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The question almost everyone asks after seeing this image is "What is that they're holding?"
The answer is "Why, the Brown Scapular, of course!"
In the Spanish-speaking world, this image is known as Nuestra Señora del Carmen. Here, she's Our Lady of Mount Carmel.
According to Wikipedia:
Our Lady of Mount Carmel is the title given to the Blessed Virgin Mary in her role as patroness of the Carmelite Order. The first Carmelites were Christian hermits living on Mount Carmel in the Holy Land during the late 12th and early to mid-13th century.
Since the 15th century, popular devotion to Our Lady of Mount Carmel has centered on the Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, also known as the Brown Scapular, a sacramental associated with promises of Mary's special aid for the salvation of the devoted wearer.
Traditionally, Mary is said to have given the Scapular to an early Carmelite named Saint Simon Stock. The liturgical feast of Our Lady of Mount Carmel is celebrated on 16 July.
A 1996 doctrinal statement approved by the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments states that
"Devotion to Our Lady of Mount Carmel is bound to the history and spiritual values of the Order of the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel and is expressed through the scapular. Thus, whoever receives the scapular becomes a member of the order and pledges him/herself to live according to its spirituality in accordance with the characteristics of his/her state in life."
According to the Church on the Brown Scapular:
"The scapular is a Marian habit or garment. It is both a sign and pledge. A sign of belonging to Mary; a pledge of her motherly protection, not only in this life but after death. As a sign, it is a conventional sign signifying three elements strictly joined: first, belonging to a religious family particularly devoted to Mary, especially dear to Mary, the Carmelite Order; second, consecration to Mary, devotion to and trust in her Immaculate Heart; third, an urge to become like Mary by imitating her virtues, above all her humility, chastity, and spirit of prayer."
Since the Middle Ages, Our Lady of Mount Carmel has been related to Purgatory, where souls are purged of sins in the fires.
In some images, she is portrayed as accompanied with angels and souls wearing Brown Scapulars, who plead for her mediation.
In 1613, the Church forbade images to be made of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel descending into purgatory, due to errors being preached about certain privileges associated with the Brown Scapular (known as "the Sabbatine Privilege").
That privilege appears in the noted Decree of the Holy Office (1613). It was inserted in its entirety (except for the words forbidding the painting of the pictures) into the list of the indulgences and privileges of the Confraternity of the Scapular of Mount Carmel.
In the 21st century, the Carmelites do not promote the Sabbatine Privilege. They encourage a belief in Mary's general aid and prayerful assistance for their souls beyond death, especially her aid to those who devoutly wear the Brown Scapular, and commend devotion to Mary especially on Saturdays, which are dedicated to her.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Mount_Carmel
Cathedral Basilica of Montevideo, Uruguay.
Marcus
While out clicking my daily photos of the isthmus, I found myself admiring what has become quite the undertaking on the 100 Block of State Street. Lot's of private money has been put into a project tear down and rebuild several historic buildings on the block. and while I can't say I totally agree it's fun to see the changes unfold. As I looked through my viewfinder I saw out of the corner of my eye I saw a man watching me in a Wisconsin winter jacket, he seemed intrigued about my clicks so I decided to extend a word. He (being Marcus) asked me if I was a photographer, and being a smart ass I replied with a chuckle "Being one with a camera, I do suppose that make's me a photographer." He was such a good spirit and laughed along, as we discussed the changes to one of the existing buildings on the 100 Block I gave my usual speech explaining who I am and what I do. He thought it was a great idea to capture these fading buildings as they were and as they grow into a new skin of sorts. When I asked him if I would be able to click his photographed he smiled and agreed: While at first he seemed a little uncomfortable by the time I composed and exposed my third frame he fit perfectly in frame with the question mark in the window of the recently reopened central library building. I extended my hand and formally introduced myself as Chris aka local paparazzi, and he informed his name was Marcus. Such a simple name to remember especially with the large question mark in the background, we parted ways leading onward with the evening knowing that we were no longer strangers. I place his photo along side many others in my 100 more strangers project album as well as the 100 strangers group on flickr, as there are many talented photographers sharing stores and portraits of strangers from all across the world. Check it out if you feel like seeing some awesome portraits, and just maybe find yourself inspired enough to do your own project!
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New blog celebrating my philosophy of photography with tips, insights, and tutorials!
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Nikon D800E Beautiful Swimsuit Bikini Model Goddess! Nikon AF-S NIKKOR 70-200mm f/2.8G ED VR II Lens!
Epic Goddess Straight Out of Hero's Odyssey Mythology! Pretty Model! :) Tall, thin, fit and beautiful!
Welcome to your epic hero's odyssey! The beautiful 45surf goddess sisters hath called ye to adventure, beckoning ye to read deeply Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, whence ye shall learn of yer own exalted artistic path guided by Hero's Odyssey Mythology. I wouldn't be saying it if it hadn't happened to me.
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She was a beauty--a gold 45 goddess for sure! A Gold 45 Goddess exalts the archetypal form of Athena--the Greek Goddess of wisdom, warfare, strategy, heroic endeavour, handicrafts and reason. A Gold 45 Goddess guards the beauty of dx4/dt=ic and embodies 45SURF's motto "Virtus, Honoris, et Actio Pro Veritas, Amor, et Bellus, (Strength, Honor, and Action for Truth, Love, and Beauty," and she stands ready to inspire and guide you along your epic, heroic journey into art and mythology. It is Athena who descends to call Telemachus to Adventure in the first book of Homer's Odyssey--to man up, find news of his true father Odysseus, and rid his home of the false suitors, and too, it is Athena who descends in the first book of Homer's Iliad, to calm the Rage of Achilles who is about to draw his sword so as to slay his commander who just seized Achilles' prize, thusly robbing Achilles of his Honor--the higher prize Achilles fought for. And now Athena descends once again, assuming the form of a Gold 45 Goddess, to inspire you along your epic journey of heroic endeavour.
ALL THE BEST on your Epic Hero's Odyssey from Johnny Ranger McCoy!
Modeling the Gold 45 Revolver Gold'N'Virtue swimsuit. :)
A laid-back,classic, socal lifestyle shoot!
May the 45surf goddesses inspire you along am artistic journey of your own making!
All 45surf Hero's Odyssey Mythology Photography is shot in the honor of Truth, Beauty, and the Light of Physicist Dr. E's Moving Dimensions Theory's dx4/dt=ic . The fourth dimension is expanding relative to the three spatial dimensions at the rate of c. Ergo relativity, time, entropy, and entanglement.
All the best on your Epic Hero's Odyssey from Johnny Ranger McCoy!
New blog celebrating my philosophy of photography with tips, insights, and tutorials!
Ask me any questions! :)
Pretty! Nikon D800E Beautiful Swimsuit Bikini Model Goddess! Nikon AF-S NIKKOR 70-200mm f/2.8G ED VR II Lens!
All the best on your Epic, Homeric, Heroic Odyssey into the Art of Photography from Johnny Ranger McCoy!
Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni, or simply the Buddha, was a sage on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in northeastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.
The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in a Yuga era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of the present age. Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the śramaṇa movement common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala.
Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.
CONTENTS
HISTORICAL SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA
Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajasattu, who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara. Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential śramaṇa schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jainism, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahavira, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by. Indeed, Sariputta and Moggallāna, two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the skeptic. There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques. While the general sequence of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" is widely accepted, there is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in traditional biographies.
The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE. More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death. These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.
The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE. It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch. According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilavastu, which may have been in either present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India. He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagar.
No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One Edict of Asoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edicts mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Gāndhārī language using the Kharosthi script on twenty-seven birch bark manuscripts and date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.
TRADITIONAL BIOGRAPHIES
BIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā. Of these, the Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE. The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. The Nidānakathā is from the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century by Buddhaghoṣa.
From canonical sources, the Jataka tales, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.
NATURE OF TRADITIONAL DEPICTIONS
In the earliest Buddhists texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience (sabbaññu) nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such as the Mahāvastu. In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (abhijñā). The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty five year career as a teacher.
Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supra-mundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma". Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.
Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:
It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist. British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure. Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.
BIOGRAPHY
CONCEPTION AND BIRTH
The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha. He grew up in Kapilavastu. The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India, or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal. Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.
Gautama was born as a Kshatriya, the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan", whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Maya (Māyādevī), Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.
The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Buddha's Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal and India as he is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great sadhu. By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kondañña, the youngest, and later to be the first arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.
While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.
Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition. The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the śramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.
EARLY LIFE AND MARRIAGE
Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati. By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.
When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account, she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.
RENUNCIATION AND ASCETIC LIFE
At the age of 29, the popular biography continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome aging, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.
Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. It's said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods" to prevent guards from knowing of his departure.
Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment.
He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra). With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.
Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha was rescued by a village girl named Sujata and she gave him some payasam (a pudding made from milk and jaggery) after which Siddhartha got back some energy. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's ploughing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhāna.
AWAKENING
According to the early Buddhist texts, after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way - a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata. Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.
Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment. According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").
According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths", which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states, or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.
According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) - a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons - immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.
FORMATION OF THE SANGHA
After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan - who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.
He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.
All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.
TRAVELS AND TEACHING
For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.
The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.
The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.
Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.
Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:
"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."
The Buddha is said to have replied:
"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."
Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.
Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.
In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.
MAHAPARINIRVANA
According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha. Mettanando and Von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning. The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.
Waley suggests that Theravadin's would take suukaramaddava (the contents of the Buddha's last meal), which can translate as pig-soft, to mean soft flesh of a pig. However, he also states that pig-soft could mean "pig's soft-food", that is, after Neumann, a soft food favoured by pigs, assumed to be a truffle. He argues (also after Neumann) that as Pali Buddhism was developed in an area remote to the Buddha's death, the existence of other plants with suukara- (pig) as part of their names and that "(p)lant names tend to be local and dialectical" could easily indicate that suukaramaddava was a type of plant whose local name was unknown to those in the Pali regions. Specifically, local writers knew more about their flora than Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa who lived hundreds of years and kilometres remote in time and space from the events described. Unaware of an alternate meaning and with no Theravadin prohibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would not have questioned the Buddha eating meat and interpreted the term accordingly.
Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy:
44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds - the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!"
The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things (Saṅkhāra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence" (Pali: 'vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā'). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.
According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the coronation of Emperor Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of the Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Emperor Aśoka is 116 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE. whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.
At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.
While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, Shākyamuni, Shākyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana as Arihant, Bhagavā/Bhagavat/Bhagwān, Mahāvira, Jina/Jinendra, Sāstr, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as Tathāgata.
BUDDHA AND VEDAS
Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas and consequently [at least atheistic] Buddhism is generally viewed as a nāstika school (heterodox, literally "It is not so") from the perspective of orthodox Hinduism.
RELICS
After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided amongst 8 royal families and his disciples; centuries later they would be enshrined by King Ashoka into 84,000 stupas. Many supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man".
The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive." (D, I:115)
"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A, I:181)
A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances.
Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D, I:142). In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").
Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.
NINE VIRTUES
Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called Buddhānusmṛti. The nine virtues are also among the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka, and include:
- Buddho – Awakened
- Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened
- Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.
- Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken.
- Lokavidu – Wise in the knowledge of the many worlds.
- Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.
- Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.
- Bhagavathi – The Blessed one
- Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge."
TEACHINGS
TRACING THE OLDEST TEACHINGS
Information of the oldest teachings may be obtained by analysis of the oldest texts. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon and other texts. The reliability of these sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute. According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.
According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:
"Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials;"
"Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"
"Cautious optimism in this respect."
DHYANA AND INSIGHT
A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight. Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36
CORE TEACHINGS
According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyāna. Bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a Buddhist invention, whereas Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release [...] was by means of meditative practices." Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.
According to the Mahāsaccakasutta, from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to. "Liberating insight" is a later addition to this text, and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism. The mentioning of the four truths as constituting "liberating insight" introduces a logical problem, since the four truths depict a linear path of practice, the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating:
[T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths, but by practicing the fourth noble truth, the eightfold path, which culminates in right samadhi.
Although "Nibbāna" (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the common term for the desired goal of this practice, many other terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not specified.
According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way". In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.
According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or "liberating insight", in the suttas in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the four jhanas. According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight". Gotama's teachings may have been personal, "adjusted to the need of each person."
The three marks of existence may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.R. Norman supposes that these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and were familiar to his listeners.
The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanic term; but its usage may have been common to the Sramana traditions.
LATER DEVELOPMENTS
In time, "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition. The following teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight":
- The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and fear of annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this;
- The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration;
- Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process.
OTHER RELIGIONS
Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu. The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyya Muslims and a Manifestation of God in the Bahá'í Faith. Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.
The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph. The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha. Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August).
Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship the Buddha as a major religious teacher. His image can be found in both their Holy See and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and Confucius.
In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the word of God before Mani.
WIKIPEDIA
so since I was tagged by like 7 people for this I figured I should probably actually do it xD
1:From all the dolls you own,who is your favorite and why.
without any doubt, Lena.
Lena is my oldest and most significant character.
I'd say that I definitely have days where I favor other dolls as far as who I want to play with, but Lena will always be my favorite.
2:Explain how you managed to get into BJD collecting.
one of my best friends went to an anime convention where junkyspot was vending, and she decided that she wanted one.
when she was waiting for her first doll and after she got him she was sending me tons of pictures and I thought they were really neat and that I'd like to have one but didn't really know what I wanted.
then I realized that I could sort of use them as a way to make my roleplay characters real, so I started to look for a doll that I thought could work for what I wanted and ended up ordering my dollzone aimi in december of '09.
3:Name the very first doll you ever bought.
Like I said above, that was my dollzone aimi.
at the time I had intended her to be Lena, but in the end she just really didn't quite ever fit for me; so I decided to reshell Lena as a minifee ryeon and developed a new character, Livi, for the aimi 'cause I love her to bits even if she didn't work out quite as I'd originally planned.
4:Which doll do you plan to buy next?
well it may sort of depend on a couple of things, but right now I'm planning to try and get my second minifee next.
I'm still not sure exactly what face sculpt I think will work best for the character though 'cause I was thinking karsh, but I'm super indecisive and probably won't actually settle on one until I can actually afford her xD
I'm also lusting hardcore for realpuki pupu, so if he were to become available when I have the money I'm not sure I'd be able to pass him up.
5:Are you currently waiting on any dolls?
nope.
I'm currently pretty broke after purchasing my new camera, so no new dollies for me right now xD
6:How many dolls do you currently have?
I currently have 2 minis, 1 pukifee, 1 pukipuki, 1 floating multihead, and sort of 2 floating yosd size heads that I don't actually have in my possession right now (but I wouldn't say that I'm waiting on them 'cause they weren't purchases)
7:Name the very last doll you bought.
Lena, my minifee ryeon.
and Nomi, my juri multihead came along with her as a free event gift.
8:What is the worst thing about this hobby?
drama.
but I think that's really an issue in any hobby.
9:What is the best thing about this hobby?
the friends that I've made for sure, some of my best friends are people who I've either met or grown closer to through the doll hobby.
also all of the offshoot hobbies that have come from bjd collecting.
I've always sewn, but not as seriously as I do now that I sew for dolls 'cause I guess I've kind of finally found the type of sewing I'm best at, and I've gotten much more into photography of both dolls and other things since I started collecting.
10:Which is your best dolly photo (of yours)
I really don't know.
it kind of changes all the time.
like, currently I'm quite fond of "forever yours.", the photo that I took of Lena and Erin together on saturday.
actually though, I'd be curious to see what you all think my best photo is?
