of an organized fire company by Benjamin Franklin in 1737. Thomas Lote built the first fire engine made in America in 1743.
Ericsson made a similar one in New York in 1840. John Ericsson is credited with building the first American steam-powered fire engine. John Braithwaite built the first steam fire-engine in Britain.
Horse-drawn steam fire engine, New York, late 19th century
Horse-drawn steam fire engine, New York, late 19th century
Until the mid-19th century most fire engines were maneuvered by men, but the introduction of horse-drawn fire engines considerably improved the response time to incidents. The first self-propelled steam engine was built in New York in 1841. It was the target of sabotage by firefighters and its use was discontinued, and motorized fire engines did not become commonplace until the early 20th century.
For many years firefighters sat on the sides of the fire engines, or even stood on the rear of the vehicles, exposed to the elements. This arrangement was uncomfortable and dangerous (some firefighters were thrown to their deaths when their fire engines made sharp turns on the road), and today nearly all fire engines have fully enclosed seating areas for their crews.
[edit] Early pumpers
Early pumpers used cisterns as a source of water. Water was later put into wooden pipes under the streets and a "fire plug" was pulled out of the top of the pipe when a suction hose was to be inserted. Later systems incorporated pressurized fire hydrants, where the pressure was increased when a fire alarm was sounded. This was found to be harmful to the system, and unreliable, and today's valved hydrant systems are kept under pressure at all times, although additional pressure may be added when needed. Pressurized hydrants eliminate much of the work in obtaining water for pumping through the engine and into the attack hoses. Many rural fire engines still rely upon cisterns or other sources for drafting water into the pumps.
[edit] Early aerials
Since the late 19th century, means of reaching tall structures have been devised. At first, manually-extendable ladders were used; as these grew in length (and weight) these were put onto two large wheels. When carried by fire engines these ladders had the wheels suspended behind the rear of the vehicle, making them a distinctive sight.
Before long, the turntable ladder - which was even longer, mechanically-extendable, and installed directly onto a fire truck - made its appearance. Since the late 1930s, the longest turntable ladders have reached a height of 150 feet (45 metres), requiring the aforementioned "tiller trucks" to carry such ladders.
After the Second World War turntable ladders were supplemented by the aerial work platform (sometimes called 'cherry picker'), a platform or bucket attached onto a mechanically-bending arm (or "snorkel") installed onto a fire truck. While these could not reach the height of similar turntable ladders, the platforms could extend into previously unreachable "dead corners" of a burning building.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
Matthew 10:34 - "I come not to bring peace, but to bring a sword" is one of the controversial statements reported of Jesus in the Bible. The saying has been interpreted in several ways, by Christians and non-Christians, to support several mutually-incompatible conclusions. Its main significance in that context is that it is often offered as evidence that Jesus advocated violence — a view that is repugnant to some Christians, such as the Peace churches, and some other Christian denominations.
Quotes
The "full" quote, according to the NASB translation of the Bible, reads (Jesus speaking):
"Do not think that I came to bring peace on the earth; I did not come to bring peace, but a sword. For I came to set a man against his father, and a daughter against her mother, and a daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law; and a man’s enemies will be the members of his household. He who loves father or mother more than Me is not worthy of Me; and he who loves son or daughter more than Me is not worthy of Me. And he who does not take his cross and follow after Me is not worthy of Me. He who has found his life will lose it, and he who has lost his life for My sake will find it." (Matthew 10:34-39 NASB)
NASB
" 49 I have come to cast fire upon the earth; and how I wish it were already kindled! 50 But I have a baptism* to undergo, and how distressed I am until it is accomplished! 51 Do you suppose that I came to grant peace on earth? I tell you, no, but rather division; 52 for from now on five members in one household will be divided, three against two and two against three. 53 They will be divided, father* against son and son against father, mother against daughter and daughter against mother, mother-in-law against daughter-in-law and daughter-in-law against mother-in-law. (Luke 12:49-53)
KJV
"49 I am come to send fire on the earth; and what will I, if it be already kindled? 50 But I have a baptism to be baptized with; and how am I straitened till it be accomplished! 51 Suppose ye that I am come to give peace on earth? I tell you, Nay; but rather division: 52 For from henceforth there shall be five in one house divided, three against two, and two against three. 53 The father shall be divided against the son, and the son against the father; the mother against the daughter, and the daughter against the mother; the mother in law against her daughter in law, and the daughter in law against her mother in law. (Luke 12:49-53)
Verse comparison
NASB
"If anyone comes to Me, and does not hate his own father and mother and wife and children and brothers and sisters, yes, and even his own life, he cannot be My disciple." (Luke 14:26)
And in Luke 22:35-38
"But now, whoever has a money belt is to take it along, likewise also a bag, and whoever has no sword is to sell his coat and buy one." (Luke 22:36 NASB)
And the related Gospel of Thomas 16 (non-canonical) (SV) reads:
"Perhaps people think that I have come to cast peace upon the world. They do not know that I have come to cast conflicts upon the earth: fire, sword, war. For there will be five in a house: there'll be three against two and two against three, father against son and son against father, and they will stand alone."
