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Haleakala Crater hike on 7/9/2019
I caught the first Hawaiian Airlines flight to Maui from Oahu which left at 5:05 am, arrival at 5:44 am.
I took a carryon duffel bag and a photo backpack ( no checked bags )
Picked up my rental car from Alamo and first stopped at 7-Eleven for water, food and snacks.
Maui Airport has changed. All the car rental companies moved to one central location reachable by tram. Additonally a specific Airport Access road was constructed and in use by this trip.
7:40 am left 7-Eleven for Haleakala.
7:30 am arrived at park entrance. $25 entrance fee by credit card only.
8:00 am arrived at Halemau'u trail head parking lot. Filled my CamelBak bladder with 3L of water, redistributed my equipment and used the bathroom to add a thermal underwear layer for the cold.
8:40 am left the parking lot and went to the Hitchhiking spot to wait for a ride. I was picked up by the 3rd car to come along. A single young male on vacation by himself. As I was grabbing my things to get into his car a mother and young son came up and asked to share the ride. I only waited maybe 5 minutes to catch a ride.
9:00 am arrived at the Summit Visitor Center parking lot. The driver had never been up to Haleakala even after visiting Maui a couple of times before, and he was considering doing a short hike while up there. I would be passed by him and the other hitch hiker about a mile down the trail later.
9:15 am after a short look around at the lookout and tightening up my boot laces, I started on Keonehe'ehe'e ( Sliding Sands Trail )
11:51 am I would get to the bottom of the crater and the trail for Holua cabins or Kapaloa, Paliku cabins. Ate lunch of one Spam musube.
12:06 pm I would start on the trial to Holua Cabin
12:59 pm top of the ascent to "Ka Moa o Pele"
1:24 pm trail juncture on the left of "Halali'i"
2:14 pm Silver Sword loop begin ( did not take the loop )
2:22 pm Silver Sword loop end
3:05 pm Holua Cabin - rested
3:32 pm left Holua Cabin and headed out on Halemau'u trail and the crater rim.
4:13 pm arrived at base of crater rim and the start of the switchbacks up the crater wall. rested and stretched.
4:27 pm started up the crater rim switch backs.
6:56 pm I would reach the flat narrow spot I consider the end of the switchbacks.
7:00 pm the temperature would be 56 degrees and dropping down to 52 degrees ( not including windchill )
7:10 pm Sunset, and I was hiking in dark shadow. Too dark to take meaningful pictures or pics of my watch.
8:00 pm I would reach the Halemau'u parking lot and my car.
8:30 pm I would finish unloading and repacking bags for going to my hotel and possibly doing some astro photography.
8:45 pm arrive at Kalahaku overlook to check out the possibility of astro photography. The 50% moon washed out the Milky way too much, stars were visible and I was starting to yawn. So I didn't, and I left at 9:05 pm for Kahului and a shower.
I used up all my water, when I got to my hotel and check, the hydration bladder was flat. Possibly one or two sips left in the tube. This was the 2nd time hiking this trail. Both times I brought a collapsable water bag w/filter to refil water at Holua and did not. If I do this again I really, REALLY need to refill water at Holua cabin.
The weather reports for the previous week were about the possibility of hurricane Barbera hitting the islands the day before my trip. Fortunately Barbera down graded and by the time of my trip and predictions for the summit were somewhat cloudy with occasional showers. While hiking I only encountered a few light drizzle/drops from the clouds that didn't require me to break out any of the rain gear I brought or to stow my cameras from rain.
The weather at the summit was cloudy and approximately 65 degrees with windchill. Along the hike until the ascent up the crater rim at the end, the temperature would not seem as cold as I expected or remember from my previous hike a couple of years ago. Possibly due to my wearing thermal underwear, hiking pants, a medium thick long sleeve athletic shirt beneath a button long sleeve hiking shirt and my broad brimmed hat of course. While moving I felt cool and relatively comfortable temperature wise, while raising a slight glistening sweat. At least it wasn't dripping into my eyes.
Keeping to my expected and normal average hiking pace of around 1 mph or less going down hill and across the flats, I would take pictures about every 1-2 hundred feet of the trail. Boring, but I like to document the trail condition. In addition to any interesting views, scenery or recording the weather.
I kept one of my watches attached to my sleeve so it would not be in skin contact and would mostly dangle in my body shade. This would give me a way of tracking my elevation and mostly the temperature.
There were many more day hikers actually crossing the crater along the same route I was going. Most notable was the mother and son that caught a ride with me. They met up with her husband and other son who caught another ride a bit later.
Probably all the hikers that were crossing the crater caught up to me and passed me, and they all started later than I did. The only people who caught up but didn't pass me were 3 female park rangers on their way to Holua Cabin and pretty much started doing their park ranger stuff in the area where they caught up to me and didn't catch up again.
I was constantly annoyed by the hikers I would see taking short cuts along the trail. I had to remind myself to not get pissy with them. I'm tempted to think the only other hikers on the trail that did not take short cuts were the park rangers I met.
Personally, I started the hike with a kinda sharp lower back pain, which had been ongoing since the previous week. But since this hike was already book and paid for I wasn't going to cancel. All thru the hike my back would be in constant pain and I would continually think I might have to give up hiking if my back doesn't get better. It was most painful going down hill, while the flats and going up weren't as bad.
I was hoping the strain and constant back movement would loosen up my lower back and aleviate my pain. Supprisingly, while getting on my stomach with all my gear still on me, when I got up my lower back was better. The pain would come and go, but could now be aleviated for short periods of time by taking off all my gear and bending over to stretch my back. When I would get home, my lower back pain issues would return to "normal"
Evidently, the dry cold air and constant breeze caused my face and lips to chap, which showed up a day after I got home.
Once again I brought chapstick but didn't use it.