11:Which is your favourite BJD company?
fairyland, as if that wasn't abundantly obvious xD
but I'm also quite fond of pipos and alchemic labo
12:Who are on your wish list?
like I said before, minifee girl of undetermined sculpt to be izzy. realpuki pupu. possibly souldoll lester to be michael, but I'm still holding out hope for more options in that size range. bodies for my floating heads. and I'd really love to have a lusis/minifee hybrid, but I don't know who she'd be so she's not on the priority list xD
13: Are there any dolls you wished you had never purchased?
nope.
I buy dolls because I want them, and even if that want doesn't last and I end up selling them I did still want them at one point so what is there to regret.
14: Who's your favourite face up artists?
well currently I have dolls painted by mendokusai and tsuminaki, so obviously I'm very fond of their work.
I also really love xhanthi's work and would love to have a doll painted by her at some point.
15:What is a must when considering a purchase/pose ability/faceup/age/etc?
pose ability is pretty important to me 'cause I have pretty high standards since both dollzone minis and all fairyland dolls are fantastic posers; but in the end, whether or not the sculpt is what will work best for the character is most important since most of the dolls I have plans for are pre-existing characters of mine that I already have clear pictures of in my head.
and I'm not actually tagging anyone, I'm just tagging the people who tagged me so they actually see my answers.
if you haven't already been tagged by someone to do this and you want to do it then have at it!
Set a duration for each candidate interview and stick to it. Brevity is important for you and the candidate. Each of the established questions should have a basic time limit. 5 questions, 10 minutes for each, plus 10 minutes of lead in time makes an hour. Keep the interview to 1 hour if possible. 1.5 hours to 2 hours should be the maximum length. Longer interviews are not helpful. Schedule a follow up interview if you wish.
Nikon D810 Fine Art Landscape Photos John Muir & Ansel Adams Country-- Eastern and Western Yosemite! Dr. Elliot McGucken Fine Art Nature Photography!
Nikon D810 Fine Art Photos John Muir Country-- Kings Canyon & Sequoia! Dr. Elliot McGucken Fine Art Photography during a Breaking Thunderstorm with Majestic and Interesting Skies!
I always love getting away and photographing John Muir Country--Yosemite, Kings Canyon & Sequoia in California I also shot it all with the Sony A7r as well as the Nikon D810 and the wonderful Nikon 14-24mm f/2.8G ED AF-S Nikkor Wide Angle Zoom Lens as well as the new Tamron AFA012N700 15-30 mm f/2.8-Di VC Wide-Angle Lens for Nikon F (FX) Cameras and the Nikon 28-300mm f/3.5-5.6G ED VR AF-S Nikkor Zoom Lens !
I hope that you enjoy browsing through my photos and comparing and contrasting the Nikon D810, Sony A7r, Sony A7rII, and the various lenses!
Long story short, you can't go wrong!
The Sony A7r and the Nikon D810 have the same sensor! While the D810 saves the RAW in 14bit lossless compressed (or uncompressed0, the A7r performs a bit of lossy compression, which I have never noticed, but which some say they have!
At any rate, I am super excited for the Nikon's next camera as well as for the recently released Sony A7rII Mirrorless Digital Camera which I now own! Some highlights include a 42 MP Full-Frame Exmor R BSI CMOS Sensor, a
BIONZ X Image Processor,
Internal UHD 4K Video & S-Log2 Gamma, and a
5-Axis SteadyShot INSIDE Stabilization system! You can see some of my fine art photos from the amazing camera in my photostream, with many more to come!
And I have a feeling that Nikon will be releasing something epic soon--a 50mp+ camera with awesome dynamic range!
An important thing to remember is that even though pixel sizes keep getting smaller and smaller, the technology is advancing, so the smaller pixels are more efficient at collecting light. For instance, the Sony A7RII is back-illuminated which allows more photons to hit the sensor. Semiconductor technology is always advancing, so the brilliant engineers are always improving the signal/noise ratio. Far higher pixel counts, as well as better dynamic ranger, are thus not only possible, but the future!
Yes I have a Ph.D. in physics! I worked on phototranistors and photodiodes as well as an artificial retina for the blind. :)
You can read more about my own physics theory (dx4/dt=ic) here: herosodysseyphysics.wordpress.com/
And follow me on instagram! @45surf
Facebook!
www.facebook.com/elliot.mcgucken
www.facebook.com/45surfAchillesOdysseyMythology
Compare these D810 shots with the photos taken with the Sony A7r and new Sony 16-35mm Vario-Tessar T FE F4 ZA OSS E-Mount Lens!
After looking through my work,what do you think about Nikon vs. Sony? Do you prefer the Nikon D810 and Nikkor / Tamron / Sigma lenses /glass, or the Sony A7r and Sony Sonnar Carl Zeiss e-mount glass/lenses? I love them both! And I am so excited about the Sony A7rII !
Dr. Elliot McGucken Fine Art Photography!
I love shooting fine art landscapes and fine art nature photography! :) I live for it!
45surf fine art!
Feel free to ask me any questions! Always love sharing tech talk and insights! :)
And all the best on Your Epic Hero's Odyssey!
Join me on instagram! @45surf instagram.com/45surf
El Capitan & Half Dome!
Nikon D810 Fine Art Landscape Photos: Ansel Adams & John Muir Country-- Eastern and Western Yosemite! Dr. Elliot McGucken Fine Art Nature Photography!
45surf photography! :)
45SURF Hero's Odyssey Fine Art Landscape Photography! :)
I get asked a lot of questions (I love questions--ask away!), and one of the more common ones is "What kind of camera shoul I buy?" Begin with anything, and then, when it falls short of the beauty you are trying to capture, invest in a new one! The important thing is to think of it as buying not something for yourself, but a gift for the world, who will witness all the magnificent photos you shoot with it! Then, the next most important thing to do is to shoot, shoot, shoot, shoot! For each and every epic shot on an awesome camera helps justify its cost! I shoot with the awesome Nikon D810, Sony A7R, and now the Sony A7RII! And in the long run, the cost of the camera is a very small entity, when conpared to the cost of life and time. So buy a great camera, and then give the gift of epic photography to the world! View your artistic mission into photography as an epic odyssey of heroic poetry! Take it from Homer in Homer's Odyssey: "Tell me, O muse, of that ingenious hero who travelled far and wide after he had sacked the famous town of Troy. Many cities did he visit, and many were the nations with whose manners and customs he was acquainted; moreover he suffered much by sea while trying to save his own life and bring his men safely home; but do what he might he could not save his men, for they perished through their own sheer folly in eating the cattle of the Sun-god Hyperion; so the god prevented them from ever reaching home. Tell me, too, about all these things, O daughter of Jove, from whatsoever source you may know them. " --Samuel Butler Translation of Homer's Odyssey
All the best on your Epic Hero's Odyssey from Johnny Ranger McCoy!
Last year, I asked a question on Quora asking why Apple ($AAPL) does not violate antitrust laws to default Safari as its browser on iOS devices while Microsoft ($MSFT) was fined billions for defaulting Internet Explorer in Windows. An anonymous user reasoned that Apple’s practice cannot be considered as monopolistic because it does not hold the majority share of the market [1].
A couple of days ago, Bloomberg reported that Apple has—for the first time—taken over Samsung to become the top mobile-phone maker in the U.S. [2]
Does this mean that it is finally possible to pressure Apple to give users the option to customize which browser is used by default on iOS? That would be very welcome, as Google ($GOOG) Chrome on iOS in my opinion gives a far better user experience than Safari, and frankly it is wasting a lot of time for me to be copying URLs from Safari just so that I can paste into Google Chrome.
# Notes
1. Bloomberg: 2013-02-01: Apple Overtakes Samsung With 34% of U.S. Mobile Market: www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-02-01/apple-overtakes-samsung...
Apple Inc. (AAPL) passed Samsung (005930) Electronics Co. to become the top mobile-phone maker in the U.S. for the first time, scoring a victory in the companies’ battle for global dominance of the mobile-device market.
