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A big success by any standard both in and out of competition, the Lancia Stratos was developed as a homologation Special for European rallying. After production ceased it became a cult car and is now highly priced as the ‘modern classis' it is. Conceived strictly for rallying, the Lancia Stratos however makes an exciting road car, though it is very far from GT standards in both luxury and refinement.
The concept vehicle responsible for providing the inspiration for the Lancia Stratos Rally car is the Lancia (Bertone) Stratos. The Stratos featured a 1584 cc V4 DOHC with 115 bhp horsepower at 200 rpm. Designed by Marcello Gandini, the same designer responsible for the Lamborghini Countach and Lamborghini Miura, the Stratos concept was a development of the Bertone designed Alfa Romeo Carabo concept from 1968. The Carabo concept was also a Gandini creation.
First revealed at the Turin Motor Show in October of 1970, the Lancia Stratos HF prototype was a styling exercise for Bertone. A futuristic design, the Stratos featured a wedge shaped profile that stood just 33 inches from the ground. Since the vehicle was so low, conventional doors could not be used and instead one accessed the interior of the Stratos by a hinged windscreen. Drivers had to flip up the windscreen and walk into the vehicle. Once inside, visibility was quite restricted since the front windscreen was narrow. The cockpit of the Lancia Stratos was designed specifically for fast forest flying.
The body design was predictably minimal to hold down weight and bulk with its most distinctive features being semi-concealed A-pillars and a door beltline that sharply upswept to the top of the daylight opening. The shape of the resulting unbroken expanse of glass gave the tunnelback roof the appearance of a futuristic crash helmet.
The main body structure was steel, like the chassis, and weight-saving fiberglass was used for tilt-up nose and tail sections. A small box above and behind the powertrain was where cargo space was held. Bins were also molded into the interior door panels for storing helmets.
The same engine utilized on the Lancia 1600 HF Fulvia was used on the Bertone designed Lancia Stratos Zero prototype. A triangular shaped panel hinged upwards to allow access to the mid-mounted engine. Developed for rallying purposes, the legendary Lancia Stratos was unveiled in 1974. The production vehicle Stratos was powered by a 2.4 liter mid-mounted V6 from the Ferrari Dino.
Like no other Lancia before or after, the Lancia Stratos was a shock that left enthusiasts and rally fans breathless. For almost a decade the Stratos streaked across the rally landscape much like a brilliant comet, while discarding past principles, it also fearlessly represented something undeniably new. A phenomenal rally car, the Lancia Stratos set an example to every other car manufacturer in the world. The first viable purpose-built rally car ever built, the Stratos was probably the last purpose-built rally car.
Created by the Bertone coachbuilding company, the Stratos was both radical, yet fully functional. Fiorio realized that for Lancia to continue to compete in the World Rally Championship, the Fulvia HF would need a much more powerful replacement. A the time, four-wheel drive was not an option, so a mid-engined configuration seemed ideal. To reinforce Fiori's convictions, the Bertone show car was featured soon after with a mid-engine Fulvia V4.
The introduction of the Ford mid-engine purpose-built GT70 rally car at the 1971Brussels Motor Show was what truly inspired the impetus behind the Stratos proect. It was after this appearance that Lancia's general manager, Pierugo Gobbato contacted Nuccio Bertone. Though the GT70 was actually never put in production by Ford, it was this that sparked the inspiration of the Lancia Stratos.
As always, there was a minimum production requirement, 500 units for the Lancia Stratos. This was an awkward figure that would necessitate funds for at least semi-permanent tooling as well as design and development. This was a job well suited to the Italian industry. Fiorio masterminded the project, and he envisioned a short, wide coupe with transverse midships drivetrain. Bertone was immediately contracted to style the vehicle and built its unit body/chassis structure.
43 months passed in between the time of conception to the actual birth of the Lancia Stratos. The vehicle was developed to take over and make Lancia the outright world rally champ. The Stratos was both short and wide, with a wheelbase of only 7 feet 1.8 inches, the width of the vehicle was only 5 feet 8.9 inches. Weighing only 1958 lbs, the Stratos was only 3 feet 7.9 inches high. Able to easily exceed 140 mph, the Stratos featured 190 horsepower in roadgoing trim.
Having studied every possible powerteam in the Fiat/Lancia group, Fiorio secured 2.4 liter V-6s and 5-speed transaxles from Ferrari, which was an ideal chouse as they'd be installed exactly as the Dino 246. All-independent suspension, rack-and-pinion steering and four-wheel disc brakes were all specifically designed for the Lancia Stratos.
After 1978 the Stratos was officially retired and no longer was officially entered by the Lancia factory, the vehicle was still going strong. The Lancia team was headed by by Sandro Munari who won its first event as a homologated entry in October of 1974. Mun ari entered alone 40 events with the Lancia Stratos and won 14. The Stratos also won the World Rally Championship in 1974, 1975, and 1976 and remained competitive for another four years. The final major win came in 1979 when a Lancia Stratos entered by the Monaco importer won the famed Monte Carlo Rally. Finally the factory retired the Stratos.
By Jessica Donaldson
[Text from ConceptCarz.com]
www.conceptcarz.com/z21737/Lancia-Stratos-HF.aspx
This Lego miniland-scale Lancia Stratos Rally Racer has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 100th Build Challenge - our Centenary, titled 'One Hundred Ways to Win!'. In this challenge, a list of 100 challenges is available, kept by the admins. Individuals wishing to enter, request a number from 1-100 (so long as it has not already been requested) - and the admins assign the individual build challenge associated with that number.
In the case of admins entering models - they request that a general LUGNuts member assigns a number - and the admin must build to that challenge number.
In this case, the number 78 was chosen for me, corresponding to the challenge: '78.Any vehicle from the year you were born'. I was born in 1972, the year that the first Stratos rally cars were built, entering in the Rally Championship as Group 5 (un-homologated) entries.
The road cars required to homologate for Group 4 were built through 1973 to 1978.
As can be seen in some of the images here, not only does the car open and close (a real challenge when you look at the chassis), but it also uses the Lego Group RC Rollerskate - so it can zoom around under its own power.
Alessandra went on a little cruise with us today to the chalk cliff coast on the island Rügen.
Fashion credits: Outfit made by Frau E
--
I ran a star-bokeh roll through my Canon EOS1000F, then shot over it with my Lomo LC-M. The concept work, but it needs a bit of refinement to get better stars!
Coachwork by Vanden Plas
Chassis n° 14812
Les Grandes Marques du Monde au Grand Palais
Bonhams
Parijs - Paris
Frankrijk - France
Estimated : € 425.000 - 475.000
Sold
"In the scheme of things there are cars, good cars, and super cars. When a machine can be put into the last of these three categories, yet is by no means in the highest-priced class, considerable praise is due to the makers. This model is the latest 4.3-litre Alvis Sports Tourer."
One of a dozen cars produced, this fascinating, beautiful and important sports car brings together two companies at their zenith, Vanden Plas and Alvis.
On one hand is the 4.3 Litre Alvis, the result of two decades of refinement in their field, the 4.3 was the largest engine they offered, a silky solid six cylinder which was capable of supplying approximately 140bhp to the road, one of its most ground breaking characteristics was transmission between those two aspects, an all synchromesh 4 speed, which was light years ahead of its time and made these cars easier to drive than an E Type! "A Remarkable British Car" and displaying impressive performance figures of 0-50mph in 7.6 seconds and 105mph top speed in standard road trim, the fastest British un-supercharged pre-war sports car.
On the other, the famed house of Vanden Plas. Throughout the pre-war era they consistently produced great looking sporting coachwork, predominantly for great British marques, but also the occasional Alfa Romeo, Mercedes or even Austro Daimler. In the 1920s they had blended simplicity with looks for the numerous bodies that they had provided to WO Bentley for his own Cricklewood built cars and when times looked more austere and the 'boy racer' touring cars looked like they might have had their day, Vanden Plas simply modernized that similar look for the 1930s. Their most successful renditions in the mid to late Thirties were these 'cut down' door sports tourers.
It is said that their influence for this particular design feature came directly from serial racer and Bentley owner, Malcolm Campbell. In the now low-slung post Vintage chassis' where one sat 'in', rather than 'on' a car, one's elbow could never be comfortable if level with one's shoulder, the solution? Make a notch in the side of the coachwork. Between the ever-stylish Campbell and Vanden Plas' draftsman, this example of practicality was turned into part of the design. A genius move, which was frequently then accented with a side sweep moulding along the body, at once it created one of the design classics of its generation.
Those rakish 30s Vanden Plas 'Malcolm Campbell' design cars were somewhat limited in their production, a dozen are known to have been fitted to Derby Bentleys and are among the most coveted of their breed, a single Bugatti Type 57S (sold by Bonhams in 2016) wears the same, but it arguably on the 4.3 Litre Alvis that the coachwork works best. For that reason, the dozen Alvis's so equipped have long been the stand out pinnacle of the marque's production, cherished by the few lucky enough to own one and they rarely appear for sale.
Here we proudly present one that can rightfully claim to be the best even among that 'rara avis', with a remarkable history of racing and ownership as well as striking and fresh presentation. As new, 14812 was built new by Alvis with its own definitive specifications being on the short chassis and including a special high compression engine which it retains to this day. Registered for the British roads as 'DHP233' it was used by Alvis as their Demonstrator, it would also be campaigned competitively from its earliest days.
At Brooklands on 16th July 1938 the '4.3' made its debut in a rather ignominious fashion, where piloted by G. Hartwell and R.S. Newton in the Light Car Club's 3-Hour Race for Standard Sports Cars, its 'box lost two of gears, not surprisingly the shock of which caused the drivers to put the car into a spin on a couple of occasions and setting it back down the pack. 2 months later after the Summer had passed it was back for an altogether more successful outing, at the Dunlop Jubilee International Car Races, on 24th September. Here, the car was driven by well-known racer, broadcaster and motoring personality Tommy Wisdom in two Outer Circuit handicap races. In Alvis: The Story of the Red Triangle author Ken Day quotes Tommy Wisdom:
"The car I had for test differed from standard models in that the compression ratio of the engine had been increased to 8.5 to 1, which meant that use of 50:50 benzole mixture was necessary. Top-gear ratio was higher than standard and wings, lamps and screen were removed."
Aside from these alterations 'DHP 233' remained in remarkably standard form, especially when one considers it was to share the circuit with the likes of the Pacey-Hassan 4½ Litre Bentley single seater special, Duller's monster Duesenberg and a whole host of supercharged European exotica. The drivers too were no slouches either, with the likes of greats such as Jean-Pierre Wimille and Rene Dreyfus also competing in the same events. Although the Alvis was never going to be the quickest car on the circuit the performance figures it achieved were quite exceptional for a largely standard un-supercharged road going sportscar. To quote Tommy Wisdom again: "In the 20 Miles Outer Circuit Handicap race the car averaged better than 110 mph. The standing lap was covered at 92.23 mph, three laps at 111 mph, two at 116 mph and the fastest at 115.29 mph while the maximum on the Railway Straight, according to the revolution counter, was 119 mph." If one considers that the race was won at a speed of 119.86 mph, these figures make for impressive reading.
Within the month, 'DHP 233' had completed its service for the Works and was returned to production road trim and showroom condition. It was shipped to agents Hugh Anderson Ltd. Of London and quickly snapped up by its first public owner, Mr. Edgar H. Whale of Watford, Hertfordshire, amazingly its next recorded owner, Mr. J.A. Penman of Penrith, Cumbria, would keep the Alvis until the early 1980s! After two brief sojourns in the UK trade, it emigrated to the U.S. and into one of the greatest collections of sportscars of its day, that of Henry Petronis. If one need further proof of its importance and stature, in this well-honed collection it would share a stable with a Blower Bentley, Supercharged Alfa Romeo, Mercedes S-Type and many more pre-war gems. After this collection was dispersed privately in 2011, the current owner was fortunate enough to become its fourth private owner in 70 years.
In the current ownership 'DHP 233' has been treated to a total re-paint and re-trim back to original factory specifications by Red Triangle. Tim Walker Restorations have carried out a total engine rebuild and numerous mechanical works, a detailed in the history files. A firm believer that cars are made to be driven the current owner has used 'DHP 233' on a number of well-known endurance events including: The Flying Scotsman, Cape Horn Rally, The Alpine Trial and 1000 Mile Trial. No expense has been spared to ensure the reliability and usability of the car whilst retaining the originality and historical integrity of this important pre-war sports car. With full-synchromesh gearbox as standard, independent front suspension and a standard pedal layout 'DHP 233' is not only one of the fastest standard pre-war sports cars, but also one of the easiest to drive and this extremely rare and original sports car is ready to be enjoyed by the next owner on numerous international events.
Having enjoyed the car for 8 years, the Alvis emerges for public sale for the first time, a great if not the best of all of these legendary cars, it's a wonderful usable all-rounder and deserving of close inspection of the car and its fascinating history file.
Coachwork by Vanden Plas
Chassis n° 14812
Les Grandes Marques du Monde au Grand Palais
Bonhams
Parijs - Paris
Frankrijk - France
Estimated : € 425.000 - 475.000
Sold
"In the scheme of things there are cars, good cars, and super cars. When a machine can be put into the last of these three categories, yet is by no means in the highest-priced class, considerable praise is due to the makers. This model is the latest 4.3-litre Alvis Sports Tourer."
One of a dozen cars produced, this fascinating, beautiful and important sports car brings together two companies at their zenith, Vanden Plas and Alvis.
On one hand is the 4.3 Litre Alvis, the result of two decades of refinement in their field, the 4.3 was the largest engine they offered, a silky solid six cylinder which was capable of supplying approximately 140bhp to the road, one of its most ground breaking characteristics was transmission between those two aspects, an all synchromesh 4 speed, which was light years ahead of its time and made these cars easier to drive than an E Type! "A Remarkable British Car" and displaying impressive performance figures of 0-50mph in 7.6 seconds and 105mph top speed in standard road trim, the fastest British un-supercharged pre-war sports car.