Context
The first step of Biblical exegesis is usually to review the immediate context (surrounding text) of the passage in question. In the case of the first quote above (from the Gospel of Matthew), the tenth chapter may be considered sufficient context. (See here for the text; KJV.)
This chapter tells of Jesus sending his disciples out to minister to "the lost sheep of the house of Israel." ("Lost sheep" is a common Biblical metaphor for people who have "gone astray" in some way. "House of Israel" refers to the descendants of Israel, the Israelites). Specifically, he commanded his disciples to "heal the sick, cleanse the lepers, raise the dead, cast out devils: freely ye have received, freely give." These were all considered good acts, and according to Christians this exemplifies Jesus's message of peace, love, health, and life.
Starting in verse 13, Jesus then goes on to inform his disciples that they will not always be warmly received. He instructs them to depart from homes and cities that will not receive them. He then adds in verse 15, "Verily I say unto you, It shall be more tolerable for the land of Sodom and Gomorrah in the day of judgment, than for that city." According to Abrahamic tradition, the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah had earlier been destroyed by God. As context for the "I bring a sword" quote, many Christians see this as an indication that God, rather than Christians, will be responsible for any punishment due those who reject Jesus's message. See also Olivet discourse.
Jesus then warned his disciples that they would encounter violent resistance on their ministry. In verse 16 he is quoted as saying (RSV), "Behold, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves; so be wise as serpents and innocent as doves." Here, doves may be invocative of peace, although in the context of first-century Judaic culture it may have had a different meaning. In verse 21 Jesus is quoted as saying (KJV), "And the brother shall deliver up the brother to death, and the father the child: and the children shall rise up against their parents, and cause them to be put to death." This is clearly an apocalyptic prediction, and related to the Septuagint, Micah 7:6, but Jesus does not express his views on the matter, other than saying "All men will hate you because of me" in verse 22. He then instructs his followers to flee to a different city when they are persecuted.
He then exhorts his disciples not to fear. He assures them that faithful proclamation of his message will have its rewards.
"Whosoever therefore shall confess me before men, him will I confess also before my Father which is in heaven. But whosoever shall deny me before men, him will I also deny before my Father which is in heaven." (Matthew 10:32-33, KJV)
Immediately thereafter Jesus makes the comment in question, verse 34, saying that he came not to bring peace, but the sword, followed by a direct quote of Septuagint Micah 7:6 in verse 35-36.
Interpretations
Violence as a metaphor
The sword of the gospel cuts and divides, as the word of God does (Hebrews 4:12), "between eternally hostile principles, penetrating into and rending asunder the dearest ties" (Jamieson, Fausset and Brown). Though the ultimate end of the gospel is peace with God and with those who love Him, the immediate result of the gospel is frequently ideological and moral conflict with the world, whether 30 AD or the current day. Faith in Jesus requires total commitment from those who choose to follow Him (Mark 10:27), and love and allegiance toward Him and His word is contrary to the "natural man" and the world system (1 Corinthians 2:14; Romans 8:7; 1 John 2:15-16), "for what fellowship hath righteousness with unrighteousness? and what communion hath light with darkness?" (see 2 Corinthians 6:14-18). Therefore conversion to Christ can result in strained or broken family relationships, persecution, and even martyrdom, due to rejection of the gospel. Truly confessing Jesus as Lord as in Romans 10:9 is to the exclusion of other supreme lords, which usually primarily meant Caesar in New Testament times, and thus early believers realized varying degrees of societal exclusion and often execution. Following Christ presupposes a willingness to endure such hardships, and the sword is a metaphor of the spiritual division due to opposition to Jesus being Lord and that which it entails. This type of metaphorical view has been the majority view of major evangelical commentators such as Matthew Henry, Albert Barnes, John Gill, etc.
The quote is understood by some to mean that because people are possessed and needing deliverance and are even ignorant of such matters then Jesus will help by bringing Holy Fire that cleanses and a sword that destroys the inner fortresses inside people. This fire and sword that "He bringeth" feels very good to a live person and is part of the process that develops the Holy Spirit in a human. The shock of seeing the kingdom of heaven and knowing what they in it are doing could be upsetting and controversial as to stir argument and disturb the acceptable comforts. Persecution (from other possessed people) most likely will ensue. But Jesus said "He that endureth until the end shall know my Glory." The sword that "He bringeth" is a tool of deliverance.