The U.S. market is a stronghold for Apple as it faces intensifying competition from Samsung and other smartphone makers using Google Inc. (GOOG)’s Android operating system. Samsung, which also makes cheaper handsets with less sophisticated functions, is the global leader in mobile phones with more than 100 million units sold last quarter.
2. Quora: Antitrust: If Microsoft’s inclusion of Internet Explorer is anti-competitive, why is it ok for Apple to force people to use Safari on iOS devices? www.quora.com/Antitrust/If-Microsofts-inclusion-of-Intern...
“Apple became US top mobi = antitrust law now applicable?” $AAPL $GOOG $MSFT
/ SML.20130204.SC.PublicMedia.Bloomberg.20130201.apple-overtakes-samsung-by-taking-34-u-s-mobile-phone-market
/ #SMLQuery #SMLOpinions #CCBY #SMLFinance #SMLData #SMLUniverse #SMLPublicMedia
/ #AAPL #Apple #GOOG #Google #MSFT #Microsoft #UX #UserExperience #questions #antitrust #law #Quora #opinions #Bloomberg #technology #US #Safari #iOS #GoogleChrome #Samsung #Android
Through the glass.
Through the mask.
Through the monitor.
Through the screen.
How are we enjoying our human made environment?
Will we take responsibility this time?
Will we learn?
Are we truly...intelligent?
That remains to be seen, doesn't it...
From the series "TOTEM"
Nha Trang (/ˌnɑːˈtʃæŋ/; Vietnamese: [ɲaː˧ ʈaːŋ˧] is a coastal city and capital of Khánh Hòa Province, on the South Central Coast of Vietnam. It is bounded on the north by Ninh Hoà district, on the south by Cam Ranh town and on the west by Diên Khánh District. The city has about 392,000 inhabitants, a number that is projected to increase to 560,000 by 2015 and 630,000 inhabitants by 2025. An area of 12.87 square kilometres of the western communes of Diên An and Diên Toàn is planned to be merged into Nha Trang which will make its new area 265.47 square kilometres based on the approval of the Prime Minister of Vietnam in September 2012.
Nha Trang is well known for its beaches and scuba diving and has developed into a popular destination for international tourists, attracting large numbers of backpackers, as well as more affluent travelers on the south-east Asia circuit; it is already very popular with Vietnamese tourists, with Nha Trang Bay widely considered as among the world's most beautiful bays. Tourists are welcomed to participate in the Sea Festival, held biennially. Nha Trang was the site of the Miss Universe 2008 Pageant on July 14, 2008 and Miss Earth 2010 was held on December 4, 2010. It was also the site for the April 14, 2015 season 8 finale of Face Off. Nha Trang was approved to host the 2016 Asian Beach Games.
Historically, the city was known as Kauthara under the Champa. The city is still home to the famous Po Nagar Tower built by the Champa. Being a coastal city, Nha Trang is a centre for marine science based at the Nha Trang Oceanography Institute. The Hon Mun marine protected area is one of four first marine protected areas in the world admitted by the IUCN.
ETYMOLOGY
According to some researchers, the name Nha Trang derives from a Vietnamese spelling of the Cham language name of the site Ya Trang (literally "Reed River"), the name of the Cai River as referred to by the Cham people. From the name of this river, the name was adopted to call what is now Nha Trang, which was officially made Vietnam's territory in 1698. Ya Drang is a common Cham and Montagnard place name, same as Ia Drang Valley.
As far as the recorded naming of Nha Trang is concerned, in Toàn tập Thiên Nam Tứ Chí Lộ Đồ Thư, a geographical book written by a Vietnamese scholar with the family of Đỗ Bá in the second half of the 18th century, the name Nha Trang Môn ("Nha Trang gate") was mentioned.[2] In another map dating to the 17th century, known as Giáp Ngọ Niên Bình Nam Đồ by a noble called Đoan Quận công Bùi Thế Đạt, the name Nha Trang Hải môn (Nha Trang Sea Gate) was also cited. In Vietnamese recorded historic bibliographies, these books are perhaps the earliest ones that mentioned this place name.
In a work by Lê Quý Đôn called Phủ biên tạp lục (1776), many Nha Trang-related names were mentioned, such as đầm Nha Trang, dinh Nha Trang, nguồn Nha Trang, and đèo Nha Trang. Some would say that the Nha Trang is actually a part of the Dead Sea in the early 1700s but the idea was then removed in 1738.
HISTORY
Kauthara, also translated as ancient clam, is a constituent state of the empire-leading kingdom and its ruling area is located in the area from today's Fu An province to Cam Ranh. Yanpunagara, the capital of Yangpu, occupies the faith of a man and is deeply influenced by religions such as Brahmanism and Buddhism. However, in addition to that, the gods who formerly occupied ruled the indigenous faith in the motherland, such as Çri Maladakuthara (釋利摩落陀古笪羅) in the ancient Gur'an region in the south, are one of those who can preserve the old God Most of the old gods who dominated the motherland were replaced by brahmanist gods such as the goddess Yan Pu Nagara (楊浦那竭羅) and the Bhagavati (妻婆伽婆底), Replaced, located in Nha Trang near today. Bhagavati is mixed with Yan Pu Nagara, a goddess in the local faith, which is quite revered by the people and has dedicated ancestral temples to enshrine it.
From 1653 to the 19th century, Nha Trang was a deserted area rich in wildlife (animals like tigers) and was a part of Hà Bạc, Vĩnh Xương County, Diên Khánh Province. After just two decades in the early 20th century, Nha Trang underwent a rapid change. On August 30, 1924, the Governor-General of French Indochina decreed Nha Trang as a townlet (urban centre). Nha Trang Townlet was established from the ancient villages of Xương Huân, Phương Câu, Vạn Thạnh, Phương Sài, and Phước Hải.
During French Indochina, Nha Trang was seen as de facto capital of Khánh Hòa Province. The colonial administration offices (like Envoy Office, Commanding Office, Trade Office, Post Office) were situated in Nha Trang. Local royal offices like Province Chief, Provincial Judge, Military Commander are in Diên Khánh city (a walled military city 10 km south-west of Nha Trang).
On 7 May 1937, the Governor-General of French Indochina by another decree upgraded Nha Trang Townlet to town. At this time, Nha Trang Town had five wards based on the ancient villages merged to make the town: Xương Huân, Phương Câu, Vạn Thạnh, Phương Sài, and Phước Hải.
On 27 January 1958, the president of the Republic of Vietnam, Ngô Đình Diệm by Decree 18-BNV abrogated the town status of Nha Trang and divided Nha Trang into two rural communes: Nha Trang Đông (Eastern Nha Trang) and Nha Trang Tây (Western Nha Trang), under the administration of Vĩnh Xương County.
During the late 1960s, the U.S. Army's First Field Force, Vietnam (1FFV)was headquartered in Nha Trang. 1FFV was a corps-level major subordinate command of the U.S. Army Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV).
On 22 October 1970, the government of the Republic of Vietnam by Decree 132-SL/NV reestablished Nha Trang Town on the ground of Nha Trang Đông and Nha Trang Tây and other rural communes. Following that establishment, the government by Decree 357-ĐUHC/NC/NĐ dated 5 June 1971 divided Nha Trang into 11 urban zones.
On 2 April 1975, communist (Viet Cong/PRG/VPA) forces captured the city. On 4 April 1975, Khánh Hòa Military Commission (Ủy ban Quân quản Khánh Hòa) divided Nha Trang into three administrative districts: District 1, District 2 and Vĩnh Xương District. In September 1975, the districts were merged to become one entity, the town of Nha Trang.
On 30 March 1977, the Council of the Government (now the cabinet) of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam by Decision 391-CP/QĐ upgraded Nha Trang to city status, a county-level city under the administration of Phú Khánh Province (a province created by merger of now Phú Yên Province and Khánh Hòa Province). Seven communes of former Vĩnh Xương County, namely Vĩnh Thái, Vĩnh Ngọc, Vĩnh Hiệp, Vĩnh Lương, Vĩnh Trung, Vĩnh Thạnh, Vĩnh Phương was split from Khánh Xương County to become Nha Trang City territory.