On the other, the famed house of Vanden Plas. Throughout the pre-war era they consistently produced great looking sporting coachwork, predominantly for great British marques, but also the occasional Alfa Romeo, Mercedes or even Austro Daimler. In the 1920s they had blended simplicity with looks for the numerous bodies that they had provided to WO Bentley for his own Cricklewood built cars and when times looked more austere and the 'boy racer' touring cars looked like they might have had their day, Vanden Plas simply modernized that similar look for the 1930s. Their most successful renditions in the mid to late Thirties were these 'cut down' door sports tourers.
It is said that their influence for this particular design feature came directly from serial racer and Bentley owner, Malcolm Campbell. In the now low-slung post Vintage chassis' where one sat 'in', rather than 'on' a car, one's elbow could never be comfortable if level with one's shoulder, the solution? Make a notch in the side of the coachwork. Between the ever-stylish Campbell and Vanden Plas' draftsman, this example of practicality was turned into part of the design. A genius move, which was frequently then accented with a side sweep moulding along the body, at once it created one of the design classics of its generation.
Those rakish 30s Vanden Plas 'Malcolm Campbell' design cars were somewhat limited in their production, a dozen are known to have been fitted to Derby Bentleys and are among the most coveted of their breed, a single Bugatti Type 57S (sold by Bonhams in 2016) wears the same, but it arguably on the 4.3 Litre Alvis that the coachwork works best. For that reason, the dozen Alvis's so equipped have long been the stand out pinnacle of the marque's production, cherished by the few lucky enough to own one and they rarely appear for sale.
Here we proudly present one that can rightfully claim to be the best even among that 'rara avis', with a remarkable history of racing and ownership as well as striking and fresh presentation. As new, 14812 was built new by Alvis with its own definitive specifications being on the short chassis and including a special high compression engine which it retains to this day. Registered for the British roads as 'DHP233' it was used by Alvis as their Demonstrator, it would also be campaigned competitively from its earliest days.
At Brooklands on 16th July 1938 the '4.3' made its debut in a rather ignominious fashion, where piloted by G. Hartwell and R.S. Newton in the Light Car Club's 3-Hour Race for Standard Sports Cars, its 'box lost two of gears, not surprisingly the shock of which caused the drivers to put the car into a spin on a couple of occasions and setting it back down the pack. 2 months later after the Summer had passed it was back for an altogether more successful outing, at the Dunlop Jubilee International Car Races, on 24th September. Here, the car was driven by well-known racer, broadcaster and motoring personality Tommy Wisdom in two Outer Circuit handicap races. In Alvis: The Story of the Red Triangle author Ken Day quotes Tommy Wisdom:
"The car I had for test differed from standard models in that the compression ratio of the engine had been increased to 8.5 to 1, which meant that use of 50:50 benzole mixture was necessary. Top-gear ratio was higher than standard and wings, lamps and screen were removed."
Aside from these alterations 'DHP 233' remained in remarkably standard form, especially when one considers it was to share the circuit with the likes of the Pacey-Hassan 4½ Litre Bentley single seater special, Duller's monster Duesenberg and a whole host of supercharged European exotica. The drivers too were no slouches either, with the likes of greats such as Jean-Pierre Wimille and Rene Dreyfus also competing in the same events. Although the Alvis was never going to be the quickest car on the circuit the performance figures it achieved were quite exceptional for a largely standard un-supercharged road going sportscar. To quote Tommy Wisdom again: "In the 20 Miles Outer Circuit Handicap race the car averaged better than 110 mph. The standing lap was covered at 92.23 mph, three laps at 111 mph, two at 116 mph and the fastest at 115.29 mph while the maximum on the Railway Straight, according to the revolution counter, was 119 mph." If one considers that the race was won at a speed of 119.86 mph, these figures make for impressive reading.
Within the month, 'DHP 233' had completed its service for the Works and was returned to production road trim and showroom condition. It was shipped to agents Hugh Anderson Ltd. Of London and quickly snapped up by its first public owner, Mr. Edgar H. Whale of Watford, Hertfordshire, amazingly its next recorded owner, Mr. J.A. Penman of Penrith, Cumbria, would keep the Alvis until the early 1980s! After two brief sojourns in the UK trade, it emigrated to the U.S. and into one of the greatest collections of sportscars of its day, that of Henry Petronis. If one need further proof of its importance and stature, in this well-honed collection it would share a stable with a Blower Bentley, Supercharged Alfa Romeo, Mercedes S-Type and many more pre-war gems. After this collection was dispersed privately in 2011, the current owner was fortunate enough to become its fourth private owner in 70 years.
In the current ownership 'DHP 233' has been treated to a total re-paint and re-trim back to original factory specifications by Red Triangle. Tim Walker Restorations have carried out a total engine rebuild and numerous mechanical works, a detailed in the history files. A firm believer that cars are made to be driven the current owner has used 'DHP 233' on a number of well-known endurance events including: The Flying Scotsman, Cape Horn Rally, The Alpine Trial and 1000 Mile Trial. No expense has been spared to ensure the reliability and usability of the car whilst retaining the originality and historical integrity of this important pre-war sports car. With full-synchromesh gearbox as standard, independent front suspension and a standard pedal layout 'DHP 233' is not only one of the fastest standard pre-war sports cars, but also one of the easiest to drive and this extremely rare and original sports car is ready to be enjoyed by the next owner on numerous international events.
Having enjoyed the car for 8 years, the Alvis emerges for public sale for the first time, a great if not the best of all of these legendary cars, it's a wonderful usable all-rounder and deserving of close inspection of the car and its fascinating history file.
Coachwork by Vanden Plas
Chassis n° 14812
Les Grandes Marques du Monde au Grand Palais
Bonhams
Parijs - Paris
Frankrijk - France
Estimated : € 425.000 - 475.000
Sold
"In the scheme of things there are cars, good cars, and super cars. When a machine can be put into the last of these three categories, yet is by no means in the highest-priced class, considerable praise is due to the makers. This model is the latest 4.3-litre Alvis Sports Tourer."
One of a dozen cars produced, this fascinating, beautiful and important sports car brings together two companies at their zenith, Vanden Plas and Alvis.
On one hand is the 4.3 Litre Alvis, the result of two decades of refinement in their field, the 4.3 was the largest engine they offered, a silky solid six cylinder which was capable of supplying approximately 140bhp to the road, one of its most ground breaking characteristics was transmission between those two aspects, an all synchromesh 4 speed, which was light years ahead of its time and made these cars easier to drive than an E Type! "A Remarkable British Car" and displaying impressive performance figures of 0-50mph in 7.6 seconds and 105mph top speed in standard road trim, the fastest British un-supercharged pre-war sports car.
On the other, the famed house of Vanden Plas. Throughout the pre-war era they consistently produced great looking sporting coachwork, predominantly for great British marques, but also the occasional Alfa Romeo, Mercedes or even Austro Daimler. In the 1920s they had blended simplicity with looks for the numerous bodies that they had provided to WO Bentley for his own Cricklewood built cars and when times looked more austere and the 'boy racer' touring cars looked like they might have had their day, Vanden Plas simply modernized that similar look for the 1930s. Their most successful renditions in the mid to late Thirties were these 'cut down' door sports tourers.
It is said that their influence for this particular design feature came directly from serial racer and Bentley owner, Malcolm Campbell. In the now low-slung post Vintage chassis' where one sat 'in', rather than 'on' a car, one's elbow could never be comfortable if level with one's shoulder, the solution? Make a notch in the side of the coachwork. Between the ever-stylish Campbell and Vanden Plas' draftsman, this example of practicality was turned into part of the design. A genius move, which was frequently then accented with a side sweep moulding along the body, at once it created one of the design classics of its generation.
Those rakish 30s Vanden Plas 'Malcolm Campbell' design cars were somewhat limited in their production, a dozen are known to have been fitted to Derby Bentleys and are among the most coveted of their breed, a single Bugatti Type 57S (sold by Bonhams in 2016) wears the same, but it arguably on the 4.3 Litre Alvis that the coachwork works best. For that reason, the dozen Alvis's so equipped have long been the stand out pinnacle of the marque's production, cherished by the few lucky enough to own one and they rarely appear for sale.
Here we proudly present one that can rightfully claim to be the best even among that 'rara avis', with a remarkable history of racing and ownership as well as striking and fresh presentation. As new, 14812 was built new by Alvis with its own definitive specifications being on the short chassis and including a special high compression engine which it retains to this day. Registered for the British roads as 'DHP233' it was used by Alvis as their Demonstrator, it would also be campaigned competitively from its earliest days.
At Brooklands on 16th July 1938 the '4.3' made its debut in a rather ignominious fashion, where piloted by G. Hartwell and R.S. Newton in the Light Car Club's 3-Hour Race for Standard Sports Cars, its 'box lost two of gears, not surprisingly the shock of which caused the drivers to put the car into a spin on a couple of occasions and setting it back down the pack. 2 months later after the Summer had passed it was back for an altogether more successful outing, at the Dunlop Jubilee International Car Races, on 24th September. Here, the car was driven by well-known racer, broadcaster and motoring personality Tommy Wisdom in two Outer Circuit handicap races. In Alvis: The Story of the Red Triangle author Ken Day quotes Tommy Wisdom:
"The car I had for test differed from standard models in that the compression ratio of the engine had been increased to 8.5 to 1, which meant that use of 50:50 benzole mixture was necessary. Top-gear ratio was higher than standard and wings, lamps and screen were removed."
Aside from these alterations 'DHP 233' remained in remarkably standard form, especially when one considers it was to share the circuit with the likes of the Pacey-Hassan 4½ Litre Bentley single seater special, Duller's monster Duesenberg and a whole host of supercharged European exotica. The drivers too were no slouches either, with the likes of greats such as Jean-Pierre Wimille and Rene Dreyfus also competing in the same events. Although the Alvis was never going to be the quickest car on the circuit the performance figures it achieved were quite exceptional for a largely standard un-supercharged road going sportscar. To quote Tommy Wisdom again: "In the 20 Miles Outer Circuit Handicap race the car averaged better than 110 mph. The standing lap was covered at 92.23 mph, three laps at 111 mph, two at 116 mph and the fastest at 115.29 mph while the maximum on the Railway Straight, according to the revolution counter, was 119 mph." If one considers that the race was won at a speed of 119.86 mph, these figures make for impressive reading.
Within the month, 'DHP 233' had completed its service for the Works and was returned to production road trim and showroom condition. It was shipped to agents Hugh Anderson Ltd. Of London and quickly snapped up by its first public owner, Mr. Edgar H. Whale of Watford, Hertfordshire, amazingly its next recorded owner, Mr. J.A. Penman of Penrith, Cumbria, would keep the Alvis until the early 1980s! After two brief sojourns in the UK trade, it emigrated to the U.S. and into one of the greatest collections of sportscars of its day, that of Henry Petronis. If one need further proof of its importance and stature, in this well-honed collection it would share a stable with a Blower Bentley, Supercharged Alfa Romeo, Mercedes S-Type and many more pre-war gems. After this collection was dispersed privately in 2011, the current owner was fortunate enough to become its fourth private owner in 70 years.
In the current ownership 'DHP 233' has been treated to a total re-paint and re-trim back to original factory specifications by Red Triangle. Tim Walker Restorations have carried out a total engine rebuild and numerous mechanical works, a detailed in the history files. A firm believer that cars are made to be driven the current owner has used 'DHP 233' on a number of well-known endurance events including: The Flying Scotsman, Cape Horn Rally, The Alpine Trial and 1000 Mile Trial. No expense has been spared to ensure the reliability and usability of the car whilst retaining the originality and historical integrity of this important pre-war sports car. With full-synchromesh gearbox as standard, independent front suspension and a standard pedal layout 'DHP 233' is not only one of the fastest standard pre-war sports cars, but also one of the easiest to drive and this extremely rare and original sports car is ready to be enjoyed by the next owner on numerous international events.
Having enjoyed the car for 8 years, the Alvis emerges for public sale for the first time, a great if not the best of all of these legendary cars, it's a wonderful usable all-rounder and deserving of close inspection of the car and its fascinating history file.
The remainder of my time with the League would be arguably some of the happiest years of my life, if only for one reason. It gave me purpose. Granted it was purpose for all the wrong reasons but I didn’t know any better at the time. I had no-one else, and I trusted them with my life. Talia, Ra’s, Nyssa….they were my family. Exactly as Ra’s had engineered. He could read me like a book, and he knew full well that family was the most important thing to me. Heck I’m still traumatised from having most my family thirty years later. That baggage isn’t going anywhere, no matter how much I try to separate it from myself.
In many ways it’s thanks to Ra’s that I’m also able to read people so well. Root out the liars from the honest men. Tell a thief from a rapist. See yourself in others. Talia always told me that what earned her father’s interest in me wasn’t my skill. Hell at first I had no skill at all, it was simply rage. A powerful tool in itself but useless without refinement. Ra’s knew that, and that’s why he agreed to take me on.
You always trust the ones that you see yourself in.
It’s thanks to his trust that I was able to learn the secrets only the inner circle every truly knew, and it’s thanks to those secrets that I was slowly but surely able to climb the ranks. It’s a tradition of the League, that before you can undertake the final trials you must be able to best your mentor in single combat. Of course, that would require me to best Ra’s in single combat.
A feat that no-one has achieved.
Fortunately, rather than force me to fight him, Ra’s had a simple alternative. Face three of his inner circle consecutively and win. There’s a reason no-one has ever dared to challenge a member of the inner circle. They’re arguably the most skilled fighters in the League after Ra’s himself and to this day no-one’s managed to best one of them. Never mind three.