-----------------------------------
CamelBak Octane 16X Hydration Pack (3L Hydration bladder)
3 liters of water = 6.6 pounds
1x Nikon D700 w/battery grip - Nikon 28-300mm
1x Nikon D700 w/out grip - Rokinon 12mm f2.8 fisheye
Tokina 16-28mm f2.8
Camera & lens weight = 12 pounds
I brought both cameras to reduce the amount of time spent changing lenses and the possibility of getting grit on the camera sensors. Turns out I never changed to the 16-28 so never removed any lens. Yay, no spots in my pictures, Bo, lugged another heavy lens around for nothing. At least I left the 100mm macro in the car already.
TEC140+QUADTCC reducer (F/5.0) . Baadar L filter
ZWO ASI071MC PRO
T=-5 C, offset=20, gain=90
Saline Valley Road, Inyo, CA
Exceptionally good seeing
10min x 66
1min x 10
The term ‘minimalism’ is a trend from early 19th century and gradually became an important movement in response to the over decorated design of the previous period.
Minimalist architecture became popular in the late 1980s in London and New York, where architects and fashion designers worked together in the boutiques to achieve simplicity, using white elements, cold lighting, large space with minimum objects and furniture.
Minimalist architecture simplifies living space to reveal the essential quality of buildings and conveys simplicity in attitudes toward life. It is highly inspired from the Japanese traditional design and the concept of Zen philosophy.
Reduced images from the Melbourne Central Activities District (CAD) Conservation Study 1985 survey: approx 1200 Kodak colour negatives
Governor John Carney rolled up his sleeve to get his annual flu shot Oct. 10 at the Division of Public Health’s (DPH) drive-thru flu clinic in Dover, officially launching the state’s flu season prevention efforts. DPH urges all Delawareans 6 months and older to get a flu shot for protection from influenza illnesses and complications.
“Getting your annual vaccination is an important step to prevent illness, protect our workforce, reduce health care costs and ultimately, save lives,” Governor Carney said. “I encourage every Delawarean to get their flu shot early in the flu season.”
Vaccinations not only prevent people from getting the flu, but they can reduce the severity of flu illness and prevent visits to the doctor, clinic, emergency room and hospitalizations. Vaccinated people have less chance of missing family, school and work events due to influenza illness.
“Vaccination is not just about protecting yourself, it’s also about protecting each other," said Department of Health and Social Services Secretary Dr. Kara Odom Walker. “Everyone comes into contact with all types of individuals who are vulnerable to influenza viruses carried by unvaccinated people. Getting a flu shot might not only help you but your grandma, a co-worker or your young son or daughter.”
The 12-hour event was held from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. at the Department of Transportation’s (DelDOT) main administration campus in Dover, in hopes of taking advantage of the busy location, which also houses the Division of Motor Vehicles. DPH and Bayhealth nurses administered intramuscular flu vaccines to drivers, their passengers and pedestrians. A special area was available for those with access or interpretation needs. American Sign Language interpreters along with interpreters for those speaking Spanish or Haitian Creole were on site.
By noon, 431 vaccinations had already been provided, surpassing last year’s total of approximately 346 vaccinations.
“Today it’s easier than ever to get your flu shot. We wanted to make it as convenient as possible so we are bringing our flu clinic to your car,” said DPH Director Dr. Karyl Rattay. “The flu is easy to transmit and you can get it from seemingly healthy, but unvaccinated people. It is also unpredictable, which is why it’s important to get vaccinated every year, since we never know what kind of flu season we will see.”
Added DelDOT Deputy Cabinet Secretary Nicole Majeski, "We are pleased to partner with DPH in this important public safety effort. Our campus gets a lot of traffic with the DMV on site, and we hoped that by offering to host it here, we could help increase the number of Delawareans who will get the flu vaccine. We also shared it with our employees here on campus and many of them have been able to receive flu shots just by walking up.”
DPH urges individuals to get their flu shots early in the flu season. It takes about two weeks after vaccination for antibodies to develop in the body that protect against influenza virus infection. The flu mist is not being recommended again this year based on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s analysis, which raises concerns about its effectiveness.
Getting a flu vaccination is easy. They are offered through physician offices, many pharmacies and some grocery stores. DPH is also offering flu vaccines at its Public Health clinics in several State Service Centers including some with evening hours. For more information about the flu and where to get vaccinated, visit www.flu.delaware.gov, call 1-800-282-8672, or Google “CDC flu finder” and enter a ZIP code.
Last flu season, Delaware had 4,590 confirmed flu cases, 15 of which were fatal. All but one of the individuals who died was over the age of 50 and had underlying health conditions.
Delawareans can prevent the spread of the flu and other respiratory illness with good hygiene: Wash hands frequently with soap and water or use alcohol-based hand sanitizers, and cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue, and dispose of tissues immediately. If a tissue is not available, cough or sneeze into your inner elbow. Droplets from a sneeze can travel up to six feet. Stay six feet away from others who are coughing or sneezing, and avoid touching your eyes, nose, or mouth.
Flu symptoms come on suddenly, and include fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, headaches and body aches, chills, and fatigue. Some people get complications including pneumonia, bronchitis, and sinus and ear infections. Those sick with the flu should stay home from work, school, and other gatherings and not return until free of fever - 100◦ F (37.8◦ C), without the use of fever-reducing medications for at least 24 hours.
They should avoid close contact with well people in the household, drink plenty of water and other clear liquids, and treat fever and cough with over-the-counter medicines. Those who are very sick, pregnant, or have a medical condition like asthma should call their doctors for antiviral medicines to make the illness milder, hasten recovery, and prevent serious complications, hospitalizations, and even death.
the "Elimination Representations": that LJ Shield Activewear eliminated or killed pathogens or viruses including COVID-19;
the "Protection Representations": that LJ Shield Activewear protected wearers against COVID-19;
the "Stop the Spread Representations": that LJ Shield reduced the spread of COVID-19; and
the "Reasonable Basis Representations": that Lorna Jane had a reasonable scientific or technological basis to make the above claims.