On 27 March 1978, the provincial government by Decision 54-BT founded Phước Đồng Commune under Nha Trang City.
On 1 July 1989, Khanh Hoa was split from Phu Khanh Province to become Khánh Hòa Province as it was before, Nha Trang was made the capital of Khánh Hòa Province. On April 22, 1999, the prime minister by Decision 106/1999 recognized Nha Trang City the second class municipal city. On April 22, 2009, the prime minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng recognized Nha Trang City at the first class municipal city.
GEOGRAPHY
Nha Trang city has a metropolitan area of 251 km² and population of about 500,000. It borders Ninh Hòa town in the north, Cam Ranh city in the south, Diên Khánh town in the west and the East Sea to the east. The city is on the beautiful Nha Trang Bay, which was chosen by Travel + Leisure in two succeeding years as one of 29 most beautiful bays in the world. Nha Trang is surrounded on all three sides by mountains and a large island and four smaller ones on the fourth side (in the ocean directly in front of the city's main area), blocking major storms from potentially damaging the city.
CLIMATE
Nha Trang has a tropical savanna climate with a lengthy dry season from January to August and a shorter wet season from September to December, when 1,029 millimetres of the city's total annual rainfall of 1,361 millimetres is received from the north-east monsoon. During the wet season extremely heavy rainfall from typhoons is not uncommon, though the city is shielded from the worst winds.
ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS
Nha Trang is subdivided into 27 wards and communes, of which 20 are urban wards: Vĩnh Hải, Vĩnh Phước, Vĩnh Thọ, Xương Huân, Vạn Thắng, Vạn Thạnh, Phương Sài, Phương Sơn, Ngọc Hiệp, Phước Hòa, Phước Tân, Phước Tiến, Phước Hải, Lộc Thọ, Tân Lập, Vĩnh Nguyên, Vĩnh Trường, Phước Long (founded in November 1998), Vĩnh Hòa (founded in April 2002); and 8 suburban communes: Vĩnh Phương, Vĩnh Trung, Vĩnh Thạnh, Vĩnh Thái, Vĩnh Hiệp, Vĩnh Ngọc, Vĩnh Lương, and Phước Đồng. Since 1998, due to the high pace of urbanization, many urban planned zones have been built: Hòn Rớ, Bắc Việt, Thánh Gia, Đường Đệ, and Nam Hòn Khô.
EDUCATION
Nha Trang is home to the multidisciplinary Nha Trang University (formerly Nha Trang Fishery University); the Naval and Aviation Academy; a teacher's training college; Khanh Hoa University, as well as the Nha Trang Oceanography Institute a unique institute of oceanography in Vietnam and the Pasteur Institute of Nha Trang, one of the many famous Pasteur Institutes.
NHA TRANG PASTEUR INSTITUTE
The French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, discoverer of the Yersinia pestis bacterium lived in Nha Trang for 50 years and was affectionately known as Ông Năm. He established the Indochinese Pasteur Institute (now known as the Pasteur Institute of Nha Trang), devoted to researching the bubonic plague. Yersin died in Nha Trang on 1 March 1943. A street in the city is named after him, and a shrine has been built over his tomb. There is a Yersin Museum dedicated to his achievements.
ECONOMY
Nha Trang's economy relies largely on tourism. In the suburban areas around the city, the shipbuilding industry has developed and contributed significantly to the local economy. Fishery and services are also important to the city. Khánh Hòa Province in general and Nha Trang is particular are among the largest contributors to Vietnam's annual budget revenues. Lobster farming on the sea is an important industry for the people living in suburb areas.
To the south of the city, by Cam Ranh Bay, several industrial parks are under construction and have been partly available for investors. Once the construction of the deep-water port on Vân Phong Bay has been completed, this area will become the third important economic zone in the province (besides Nha Trang and Cam Ranh).
TOURISM
Nha Trang is one of the most important tourist hubs of Vietnam, thanks to its beaches with fine and clean sand and the clear ocean water with mild temperatures all year round. There are several resorts — such as Vinpearl, Diamond Bay and Ana Mandara — and amusement and water parks, in the city and on islands off the coast. The possibly most beautiful street of Nha Trang is Tran Phu Street along the seaside, sometimes referred to as the Pacific Coast Highway of Vietnam.
Lying off Nha Trang is the Hon Tre Island (Bamboo Island), with a major resort operated by the Vinpearl Group. The Vinpearl Cable Car, a gondola lift system, links the mainland to the five-star resort and theme park on Hon Tre Island.
Nha Trang is a stopover for annual yacht races starting in Hong Kong. In recent years, the city has welcomed many five-star sea cruises. In addition to sailboat racing, Nha Trang provides a rich variety of tourist activities for visitors. Island hopping, scuba diving, water sports and other sporting activities can be enjoyed. The Nha Trang Tourist Information Center (a non-governmental organisation), located near the Cho Dam Market has been set up to provide information for visitors.
The local cuisine is most famous for fresh seafood and barbecued pork rolled in rice paper. The area's bird's nest soup is deemed one of the best in Vietnam. Bird's nests are collected in the wild, on bird farms on the islands off the coast and even in some houses in the inner city. The farmed bird in question belongs to the swiftlet group, popularly referred to as yến hàng (Aerodramus fuciphagus and A. germani).
TOURIST ATTRACTIONS
Scuba diving and kite boarding are available, as are catamaran sailboats. Winds are steady.
Alexandre Yersin Museum
Pasteur Institute of Nha Trang
Nha Trang Oceanography Institute, the largest of its kind in Indochina where thousands of oceanic life samples, exhibits are on display. It is home to the largest oceanic library in Vietnam.
Chánh Tọa Church (or Mountain Church)
Long Son Pagoda, and its statue of Gautama Buddha.
Tong Lam Lo Son Pagoda, and its statue of Amitabha Buddha.
Magical Mystery Tour Nha Trang
Boat tour on Cai River, visiting islands off the coast and Ba Hồ Waterfall
Palace of Emperor Bảo Đại
Thap Ba Hot Spring (Lady Tower hot spring)
Nha Phu Lagoon
Hoa Lan Stream (Orchid Flower stream)
Monkey Island
Sạn Beach
Nha Trang Booze Cruise (all-you-can-drink party boat)
Hòn Tằm Island (Silkworm island)
Hòn Mun Island (Ebony island)
Hòn Con Sẻ Tre Island (Bamboo Sparrow island)
Hòn Ông Island
Đảo Yến Island (Swiftlet island)
Hòn Tre Island (Bamboo island)
Suối Đổ Stream
Suối Tiên Stream (Fairy stream)
Hòn Bà Mountain
Cai River Minigolf & Restaurant & Marina
Yangbay Waterfall
Tháp Bà Pô Nagar Nha Trang (a Champa Tower)
Chùa Long Sơn (Long Son Pagoda, literally "The Dragon Mountain Pagoda" — or White Buddha Pagoda)
Trí Nguyên Aquarium (an aquarium where hundreds of rare oceanic species are fed)
Vinpearl Cable Car
CULTURE
CUISINE
Two local culinary specialities that attract people are bánh canh chả cá (bánh canh with fish paddies) and bún cá sứa (rice vermicelli with jelly fish).
NIGHTLIFE
The nightlife is known as superior to other coastal towns such as Mui Ne and Vũng Tàu It is usually busiest around the Vietnamese New Year and can be worth visiting most of the year, with the possible exception of the rainy period (especially November).
Many tourists enjoy the Nha Trang River Cai boat ride (locally known as Song Cai, as "song" means "river" in the Vietnamese language).
TRANSPORTATION
When Cam Ranh Bay used to be an important naval base, Nha Trang Airport was the main airport of the city. This airport was used by the United States Air Force and Republic of Vietnam Air Force during the Vietnam War. When part of Cam Ranh Bay was made an economic development zone by the Vietnamese government, Cam Ranh International Airport (also a military airport built by the United States during Vietnam War) was made the new civilian airport of the city. This airport is located by Cam Ranh Bay, 28 km (17 mi) south of the city and was (as of 2007) the fourth busiest airport in passenger traffic in Vietnam serving more than 683,000 passengers in 2008. As of 2016, the airport has domestic connections to Hanoi, Hồ Chí Minh City, Hải Phòng, Đà Nẵng, Vinh.