Up until I entered the arena, I suspected that one of my opponents would be Ubu. He was without doubt the most loyal of the inner circle. It certainly caught me off guard to not see him in the arena. Instead I was able to make out Kirigi and Vial. Evidently Ra’s intended to push all aspects of my training to the test. Kirigi to test my reflexes and agility. Vial to test my sword work. The third figure….I didn’t recognise. Not that it was surprising though. Ra’s had a habit of keeping secrets from all but those that needed to know. A way of ensuring that no-one dared to usurp him. After all, when you’ve collected as much knowledge as Ra’s has, the last thing you want is to lose it forever.
In many regards, the first two fights were easy. In part because I’d made a point of studying both of their fighting styles. As you’d expect, Kirigi focused more on agility to deliver a single killing blow. Vial on the other hand refused to indulge in what he called such cowardice. Opting instead to use his advanced blade work in an attempt to disarm me, thus rendering me defenceless. Funnily enough, both of their styles proved to be the undoing of the other. Afterall, advanced blade work is useless if you can’t land a blow. Nor is close proximity agility if their blade work is able to keep you at bay.
It took me a good ten minutes to best Kirigi, in part because I couldn’t grab hold of him. Hard to believe he’s the one who has the nickname Silver Monkey give how he moves. Unfortunately for Vial, he only lasted two. Even then it was because I gave him a bit of sympathy and gave two more opportunities than I should have.
My last opponent is an entirely different story. He’s able to match me blow for blow. Every time I take a step forward, he pushes me two steps back. I’m fortunate on several occasions that my throat narrowly avoids the tip of his blade. Evidently Ra’s has told them not to not hold anything back. That’s both good news and bad news. Bad news in that he’s not going to pull his punches. Good news in that I don’t need to hold back either.
With that in mind, I quickly adjust my fighting style from maim to kill. Do I intend to kill him? Of course not. One of the League’s founding statutes is that we don’t kill our own. I intend to uphold that statute.
The first move is to disarm him. A member of the League is never truly harmless, but without a katana in his hand he’s far less lethal. Sadly, he knows the same tactics as shown by his own attempts to disarm me. Six times he attempts to grab the hilt of blade whilst we blade lock. The fifth time I only avoid him stealing my blade by kneeing him in his crotch. It’s undeniably petty, but desperation makes all dirty methods viable options.
When he dares to risk his sixth blade lock, I’m able to punish him for his mistake. Of course, he’s not the only one to make a mistake. I unintentionally provide him an opening as I make a grab for his blade, and he responds by kicking me in the chest. Mercifully, the risk pays off and as I fall backwards, I’m able to pry the blade from his grasp.
With both blades in my possession, the tide quickly turns in my favour. Desperately, he launches towards me in an attempt to claim one of the blades for himself. Big mistake. Before he has a chance to get close I deliver a two hit strike. One to his torso, leaving a large gash across the front of his body, and a second to his head forcing his helmet from his head.
Immediately, to stop an inevitable counter attack I close the distance and position his neck between both blades.
”Well done Bruce. You are ready to face the trials.”
”Thank you, Great One.”
I lower both of my blades before holstering my own and throwing my opponents to the floor. No finer way to declare victory than to disgrace the, by throwing their blade away like it’s nothing. Evidently my opponent knows exactly what I intended from the action as he begins to charge towards me before Ra’s impales him with a concealed dagger.
”Fa….Father…..why…..?”
”You have failed me Dusan. You knew all too well that this was your one opportunity to prove yourself worthy of being named my heir.”
To say it was shocking to learn Ra’s had a son all this time would be an understatement. When you then realised that he’d just killed his own son, you couldn’t help but be taken aback by it. Ra’s had always said that I was like the son he never had. Was that all lies created to make me a competitive challenger for his real son? Or was it all genuine?
It was arguably the first time since joining the League’s ranks that I began to question Ra’s and just what sort of a man he was. I’d idolised him. Hell I’d thought of him as a surrogate father. To know that he was so willing to withhold this information from me…..I couldn’t help but question everything. Did Talia know? Was that why Ra’s was so hesitant to train me personally?
Simply because I was intended to be a lamb to the slaughter for his own son?
”Bruce. I understand how this must look. But know this, after all that you’ve done. You, are my son. I’m honoured to be able to say such things.”
Still uncertain of what to make of the situation, I choose simply to agree and play the role of the devoted follower.
”I’m honoured that you’re pleased Great One.”
”Go forth Bruce. Prepare yourself. Your final trials await tomorrow. Complete them, and you shall claim your rightful place as heir to the demon.”
”What of him?”
I say nodding my head towards Dusan.
”He is weak. A failure. Like all those before him who have fallen, he fall victim to our key doctrine.”
”Purge the weak.”
Saying those words make me tremble, yet I don’t seem horrified that I just said them. What has me more horrified is to watch Ra’s kick up Dusan’s blade from the ground as he’s busy clutching his stab wound, unable to move. Is he really about to?
”Like all those who have come before you Dusan, claiming to be my own flesh and blood. You have disappointed me, and now you must pay for your false promises.”
”Father please no!”
”I am not your father! No child of mine could be so weak. Give yourself the honour of a warriors death, and stare me straight in the eye as you accept your fate.”
”PLEASE! FATHER! DON’T….DO THIS!”
Without saying a word, Ra’s slashes down and decapitates Dusan.
Neither Kirigi nor Vial say a word. Out of fear? Out of loyalty? It’s impossible to know. I think it’s out of disgust that I say nothing.
”Now go Bruce. Rest. Tomorrow you will fulfil your destiny and complete your ascension to be named my heir.”
”Yes, Great One.”
Tea represents the most refined expression of moroccan hospitality, it is often accompanied by moroccan pastry, known for its refinement and diversity.
Old Barn in
Shot with D200, +2, 00, -2, tone mapped in Artizen and finished in Photoshop. Poster Edge Finished Filter.
2017/12/09
Quoted from "https://awionline.org/content/fundamentals".
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The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports that in fiscal year 2010, there were 1,334,693 animals in research. This number included dogs, cats, nonhuman primates, guinea pigs, hamsters, rabbits, pigs and sheep. It does not include rats of the genus Rattus, mice of the genus Mus, or birds—despite the fact that these animals make up the overwhelming majority of animals in research.
Studies with animals include basic research such as genetics, developmental biology and behavioral work, as well as applied research such as biomedical research, xenotransplantation (the transplantation of living cells, tissues or organs from one species to another), and toxicology and drug testing. In addition to research and testing, education is conducted with animals.
Overall, while research with a few species such as hamsters and rabbits appears to be trending down, the number of species other than rats and mice in research is at a five-year high. The number of nonhuman primates in research has increased, as has research conducted with fish, particularly zebrafish.
The number of rats and mice in research is believed to be increasing dramatically—in large part due to studies involving genetic modification. Estimates regarding the number of rats, mice and birds in research range from 25 million to over 100 million. As these animals are excluded from protection under the Animal Welfare Act (AWA), there is no accounting to the USDA or any other federal agency of these millions of lives that are sacrificed for research, testing and teaching.
A tremendous number of rodents in research are the product of genetic engineering. Often the goal is to more closely mimic human diseases. There are welfare issues associated with breeding such animals (a large number of surplus animals are generated to achieve a small number with the desired genome), as well as issues encountered during the conduct of the research—as these animals have a strong potential for suffering and experience high premature death rates.
Most animals sold for research purposes are bred specifically for this purpose. Commercial breeders are licensed “Class A” by the USDA and required to meet minimum standards under the Animal Welfare Act (AWA). Other animals are wild-caught—among them birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians and some mammals as diverse as nonhuman primates, opossum, and deer mice. USDA-licensed “Class B” dealers also serve as middlemen, acquiring animals from other sources and then selling the animals to laboratories. Some dogs and cats are acquired directly from municipal pounds.
All animals in research should be treated as humanely as possible. Rats, mice and birds, in particular, deserve the legal protection afforded other species via the Animal Welfare Act. Researchers doing work with any animal species should use the “3R's” as their guiding principles: replacement (substitution with non-animal methods), reduction (methods of obtaining data using fewer animals), and refinement (methods that alleviate or minimize animal suffering and enhance animal welfare).
Photo credit: Chen, Ho-Wen, supported by Lin, Li-Yih Lab, the Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan, ROC
Bonhams : The Autumn Sale 2020
Estimated : € 90.000 - 130.000
Sold for € 92.000
Autoworld
Brussels - Belgium
September 2020
"For 1955, Jaguar present a range of models incorporating not only added refinements, but mechanical advances directly derived from their many outstanding successes in international competitive events. All the wealth of experience gained on the race-tracks of the world and in record-breaking speed and endurance tests is built into every Jaguar to provide for discriminating motorists the highest degree of efficient performance allied to comfort and safety." - Jaguar Cars Ltd.
Launched in 1954, the Jaguar XK140 was broadly similar to, though more refined than, its sensational XK120 predecessor, major engineering changes being confined to the repositioning of the engine 3" (76mm) further forward and the adoption of rack-and-pinion steering as used on the racing C-Type. The suspension and brakes remained much as before, though with stiffer torsion bars at the front and telescopic shock absorbers replacing the previous lever type at the rear. Like its forbear, the XK140 was built in three model types: roadster, coupé and drophead coupé, the latter two offering usefully increased cabin space and occasional rear seats. Outwardly the newcomer was distinguishable by its revised radiator grille, rear lights incorporating flashing indicators, and larger bumpers - the latter adopted to withstand the cut and thrust of urban parking.
The power unit remained Jaguar's well-tried, 3.4-litre, twin-cam six, which now produced 190bhp in standard trim thanks to higher-lift camshafts and revised porting. To ensure reliability, steel bearing-caps replaced the previous cast-iron type. A close-ratio gearbox enabled better use to be made of the increased performance while Laycock-de Normanville overdrive became an option for the first time. Special Equipment (SE) XK140s came with wire wheels and Lucas fog lamps and could be ordered with an engine developing 210bhp courtesy of the C-type cylinder head. XK140 performance was well up to the standards set by its exemplary predecessor, contemporary magazine road-tests regularly recording top speed figures in excess of 120mph. Tested by Road & Track magazine, a USA-specification XK140 MC (as the C-type head-equipped SE version was known there) recorded a 0-60mph time of 8.4 seconds on the way to a top speed of 121.1mph (195km/h).
According to its accompanying Jaguar Daimler Heritage Trust Certificate, this beautifully restored XK 140 SE Roadster left the factory on 23rd November 1956 and was despatched to Jaguar Cars, New York on 6th December of that same year. Importantly, this is a Special Equipment model with the C-type cylinder head. The certificate also confirms the matching-number engine ('G 9611-8S') and lists centre-lock wire wheels and twin fog lamps as items of original equipment. The original colour combination was black with matching interior.
The first owner is not known, but the car later spent time in Englewood, Colorado with another owner (from 1975 to 1994). In 1996 the Jaguar was imported into Italy where it is believed to have remained, awaiting restoration, for some 18 years. In 2014 the car was purchased by the current owner, who commissioned a comprehensive, frame-off, bare metal restoration, which was finished in 2018. Judging the original all-black colour combination to be too sombre for his taste, he opted for a contrasting magnolia leather interior, while the wire wheels were painted black to match the body. Most importantly, this car retains not only retains its original engine block but also its original cylinder head, which both correspond correctly to the numbers on the Heritage Certificate.
The XK is offered with the aforementioned Heritage Certificate; photocopy of old US title; EU customs documentation; a German TüV certificate issued April 2019, classifying the car as sound; and German registration documents. Full weather equipment as well as sundry photographs documenting the restoration are present also. An unmissable opportunity to purchase a beautifully restored XK 140 SE Roadster that ticks all the boxes.
Though the Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau had put the excellent MiG-15 fighter in production, giving the Soviet Union one of the best fighters of the early 1950s, MiG felt it could further improve on the design. The MiG-15 had shown itself to be unstable as it neared the speed of sound, and it was anticipated that further refinement could be done to the aircraft. As a result, MiG OKB began work on an improved MiG-15, referred to as the MiG-15-45 because of its primary characteristic, an improved swept wing. This new wing was thinner than that on the MiG-15, included wing fences for improved aerodynamics, and was swept at 45 degrees near the wingroot and to a slightly lesser degree at the wingtip, giving the new variant a distinctive “banana-wing” shape. The fuselage was extended to incorporate an afterburner on the VK-1F turbojet, while a small ventral fin was added beneath the tail to further improve stability. While the MiG-17 could not quite break the sound barrier, it was very stable in most respects and kept the heavy armament and good all-around visibility of the MiG-15. The design changes were enough to warrant a new designation, so it became the MiG-17.
The first MiG-17 flew in January 1950, and despite the loss of the prototype to a fatal crash, low-level production soon began—low-level due to the urgent need for MiG-15s to fight in the Korean War. Not until after the war had ended did full-scale production begin on the MiG-17. By then, it was considered somewhat obsolescent: the supersonic MiG-19 was placed in production alongside the MiG-17, while work had begun on the MiG-21. Nonetheless, it was kept in production for the rest of the decade as the MiG-19 proved to be a bit of a disappointment. It was dubbed “Fresco” by NATO. Attempts were made to build all-weather versions of the MiG-17 with mixed results; the all-missile MiG-17PM was reviled by its pilots due to a poor radar and worse missiles. The most common version was the day fighter MiG-17F.
The MiG-17’s combat debut was not auspicious, seeing action in the 1956 Suez War and the 1958 Quemoy Crisis. In the former, Egypt’s few MiG-17s were outnumbered and outflown by French and Israeli Mystere IV and Super Mystere fighters, while over the Taiwan Straits, People’s Republic of China MiG-17s were ambushed by Republic of China F-86Fs equipped with Sidewinder missiles. By 1960, production had ended, and the Soviet Union sold off most of its stock to client states, reequipping with more modern MiG-21s.