Lion. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park/ Kalahari Desert. South Africa. Nov/2019
Lion
The lion (Panthera leo) is a species in the family Felidae; it is a muscular, deep-chested cat with a short, rounded head, a reduced neck and round ears, and a hairy tuft at the end of its tail. The lion is sexually dimorphic; males are larger than females with a typical weight range of 150 to 250 kg (330 to 550 lb) for the former and 120 to 182 kg (265 to 400 lb) for the latter. Male lions have a prominent mane, which is the most recognisable feature of the species. A lion pride consists of a few adult males, related females and cubs. Groups of female lions typically hunt together, preying mostly on large ungulates. The species is an apex and keystone predator, although they scavenge when opportunities occur. Some lions have been known to hunt humans, although the species typically does not.
Typically, the lion inhabits grasslands and savannas but is absent in dense forests. It is usually more diurnal than other big cats, but when persecuted it adapts to being active at night and at twilight. In the Pleistocene, the lion ranged throughout Eurasia, Africa and the Americas from the Yukon to Peru but today it has been reduced to fragmented populations in Sub-Saharan Africa and one critically endangered population in western India
Source: Wikipedia
Leão
O leão [feminino: leoa] (nome científico: Panthera leo) é uma espécie de mamífero carnívoro do gênero Panthera e da família Felidae. A espécie é atualmente encontrada na África subsaariana e na Ásia, com uma única população remanescente em perigo, no Parque Nacional da Floresta de Gir, Gujarat, Índia. Foi extinto na África do Norte e no Sudoeste Asiático em tempos históricos, e até o Pleistoceno Superior, há cerca de 10 000 anos, era o mais difundido grande mamífero terrestre depois dos humanos, sendo encontrado na maior parte da África, em muito da Eurásia, da Europa Ocidental à Índia, e na América, do Yukon ao México. É uma dos quatro grandes felinos, com alguns machos excedendo 250 quilogramas em peso, sendo o segundo maior felino recente depois do tigre.
A pelagem é unicolor de coloração castanha, e os machos apresentam uma juba característica. Uma das características mais marcantes da espécie é a presença de um tufo de pelos pretos na cauda, que também possui uma espora. Habita preferencialmente as savanas e pastagens abertas, mas pode ser encontrado em regiões mais arbustivas. É um animal sociável que vive em grupos que consiste das leoas e suas crias, o macho dominante e alguns machos jovens que ainda não alcançaram a maturidade sexual. A dieta consiste principalmente de grandes ungulados e possuem hábitos noturnos e crepusculares, descansando e dormindo na maior parte do dia. Leões vivem por volta de 10-14 anos na natureza, enquanto em cativeiro eles podem viver por até 30 anos.
Fonte: Wikipedia
Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park
Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park is a large wildlife preserve and conservation area in southern Africa. The park straddles the border between South Africa and Botswana and comprises two adjoining national parks:
•Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in South Africa
•Gemsbok National Park in Botswana
The total area of the park is 38,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi). Approximately three-quarters of the park lies in Botswana and one-quarter in South Africa. Kgalagadi means "place of thirst." [1] In September 2014, more than half of the Botswana portion of the park was sold for gas-fracking
The park is located largely within the southern Kalahari Desert. The terrain consists of red sand dunes, sparse vegetation, occasional trees, and the dry riverbeds of the Nossob and Auob Rivers. The rivers are said to flow only about once per century. However, water flows underground and provides life for grass and camelthorn trees growing in the river beds. The rivers may flow briefly after large thunderstorms
Source: Wikpedia
Kalahari Desert
The Kalahari Desert is a large semi-arid sandy savanna in Southern Africa extending for 900,000 square kilometres (350,000 sq mi), covering much of Botswana, parts of Namibia and regions of South Africa.
It is not to be confused with the Angolan, Namibian and South African Namib coastal desert, whose name is of Khoekhoegowab origin and means "vast place"
Kalahari is derived from the Tswana word Kgala, meaning "the great thirst", or Kgalagadi, meaning "a waterless place"; the Kalahari has vast areas covered by red sand without any permanent surface water
Source: Wikpedia
Parque Transfronteiriço do Kgalagadi
O Parque Transfronteiriço de Kgalagadi é uma grande área de preservação e conservação da vida selvagem no sul da África. O parque fica na fronteira entre a África do Sul e o Botsuana e compreende dois parques nacionais adjacentes:
• Parque Nacional Kalahari Gemsbok na África do Sul
• Parque Nacional Gemsbok no Botsuana
A área total do parque é de 38.000 quilômetros quadrados (15.000 milhas quadradas). Aproximadamente três quartos do parque ficam no Botsuana e um quarto na África do Sul. Kgalagadi significa "lugar de sede". Em setembro de 2014, mais da metade da parte do parque em Botsuana foi vendida por fracking a gás
O parque está localizado em grande parte no sul do deserto de Kalahari. O terreno consiste em dunas de areia vermelha, vegetação escassa, árvores ocasionais e leitos secos dos rios Nossob e Auob. Diz-se que os rios fluem apenas uma vez por século. No entanto, a água flui no subsolo e fornece vida para as árvores que crescem nos leitos dos rios. Os rios podem fluir brevemente após grandes tempestades
Fonte: Wikipedia (tradução livre)
Deserto do Kalahari
O Kalahari, Calaari ou Calaári é um deserto localizado na África Austral, com cerca de 900.000 km² abrangendo partes de Angola, do Botswana, Namíbia e África do Sul.