The city is next to the National Route 1A, the backbone north-south road of the country. The Reunification Railway crosses the city and stops at Nha Trang Railway Station. The construction work of Vân Phong Port, north of the city, a deep-water project capable of handling ships up to 100,000 tonnes, and with a capacity of 100 million tonnes of cargo per annum, is under progress by a consortium of Japanese corporations. The estimated investment capital for this port-city complex project is expected to reach US$15 billion.
SISTER CITIES
Thái Nguyên, Vietnam
Malaysia Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
WIKIPEDIA
Who am I to question truth? I cannot comprehend the meaning behind truth if the estimation I gave didn't satisfy you. Is it merely a perception; is the lie I'm telling you true if you believe it? I think that's what you're arguing, the way you understand. But truth to me is intention. Persuasion. Truth is what feels right in your heart. Truth is the meaning you try to convey, even when your words are lies.
Truth is the hardest answer to give.
- Don't worry darling. Everything will be okay.
More in comments.
Inspired by a trip to Italy two years ago. It was supposed to be like a venitian mask. Smiley, sparkly Louise is back! Well. Sorta.
Today has been a good ending to a very long week. I won't bore you with inconcequential details, just my favourite parts. Megan and I decided on a summer adventure (time to get saving honey). Amy and I are two of the school's 'official' photographers for an 'a day in the life of' project. It's very exciting, and it's pretty much free reign over any ideas we have. Almost too much freedom. But I'm looking forward to it. My hard-to-please English teacher said my essay (the one I struggled over for two days) was great.
Good day.
My brother, who is fifteen, just walked in in his pajamas drinking beer. With an xbox controller. Is that weird?
And you should check out Ed's stream.
This picture was taken over 5 years ago. I love it because it captures my "essence".
50 Questions
Tagged by ShePuppy
Post a pic of yourself & answer the questions.
1: What are you doing?
Watching America's Next Top Model...
2: Something about you that nobody ever knew?
I've never been kissed. I've never had a "true" relationship.
3: Biggest phobias?
I am so scared of the dark.
4: How tall are you?
5ft 3
5: Ever been in love?
Yes
6: Any tattoos that you want?
I'm actually getting a tattoo of my fave girl, Alice next Saturday!
7: Any piercings that you want?
I really want a tragus piercing but I have terrbily sensitive ears.
8: Makeouts or cuddling?
No.
9: Shoe size?
8 1/2
10: Favorite bands?
Pink Floyd, Nine Inch Nails, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Switchblade Symphony, Rasputina...things of that sort.
11: Something you miss?
My friends. I have none outside of my house right now. (My sister, my cat and Alice are literally my friends...so sad)
12: Favourite song?
The Great Below by NIN
13: How old are you?
26
14: Zodiac sign?
Pisces
15: Hair Color?
White with a hint of pale green.
16: Favourite Quote?
"..I listened to the old brag of my heart, I am, I am, Iam." ~Sylvia Plath from the Bell Jar
17: Favourite singer?
Trent Reznor
18: Favourite colour?
Pink
19: Loud music or soft?
What does loud music consist of? I hate lite rock and easy listening...so I guess loud?
20: Where do you go when you're sad?
My bed.
21: What's your grail stock Blythe? Goldie
22: What are some of your grail custom Blythes?
I really REALLY want a Calvera girl but it has to be perfect.
23:How many kids do you have? None.
24: Turn on?
An open mind, a sense of humor, good taste in music and a big...nose.
25: Turn off?
Guys who KNOW they're good looking.
26: The reason I joined Flickr?
Blythe
27: Most recent Blythe obsession:
Mimsy Beuno hats.
28: Last thing that made you cry?
Talking about my inability to drive.
29: Last time you cried?
A couple days ago.
30: Meaning behind your url:
Daifuku is a type of mochi (asian bean cake) that I used to eat. I got really sick one time from eating too much and now I can't eat it any more. Darling is just one of my favorite nick names.
31: Last book you read?
Good grief...Its been a while since I've ready anything. I have severe ADD so reading is a problem.
32: Last song you listened to?
"Folksom Prison Blues" by Johnny Cash
33: Last show you watched?
America's Next Top Model
34: Last person you talked to?
My sister, Melissa
35: The relationship between you and the person you last texted?
Father
36: Favourite food?
Unagi Sushi roll (eel)
37: Place you want to visit?
The Daikenyama (sp?) district in Japan. Blythe shopping!!
38: Last place you were?
Outside of the house-Party City, inside the house-My bedroom
39: Do you have a crush?
Does Trent Reznor count?
40: Last time you kissed someone?
I already told you, I've never been kissed...
41: Last time you were insulted and what was it?
My sister told me I need to plan things out better about an hour ago...but it's true.
42: What are you looking forward to?
Next Saturday's tattoo appointment!
43: Any dolly plans today? Straightening up the doll house.
44: Are you tired?
Ermgerd..So very tired
45: Wearing any bracelets?
No.
46: Last sport you played?
......
47: Last song you sang?
"Freedom" by George Micheal
48: Last prank call you remember doing?
I Pony-fied my sister's computer so that everything she ready said "Call Me Maybe" lyrics.
49: Last time you hung out with anyone?
Maybe a month or two ago. Unless you count my sister, which was yesterday.
50: Do you consider yourself to be approachable?
Hmm...Personality wise, yes. Image wise, I'm a bit intimidating.
photo published on www.dumblittleman.com/2007/10/10-smartest-ways-to-live-be...
Save your money and one day it'll return the favor.
Ah money... to spend it or to save it, that is the question.
I found this philosophical add on a phone booth a few months ago. And thought it was the perfect time to post it: before black Friday, before the craziness of the holidays, before we start working on all those wish lists, ...
This campaign is sponsored by The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA). The bottom of the add sends you to www.feedthepig.org/, an entertaining website to entice us to save our precious dollars. It is full of interesting facts and tips but also videos, calculators, ... I recommend the click. You'll be greeted by Benjamin Bankes, the only pig I know who wears a white tuxedo so well. And of course, you can befriend Benjamin Bankes on MySpace. Of course.
__________________________
used in:
• www.pluggd.in/entrepreneurship-in-india/money-saving-tips...
• www.whereyouarenow.com/blog/2008/09/16/8-steps-to-more-mo...
• www.marketproteges.com/2008/05/this-weeks-feature-saving-...
• www.dumblittleman.com/2007/10/10-smartest-ways-to-live-be...
Mise en place d'aiguilles au niveau de points d'acupuncture du poignet.
Les médecines non conventionnelles (encore appelées médecines alternatives, médecines parallèles, médecines holistiques, médecines naturelles, médecines douces) regroupent plusieurs centaines de pratiques thérapeutiques dont l'efficacité n'est pas démontrée, c'est-à-dire non testée, non supérieure au placebo, ou bien insuffisamment démontrée1 d'où le qualificatif de pseudo-médecines qui peut leur être appliqué2. Elles se distinguent donc de la médecine fondée sur les faits, parfois dite « conventionnelle », dont l'efficacité est prouvée scientifiquement. En France, le terme de thérapies complémentaires (ThC) est recommandé par l'Académie nationale de médecine3. Le Conseil de l'Ordre des médecins utilise l'expression médecines alternatives et complémentaires (MAC)4 tout en indiquant que « l'utilisation médiatique [de ces termes], concernant notamment l’homéopathie, entretient une ambigüité qui est source de confusion et de litiges d’interprétation5 ».