Alternatively, some see Paul as clarifying what was meant by a sword when he says in Ephesians 6:17, "And accept salvation as a helmet, and the word of God as the sword which the Spirit gives you." Therefore, by this interpretation, the sword is seen as a weapon of spiritual warfare, not physical violence.
Advocating violence
Some believe that in these passages Jesus was advocating the use of violence.[citation needed] Applying a literal interpretation, they take the word "sword" to mean a literal weapon and, by extension, warfare. In that case "division", as used in the verse from the Book of Luke, would tend to mean strife and war. For Christians accepting this interpretation, these passages may be seen as part of a justification for just wars and capital punishment. This is a minority view, if used to support the use of the sword of men by the church to expand or defend the faith, as such is contrary to clear precepts under the New Covenant and the example of the New Testament church. However, the just use of the sword by established civil powers (the State) is dealt with elsewhere Romans 13:1-6; 1 Peter 2:13-14.
Predicting violence
Other Christians[citation needed] hold that Jesus is using the word "sword" as a metaphor to describe the division that his message would bring between those who accept it and those who reject it. Indeed, the Aramaic word for "large knife" has the same meaning as "a tool for dividing, division". A further and more mystical interpretation[citation needed] represents a personal conflict, or evolution, as in a rebirth. In the context of the passage, Jesus was warning his disciples. Whether internal or external, conflict will come for Christians.
They conclude that this division between righteous and unrighteous is the "sword" which Jesus brought. And as a result of this division:
Brother will deliver up brother to death, and the father his child, and children will rise against parents and have them put to death," indicating that the message would divide families between those who accepted the message and those who rejected it.
Rather than advocating violence, Jesus was warning his disciples that they would encounter violence from those unwilling to accept the Truth. Nowhere in the passage does he instruct them to harm anyone. On the contrary, he instructs them to heal the sick, raise the dead, and cast out demons, and explicitly tells them to be "as wise as serpents and as innocent as doves." These are all instructions consistent with his message of love and grace. He does not command them to resort to violence with those who reject the message. On the contrary, he tells them to leave the homes of those who reject them, because God alone will be the judge of those who reject the Truth.
This interpretation that the Truth will cause division between those who accept it and those who reject it is also reflected in John 1:10-13 (RSV), which reports of Jesus:
"He was in the world, and the world was made through him, yet the world knew him not. He came to his own home, and his own people received him not. But to all who received him, who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God."
See also Rejection of Jesus.
A similar theme appears in Romans 1:20-21 (RSV):
"Ever since the creation of the world his invisible nature, namely, his eternal power and deity, has been clearly perceived in the things that have been made. So they are without excuse; for although they knew God they did not honor him as God or give thanks to him, but they became futile in their thinking and their senseless minds were darkened."
In the above passage, Paul (the author of Romans) does not advocate violence against the wicked. On the contrary, he indicates that the worst punishment for the sins of wicked is to turn them over to their own desires, because the wicked are perfectly capable of destroying themselves.
In the Matthew account of his arrest, when one of his disciples cut off the ear of a servant of the high priest, Jesus warned not to use violence as a solution for everything:
Then said Jesus unto him, Put up again thy sword into his place: for all they that take the sword shall perish with the sword.[1]
While the account in Luke 22:38 (KJV) records Jesus saying, "It is enough" in response to the sufficiency of two swords by Peter, any implied use of violence derived from this would be limited to personal self defense, perhaps only in that instance, and is countered by the words of Jesus in John 18:36. In addition, this was before the establishment of the New Covenant, which institution required the death of the testator (Hebrews 9:16), and in which Christian non resistance is further exhorted (1 Peter 2:19-24).
Elsewhere in Luke, Jesus heals the ear of the servant.[2] For many Christians, these passages confirm that Jesus was only predicting violence but advocating non-violence, although they debate as to whether Jesus meant never to use violence, such as to defend one's family against harm, or only not to use it while evangelizing, in a pacifist stance of turning the other cheek and willing martyrdom.
Opposing non-violence arguments is the case of Jesus actions at temple when dealing with money changers, using a whip of cords to drive them out, yet this use of force can be seen as an exercise of a unique Divine prerogative of Jesus in purging His own father's house, rather than a precedent for using the sword of men to universally subdue evil doers, especially in an era when the temple is spiritual.
Kells
The Book of Kells, a Celtic illuminated manuscript copy of the Gospels, uses the word “gaudium” meaning “joy” rather than “gladium,” which means “sword” -- rendering the verse in translation: “I came not [only] to bring peace, but joy”.
References
1. ^ Matthew 26:52
2. ^ Luke 22:51