O nome é derivado de uma palavra em tsuana[2] e significa "a grande sede"
Derivada da palavra Kgalagadi, significa o lugar da a grande sede (kgala - sede; gadi - lugar). A formação do deserto é devida, principalmente, a corrente marítima fria de Benguela, que atua na costa sudoeste da África, condensando o vapor de água que vai em direção ao continente, fazendo com que as massas de ar cheguem mais secas ao mesmo. O Kalahari possui vasta área coberta por areia avermelhada sem afloramento de água em caráter permanente. Porém Kalahari não é um deserto verdadeiro. Partes dele recebem mais de 250 mm de chuva mal distribuída anualmente e possuem bastante vegetação. É realmente árido somente no sudoeste (menos de 175 mm de chuva ao ano), fazendo do Kalahari um deserto de fósseis. As temperaturas no verão do Kalahari vão de 20 a 40°C. No inverno, o Kalahari tem um clima seco e frio com geada à noite. As baixas temperaturas do inverno podem ficar abaixo de 0°C. O clima no verão em algumas regiões do Kalahari pode alcançar 50°C (por isso algumas tribos bosquimanas se recolhem nos momentos mais quentes do dia).
Fonte: Wikipedia
This is how my local shopping centre looks now.
It used to house a bakery, a fast food restaurant, a convienience store, a hairdresser, a sewing workroom, a daycare centre, a library and a pub. Originally it also housed a small supermarket, that was later turned into an office for the Taastrup municipality.
Not exactly progress, but wondering what the empty spot will be used for instead, it seems like it will be used for more housing for the elderly.
Next to the centre was a school, that has also been torn down and replaced with housing for the elderly, the only thing that remains of the school is a swimming pool and a sports hall.
Rønnevangscenteret wasn't exactly pretty before it was reduced to rubble, as you can see below, but it's still a loss to the local community.
Governor O'Malley gives remarks at reducing violence against women and children press conference by Tom Nappi at Arnold, Maryland
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I have been practicing as the registered dental hygienist for the last six years. I definitely start feeling affect on the body.
The biggest problem I have with my profession is maintaining proper posture, maintaining my own health, my back, neck, shoulders and all that. All the other hygienists talk about it as well. It is really important to focus on proper ergonomics, it is part of having a proper equipment to work with you know, investing in your health, something you do every day.
It is definitely worth it!
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The moving seat “forces” you to straighten your back, have a correct head position and pull your shoulders back, reducing stress on the trapezoid muscles and loosening the stiff cervical spine. The constant movement of the seat eliminates any possible blockage, thus relaxing a stiff neck.
SpinaliS chairs straighten round backs
The movement of the seat straightens the back in the thoracic kyphosis area, restoring the physiological shape of the spine into its natural position (the natural curve of the spine in the shape of the letter “S”). Eliminating a round back also lessens pressure to organs in the chest, especially the lungs and stomach, which leads to improved breathing and digestion.
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The stabilization of deep spinal muscles is all about strengthening muscles that stabilize the spine during all movements that we make. Deep stabilization plays an important role in protecting our spine against various loads and stress. Taking care of your spine requires constant exercising of deep stabilizing muscles, which in the sitting position is possible only on a Swiss ball or on a healthy SpinaliS chair.
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The movable seat of SpinaliS chairs swings forward while you lean over your desk, thereby allowing the spine to bend forward resuming lumbar lordosis at all times. Lumbar lordosis is important for optimal placement of the lumbar vertebrae as they are wedge-shaped (higher in the front, lower in the back). With the correct hip position there is a substantial reduction of pressure on the vertebrae and intervertebral discs, which allows for effective pain relief. In addition, the movable seat also reduces stress in the lower beck, unlike in the case of chairs with fixed seats, which can make sitting quite painful.
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Source of the music: bensound.com/
Reduced to raiding the fridge to find something to shoot tonight, and feeling a bit low on energy after playing football at lunchtime and tennis after work. So, keeping it simple, a couple of slices of lemon.
Lighting is from a (studio) flash through a softbox low to the left, with a gridded and snooted flash from the right.
With hundreds of lives being lost to drug overdoses each year, Delaware will hold a Drug Take-Back Day on Saturday, April 29, to help reduce the risk of prescription medications being diverted for misuse. Sens. Tom Carper and Chris Coons joined Attorney General Matt, DHSS Secretary Dr. Kara Odom Walker, Division of Public Health Director Dr. Karyl Rattay, DEA Assistant Special Agent Shawn Ellerman and Walgreens Regional Healthcare Director Jessica Puckett Beasley for Monday’s Drug Take-Back Day announcement at the Walgreens pharmacy in the Fairfax Shopping Center near Wilmington. Dr. Walker praised Walgreens for being the first private Delaware retailer to install safe medicine disposal boxes. Six of Delaware’s 21 permanent medicine drop-off locations are in Walgreens pharmacies. The remaining 15 permanent boxes are located in local law enforcement agencies.