Un certain nombre de médecines non conventionnelles se réclament de traditions anciennes et sont alors considérées comme médecines traditionnelles (par exemple la phytothérapie, l'acupuncture ou la médecine ayurvédique), mais d'autres sont apparues à la fin du xviiie siècle ou au cours du xixe siècle (comme l'hypnose, l'ostéopathie, l'homéopathie, la naturopathie ou l'oligothérapie). Certaines thérapies se revendiquent comme « holistiques », déclarant examiner l'individu dans sa « globalité », y compris son histoire et mode de vie.
Ces pratiques non conventionnelles sont dénuées de fondement scientifique et ne sauraient se comparer, ni se substituer, à la médecine proprement dite, bien que pouvant être parfois utilisées en complément, en tant que « techniques empiriques » ou « méthodes adjuvantes »3. Elles sont diversement contrôlées par des instances officielles et, selon les pays, leurs traditions et législations sont plus ou moins répandues et reconnues6. Elles se développent en complément ou en alternative à la médecine et sont utilisées par 20 à 50 % des populations de plusieurs pays de la Communauté européenne selon les résultats d'enquêtes d'opinion de la fin du xxe siècle7, voire par près de 4 Français sur 10, en particulier les patients atteints de cancer3. Elles sont parfois utilisées dans des hôpitaux, cela ne valant toutefois pas reconnaissance de leur validité.
Le concept de « médecine intégrative » a été inventé pour désigner le recours simultané à la médecine dont l'efficacité est avérée et aux thérapies alternatives dans la prise en charge d'un patient. Ces dernières n'ont cependant, par définition, pas d'effet bénéfique au-delà de l'effet placebo8,9,10, à très peu d'exceptions près ayant montré une efficacité spécifique mais faible11. Leur action spécifique peut entraîner des effets secondaires12, et elles peuvent avoir des effets négatifs en interférant avec les traitements efficaces, notamment dans le traitement de cancer13,14. Des problèmes peuvent survenir lors du recours à des traitements alternatifs en lieu et place de soins ayant fait leurs preuves d'efficacité, d'autant plus en fonction de la gravité de la maladie.
Des mouvances font l'objet de surveillance de la part des autorités du fait du risque d'escroquerie, d'abus de faiblesse et de dérive sectaire lié à l'utilisation de certaines méthodes, régimes alimentaires et thérapies alternatives : « charlatanisme et amateurisme peuvent avoir des conséquences graves pour des personnes fragilisées physiquement et psychologiquement par des pathologies lourdes et/ou chroniques15 ».
Sommaire
1Origines
1.1Origine de l'appellation
1.2Origines et histoire des médecines regroupées sous cette appellation
1.2.1Influences antiques et orientalistes
1.2.2Fin XVIIe - début XXe siècles
1.2.3Du New Age à l'époque contemporaine (XXe - début XXIe siècles)
2Typologie de pratiques
3Conventionnelle, non conventionnelle, une approche différente
3.1Le naturel et la tradition ancienne
3.2L'interprétation des troubles
3.3Les postulats
4Aspect légal
4.1Union européenne
4.2France
4.2.1Cas de l'herboristerie et de la phytothérapie
4.3Suisse
4.4Allemagne
5Utilisation des médecines non conventionnelles
5.1France
5.2États-Unis
5.3Pays en développement
5.4En Europe
6Pratique des médecines non conventionnelles en France
6.1Par des médecins, en milieu hospitalier
6.2Caractéristiques problématiques de certaines thérapies
7Une économie publique
8Recherches
8.1L'approche scientifique
8.2Relations entre médecins conventionnels et non-conventionnels
9Affaires
10Notes et références
11Voir aussi
11.1Bibliographie
11.2Articles connexes
11.3Liens externes
Origines[modifier | modifier le code]
Origine de l'appellation[modifier | modifier le code]
Le terme « médecine non conventionnelle » est celui retenu par la Commission européenne7 . Ce terme désigne selon le rapport du Parlement européen :
"L'ensemble des systèmes médicaux et disciplines thérapeutiques couverts par la dénomination "médecines non conventionnelles" ont en commun le fait que leur validité n'est pas reconnue ou n'est que partiellement reconnue".
L'appellation « médecine non conventionnelle » se bâtit aussi par opposition à la définition de la « médecine conventionnelle », une médecine à l'efficacité prouvée, telle que définie par le Ministère des Solidarités et de la Santé16 :
« La médecine « conventionnelle » s’appuie sur des traitements qui ont toujours obtenu une validation scientifique, soit par des essais cliniques, soit parce qu’ils bénéficient d’un consensus professionnel fort. Les essais cliniques sont soumis à des autorisations et à des contrôles rigoureux sur le plan de l’éthique, des conditions de réalisation et de la pertinence scientifique . Les consensus professionnels, quant à eux, sont obtenus après plusieurs années de recul, avec l’accord et l’expérience de la majorité des professionnels de la discipline concernée. Les conditions d’utilisation des techniques y sont définies avec précision. En s’appuyant sur cette méthodologie rigoureuse, l’efficacité de la médecine conventionnelle est prouvée. »
Ce terme qualifie donc des méthodes de soin parfois également appelées « médecine douce », « médecine complémentaire », « médecine naturelle », « médecine alternative », « médecine parallèle » ou encore « médecine holistique ». La médecine conventionnelle est généralement désignée par les tenants de certaines médecines non conventionnelles sous le terme de médecine allopathique (terme provenant de l'homéopathie).
L'Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS) inclut les médecines complémentaires et alternatives dans les médecines traditionnelles. Elle précise : « Le terme « médecine complémentaire » ou « médecine alternative » est utilisé de manière interchangeable avec « médecine traditionnelle » dans certains pays. Elles concernent une large gamme de pratiques de soins qui ne font pas partie des traditions du pays et qui ne sont pas intégrées dans le système de santé dominant17. »
Cependant, le choix des termes induit souvent des partis-pris. En effet, parler de « médecine parallèle » semble signifier qu’il y aurait deux conceptions équivalentes de la médecine impliquant deux systèmes de soins fonctionnant indépendamment l’un de l’autre, avec le même degré d’efficience et de scientificité : les patients auraient donc le choix entre deux thérapeutiques qu’ils peuvent envisager comme alternatives et concurrentes ou comme complémentaires l’une de l’autre. D'autre part, l’appellation « médecine douce » semble considérer comme agressives les pratiques de la médecine conventionnelle : selon Jean Brissonet « l’utilisation de l’adjectif « douce » n’étant là que pour faire paraître « dure » la médecine moderne. En fait une technique médicale n’est ni « dure », ni « douce », elle est, ou n’est pas, efficace. Ensuite, tout est question d’utilisation et de rapport efficacité/risque. »18. L'idée de « médecine naturelle » s'appuie sur un présupposé rousseauiste selon lequel la nature est bonne et les œuvres de l'Homme mauvaises, et que certaines méthodes thérapeutiques seraient plus proches de cette supposée harmonie naturelle18. En disant « médecine alternative », on envisage ces pratiques de soins comme substitutives, donc susceptibles de remplacer une démarche thérapeutique classique et conventionnelle. D'autres préféreront parler de pseudo-médecines ou pseudo-sciences afin d'éviter cet effet de rhétorique2.
Le terme « médecine complémentaire » privilégie l’idée d’associer des traitements impliquant des « philosophies thérapeutiques » différentes mais capables de coopérer dans l’intérêt du malade19,20.
L'Académie nationale de médecine française recommande dans un rapport de 2013 l'appellation « thérapies complémentaires » (« ThC ») : « L’ANM rappelle que les pratiques souvent dites médecines complémentaires ne sont pas des "médecines", mais des techniques empiriques de traitement pouvant rendre certains services en complément de la thérapeutique à base scientifique de la médecine proprement dite. Elle recommande de ce fait de les désigner par la dénomination de thérapies complémentaires, qui correspond mieux à leur nature3. »
Dans tous les cas, ces appellations regroupent un grand nombre de pratiques aux fondements scientifiques très variables, et rarement contrôlées par des instances officielles. La liste du MeSH comporte ainsi 17 catégories de thérapies complémentaires et la MIVILUDES dénombre 400 pratiques « à visée thérapeutique »3. Certaines d'entre elles sont étroitement surveillées par les pouvoirs publics en raison des éventuels dangers qu'elles présentent pour la santé ou du risque de dérive sectaire21.