In 1962, the Soviet Union supplied the nascent North Vietnamese People’s Air Force with 36 MiG-17Fs as the nucleus of a new air force, and to offset the American-supplied Thai and South Vietnamese air forces. By 1965, when Operation Rolling Thunder began, these aircraft were sent against US Air Force and Navy fighters attacking the Thanh Hoa bridge. The MiG-17 would remain the primary VPAF aircraft throughout Rolling Thunder, though it was gradually supplemented by the MiG-21. Since the MiG-17 was subsonic and lacked radar, it depended on ground radar to guide the pilot to the target, but once in a dogfight, the small, very maneuverable, cannon-armed MiG had a definite advantage over American aircraft; only the F-8 Crusader came remotely close to matching it. A favorite tactic of MiG-17 pilots was to hide “in the grass” at low level and pick off any unwary American pilot, or attack during a bomb run when their opponents were at their weakest. It came as a rude surprise to American pilots that semi-obsolete aircraft were still capable of destroying the latest word in military equipment, and it pointed up the deficiencies in American air combat training.
MiG-17s accounted for about 50 USAF and Navy aircraft during Rolling Thunder, enough that when the Top Gun program was formed in 1969, A-4 Skyhawks were assigned specifically to simulate them. This was also secretly supplemented by two ex-Syrian MiG-17Fs captured by Israel in 1968 and given to the United States under Project Have Drill. One deficiency that was found in the MiG-17 was that, at high speeds and low altitudes, compressibility would set in and the aircraft became unresponsive. These lessons were put to good use when American strikes resumed in 1972. By this time, the VPAF had largely withdrawn its MiG-17s to training units, preferring the more modern MiG-19 and MiG-21. While the MiG-17 did account for a few more kills, they mostly ended up being shot down by better trained US Navy pilots and USAF F-4E pilots, who now had internal guns themselves.
After Vietnam, the MiG-17 had outlived its usefulness, and though it would see limited service in African brushfire wars and in the Yom Kippur War of 1973, what few air forces retained them relegated them to second-line and training units. A few persisted in the Albanian and North Korean air forces until 2000. 10,603 MiG-17s were built by the Soviet Union, Poland, and China, serving in 40 air forces; today, several hundred still remain in museums and in flyable condition, including 27 in the United States alone.
This MiG-17F is actually a Lim-6R, built under license by PZL of Poland. Since the Polish Air Force optimized their MiG-17s as attack aircraft, the Lim-6 was significantly different from the standard fighter MiG-17F, with thicker wings for more fuel tanks and a dragchute housing under the tail to slow the MiG's high landing speed. Two hardpoints were added under the wings for bombs or rocket pods, and on the 6R variant, a reconnaissance camera was carried on the underside of the fuselage. Bort 413 soldiered on from the mid-1960s to the end of the Cold War, when it was retired. It was acquired by an American collector and based at the Danbury Airport in Connecticut until 2010, when it was bought by the Inde Motorsports Ranch in Willcox, Arizona.
Today, Bort 413 is displayed in overall light gray with Soviet markings; the gray finish is much easier to maintain than the more accurate bare metal. It is equipped with two UVB rocket pods.
The Taj Mahal (/ˌtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl/, more often /ˈtɑːʒ/; from Persian and Arabic, "crown of palaces", pronounced [ˈt̪aːdʒ mɛˈɦɛl]) is a white marble mausoleum located on the southern bank of Yamuna River in the Indian city of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) to house the tomb of his favorite wife of three, Mumtaz Mahal.
Construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643 but work continued on other phases of the project for an additional ten years. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around 32 million Indian rupees, which in 2015 would be valued at around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US). The construction project employed around 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. The domed marble tomb is part of an integrated complex consisting of gardens and two red-sandstone buildings surrounded by a crenellated wall on three sides.
The Taj Mahal is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture and is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India". It is one of the world’s most celebrated structures and a symbol of India’s rich history. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983, the Taj Mahal attracts some 3 million visitors a year.
INSPIRATION
In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his favorite of three wives and beloved companion, Mumtaz Mahal, a Persian princess, died during the birth of their 14th child, Gauhara Begum. Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632. The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1643 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished about five years later.
ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN
The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones. Buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.
TOMB
The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. It is a large, white marble structure standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.
The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an unequal eight-sided structure that is approximately 55 metres on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted archway with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.
The most spectacular feature is the marble dome that surmounts the tomb. The dome is nearly 35 metres high which is close in measurement to the length of the base, and accentuated by the cylindrical "drum" it sits on which is approximately 7 metres high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a lotus design which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasized by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements.
The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward.
The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets - a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that in the event of collapse, a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period, the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.
EXTERIOR DECORATIONS
The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture. As the surface area changes, the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs. Throughout the complex are passages from the Qur'an that comprise some of the decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan.
The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you." The calligraphy was created in 1609 by a calligrapher named Abdul Haq. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity". Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi." Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script made of jasper or black marble inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.
Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting color which creates a complex array of geometric patterns. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.
On the lower walls of the tomb are white marble dados sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings. The dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls.
INTERIOR DECORATION
The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal reaches far beyond traditional decorative elements. The inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is used. The interior walls are about 25 metres high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners. The octagonal marble screen or jali bordering the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces are inlaid in delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers. Each chamber wall is highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels which reflect, in miniature detail, the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.
Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right, towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 by 2.5 metres. Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side, and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base precisely decorated with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of the casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box.
The pen box and writing tablet are traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal. Other inscriptions inside the crypt include, "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He travelled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri."
GARDEN
The complex is set around a large 300-metre square charbagh or Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. Halfway between the tomb and gateway in the center of the garden is a raised marble water tank with a reflecting pool positioned on a north-south axis to reflect the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.
Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains. The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by Babur, the first Mughal emperor. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.
Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise. Similarities in layout and architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggests both gardens may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan. Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees. As the Mughal Empire declined, the Taj Mahal and its gardens also declined. By the end of the 19th century, the British Empire controlled more than three-fifths of India, and assumed management of the Taj Mahal. They changed the landscaping to their liking which more closely resembled the formal lawns of London.
OUTLYING BUILDINGS
The Taj Mahal complex is bordered on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls; the side facing the river is open. Outside the walls are several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant.
The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble, and reminiscent of the Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs like those found in the other sandstone buildings in the complex.
At the far end of the complex are two grand red sandstone buildings that mirror each other, and face the sides of the tomb. The backs of the buildings parallel the western and eastern walls. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), thought to have been constructed for architectural balance although it may have been used as a guesthouse. Distinctions between the two buildings include the jawab's lack of a mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca), and its floors of geometric design whereas the floor of the mosque is laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly the Masjid-i Jahān-Numā, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas comprising a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an expansive vaulting dome. The outlying buildings were completed in 1643.
CONSTRUCTION
The Taj Mahal is built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the center of Agra in exchange for the land. An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and leveled at 50 metres above riverbank. In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle.
The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. It is believed over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.
According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen kilometer tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.
The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". Construction of the mausoleum itself was essentially completed by 1643 while work continued on the outlying buildings. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Indian rupees, which is around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US) based on 2015 values.
LATER DAYS
Abdul Hamid Lahauri in his book Badshahnama refers to Taj Mahal as rauza-i munawwara, meaning the illumined or illustrious tomb. Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife. In the 18th century, the Jat rulers of Bharatpur invaded Agra and attacked the Taj Mahal, the two chandeliers, one of agate and another of silver, which were hung over the main cenotaph, were taken away by them, along with the gold and silver screen. Kanbo, a Mughal historian, said the gold shield which covered the 15-foot high finial at the top of the main dome was also removed during the Jat despoliation.
By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.
THREATS
In 1942, the government erected a scaffolding to disguise the building in anticipation of air attacks by the Japanese Air Force. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffoldings were again erected to mislead bomber pilots.
More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on the banks of Yamuna River including acid rain due to the Mathura Oil Refinery, which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives. The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ), a 10,400-square-kilometre area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place.
Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the groundwater level in the Yamuna river basin which is falling at a rate of around 5 feet a year. In 2010, cracks appeared in parts of the tomb, and the minarets which surround the monument were showing signs of tilting, as the wooden foundation of the tomb may be rotting due to lack of water. In 2011 it was reported that some predictions indicated that the tomb could collapse within 5 years.
TOURISM
The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more than 2 million visitors in 2001, which increased to about 3 million in 2015. A two tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and a more expensive one for foreigners. Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor center.
The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was originally constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workmen. Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll with 100 million votes.
The grounds are open from 06:00 to 19:00 weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12:00 and 14:00. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after, excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan. For security reasons only five items - water in transparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses - are allowed inside the Taj Mahal.
MYTHS
Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument. A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble as a Black Taj Mahal across the Yamuna river. The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black. A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Moonlight Garden. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.
No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. Similar claims are made for many famous buildings. No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort.
Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.
In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. In 2005 a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher who says that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu King Parmar Dev in 1196.
WIKIPEDIA
We gussied up this small chandelier by adding the refinements of the circle at the top on the ceiling, and the cute cream on white lamp shades, with the large leaded crystal underneath to lend a bit of extra sparkle to the small dinning room. Turned it from pleasant to very nice classic to match and enhance the style of the drapes and other decor. Plastic ceiling medallan thingie $6, shades $5 each, crystal $15, and the lamp itself was $66.
Bonhams : the Zoute Sale
Estimated : € 70.000 - 90.000
Sold for € 55.200
Zoute Grand Prix 2018
Knokke - Zoute
België - Belgium
October 2018
'There are few who would argue - we included - that the 500 SL is one of the world's finest luxury sports cars; beautifully styled and superbly engineered. Its engine an automatic transmission set extremely high standards in terms of smoothness and refinement while in most conditions its handling and roadholding are of the highest order.' - Motor.
Introduced alongside the outwardly similar 380 SL roadster and SLC coupé models at the Geneva Salon in March 1980, the 500 SL and 500 SLC retained the Type 107 bodyshell first introduced in 1971/72 in virtually unchanged form, the most noticeable difference being the addition of a front spoiler. Built on a longer wheelbase, the coupé models accommodated two rear seat passengers and provided greater boot space than their open-topped siblings. The running gear followed Mercedes-Benz's established pattern, comprising all-independent suspension and four-wheel disc brakes, while a new four-speed automatic transmission was standard equipment.
The 500 SL and 500 SLC featured the all-alloy 4,973cc overhead-camshaft V8 engine that had debuted in the 450 SLC 5.0 of 1977. Lighter, more powerful and less thirsty than the old 4.5-litre iron-block V8, the 5.0-litre produced 240bhp at 5,000rpm, an output sufficient to propel the luxuriously equipped yet lightweight 500 SL/SLC to 225km/h. With approximately the same amount of power on tap as the legendary 300 SL sports car, the 500 SL/SLC was both lighter and slightly quicker off the mark, though a little down on top speed when compared to its illustrious cousin.
Although shorter in the wheelbase than the superseded 450, the newcomers retained their predecessors' successful and long-established body style, which now featured aerodynamic spoilers at front and rear. The running gear too remained unchanged in essence, though improvements were made to the all-independent suspension and to the brakes, which gained larger pads and anti-lock as an option. As on the smaller models, four-speed automatic transmission was standard. The previous auto 'box had disappointed some, but Motor magazine found the new version 'equal in the smoothness of its changes to anything achieved by Rolls-Royce or Chrysler in America'. Depending on the destination market, the inventory of standard equipment included central locking, electric windows, cruise control, headlamp wash/wipe, power steering, a limited-slip differential, and alloy wheels. The 500 SL/SLC was not officially sold in the USA, though that did not stop would-be owners importing them privately. In 1989, after 17 years in production, the elegant Type 107 family was retired to the enduring regret of many Mercedes-Benz enthusiasts.
Presented in outstandingly original condition – down to the smallest detail - this 107-series Mercedes-Benz 500 SL retains matching numbers and matching colours, and has the very desirable factory-optional rear seat (code 565). The car was registered in Berlin in January 1989 by its first owner, and remained in Berlin until 1990 when it travelled to Monaco, staying there for 27 years. It is currently in the hands of its third owner, who purchased the car in 2017, and has covered only 25,710 kilometres from new, as verified by the accompanying service records. Services have been carried out as follows:
- 1,132 km: 16/5/89
- 6,173 km: 4/3/92
- 7,506 km: 26/7/93
- 10,556 km: 5/2/97
- 16,745 km: 28/1/03
- 17,855 km: 11/2/05
- 17,855 km: 23/6/06
- 21,307 km: 7/4/09
- 23,424 km: 30/5/12
- 24,516 km: 8/6/15
- 24,642 km: 8/9/15
- 25,300 km: 19/4/17
This beautiful 500 SL has retained its full documentation: the sales brochure; original upholstery brochure; original datacard; user handbook, original service handbook; and other Mercedes-Benz paperwork. It also has its three keys and its full and original tool kit. Factory options include a hardtop in body colour with heated rear screen; front heated seats; graduated tinted windscreen; alloy wheels; air conditioning; central locking; electric windows; and the aforementioned rear seats (full specification listing available). It also comes with the fully lined factory hardtop that makes this SL usable no matter what the weather.
Recent maintenance has included new suspension silent block buses, cradles, and tie rods; brake pads; tyres (x4); cylinder head gaskets; ancillary drive belts; distributor cap; battery; air conditioning recharge; and airbag diagnosis (OK). This car also benefits from a transferable warranty (parts and labour, valid until February 2019) issued by a Mercedes-Benz Classic dealer located in Paris. Finished in its original colour combination of Arctic White with blue leather interior, this beautiful 500 SL is worthy of the closest inspection.
For anyone who lived in the 1960's and 70's, Omar Sharif was a household name. The handsome Egyptian brought an intelligent refinement to the ladies' man characters he often played on the big screen.
Sharif was probably the best known for his performance in "Dr. Zhivago", which was where his tender intellectualism shone. Sharif later said that he thought of his character in the movie as "perfect" and found no fault in him.
An avid bridge player, Sharif had a syndicated column in newspapers, where he demonstrated a mastery of the game.
Omar Sharif died in 2015 of a heart attack, but his movies live on.
This shot was taken off the television screen, and is from the movie, "Funny Girl", in which he played opposite the legendary, Barbara Streisand.