Delawareans can discard their expired or unused medications at locations statewide between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. Saturday:
New Castle County
•Daniel S. Frawley Stadium, 801 Shipyard Drive, Wilmington
•Delaware City Police Department, 407 Clinton St., Delaware City
•New Castle County Airport, 151 N. DuPont Highway, New Castle
•Paul J. Sweeney Public Safety Building, 3601 N. DuPont Highway, New Castle
•Wilmington VA Medical Center, 1601 Kirkwood Highway, Wilmington
•Shipley Manor Nursing Home, 2723 Shipley Road, Wilmington
•Christiana Care Surgical Center, 4755 Ogletown Stanton Road, Newark
•University of Delaware – Laurel Hall, 282 The Green, Newark
•Delaware State Police Troop 2, 100 La Grange Ave., Newark
•Newark Police Department, 220 South Main St., Newark (permanent collection site)
•Walgreens, 1120 Pulaski Highway, Bear (permanent collection site)
•Walgreens, 6317 Limestone Road, Hockessin (permanent collection site)
•Walgreens, 2119 Concord Pike, Wilmington (permanent collection site)
Kent County
•Atlantic Apothecary, 103. S. Dupont Blvd., Suite 2, Smyrna
•Cheswold Police Department, 691 Main St., Cheswold
•Delaware State Police Troop 3, 3759 S. State St., Camden
•Heritage at Dover Assisted Living, 1203 Walker Road, Dover
•Walgreens, 1001 Forrest Ave., Dover (permanent collection site)
•Felton Police Department, 24 East Sewell St., Felton (permanent collection site)
•Milford Police Department, 400 N.E. Front St., Milford (permanent collection site)
Sussex County
•Dagsboro Police Department, 33134 Main St., Dagsboro
•Delaware State Police Troop 4, 23652 Shortly Road, Georgetown
•City of Lewes Board of Public Works, 129 Schley Ave., Lewes
•Delaware State Police Troop 7, 18006 Coastal Highway, Lewes
•Milton Police Department, 101 Federal St., Milton
•Beebe Medical Tunnell Center, 18947 John Jay Williams Highway, Rehoboth
•Rehoboth Beach Police Department, 229 Rehoboth Ave., Rehoboth
•CVS Pharmacy, 36252 Lighthouse Road, Selbyville
•Selbyville Town Hall, 68 W. Church St., Selbyville (permanent collection site)
•Ocean View Police Department, 201 Central Ave., Ocean View (permanent collection site)
•Laurel Police Department, 205 Mechanic St., Laurel (permanent collection site)
•Walgreens, 17239 Five Points Square, Lewes (permanent collection site)
•Walgreens, 22898 Sussex Highway, Seaford (permanent collection site)
Malaysia - Weightloss + Healthy breakfast
Reshape , So much more energy + reduced high blood pressure.
The Tripartite Action to Protect and Promote the Rights of Migrant Workers within and from the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS TRIANGLE) project aims to reduce the exploitation of labour migrants by contributing to the development of legal and safe recruitment channels and improved labour protection mechanisms.
Funded by AusAID, one specific mechanism of the GMS TRIANGLE project is managed cross-border migration services, as shown here in Lao PDR.
© ILO/A.DOW
Rehoming
Lati's 5nd Anniversary gift for Lati Blue dolls. Limited edition to 20 sets (came from Lati without shoes). Mint in package.
see notice
Please e-mail me: mareike.stumpf@gmail.com
* No FM, no comment, please *
left photo from latidoll.com
Kersh Wellness offers hassle free corporate wellness programs that reduce health care costs, increase participation, and improve employee health.
This is a screen shot of the Kersh Wellness health article cheery cherries may reduce inflammation page. These screen shots are for archival purposes.
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Title: Wellness
Description: Wellness designed to reduce health care costs, increase participation, and improve employee health.
Keywords: wellness programs, corporate wellness programs, wellness
This is a screenshot of Kersh Wellness Wellness. I'm using this for record-keeping. Since these are from a public internet, there's no reason why anyone wouldn't be able to use them so consider these photos to be licensed under a creative commons, share-alike license for non-commercial purposes. Feel fee to use them but please give credit to Kersh Wellness and link back to the Kersh Wellness website at www.kershwellness.com .
the longer stitch on the back is a guide to where the color fields meet.
spiritcloth.typepad.com/spirit_cloth/2010/01/disappearing...
Monastic foundation
The priory of St. Mary of Newstead, a house of Augustinian Canons, was founded by King Henry II of England about the year 1170,[1] as one of many penances he paid following the murder of Thomas Becket.[2] Contrary to its current name, Newstead was never an abbey: it was a priory.
In the late 13th century, the priory was rebuilt and extended. It was extended again in the 15th-century, when the Dorter, Great Hall and Prior's Lodgings were added.[1] The priory was designed to be home to at least 13 monks, although there appear to have been only 12 (including the Prior) at the time of the dissolution.[1]
The Valor Ecclesiasticus of 1534 gave the clear annual value of this priory as £167 16s. 11½d. The considerable deductions included 20s. given to the poor on Maundy Thursday in commemoration of Henry II, the founder, and a portion of food and drink similar to that of a canon given to some poor person every day, valued at 60s. a year.
Despite the annual value of Newstead being clearly below the £200 assigned as the limit for the suppression of the lesser monasteries, this priory obtained the doubtful privilege of exemption, on payment to the Crown of the heavy fine of £233 6s. 8d in 1537.
The surrender of the house was accomplished on 21 July 1539. The signatures attached were those of John Blake, prior, Richard Kychun, sub-prior, John Bredon, cellarer, and nine other canons, Robert Sisson, John Derfelde, William Dotton, William Bathley, Christopher Motheram, Geoffrey Acryth, Richard Hardwyke, Henry Tingker, and Leonard Alynson.
The prior obtained a pension of £26 13s. 4d., the sub-prior £6, and the rest of the ten canons who signed the surrender sums varying from £5 6s. 8d. to £3 6s. 8d.
The lake was dredged in the late eighteenth century and the lectern, thrown into the Abbey fishpond by the monks to save it during the Dissolution of the Monasteries, was discovered. In 1805 it was given to Southwell Minster by Archdeacon Kaye where it still resides.
Priors of Newstead
Eustace, 1216
Richard, 1216
Robert, 1234
William (late cellarer), 1241
William, 1267
John de Lexinton, resigned 1288
Richard de Hallam, 1288
Richard de Grange, 1293
William de Thurgarton, 1324
Hugh de Colingham, 1349
William de Colingham, resigned 1356
John de Wylesthorp, resigned 1366
William de Allerton, 1366
John de Hucknall, 1406
William Bakewell, 1417
Thomas Carleton, resigned 1424
Robert Cutwolfe, resigned 1424
William Misterton, 1455
John Durham, 1461
Thomas Gunthorp, 1467
William Sandale, 1504
John Blake, 1526[3]
Sir John Byron of Colwick in Nottinghamshire was granted Newstead Abbey by Henry VIII of England on 26 May 1540 and started its conversion into a country house. He was succeeded by his son Sir John Byron of Clayton Hall. Many additions were made to the original building. The 13th century ecclesiastical buildings were largely ruined during the dissolution of the monasteries. It then passed to John Byron, an MP and Royalist commander, who was created a baron in 1643. He died childless in France and ownership transferred to his brother Richard Byron. Richard's son William was a minor poet and was succeeded in 1695 by his son William Byron, 4th Baron Byron. Early in the 18th century, the 4th Lord Byron landscaped the gardens extensively, and amassed a hugely admired collection of artistic masterpieces.
During the ownership of William, 5th Baron Byron, the Abbey suffered a downturn in fortunes. As a young man, William lavished money on the estate, building picturesque Gothic follies and staging glamorous mock navy battles on the lake.[4] Continuing to take out loans and pursue his pleasures of horse-racing, gambling, and going to the theatre, he found himself financially reliant on a scheme of marrying off his only surviving son and heir to a wealthy heiress. The plan fell apart when his heir eloped with his cousin Juliana Byron, daughter of William's brother John Byron.
Though late 18th-century gossip attested that he ruined the estate, felled trees, and killed deer while hellbent on revenge, this is not the case – he simply had no money to pay his debts, and stripped the Abbey and estate of its artistic treasures, furniture, and even its trees, to quickly raise cash.[5] Though he made thousands of pounds it was not enough to pay back the loans he had been taking out since his thirties, and there was no hope of restoring the Abbey to its former glory.
As well as outliving all four of his children William also outlived his only grandson, who was killed by cannon fire in 1794 while fighting in Corsica at the age of 22. The 5th Lord died on 21 May 1798, at the age of 75.[6] Later, 19th-century myths attest that on his death, the great numbers of crickets he kept at Newstead left the estate in swarms. The title and Newstead Abbey were then left to his great-nephew, George Gordon Byron, then aged 10, who became the 6th Baron Byron and later the famous and notorious poet.
Lord Byron
The young Lord Byron soon arrived at Newstead and was greatly impressed by the estate. The scale of the estate contributed to Byron's extravagant taste and sense of his own importance. However, no less impressive was the scale of problems at Newstead, where the yearly income had fallen to just £800 and many repairs were needed. He and his mother soon moved to the nearby town of Southwell and neither lived permanently at Newstead for any extended period. His view of the decayed Newstead became one of the romantic ruin, a metaphor for his family's fall:
Thro' thy battlements, Newstead, the hollow winds whistle;
Thou, the hall of my fathers, art gone to decay.
The estate was leased to the 23-year-old Henry Edward Yelverton, 19th Baron Grey de Ruthyn, from January 1803. The lease was for £50 a year for the Abbey and Park for five years, until Byron came of age. Byron stayed for some time in 1803 with Lord Grey, before they fell out badly.
In 1808, Lord Grey left at the end of his lease and Byron returned to live at Newstead and began extensive and expensive renovations. His works were mainly decorative, however, rather than structural, so that rain and damp obscured his changes within just a few years.
Byron had a beloved Newfoundland dog named Boatswain, who died of rabies in 1808. Boatswain was buried at Newstead Abbey and has a monument larger than his master's. The inscription, from Byron's poem Epitaph to a Dog, has become one of his best-known works:
The poem Epitaph to a Dog as inscribed on Boatswain's monument
Near this Spot
Are deposited the Remains
of one
Who possessed Beauty
Without Vanity,
Strength without Insolence,
Courage without Ferosity,
And all the Virtues of Man
without his Vices.
This Praise, which would be unmeaning flattery
If inscribed over Human Ashes,
Is but a just tribute to the Memory of
"Boatswain," a Dog
Who was born at Newfoundland,
May, 1803,
And died at Newstead Abbey
Nov. 18, 1808.
Byron had wanted to be buried with Boatswain, although he would ultimately be buried in the family vault at the nearby Church of St Mary Magdalene, Hucknall.
He was determined to stay at Newstead—"Newstead and I stand or fall together"—and he hoped to raise a mortgage on the property, but his advisor John Hanson urged a sale. This would be a preoccupation for many years and was certainly not resolved when Byron left for his Mediterranean travels in 1809. Upon his return to England in 1811, Byron stayed in London, not returning to see his mother who had been living in Newstead. She died, leaving him distraught at his own negligence of her. He lived again at the Abbey for a time but was soon drawn to life in London.
For the next few years, Byron made several attempts to sell the Abbey. It was put up at auction in 1812 but failed to reach a satisfactory price. A buyer was found, however, who offered £140,000, which was accepted. By spring 1813, though, the buyer, Thomas Claughton, had only paid £5,000 of the agreed down-payment. Byron was in debt and had continued to spend money on the expectation that the house would be sold. Negotiations began to degenerate and Byron accused Claughton of robbing the wine cellar. By August 1814, it was clear that the sale had fallen through, and Claughton forfeited what he had paid of the deposit. Byron was now without settled financial means and proposed marriage to the heiress Anne Isabella Milbanke. Claughton did return with new proposals involving a reduced price and further delays. Byron turned him down.
Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem Lines Suggested on Visiting Newstead Abbey accompanies an engraving of Newstead Abbey after a painting by Thomas Allom (Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839). This poem is mainly a reflection on Byron and what it means to be a poet. Miss Landon may have visited Newstead Abbey on one of her visits to her uncle in Aberford, Yorkshire.
Newstead Abbey (1975)
In July 1815, Newstead was once again put up for auction but failed to reach its reserve, bought in at 95,000 guineas. It was only during Byron's exile in Italy, in 1818, that a buyer was found.[7] Thomas Wildman, who had been at Harrow School with Byron and was heir to Jamaican plantations, paid £94,500, easing Byron's financial troubles considerably.
Wildman too spent a great deal of money on the Abbey and its contents, restoring it to some greatness. The architect John Shaw Sr. designed new parts of the abbey for Wildman.