Bonhams : the Zoute Sale
Estimated : € 70.000 - 90.000
Sold for € 55.200
Zoute Grand Prix 2018
Knokke - Zoute
België - Belgium
October 2018
'There are few who would argue - we included - that the 500 SL is one of the world's finest luxury sports cars; beautifully styled and superbly engineered. Its engine an automatic transmission set extremely high standards in terms of smoothness and refinement while in most conditions its handling and roadholding are of the highest order.' - Motor.
Introduced alongside the outwardly similar 380 SL roadster and SLC coupé models at the Geneva Salon in March 1980, the 500 SL and 500 SLC retained the Type 107 bodyshell first introduced in 1971/72 in virtually unchanged form, the most noticeable difference being the addition of a front spoiler. Built on a longer wheelbase, the coupé models accommodated two rear seat passengers and provided greater boot space than their open-topped siblings. The running gear followed Mercedes-Benz's established pattern, comprising all-independent suspension and four-wheel disc brakes, while a new four-speed automatic transmission was standard equipment.
The 500 SL and 500 SLC featured the all-alloy 4,973cc overhead-camshaft V8 engine that had debuted in the 450 SLC 5.0 of 1977. Lighter, more powerful and less thirsty than the old 4.5-litre iron-block V8, the 5.0-litre produced 240bhp at 5,000rpm, an output sufficient to propel the luxuriously equipped yet lightweight 500 SL/SLC to 225km/h. With approximately the same amount of power on tap as the legendary 300 SL sports car, the 500 SL/SLC was both lighter and slightly quicker off the mark, though a little down on top speed when compared to its illustrious cousin.
Although shorter in the wheelbase than the superseded 450, the newcomers retained their predecessors' successful and long-established body style, which now featured aerodynamic spoilers at front and rear. The running gear too remained unchanged in essence, though improvements were made to the all-independent suspension and to the brakes, which gained larger pads and anti-lock as an option. As on the smaller models, four-speed automatic transmission was standard. The previous auto 'box had disappointed some, but Motor magazine found the new version 'equal in the smoothness of its changes to anything achieved by Rolls-Royce or Chrysler in America'. Depending on the destination market, the inventory of standard equipment included central locking, electric windows, cruise control, headlamp wash/wipe, power steering, a limited-slip differential, and alloy wheels. The 500 SL/SLC was not officially sold in the USA, though that did not stop would-be owners importing them privately. In 1989, after 17 years in production, the elegant Type 107 family was retired to the enduring regret of many Mercedes-Benz enthusiasts.
Presented in outstandingly original condition – down to the smallest detail - this 107-series Mercedes-Benz 500 SL retains matching numbers and matching colours, and has the very desirable factory-optional rear seat (code 565). The car was registered in Berlin in January 1989 by its first owner, and remained in Berlin until 1990 when it travelled to Monaco, staying there for 27 years. It is currently in the hands of its third owner, who purchased the car in 2017, and has covered only 25,710 kilometres from new, as verified by the accompanying service records. Services have been carried out as follows:
- 1,132 km: 16/5/89
- 6,173 km: 4/3/92
- 7,506 km: 26/7/93
- 10,556 km: 5/2/97
- 16,745 km: 28/1/03
- 17,855 km: 11/2/05
- 17,855 km: 23/6/06
- 21,307 km: 7/4/09
- 23,424 km: 30/5/12
- 24,516 km: 8/6/15
- 24,642 km: 8/9/15
- 25,300 km: 19/4/17
This beautiful 500 SL has retained its full documentation: the sales brochure; original upholstery brochure; original datacard; user handbook, original service handbook; and other Mercedes-Benz paperwork. It also has its three keys and its full and original tool kit. Factory options include a hardtop in body colour with heated rear screen; front heated seats; graduated tinted windscreen; alloy wheels; air conditioning; central locking; electric windows; and the aforementioned rear seats (full specification listing available). It also comes with the fully lined factory hardtop that makes this SL usable no matter what the weather.
Recent maintenance has included new suspension silent block buses, cradles, and tie rods; brake pads; tyres (x4); cylinder head gaskets; ancillary drive belts; distributor cap; battery; air conditioning recharge; and airbag diagnosis (OK). This car also benefits from a transferable warranty (parts and labour, valid until February 2019) issued by a Mercedes-Benz Classic dealer located in Paris. Finished in its original colour combination of Arctic White with blue leather interior, this beautiful 500 SL is worthy of the closest inspection.
One of the most famous and most popular Porsche's of all time, mixing a sublime design with incredible power, but have been known for their temperamental nature.
Originally, the 928 was intended to replace the Porsche 911, combining the power, poise, and handling of a sports car with the refinement, comfort, and equipment of a luxury sedan to create what some Porsche executives thought would be a vehicle with wider appeal than the compact, quirky and sometimes difficult 911.
Development of the 928 began in the late 1960's, when the company intended to change the direction of the company more towards the luxury tourer market. Managing Director Ernst Fuhrmann was also a major driving force behind the inception of this car as the flagship 911 was starting to lose it's edge, with a slump in sales damaging the company's profits. Fuhrmann envisioned the new range-topping model as being the best possible combination of a sports coupé and a luxury sedan, something well equipped and comfortable enough to be easily driven over long distances that also had the power, poise and handling prowess necessary to be driven like a sports car. This set it apart from the 911, which was intended to be an out-and-out sports car.
Ordered by Ferdinand Porsche to come up with a production-feasible concept for his new model, Fuhrmann initiated a design study in 1971, eventually taking from the process the final specification for the 928. Several drivetrain layouts were considered during early development, including rear and mid-engined designs. After deciding that the mid-engine layout didn't allow enough room in the passenger compartment, a front engine/rear wheel drive layout was chosen.
Porsche engineers wanted a large-displacement engine to power the 928, and prototype units were built with a 5.0L V8 producing close to 300hp. Ferdinand Piëch wanted this car to use a 4.6L V10 with 88mm bore spacing based upon Audi's five-cylinder engine. The five-cylinder unit is a derivative of the Volkswagen Golf EA827 engine, essentially an inline-four with another cylinder added. Several members of the Porsche board objected, chiefly because they wished for Porsche AG to maintain some separation from Volkswagen.
The first two running prototypes of Porsche's M28 V8 used one four-barrel carburettor, but this was just for initial testing. The cars were sold with the planned Bosch K-Jetronic fuel injection system. When increasing concern within the company over the pricing and availability of fuel during the oil crisis of the 1970s became an issue of contention, smaller engines were considered in the interest of fuel economy. A push began for the development of a 3.3L 180hp powerplant they had drawn up designs for, but company engineers balked at this suggestion. Both sides finally settled on a 4.5L, SOHC per bank 16-valve V8 producing 240hp, which they considered to have an acceptable compromise of performance and fuel economy.
The 928 made it's début at the 1977 Geneva Motor Show before going on sale later that year as a 1978 model. Although it won early acclaim for its comfort and power, sales were slow. Base prices were much higher than that of the previous rangetopping 911 model and the 928's front-engined, water-cooled design put off many Porsche purists.
During its construction life, the 928 went through several variations. The first, the 928S, entered sales in 1980, sporting new front and rear spoilers and sported wider wheels and tires than the older variant, but 928 was fitted with a revised 4.7L engine.
Another was the 928 S4 variant, which debuted in mid-1986, being fitted with an updated 5.0L V8 producing 316hp. The S4 and GT variants were both cut at the end of 1991 model year, making way for the final version of the 928. The 928 GTS, launched in 1991, was fitted with a 5.4L, giving 345hp. Loaded GTS models could eclipse $100,000 in 1995, making them among the most expensive cars on the road at the time. This severely hampered sales despite the model's high competency and long standard equipment list. Porsche discontinued the GTS model that year after shipping only 77 of them to the United States.
By the early 1990's though the 928 was starting to look and feel its age, and thus Porsche began considerations for its replacement. In 1991 the lower market 944 was replaced by the 968, a car that combined both the finesse styling of the 928 and 944 to create a sublime but sadly underselling sports car. By 1995 though the jig was up for both cars, their design's looking very 70's, and more of the company's desires being placed into the Boxster and updated versions of the 911. The last of the 928's and 968's left the production line in 1995, with just over 61,000 cars being built.
Today 928's are quite rare cars and hold a very high value due to their incredible engineering quality. However, the car's are known for their temperamental nature, with early ones being quite unreliable and often being sold as spares. Other than that though, the 928's have quite a cult following, but are a point of contention for a lot of Porsche purists who consider the 911 the top of the company's game.
Refinement of my third draft of PennLUG's new downtown layout. See original proposal here.
www.flickr.com/photos/steampoweredbricks/14845893321/
Updates from version 3.
www.flickr.com/photos/steampoweredbricks/14714890747/
Everything has pretty much remained the same from the original third draft with the exception of the trolley car barn area. I added a small electrical substation and a misc. building to the top of the area to fill in space. I think I'm mostly happy with the car barn area now. The trolley stop at the other end of the line has not been finalized yet.
Mosaic from the Old St. Peter in Rome. P. 109 in: Die Katharer - Ketzer des Mittelalters. Malcolm BARBER (2003/2008). The Cathars. Dualist heretics in Languedoc in the High Middle Ages.
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Pope Innocent III (Latin: Innocentius III; 1160 or 1161 – 16 July 1216), born Lotario dei Conti di Segni (anglicized as Lothar of Segni) reigned from 8 January 1198 to his death in 1216.
Pope Innocent was one of the most powerful and influential of the medieval popes. He exerted a wide influence over the Christian states of Europe, claiming supremacy over all of Europe's kings. He was central in supporting the Catholic Church's reforms of ecclesiastical affairs through his decretals and the Fourth Lateran Council. This resulted in a considerable refinement of Western canon law. He is furthermore notable for using interdict and other censures to compel princes to obey his decisions, although these measures were not uniformly successful.
Innocent greatly extended the scope of the crusades, directing crusades against Muslim Spain and the Holy Land as well as the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars in southern France. He organized the Fourth Crusade of 1202–1204, which ended in the disastrous sack of Constantinople. Although the attack on Constantinople went against his explicit orders, and the Crusaders were subsequently excommunicated, Innocent reluctantly accepted this result, seeing it as the will of God to reunite the Latin and Orthodox Churches.
In the event, the sack of Constantinople and the subsequent period of Frankokratia led to an increase in the hostility between the Latin and Greek churches. The Byzantine empire was restored in 1261 but it never regained its former strength until its final destruction in 1453.
Lotario de' Conti was born in Gavignano, Italy, near Anagni. His father was Count Trasimund of Segni and was a member of a famous house, Conti di Segni (Earl of Segni), which produced nine popes, including Gregory IX, Alexander IV and Innocent XIII. Lotario was the nephew of Pope Clement III; his mother, Claricia Scotti (Romani de Scotti), was from the same noble Roman family.
Lotario received his early education in Rome, probably at the Benedictine abbey of St Andrea al Celio, under Peter Ismael; he studied theology in Paris under the theologians Peter of Poitiers, Melior of Pisa, and Peter of Corbeil, and (possibly) jurisprudence in Bologna, according to the Gesta (between 1187 and 1189). As Pope, Lotario was to play a major role in the shaping of canon law through conciliar canons and decretal letters.
Shortly after the death of Alexander III (30 August 1181) Lotario returned to Rome and held various ecclesiastical offices during the short reigns of Lucius III, Urban III, Gregory VIII, and Clement III, reaching the rank of Cardinal-Deacon in 1190.
As a cardinal, Lotario wrote De miseria humanae conditionis (On the Misery of the Human Condition). The work was very popular for centuries, surviving in more than 700 manuscripts. Although he never returned to the complementary work he intended to write, On the Dignity of Human Nature, Bartolomeo Facio (1400–1457) took up the task writing De excellentia ac praestantia hominis.
Celestine III died on 8 January 1198. Before his death he had urged the College of Cardinals to elect Giovanni di San Paolo as his successor, but Lotario de' Conti was elected pope in the ruins of the ancient Septizodium, near the Circus Maximus in Rome after only two ballots on the very day on which Celestine III died. He was only thirty-seven years old at the time. He took the name Innocent III, maybe as a reference to his predecessor Innocent II (1130–1143), who had succeeded in asserting the Papacy's authority over the emperor (in contrast with Celestine III's recent policy).
As pope, Innocent III began with a very wide sense of his responsibility and of his authority. During the reign of Pope Innocent III, the papacy was at the height of its powers. He was considered to be the most powerful person in Europe at the time. In 1198, Innocent wrote to the prefect Acerbius and the nobles of Tuscany expressing his support of the medieval political theory of the sun and the moon. His papacy asserted the absolute spiritual authority of his office, while still respecting the temporal authority of kings.
The Muslim recapture of Jerusalem in 1187 was to him a divine judgment on the moral lapses of Christian princes. He was also determined to protect what he called "the liberty of the Church" from inroads by secular princes. This determination meant, among other things, that princes should not be involved in the selection of bishops, and it was focused especially on the "patrimonium" of the papacy, the section of central Italy claimed by the popes and later called the Papal States. The patrimonium was routinely threatened by Hohenstaufen German kings who, as Roman emperors, claimed it for themselves. The Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI expected to be succeeded by his infant son Frederick as king of Sicily, king of the Germans, and Roman Emperor, a combination that would have brought Germany, Italy, and Sicily under a single ruler and left the patrimonium exceedingly vulnerable.[2]
The early death of Henry VI left his 3-year-old son Frederick II as king. Henry VI's widow Constance of Sicily ruled over Sicily for her young son before he reached the age of majority. She was as eager to remove German power from the kingdom of Sicily as was Innocent III. Before her death in 1198, she named Innocent as guardian of the young Frederick until he reached his maturity. In exchange, Innocent was also able to recover papal rights in Sicily that had been surrendered decades earlier to King William I of Sicily by Pope Adrian IV. The Pope invested the young Frederick II as King of Sicily in November 1198. He also later induced Frederick II to marry the widow of King Emeric of Hungary in 1209.[2]
Painting of the coat of arms of Pope Innocent III, in the "Palazzo del Commendatore", part of the Hospital of the Holy Spirit in Sassia, Rome.