William Frederick Webb
In 1861, William Frederick Webb, African explorer, bought the Abbey from Wildman's widow. People including David Livingstone, Abdullah Susi, James Chuma and Jacob Wainwright all visited the Abbey at different times during the period Webb lived there.[8] Under Webb, the chapel was redecorated, but the rest of the house remained largely unaltered. After his death in 1899, the estate passed to each of his surviving children and finally to his grandson Charles Ian Fraser. Fraser sold Newstead to local philanthropist Sir Julien Cahn, who presented it to Nottingham Corporation in 1931.
Today
Newstead Abbey in June 2015.
The Abbey is owned by Nottingham City Council and houses a museum containing Byron memorabilia. It plays host to weddings and other events.
Magnis is the location of the Magnis is the location of the Roman Army Museum run by the Vindolanda Trust. Like the museum at Vindolanda, the Roman Army Museum was modernised and reopened in 2011. The museum illustrates frontier life on the northern edge of the Roman Empire. The museum displays genuine Roman artifacts including weapons and tools; life-size replicas; a 3D film showing Hadrian's Wall past and present, and a large timeline of Hadrian's Wall. There is a gallery devoted to the emperor Hadrian himself. A large gallery describes daily life in the Roman army as seen through the eyes of a team of eight auxiliary soldiers, complete with a film showing their activities. Notable exhibits include a rare surviving helmet crest. run by the Vindolanda Trust. Like the museum at Vindolanda, the Roman Army Museum was modernised and reopened in 2011. The museum illustrates frontier life on the northern edge of the Roman Empire. The museum displays genuine Roman artifacts including weapons and tools; life-size replicas; a 3D film showing Hadrian's Wall past and present, and a large timeline of Hadrian's Wall. There is a gallery devoted to the emperor Hadrian himself. A large gallery describes daily life in the Roman army as seen through the eyes of a team of eight auxiliary soldiers, complete with a film showing their activities. Notable exhibits include a rare surviving helmet crest.
Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.
Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.
The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.
Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.
Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.
History
Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.
The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.
The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.
Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.
Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.
Roman invasion
The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.
The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.
The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.
Establishment of Roman rule
After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.
On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.
While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.
There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.
In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.
For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.
Roman military organisation in the north
In 84 AD
In 84 AD
In 155 AD
In 155 AD
Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall
There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.
Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.
A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.
In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.
The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.
During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.
In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.
The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.
3rd century
The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.
Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.
The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.
Northern campaigns, 208–211
An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.
As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.
During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.
Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.
The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.
Diocletian's reforms
As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).
The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.
Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.
The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.
The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.
Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.
In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.
A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.
4th century
Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.
In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.
As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.
Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.
End of Roman rule
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.
The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.
Sub-Roman Britain
Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.
In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.
Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.
Trade
During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.
Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.
These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.
It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.
From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.
Economy
Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.
The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.
By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.
Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.
Government
Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.
To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.
Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.
Demographics
Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.
Town and country
During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.
Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.
Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C
Alcester (Alauna)
Alchester
Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C
Bath (Aquae Sulis) C
Brough (Petuaria) C
Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)
Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C
Caernarfon (Segontium) C
Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C
Caister-on-Sea C
Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C
Carlisle (Luguvalium) C
Carmarthen (Moridunum) C
Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)
Chester (Deva Victrix) C
Chester-le-Street (Concangis)
Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C
Cirencester (Corinium) C
Colchester (Camulodunum) C
Corbridge (Coria) C
Dorchester (Durnovaria) C
Dover (Portus Dubris)
Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C
Gloucester (Glevum) C
Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)
Ilchester (Lindinis) C
Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C
Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C
London (Londinium) C
Manchester (Mamucium) C
Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)
Northwich (Condate)
St Albans (Verulamium) C
Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C
Towcester (Lactodurum)
Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C
Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C
Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C
York (Eboracum) C
Religion
The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.
The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.
Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.
Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).
Christianity
It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.
The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.
A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.
Environmental changes
The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas
Legacy
During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.
Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe
In commemoration of World Environment Day 2011, the U.S. Mission sponsored Mona Sfeir’s “Recycling Labyrinth.” This large scale installation art work was composed of 8,000 plastic bottles, the same number of bottles that go into landfills worldwide every second. The exhibit was installed in the beautiful gardens of the Palais des Nations in Geneva.
The focus of this work of art was to call attention to the challenge of global waste management. “To reduce, reuse and recycle are very important steps in dealing with our waste and this strategy has long been the focus for many environmentalist," according to the artist, Mona Sfeir. "However, I made this piece together with local volunteers to emphasize that it is time for us to eliminate the concept of waste all together. We need to develop solutions that bring environmentalists and industrialists together with the common goals of living harmoniously with our planet and creating human prosperity—this can only happen if we redesign our products and packaging from the very beginning.”
U.S Mission Photo by Eric Bridiers
Watch the video about this project on YouTube:
I did...a little more drastically than the sign suggested perhaps.
Filthy rainy weather, man in front brakes sharply at 60mph, i brake sharply to avoid going into back of him and swerve. Car spins out, crosses (fortunately empty) outside lane, mounts verge at which point i turn again to avoid a head on with concrete wall, drivers side of car bounces off said wall (Hello whiplash...) and turns 90 degrees to end up where you see it here.
The insurance company are pricing repairs...I think it might be a write off...we shall see.
It should be noted, that fortunately I wasn't injured and noone else was involved.
Inspired by the work of Carol Simmons and her students, this my first attempt at a complex cane. I've started the reduction and on the whole it's going well but it isn't quite even.
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AM I PAYING TO BE PROMOTED?
No. You are paying for the seminars, and while I strongly encourage everyone to be present for the seminars, it is not required. You may show up for the second half only. But, again, I strongly encourage everyone to be present for the seminars. It helps us with organization, expresses to the instructors that you are interested in learning, and fosters a team oriented environment.
WHAT ARE THE STANDARDS FOR BEING PROMOTED?