Involvement in Imperial elections
Innocent was concerned that the marriage of Henry VI and Constance of Sicily gave the Hohenstaufens a claim to all the Italian peninsula with the exception of the Papal States, which would be surrounded by Imperial territory.[14]
After the death of Emperor Henry VI, who had recently also conquered the Kingdom of Sicily, the succession became disputed: as Henry's son Frederick was still a small child, the partisans of the Staufen dynasty elected Henry's brother, Philip, Duke of Swabia, king in March 1198, whereas the princes opposed to the Staufen dynasty elected Otto, Duke of Brunswick, of the House of Welf. King Philip II of France supported Philip's claim, whereas King Richard I of England supported his nephew Otto.[15]
In 1201, the pope openly espoused the side of Otto IV, whose family had always been opposed to the house of Hohenstaufen.[16]
It is the business of the pope to look after the interests of the Roman empire, since the empire derives its origin and its final authority from the papacy; its origin, because it was originally transferred from Greece by and for the sake of the papacy...its final authority, because the emperor is raised to his position by the pope who blesses him, crowns him and invests him with the empire....Therefore, since three persons have lately been elected king by different parties, namely the youth [Frederick, son of Henry VI], Philip [of Hohenstaufen, brother of Henry VI], and Otto [of Brunswick, of the Welf family], so also three things must be taken into account in regard to each one, namely: the legality, the suitability and the expediency of his election......Far be it from us that we should defer to man rather than to God, or that we should fear the countenance of the powerful....On the foregoing grounds, then, we decide that the youth should not at present be given the empire; we utterly reject Philip for his manifest unfitness and we order his usurpation to be resisted by all....since Otto is not only himself devoted to the church, but comes from devout ancestors on both sides.....therefore we decree that he ought to be accepted and supported as king, and ought to be given the crown of empire, after the rights of the Roman church have been secured."Papal Decree on the choice of a German King, 1201" [17]
The confusion in the Empire allowed Innocent to drive out the imperial feudal lords from Ancona, Spoleto and Perugia, who had been installed by Emperor Henry VI.[18] On 3 July 1201, the papal legate, Cardinal-Bishop Guido of Palestrina announced to the people, in the cathedral of Cologne, that Otto IV had been approved by the pope as Roman king and threatened with excommunication all those who refused to acknowledge him. At the same time, Innocent encouraged the cities in Tuscany to form a league, called the League of San Genesio against German imperial interests in Italy, and they placed themselves under Innocent's protection.[18]
In May 1202, Innocent issued the decree "Venerabilem", addressed to the Duke of Zähringen, in which he explained his thinking on the relation between the papacy and the Empire. This decree was afterwards embodied in the "Corpus Juris Canonici", contained the following items:
The German princes have the right to elect the king, who is afterwards to become emperor. This right was given them by the Apostolic See when it transferred the imperial dignity from the Greeks to the Germans in the person of Charlemagne.
The right to investigate and decide whether a king thus elected is worthy of the imperial dignity belongs to the pope, whose office it is to anoint, consecrate, and crown him; otherwise it might happen that the pope would be obliged to anoint, consecrate, and Crown a king who was excommunicated, a heretic, or a pagan.
If the pope finds that the king who has been elected by the princes is unworthy of the imperial dignity, the princes must elect a new king or, if they refuse, the pope will confer the imperial dignity upon another king; for the Church stands in need of a patron and defender.
In case of a double election the pope must exhort the princes to come to an agreement. If after a due interval they have not reached an agreement they must ask the pope to arbitrate, failing which, he must of his own accord and by virtue of his office decide in favour of one of the claimants. The pope's decision need not be based on the greater or less legality of either election, but on the qualifications of the claimants.[2]
Despite papal support, Otto could not oust his rival Philip until the latter was murdered in a private feud. His rule now undisputed, Otto reneged on his earlier promises and now set his sights on reestablishing Imperial power in Italy and claiming even the Kingdom of Sicily. Given the papal interest to keep Germany and Sicily apart, Innocent now supported his ward, King Frederick of Sicily, to resist Otto's advances and restore the Staufen dynasty to the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick was duly elected by the Staufen partisans.[19]
The conflict was decided by the Battle of Bouvines on 27 July 1214, which pitted Otto, allied to King John of England against Philip II Augustus. Otto was defeated by the French and thereafter lost all influence. He died on 19 May 1218, leaving Frederick II the undisputed emperor. Meanwhile, King John was forced to acknowledge the Pope as his feudal lord and accept Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury.[20]
John of England signs Magna Carta. Illustration from Cassell's History of England (1902).
Feudal power over Europe
Innocent III played further roles in the politics of Norway,[21] France, Sweden, Bulgaria, Spain and England.[20] At the request of England's King John, Pope Innocent III declared the Magna Carta annulled, resulting in a rebellion by the English Barons who did not accept this action.[22]
Crusades and suppression of heresy
Innocent launched the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars.
Innocent III was a vigorous opponent of religious dissent, perceived as heresy, and undertook campaigns against it. At the beginning of his pontificate, he focused on the Albigenses, also known as the Cathars, a sect that had become widespread in southwestern France, then under the control of local princes, such as the Counts of Toulouse. The Cathars rejected the authority and the teachings of the Catholic Church, and what they viewed in it as corrupt.[23] In 1198, Innocent III dispatched a monk named Rainier to visit France with the power to excommunicate heretics, and orders to local temporal authorities to confiscate the lands of heretics or to "as became Christians to deal with them more severely."[24]
The murder of Pierre de Castelnau – Innocent's legate – in 1208, by unknown assailants commonly believed to be friends of Count Raymond of Toulouse (who was not a Cathar), caused Innocent to change his methods from words to weapons. Innocent called upon King Philip II Augustus of France to suppress the Albigenses. The Crusade was prosecuted primarily by the French crown and promptly took on a political flavor, resulting in not only a significant reduction in the number of practicing Cathars, but also a realignment of the County of Toulouse in Languedoc, bringing it into the sphere of the French crown and diminishing the distinct regional culture and high level of influence of the Counts of Barcelona. Under the leadership of Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, a campaign was launched. The Albigensian Crusade, which led to the slaughter of approximately 20,000[25] men, women and children, Cathar and Catholic alike[25] and brought the region firmly under the control of the king of France. It was directed not only against heretical Christians, but also the nobility of Toulouse and vassals of the Crown of Aragon. King Peter II of Aragon was directly involved in the conflict, and was killed in the course of the Battle of Muret in 1213. The conflict largely ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1229, in which the integration of the Occitan territory in the French crown was agreed upon.
Burning of the Waldensians. Toulouse in the 13th century.
Pope Innocent III spent a majority of his tenure as Pope (1198–1216) preparing for a great crusade on the Holy Land. His first attempt was the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) which he decreed in 1198.[26][27] Unlike past popes, Innocent III displayed interest in leading the crusade himself, rather than simply instigating it and allowing secular leaders to organize the expedition according to their own aspirations.[25]
Innocent III's first order of business in preaching the crusade was to send missionaries to every Catholic state to endorse the campaign. Innocent III sent Peter of Capua to the kings France and England with specific instructions to convince them to settle their differences. As a result, in 1199, Innocent was successful in forging a truce of five years between the two nations. The intent of the truce between the kings was not to allow them to lead the crusade, but rather to improve the likelihood that they would provide assistance. For the army's leadership, Innocent aimed his pleas at the knights and nobles of Europe.[25] The pleadings were successful in France, where many lords answered the pope's call, including the army's two eventual leaders, Theobald of Champagne and Boniface, marquis of Montferrat. Innocent III's calls to action were not received with as much enthusiasm in England or Germany. For this reason, the Fourth Crusade became mainly a French affair.[28]
The Fourth Crusade was an expensive endeavor. Innocent III chose to raise funds by doing something previously unheard of in popes. He forced the entire clergy under his leadership to give one fortieth of their income in support of the Crusade. This marked the first time a pope ever imposed a direct tax on his clerical subjects. The pope faced many difficulties with collecting this tax, including corruption of his own officials and disregard by his subjects in England. He continued in his attempt to garner funds for his crusade by sending envoys to King John of England and King Philip of France. Both men pledged to contribute one fortieth of their own salaries to the campaign[dubious – discuss][citation needed]. John also declared that the tax would be collected throughout England as well. The other source of funds for the crusade was the crusaders themselves. Innocent declared that those who took the vow to become crusaders but could no longer perform the tasks that they had promised to complete, could be released of their oaths by a contribution of funds to the original cause. The pope put Archbishop Hubert Walter in charge of collecting these dues.[25][29]
At the onset of the crusade, the intended destination was Egypt, as the Christians and Muslims were under a truce at the time.[28] An agreement was made between the French Crusaders and the Venetians. The Venetians would supply vessels and supplies for the crusaders and in return, the crusaders would pay 85,000 marks (£200,000).[30] Innocent gave his approval of this agreement under two conditions: a representative of the pope must accompany the crusade, and the attack of any other Christians was strictly forbidden. The French failed to raise sufficient funds for payment of the Venetians. As a result, the Crusaders diverted the crusade to the Christian city of Zara at the will of the Venetians to subsidize the debt. This diversion was adopted without the consent of Innocent III, who threatened excommunication to any who took part in the attack. A majority of the French ignored the threat and attacked Zara, and were excommunicated by Innocent III, but soon were forgiven so as to continue the crusade. A second diversion then occurred when the crusaders decided to conquer Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. This diversion was taken without any knowledge by Innocent III, and he did not learn of it until after the city had been captured.[31]
Innocent viewed the capture of Constantinople as a way to reunite the schismatic Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. The pope excommunicated the Crusaders who attacked Christian cities, but was unable to halt or overturn their actions. Erroneously, he felt that the Latin presence would bring about a reconciliation between the Eastern and Western Churches. His tactics ultimately failed due to the significant differences between the two churches. The crusade did lead to the start of the Latin Empire's rule of Constantinople, which lasted for the next sixty years.[32]
The Taj Mahal (/ˌtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl/, more often /ˈtɑːʒ/; from Persian and Arabic, "crown of palaces", pronounced [ˈt̪aːdʒ mɛˈɦɛl]) is a white marble mausoleum located on the southern bank of Yamuna River in the Indian city of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) to house the tomb of his favorite wife of three, Mumtaz Mahal.
Construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643 but work continued on other phases of the project for an additional ten years. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around 32 million Indian rupees, which in 2015 would be valued at around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US). The construction project employed around 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. The domed marble tomb is part of an integrated complex consisting of gardens and two red-sandstone buildings surrounded by a crenellated wall on three sides.
The Taj Mahal is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture and is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India". It is one of the world’s most celebrated structures and a symbol of India’s rich history. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983, the Taj Mahal attracts some 3 million visitors a year.
INSPIRATION
In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his favorite of three wives and beloved companion, Mumtaz Mahal, a Persian princess, died during the birth of their 14th child, Gauhara Begum. Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632. The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1643 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished about five years later.
ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN
The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones. Buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.
TOMB
The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. It is a large, white marble structure standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.
The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an unequal eight-sided structure that is approximately 55 metres on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted archway with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.
The most spectacular feature is the marble dome that surmounts the tomb. The dome is nearly 35 metres high which is close in measurement to the length of the base, and accentuated by the cylindrical "drum" it sits on which is approximately 7 metres high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a lotus design which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasized by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements.
The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward.
The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets - a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that in the event of collapse, a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period, the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.
EXTERIOR DECORATIONS
The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture. As the surface area changes, the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs. Throughout the complex are passages from the Qur'an that comprise some of the decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan.
The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you." The calligraphy was created in 1609 by a calligrapher named Abdul Haq. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity". Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi." Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script made of jasper or black marble inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.
Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting color which creates a complex array of geometric patterns. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.
On the lower walls of the tomb are white marble dados sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings. The dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls.
INTERIOR DECORATION
The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal reaches far beyond traditional decorative elements. The inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is used. The interior walls are about 25 metres high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners. The octagonal marble screen or jali bordering the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces are inlaid in delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers. Each chamber wall is highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels which reflect, in miniature detail, the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.
Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right, towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 by 2.5 metres. Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side, and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base precisely decorated with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of the casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box.
The pen box and writing tablet are traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal. Other inscriptions inside the crypt include, "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He travelled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri."
GARDEN
The complex is set around a large 300-metre square charbagh or Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. Halfway between the tomb and gateway in the center of the garden is a raised marble water tank with a reflecting pool positioned on a north-south axis to reflect the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.
Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains. The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by Babur, the first Mughal emperor. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.
Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise. Similarities in layout and architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggests both gardens may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan. Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees. As the Mughal Empire declined, the Taj Mahal and its gardens also declined. By the end of the 19th century, the British Empire controlled more than three-fifths of India, and assumed management of the Taj Mahal. They changed the landscaping to their liking which more closely resembled the formal lawns of London.
OUTLYING BUILDINGS
The Taj Mahal complex is bordered on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls; the side facing the river is open. Outside the walls are several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant.
The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble, and reminiscent of the Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs like those found in the other sandstone buildings in the complex.
At the far end of the complex are two grand red sandstone buildings that mirror each other, and face the sides of the tomb. The backs of the buildings parallel the western and eastern walls. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), thought to have been constructed for architectural balance although it may have been used as a guesthouse. Distinctions between the two buildings include the jawab's lack of a mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca), and its floors of geometric design whereas the floor of the mosque is laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly the Masjid-i Jahān-Numā, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas comprising a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an expansive vaulting dome. The outlying buildings were completed in 1643.
CONSTRUCTION
The Taj Mahal is built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the center of Agra in exchange for the land. An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and leveled at 50 metres above riverbank. In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle.
The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. It is believed over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.
According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen kilometer tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.
The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". Construction of the mausoleum itself was essentially completed by 1643 while work continued on the outlying buildings. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Indian rupees, which is around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US) based on 2015 values.