Under the Capital flag you must demonstrate the 3 Ts: time on the mat, toughness and technique. Visualize a triangle, where technique is on top. On the bottom are time and toughness. Those who are very tough might have the time requirement reduced (but not below the minimum). Those with a great deal of time might have the toughness requirement reduced. Also, other variables may be taken into consideration. For example, one of our newest members is beginning his Jiu-Jitsu journey at 70 years young! Modifications will be made to ensure his journey is both challenge and rewarding!
WHAT ARE THE TIME REQUIREMENTS?
A blue belt takes an average of 1.5 years. A purple belt takes an average of 5 years. A brown belt takes an average of 7 years. A black belt takes an average of 10+ years. Most of the practitioners who tested for black belt had between 12 and 17 years of experience, and the pass rate was about 50%.
WHO MAKES THE DECISION FOR ADVANCEMENT?
Three instructors, including at least one black belt, must approve any promotion.
WHY DOES THE FORMAT KEEP CHANGING?
It’s been consistent for the last two years. However, we do expect that slight changes will be made as time goes on. We always seek feedback from students, peers and our instructors to make things better. The current format is: seminars (optional), sparring, promotions, gauntlet (optional), and group picture.
ETIQUETTE
At promotions events every practitioner should wear a laundered Capital branded white training kimono. This is the equivalent of wearing formal attire for a special occasion, like a wedding. Also, it is extremely impolite to ask an instructor about being promoted.
WHAT DOES THE NAVY BLUE BAR MEAN?
Royce Gracie and the Valente Brothers wanted to honor Helio Gracie’s life and legacy by wearing the navy blue belt that Helio wore. Going forward they are asking representatives to wear the navy bar (excluding white belts and new black belts). For more information about Grandmaster Helio Gracie’s decision to wear the navy belt visit: graciekentucky.blogspot.com/2010/06/why-did-grandmaster-h...
DO YOU HAVE ANY SUGGESTIONS FOR PUTTING A NAVY BAR ON MY BELT?
The easiest thing to do is purchase athletic tape: www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_noss_2?url=search-alias%3Daps&...
I BELIEVE YOU MADE AN ERROR REGARDING MEMBER X, BY PROMOTING/NOT PROMOTING HIM….
Think about a Jiu-Jitsu competition. Is it possible, from time to time, for the referee to make an error? Of course! It is also possible for the decision makers at our semiannual gatherings to make errors. However, as practitioners progress, more scrutiny is applied to their rank, and ultimately 40 - 60 black belts will test them. At that time practitioners must demonstrate the complete stand-up self-defense curriculum, striking, clinching, grappling and philosophy (the 753 Code).
I caution those who dwell on the rank progress of others, especially as it compares to their own. Instead I encourage you to apply your vigilance to your own journey in the gentile art.
DO I NEED TO BE AT THE PROMOTIONS EVENT?
To be promoted to the next color belt, yes. Technically, to be promoted with stripes on the purple and brown belt, also yes. However, we needed to honor time constraints at Saturday's event, and stripes for deserving practitioners will be awarded this week and in January.
IS THE GAUNTLET HAZING?
What is the difference between a healthy ritual and hazing? What in fact is hazing? According to Wikipedia: "Hazing is the practice of rituals and other activities involving harassment, abuse or humiliation used as a way of initiating a person into a group.” Does the gauntlet qualify?
Couldn’t we define the gauntlet as a rite of passage? Google defines a rite of passage as, "a ceremony or event marking an important stage in someone's life, especially birth, puberty, marriage, and death.” While I don’t know of any peer reviewed research articles, the overwhelming consensus is that there are tremendous psychological benefits to being included in a rite of passage.
There’s also acknowledging that our ritual is far less dangerous than the activities which led to it. Whether it’s the rigorous exercise, intense sparring rounds, competitions or the black belt test. In fact, Professor Pedro Valente noted that we are training to be effective in a proven fighting system. To take a hit is not only to be initiated, it's an essential component of our training.
I am not familiar with many of the reasons why people haze, and personally, I have never been involved in a hazing ritual. The gauntlet is our rite of passage; a tradition handed down to us by our elders. I am opposed to taking away or intensifying the gauntlet tradition. Our tradition is about the student, and I don’t believe that practitioners at Capital MMA experience some perverse pleasure in seeing people suffer. Rather, we are celebrating with the newly inducted.
I believe that the gauntlet tradition should only be carried on in the presence of the black belt instructors, exclusively at our semiannual promotions events. Also, it is our charge as black belts to educate junior members of our tradition, and how we conduct ourselves during the rite of passage. Injury, abuse and humiliation are never our objectives.
Finally, this tradition is, and always will be, optional. However, our requirements for being promoted are not. The rigor, intensity, and sacrifice experienced by senior practitioners is significant.
In commemoration of World Environment Day 2011, the U.S. Mission sponsored Mona Sfeir’s “Recycling Labyrinth.” This large scale installation art work was composed of 8,000 plastic bottles, the same number of bottles that go into landfills worldwide every second. The exhibit was installed in the beautiful gardens of the Palais des Nations in Geneva.
The focus of this work of art was to call attention to the challenge of global waste management. “To reduce, reuse and recycle are very important steps in dealing with our waste and this strategy has long been the focus for many environmentalist," according to the artist, Mona Sfeir. "However, I made this piece together with local volunteers to emphasize that it is time for us to eliminate the concept of waste all together. We need to develop solutions that bring environmentalists and industrialists together with the common goals of living harmoniously with our planet and creating human prosperity—this can only happen if we redesign our products and packaging from the very beginning.”
U.S Mission Photo by Eric Bridiers
Watch the video about this project on YouTube:
Pressure-induced transitions are associated with near 2-fold volume expansions. While an increase in volume with pressure is counterintuitive, the resulting new phases contain large fluid-filled pores, such that the combined solid + fluid volume is reduced and the inefficiencies in space filling by the interpenetrated parent phase are eliminated. Read more »