LATER DAYS
Abdul Hamid Lahauri in his book Badshahnama refers to Taj Mahal as rauza-i munawwara, meaning the illumined or illustrious tomb. Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife. In the 18th century, the Jat rulers of Bharatpur invaded Agra and attacked the Taj Mahal, the two chandeliers, one of agate and another of silver, which were hung over the main cenotaph, were taken away by them, along with the gold and silver screen. Kanbo, a Mughal historian, said the gold shield which covered the 15-foot high finial at the top of the main dome was also removed during the Jat despoliation.
By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.
THREATS
In 1942, the government erected a scaffolding to disguise the building in anticipation of air attacks by the Japanese Air Force. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffoldings were again erected to mislead bomber pilots.
More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on the banks of Yamuna River including acid rain due to the Mathura Oil Refinery, which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives. The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ), a 10,400-square-kilometre area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place.
Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the groundwater level in the Yamuna river basin which is falling at a rate of around 5 feet a year. In 2010, cracks appeared in parts of the tomb, and the minarets which surround the monument were showing signs of tilting, as the wooden foundation of the tomb may be rotting due to lack of water. In 2011 it was reported that some predictions indicated that the tomb could collapse within 5 years.
TOURISM
The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more than 2 million visitors in 2001, which increased to about 3 million in 2015. A two tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and a more expensive one for foreigners. Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor center.
The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was originally constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workmen. Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll with 100 million votes.
The grounds are open from 06:00 to 19:00 weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12:00 and 14:00. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after, excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan. For security reasons only five items - water in transparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses - are allowed inside the Taj Mahal.
MYTHS
Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument. A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble as a Black Taj Mahal across the Yamuna river. The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black. A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Moonlight Garden. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.
No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. Similar claims are made for many famous buildings. No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort.
Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.
In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. In 2005 a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher who says that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu King Parmar Dev in 1196.
WIKIPEDIA
#blackandwhite #noiretblanc #japan #japon #tokyo #building #minimalism #simplicity #discretion #refinement #architecture #nikon #nikonemmad #minimalisme
Further refinement or destruction (depending on your point of view) of an image according to the principles of Dadaism art. Felt like I cheated by dumping the overhead shot, so I cloned a player from it into the ball in Eva's mouth. Also modified one of the board advertisements, and let a little colour back in. More absurd, but I'm not sure if its better or not.
The rest of the set is here. www.flickr.com/gp/46709051@N03/4X942h
The first round on this image is linked in the comments.
I've done some minor refinements to my Leo 2A7 lately - the most noticable being the slightly modified front end.
Land Rover and renowned Magnum photographer Jonas Bendiksen have revealed the first in a series of unique works entitled ‘Ultimate Vistas’, extraordinary landscape photographs captured with help from the world’s ultimate SUV: the Range Rover.
Land Rover and renowned Magnum photographer Jonas Bendiksen have revealed the first in a series of unique works entitled ‘Ultimate Vistas’, extraordinary landscape photographs captured with help from the world’s ultimate SUV: the Range Rover.
Tea represents the most refined expression of moroccan hospitality, it is often accompanied by moroccan pastry, known for its refinement and diversity.
DISCLAIMER
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
The Chinese J-7FS was a direct descendant of the J-7E. The Chengdu J-7 itself has a long heritage of development, even though it is originally a Soviet design, a license-built MiG-21F, which has its roots in the mid 50ies.
It took China long way to develop and produce a true supersonic fighter aircraft: in March, 1964, Shenyang Aircraft Factory began the first domestic production of the J-7 jet fighter. However, the mass production of the aircraft, which had been developed through Soviet help, license production and reverse-engineering, was severely hindered by an unexpected problem—the Cultural Revolution. This incident and its consequences resulted in poor initial quality and slow progress.
This, in turn, resulted in full scale production only coming about in the 1980s, by which time the J-7 design was showing its age. However, through the years the J-7 saw constant development and refinement in China, and the J-7FS was one of the many directions the simple, basic design went in order to imporve performance and to keep it up to date.
The J-7FS was designed in the late 90ies as a dedicated interceptor, and as a lighter option than the twin-engined J-8 fighter of indigenous design. Main task was to incorporate a true air-to-air radar with surveillance capabilities, since the J-7 only featured a rader-based range finder in the central shock cone of the air intake.
Fitting a more capable radar required a larger radome, which meant either a bigger central shock cone (as in the 2nd generation MiG-21 fighters) or a totally new nose and air intake arrangement. The accordingly modified J-7FS saw first daylight as a technology demonstration aircraft built by CAC. Its most prominent feature was a redesigned under-chin inlet, reminiscent of the F-8 or A-7 nose, which provided air for a WP-13IIS engine. Above the air intake, a fixed conical radome offered space for a bigger radar dish. “139 Red”, how the first aircraft was coded, first flew in June 1998, starting a 22-month test program. Two prototypes were built, but only the first aircraft was to fly – the second machine was only used for static tests.
"139 Red" soon saw major progress in design and equipment: it received a new double-delta wing which nearly doubled internal fuel capacity and improved performance, a modified fin, a more potent WP-13F turbojet engine, and a new 600 mm slot antenna planar array radar using coherent technology to achieve scan, look-down and shoot-down capabilities.
The revamped aircraft also received a sand/green camouflage paint scheme, less flashy than the original white/red livery. The new wing, which was also introduced on the J-7E, made the aircraft 45% more maneuverable than the MiG-21F-like J/F-7M, while the take-off and landing distance is reduced to 600 meters, in comparison to the 1.000 meter take-off distance and 900 meter landing distance of earlier versions of the J-7.
The production J-7FS which was ready for service in summer 2000 featured even more changes and novelties: the J-7FS incorporated HOTAS, which has since become standard on other late J-7 versions, too. This version is also the first of J-7 series to be later upgraded with helmet mounted sights (HMS). However, it is reported that the helmet mounted sight is not compatible with radars, and air-to-air missiles must be independently controlled by either HMS or radar, but not both.
The serial production radome now had an ogival shape with an even larger base diameter, and for additional avionics such as weapon management, global positioning and flight data recording systems, the production J-7FS featured a bulged spine, reminiscent of the 3rd generation MiG-21 (or the respective Chengdu J-7C, a reverse-engineered MiG-21MF). The aircraft was even able to carry medium range AAMs, e .g. the Chinese PL-11 missile, a license-built Selenia Aspide AAM from Italia, itself a modernized descendant of the venerable AIM-7 Sparrow. Another feature which set the FS version apart was the ventral, twin-barreled Type 23-III gun instead of the single-barelled 30mm cannon at the flank.
The role of the J-7FS in the People's Liberation Army was to provide local air defense and tactical air superiority, even though it certainly was only a stop-gap until the introduction of the much more potent Chengdu J-10, which started to enter PLAAF service in 2005 after a long development time. With its more powerful radar the J-7FS was supposed to act as a kind of mini AWACS platform, guiding groups of less potent J-7Es to potential targets. It is known that the J-7FS’s new radar had a range greater than 50 km and could track up to eight targets simultaneously. The aircraft's overall performance is expected to be similar to early F-16 variants.
The number of built specimen is uncertain, but it is supposed to be less than 100, probably even less than 50. It is rumored that the type had also been offered to Bangladesh and Sri Lanka around 2001, but was not bought.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 14.885 m (Overall) (48 ft 10 in)
Wingspan: 8.32 m (27 ft 3½ in)
Height: 4.11 m (13 ft 5½ in)
Wing area: 24.88 m² (267.8 ft²)
Aspect ratio: 2.8:1
Empty weight: 5,292 kg (11.667 lb)
Loaded weight: 7,540 kg (16.620 lb)
Max. take-off weight: 9.100 kg (20.062 lb)
Powerplant:
1 × Guizhou Liyang WP-13F(C) afterburning turbojet with 44.1 kN (9.914 lb) dry thrust and 66.7 kN (14.650 lb) with afterburner:
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 2.0, 2,200 km/h (1.189 knots, 1.375 mph)
Stall speed: 210 km/h (114 knots, 131 mph) IAS
Combat radius: 850 km (459 nmi, 528 mi) (air superiority, two AAMs and three drop tanks)
Ferry range: 2,200 km (1.187 nmi, 1.367 mi)
Service ceiling: 17,500 m (57.420 ft)
Rate of climb: 195 m/s (38.386 ft/min)
Armament:
1× twin-barreled Type 23-III 23mm (0.9") cannon with 250 rounds under the fuselage;
5× hardpoints (4× under-wing, 1× centerline under-fuselage) with a capacity of 2,000 kg maximum (up to 500 kg each); Ordnance primarily comprises air-to-air missiles, including PL-2, PL-5, PL-7, PL-8, PL-9 and PL-11 AAMs, but in a secondary CAS role various rocket pods an unguided bombs of up to 500kg caliber could be carried
The kit and its assembly:
This whif is based on the real world J-7FS, which actually flew but never made it beyond the technical demonstrator stage. However, I found the air intake design with its raked shape and the pointed radome interesting, and since I had a crappy Matchbox MiG-21MF with misprinted decals in store I decided to use that kit for a whif conversion. There’s even a resin kit of the first J-7FS (still with the standard delta wing, though, and horribly expensive) available, but I wanted to create a more advanced what-if model, if the type had somehow entered service.
The kit saw major modification all around the fuselage: the wing tips were clipped and scratch-built ends for the J-7E double delta wing shape attached. The shape is certainly not correct, but it's IMHO the impression that counts. The MiG-21MF's deep fin was replaced by a donation part from an F-16 – the 2nd J-7FS already featured a distinctive kink at the fin’s top which made it already look rather F-16ish, and the taller and more slender fin suits the MiG-21 well.
A brake parachute housing with a disctinctive, blunt end was added just above the jet exhaust, and some antennae and pitots were added in order to enhance the bleak Matchbox kit a little. The Type 23-III cannon was sculpted from a piece of sprue, just like the brake parachute housing.
The nose section/radome is the front half of an F-18 drop tank. An oval, tapered piece of styrene was implanted as the raked intake lip, trying to copy the look of the real thing according to the few pictures I had at hand. I also added a central splitter in the air intake, which houses the front wheel bay.
Some putty work was necessary to blend the new nose into the front fuselage, as well as the dorsal spine into the new fin, but that turned out to be easier than expected.
The jet exhaust originally is just a vertical "plate" in the MiG-21's tail. I opened it and implanted a new cover inside of the fuselage, in a deeper position. For some more detail I also added a (simple) jet nozzle, IIRC it is a leftover part from a Matchbox Jaguar kit, probably 30 years old... Not much, but it defininitively enhances the rear view of the machine.
The original cockpit only consists of a bulky seat and the pilot figure, and the clear canopy is clear but horribly thick. Hence, I decided to keep the cockpit closed, but nevertheless I added a floor and some side panels, and used an Airfix pilot figure.
The missile ordnance comes from the scrap box, reflecting “modern” Chinese air-to-air weaponry: two PL-7 (Matra Magic AAMs from an Italeri NATO weapons kit) on the outer and two PL-11 (two Aspide missiles from the same set ) on the inner wing hardpoints. All wing hardpoints come from MiG-21F kits, one pair is from the Academy kit, the other from the vintage Hasegawa kit, both have the launch rails molded into the weapon pylon. The drop tank is a typical Chinese item - it resembles the Russian/soviet PTB-490 drop tank, but has a more blunt nose and smaller fins - it comes from a FC-1 kit from Trumpeter.
Paintings and markings:
Since it is an air superiority aircraft, I wanted an appropriate livery, but not the dull overall grey of contemporary PLAAF fighters. But I found some weird real life paint schemes which inspired the final camouflage.
Since the plane was not supposed to look too American through FS tones I rather used 'other' colors for a wraparound scheme. The basic tone is Testors 2123 (Russian Underside Blue), and from above a darker contrast color was added, Humbrol 230 (PRU Blue). Both tones have a greenish/teal hue, which complements each other well. Together they create a pretty distinctive look, though, esp. with the red and yellow insignia and codes. IMHO these colors suit the fighter well.
The kit received a light black ink wash and some dry painting with lighter blue-grey shades (Humbrol 87 and 128), but no weathering, since modern Chinese aircraft tend to look pretty clean and pristine.
The decals were puzzled together from the scrap box, IIRC the insignia originally they belong to a Il-28 Trumpeter kit. The 5 digit code comes from a Revell MiG-29 and the number itself is based on the information published in the 2010 book “Chinese Air Power” by Yefim Gordon und Dmitriy Komissarov, where the Chinese code system is explained – I hope that it is more or less authentic ;)
So, all in all a rather simple kit conversion, and certainly not a creative masterpiece. To be honest, the similarity with the real thing is just at first glance - but since it is whif world, I am fine with the outcome. ^^
The 1968 Mustang was little changed on the outside from it 1967 counterpart apart from the obvious side reflectors that were now mandated. Most of the changes were in subtle refinements to the interior and exterior that most people didn’t notice. Cosmetically they had different simulated side scoops. The 1968 scoop looked more like a vertical “C” whereas the 1967 looked like air intake openings.
Other changes included the deletion of the horizontal grille bars. The grille featured a running Mustang inside a corral in the center of the grille. There was also the deletion of the F-O-R-D letters at the front of the hood, simplification of the quarter panel ornament, and many safety features (increasing governmental regulations).
The 325 bhp, 390 cid engine was now a new “FE” block and 11,475 buyers stepped up for that motor. On the interesting end of the spectrum, the top engine option was a low riser version of Ford’s 427 cid V8, only available with an automatic transmission and only until December 1967. It was rated at 390 bhp and cost a whopping $622. Very few were sold; look for a W in the VIN. This gas drinking monster sported a 600 CFM (too small) carburetor.
The Taj Mahal (/ˌtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl/, more often /ˈtɑːʒ/; from Persian and Arabic, "crown of palaces", pronounced [ˈt̪aːdʒ mɛˈɦɛl]) is a white marble mausoleum located on the southern bank of Yamuna River in the Indian city of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) to house the tomb of his favorite wife of three, Mumtaz Mahal.
Construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643 but work continued on other phases of the project for an additional ten years. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around 32 million Indian rupees, which in 2015 would be valued at around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US). The construction project employed around 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. The domed marble tomb is part of an integrated complex consisting of gardens and two red-sandstone buildings surrounded by a crenellated wall on three sides.
The Taj Mahal is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture and is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India". It is one of the world’s most celebrated structures and a symbol of India’s rich history. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983, the Taj Mahal attracts some 3 million visitors a year.
INSPIRATION
In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his favorite of three wives and beloved companion, Mumtaz Mahal, a Persian princess, died during the birth of their 14th child, Gauhara Begum. Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632. The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1643 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished about five years later.
ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN
The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones. Buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.
TOMB
The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. It is a large, white marble structure standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.
The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an unequal eight-sided structure that is approximately 55 metres on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted archway with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.
The most spectacular feature is the marble dome that surmounts the tomb. The dome is nearly 35 metres high which is close in measurement to the length of the base, and accentuated by the cylindrical "drum" it sits on which is approximately 7 metres high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a lotus design which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasized by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements.
The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward.
The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets - a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that in the event of collapse, a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period, the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.
EXTERIOR DECORATIONS
The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture. As the surface area changes, the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs. Throughout the complex are passages from the Qur'an that comprise some of the decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan.
The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you." The calligraphy was created in 1609 by a calligrapher named Abdul Haq. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity". Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi." Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script made of jasper or black marble inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.
Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting color which creates a complex array of geometric patterns. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.
On the lower walls of the tomb are white marble dados sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings. The dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls.
INTERIOR DECORATION
The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal reaches far beyond traditional decorative elements. The inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is used. The interior walls are about 25 metres high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners. The octagonal marble screen or jali bordering the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces are inlaid in delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers. Each chamber wall is highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels which reflect, in miniature detail, the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.
Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right, towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 by 2.5 metres. Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side, and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base precisely decorated with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of the casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box.
The pen box and writing tablet are traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal. Other inscriptions inside the crypt include, "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He travelled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri."
GARDEN
The complex is set around a large 300-metre square charbagh or Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. Halfway between the tomb and gateway in the center of the garden is a raised marble water tank with a reflecting pool positioned on a north-south axis to reflect the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.
Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains. The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by Babur, the first Mughal emperor. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.
Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise. Similarities in layout and architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggests both gardens may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan. Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees. As the Mughal Empire declined, the Taj Mahal and its gardens also declined. By the end of the 19th century, the British Empire controlled more than three-fifths of India, and assumed management of the Taj Mahal. They changed the landscaping to their liking which more closely resembled the formal lawns of London.
OUTLYING BUILDINGS
The Taj Mahal complex is bordered on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls; the side facing the river is open. Outside the walls are several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant.
The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble, and reminiscent of the Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs like those found in the other sandstone buildings in the complex.
At the far end of the complex are two grand red sandstone buildings that mirror each other, and face the sides of the tomb. The backs of the buildings parallel the western and eastern walls. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), thought to have been constructed for architectural balance although it may have been used as a guesthouse. Distinctions between the two buildings include the jawab's lack of a mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca), and its floors of geometric design whereas the floor of the mosque is laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly the Masjid-i Jahān-Numā, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas comprising a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an expansive vaulting dome. The outlying buildings were completed in 1643.
CONSTRUCTION
The Taj Mahal is built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the center of Agra in exchange for the land. An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and leveled at 50 metres above riverbank. In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle.
The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. It is believed over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.
According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen kilometer tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.
The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". Construction of the mausoleum itself was essentially completed by 1643 while work continued on the outlying buildings. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Indian rupees, which is around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US) based on 2015 values.
LATER DAYS
Abdul Hamid Lahauri in his book Badshahnama refers to Taj Mahal as rauza-i munawwara, meaning the illumined or illustrious tomb. Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife. In the 18th century, the Jat rulers of Bharatpur invaded Agra and attacked the Taj Mahal, the two chandeliers, one of agate and another of silver, which were hung over the main cenotaph, were taken away by them, along with the gold and silver screen. Kanbo, a Mughal historian, said the gold shield which covered the 15-foot high finial at the top of the main dome was also removed during the Jat despoliation.
By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.
THREATS
In 1942, the government erected a scaffolding to disguise the building in anticipation of air attacks by the Japanese Air Force. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffoldings were again erected to mislead bomber pilots.
More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on the banks of Yamuna River including acid rain due to the Mathura Oil Refinery, which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives. The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ), a 10,400-square-kilometre area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place.
Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the groundwater level in the Yamuna river basin which is falling at a rate of around 5 feet a year. In 2010, cracks appeared in parts of the tomb, and the minarets which surround the monument were showing signs of tilting, as the wooden foundation of the tomb may be rotting due to lack of water. In 2011 it was reported that some predictions indicated that the tomb could collapse within 5 years.
TOURISM
The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more than 2 million visitors in 2001, which increased to about 3 million in 2015. A two tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and a more expensive one for foreigners. Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor center.
The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was originally constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workmen. Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll with 100 million votes.
The grounds are open from 06:00 to 19:00 weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12:00 and 14:00. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after, excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan. For security reasons only five items - water in transparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses - are allowed inside the Taj Mahal.
MYTHS
Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument. A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble as a Black Taj Mahal across the Yamuna river. The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black. A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Moonlight Garden. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.
No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. Similar claims are made for many famous buildings. No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort.
Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.
In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. In 2005 a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher who says that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu King Parmar Dev in 1196.
WIKIPEDIA
The French Room was dedicated in 1943 and decorated in the Empire style of the 18th century. The refinements of the era can be seen in the golden motifs in the furniture and crown mouldings on the walls, some of which are of Greek, Egyptian and Italian influence, an indication of the military campaigns that Napoleon led in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
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The Nationality Rooms are located in the University of Pittsburgh's Cathedral of Learning building. The rooms are gifts to the university from Pittsburgh's ethnic communities. Each room has been designed to represent the culture of the nation represented. The rooms function as university classrooms and are not open all the time for the public to explore particularly during school terms. Visitors are advised to contact the University for opening times and guided tours.
www.nationalityrooms.pitt.edu/
The very first Nationality Room opened in 1938, and new rooms are still being planned now. There are currently 30 Nationality Rooms at the Cathedral of Learning.
"Both in one's refreshments and appearance, refinement is a must in polite society."
This theme was tough for me. 'Vintage' always struck me as pertaining to wine--probably Kami no Shizuku's fault. ^________^ Otherwise, I wasn't sure. People who posted things on the theme's thread and asking friends helped a lot with this.
Unfortunately I did lose my Wednesday of working for this theme, and I couldn't print out everything I wanted to nor in the right size. Then my camera batteries died. But I showed them what's up. > 3<
Overall I'm happy with they way this turned out, if not a bit disappointed. I also don't have any extra photos this time around, and she'll be getting her acrylics finally installed and her best friend Aiden back home before we attack this photoshoot. My boyfriend is thinking piano-playing should be involved. I agree.
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This round of Dalicious was awesome, by the way~!! I'm very proud of what I threw into this competition, and seriously enjoyed so many photos these past weeks. I'm sooo excited to see how everyone ranked and who gets to wear my dresses xD"
Hora - Carpo
Anonymous
Hora-Carpo, Carrara marble, first century A.D. with mid 16th century integrations ,height 1,51 m. Florence – Galleria degli Uffizi – inv. 1914, n. 136. For more than four centuries the statue of Hora has embellished the eastern corridor of the Uffizi Gallery, standing out, among the army of marbles that decorate the Vasarian complex, for the refinement of its modelling that portrays with surprising realism the impalpable robe worn by the young woman. These “thin garments” were what most struck Giorgio Vasari when, in 1568, he saw the statue displayed in one of the rooms of Palazzo Pitti, interpreting it as a portrayal of Pomona, the Roman goddess of fruits. The grapes, pears, pomegranates and walnuts that almost spill from the folds of the cloak the woman holds in her lap, left no doubt about the character of this fascinating female personage, who must have been linked to the fertility of the earth and the generative force of nature. So this 16 century interpretation was not wholly inaccurate, though today, thanks to other examples of this kind of statue, we can more precisely identify the young woman as a Hora, one of the daughters of Zeus and Themis, goddess of justice, who watch over the natural cycles of the year.
Bringers of seasonal gifts, but also of fascination and talent for mortals, the Horae watched over the birth of men, exercising upon them a beneficial and healthy influence.
The Horae, three in number according to Hesiod (Hes.,
Theogonia, vv. 901 et seq.), were, by their life-giving nature, inevitably linked to the idea of Spring and the rebirth of nature after the rigours of winter, so much so that in the Homeric hymns
(Hom., Hymn to Ceres vv 54 and 192), it is they who bring back
Persephone to the Earth from the Underworld, thus marking
the start of the warm season. But their action was not limited to
spring fruits, it also extended to protecting and favouring crops
of other seasons, including the autumn, of which we see echoes
in the fruit chosen to nestle in the robe of the Florentine
statue.
The quality of the Uffizi marble, probably dating back to the
first century A.D., justified the intervention of an excellent 16th century sculpture to integrate the parts missing when it was discovered: the head, parts of the hands and the base. The taste
of the time did not accept the aesthetics of the fragment and it
was necessary always to restore formal unity to the damaged
ancient sculptures given back by the Earth. The draping,
which clings to the woman’s body in her rapid movement, highlights the shape of the body rather than hiding it, creating, in the lower part of the figure, a play of folds blown by the wind that
is almost a virtuoso execution with its irregular and contorted
movement. In this description of the robe, which is impalpable
and clings to the muscles like wet fabric, we cannot help recognising the echo of Attic models of the post-Phidias School,
which have in the Nike of Paionos in Olympia and in the reliefs
of the balustrade of the temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis
in Athens their most accomplished examples. But other clues,
such as the mannered and colourful taste in portraying the
lower part of the robe, presuppose experience of an already
mature Hellenism, suggesting that a Hellenic archetype of the
third or second century BC was the prototype from which the
portrayals we know of the Horae were derived.
Among these copies, spread among the Vatican, Tarragona and Venice, the Florentine statue stands out for the sensitivity with which it portrays the lightness of the figure, which seems frozen in a dance step rather than in a normal walk. Aby Warburg, at the end of the 19th century, recognised in the sculpture the direct inspiration drawn by Sandro Botticelli for the figure of Flora portrayed in his famous Primavera. The position of the figure, the act of bringing the hands into the lap to hold the folds of the garment filled with flowers, but, above all the description of a light and ethereal robe seemed to betray a close link between this iconographic type and that portrayed in the 15th century work.
Chassis n° 16287
The Chantilly Sale
Bonhams
Sold for € 189.750
Chantilly Arts & Elegance Richard Mille
Château de Chantilly
Chantilly
France - Frankrijk
September 2017
'Each new Ferrari model brings some noteworthy advance over previous ones. The GTC/4's is mechanical refinement. Less mechanical thrash comes through from the engine room than in any previous Ferrari, and the controls are smoother and lighter than ever, making the car deliciously easy to drive well. And the lack of mechanical clatter does not deprive us of entertainment; there's just the right amount of purr from the four tailpipes, and when working hard in its upper rev range the engine sings the familiar and beautiful V12 song.' - Road & Track.
A short-lived interim model that bridged the gap between production of the 365GT 2+2 and 365GT4 2+2, the 365GTC/4 was first shown at the Geneva Motor Show in 1971. A contemporary of the awe-inspiring Daytona, the 365GTC/4 used a similar chassis and a wet-sump version of the former's 4,390cc four-cam V12 in a slightly lower - 320bhp - state of tune, which was coupled to a conventional five-speed gearbox rather than the Daytona's transaxle. Cylinder heads revised to accommodate side-draught carburettors enabled stylist Pininfarina to achieve an elegant, low profile bonnet line. 'In all, a graceful, clean and understated design with subtleties one discovers only by looking it over carefully. One might say this model is a Ferrari for the mature enthusiast,' observed R&T.
Altogether more civilised and easy to drive than the heavy Daytona, the rapid 365GTC/4 came with ZF power steering and servo-assisted brakes as standard, the option of air conditioning, and an especially luxurious interior featuring individual reclining front seats and occasional rear seats. In spite of the increasing emphasis on refinement, the 365GTC/4 gave nothing away to its rivals in the performance stakes, racing through the standing quarter mile in under 16 seconds on its way to a top speed in excess of 150mph. By the time the model was withdrawn in October 1972, production had totalled only 500 units, making the 365GTC/4 eminently collectible today.
The example offered here, chassis number '16287', is one of the last Ferrari 365GTC/4s built out of a total of 500 cars. This car is the 495th in the production sequence, and caries Pininfarina body number '492'. It was delivered new to the official Ferrari importer, Charles Pozzi in Levallois-Perret, France together with '16289', they are said to be the two last cars of the series to be delivered. This is a desirable European version, manufactured in left-hand drive configuration with instruments in km/h. The first owner, Mr Parret of Val de Marne, France, took delivery on 24th April 1974. The history file contains a copy of the Ferrari Warranty Card confirming the car was finished in Blu Ribot and delivered new to Mr Parret via Pozzi; and a copy of the Pozzi 'fiche de contrôle', which shows that the car was delivered with yellow fog lamps (obligatory in France).
The Ferrari is believed to have stayed in France, passing through the hands of several careful owners in Saone et Loire, Haute-Loire, and later Haut-Rhin. This information and early history has been traced with the help of Mr Marc Rabineau, to whom Bonhams extends its sincere thanks. The car is believed to have stayed in France until the current owner bought it in Monaco in 2009. The beautiful Bleu Ribot colour has faded slightly over the years but still presents very well, while the beautifully preserved beige leather interior appears totally original and in good condition.