Origines et histoire des médecines regroupées sous cette appellation[modifier | modifier le code]
Influences antiques et orientalistes[modifier | modifier le code]
Article détaillé : Histoire de la médecine.
L'Occident a été marqué pendant plusieurs siècles par la théorie des humeurs d'Hippocrate, qui reste considéré comme le « père de la médecine occidentale » aujourd'hui22. Un parallèle notable peut être fait entre la médecine européenne de l'époque médiévale et les systèmes de la médecine traditionnelle chinoise et d'ayurveda en Inde : des parties du corps et organes sont de façon similaire associés à des saisons, des signes astrologiques, ou des éléments23. Ces théories ont fait leur réapparition dans un certain nombre de pratiques paramédicales depuis le xixe siècle, et font l'objet d'un effet de mode dans certains milieux.
Un certain nombre de pratiques non conventionnelles disponibles en Europe déclarent aujourd'hui s'inspirer plus ou moins directement de traditions asiatiques antiques (chinoises, indiennes, tibétaines, etc.) ou parfois africaines ou amérindiennes, et se réclament des philosophies et cultures de ces pays. Leur promotion peut alors reposer sur l'argument fallacieux de l'« appel à la tradition » ou « argument d'historicité » qui prétend que comme ces pratiques existent depuis longtemps, elles on fait leur preuve et sont toujours valables aujourd'hui24.
Certains utilisent le terme « médecine occidentale » pour qualifier la médecine moderne, même si celle-ci a en réalité puisé à des sources extrêmement diverses pendant sa longue histoire, et pas uniquement occidentale (notamment égyptiennes et arabes). Par ailleurs, la plupart des asiatiques qui y ont accès ont largement recours à la médecine moderne, et des chercheurs de tous les pays contribuent aujourd'hui au progrès de la médecine mondiale : les notions de médecine « occidentale » ou « orientale » comme leur fixité dans le temps (les « traditions » évoluent) ne reflètent donc pas, pour certains auteurs, l'importante diversité interne des différentes traditions historiques des pays invoqués25.
Fin XVIIe - début XXe siècles[modifier | modifier le code]
À la fin du xviie siècle, la moxibustion fait son apparition en Europe, ses vertus étant vantées par des auteurs tels que Hermann Busschof (de) et Willem ten Rhijne (en) pour lutter contre la goutte26. L'acupuncture est également expliquée aux Européens par Willem ten Rhijne suite à ses observations au Japon sur des praticiens et des documents. Le naturaliste Engelbert Kaempfer étudiera de même ces deux thérapies, en constatant lui aussi leurs effets apparents, mais avec un regard beaucoup plus critique concernant la théorie des méridiens sur laquelle elles reposent27. L'historienne Roberta Bivins remarque que cette intégration de thérapies traditionnelles chinoises en dehors de leur cadre culturel d'origine aurait pu sembler improbable, pourtant elles sont encore utilisées aujourd'hui en Occident28.
Deux pseudo-médecines datant de la fin du xviiie siècle, l'homéopathie et le mesmérisme, particulièrement populaires au xixe siècle, sont des exemples de thérapies qui reposent sur la seule expérience subjective comme preuve d'efficacité29.
Malgré des appels récurrents à des héritages millénaires, la plupart des pratiques non conventionnelles qui subsistent de nos jours trouvent en fait leur origine dans des théories occidentales relativement récentes. Par exemple, la naturopathie naît en Allemagne en 1885, et se développe avec la mode de la lebensreform germanique du xixe siècle, qui sert de tribune à de nombreuses théories alternatives auparavant plus ou moins confidentielles ou expérimentales, qui voient le jour en Occident entre la fin du XIXe et le début du xxe siècle : ostéopathie (USA, 1874), chiropratique (USA, 1895), aromathérapie (France, 1910), médecine anthroposophique (Allemagne, années 1920), élixirs floraux de Bach (Angleterre, 1936)... Certaines para-médecines asiatiques populaires en Occident datent de la même époque, notamment au Japon avec le shiatsu (élaboré en 1919 par Tenpeki Tamai) ou le reiki (développé par l'homme d'affaires japonais Mikao Usui à partir de 1922).
La plupart des systèmes médicaux qui étaient encore utilisés au xixe siècle ne survivent pas à l'essor de la médecine scientifique moderne qui débute à la fin du xixe siècle pour s'industrialiser au xxe siècle30. Cependant, un certain nombre ont eu le temps de pénétrer les États-Unis, pays encore très arriéré sur le plan médical31, et où médecines archaïques et charlatans prospèrent : c'est là que naissent la chiropratique et l'ostéopathie, et que la naturopathie connait un second essor (et devient rapidement une marque déposée, par l'homme d'affaires d'origine allemande Benedict Lust). En 1910, la Fondation Carnegie pour la promotion de l'enseignement mandate un vaste audit des pratiques de santé aux États-Unis, condensé dans le Rapport Abraham Flexner31 : celui-ci est accablant, et met en évidence l'énorme écart de santé entre les Américains encore essentiellement sous l'emprise d'une médecine pré-scientifique et les Européens qui commençaient à bénéficier à cette époque de nombreux médicaments modernes (comme la pénicilline), permettant de réduire drastiquement la plupart des maladies et la mortalité. Les progrès fulgurants de la médecine moderne importée d'Europe conduisent donc progressivement les Américains de l'Est à délaisser une partie de leurs pratiques hasardeuses, même si celles-ci perdurent dans l'ouest et sur la côte pacifique.
En Allemagne, un certain nombre de pratiques alternatives reconquièrent pendant les années 1920-30 une partie du public germanique à la faveur de la vogue post-romantique et anti-scientifique, préparée par l'idéologie de la lebensreform et l'ésotérisme théosophique, culminant dans les divers courants mystiques en vogue à cette époque comme l'anthroposophie de Rudolf Steiner qui développe une médecine anthroposophique. Mettant fin à la « liberté de soigner » (kurierfreiheit) alors en vigueur depuis 1871 et permettant à toute personne de prodiguer des soins médicaux sans formation particulière, l'Allemagne nazie est le premier État européen à institutionnaliser la pratique de médecines non-scientifiques à travers une loi de 1939 (Heilpraktikergesetz (de)) qui institue la profession de « heilpraktiker »32,33. Après-guerre, naturopathie et homéopathie demeurent populaires en Suisse et en Bavière, et s'installent progressivement en Angleterre et en France, avec tout un cortège de théories associées.
Du New Age à l'époque contemporaine (XXe - début XXIe siècles)[modifier | modifier le code]
Une seconde vague de création de théories alternatives a lieu aux États-Unis eu lieu à partir des années 1960, en se diffusant par la côte Ouest sous l'impulsion du mouvement New Age : rebirth, multiples « pratiques énergétiques », diverses psychothérapies telles que la « thérapie primale », l'« analyse bioénergétique »34 ou encore la programmation neurolinguistique (PNL). De très nombreuses pratiques nouvelles prolifèrent ainsi, malgré des critiques toujours constantes de la part des institutions médicales face à l'absence d'effet démontré pour la plupart des soins proposés35. En 1968, un rapport du Département de la Santé et des Services sociaux des États-Unis dénonce ainsi l'absence de fondements empiriques comme théoriques de la plupart des théories alternatives alors en vogue en Amérique, ainsi que leur absence d'efficacité clinique, et invite à leur éviction des systèmes de sécurité sociale36.
Seule une partie de ces théories survit aux années 1980, qui voit aussi passer une mode des thérapies à prétention high-tech (comme la soi-disant « médecine quantique »), ainsi que l'essor des régimes pseudo-thérapeutiques et du coaching en « développement personnel », à grand renfort de marketing.
Au début du xxie siècle, on constate en Occident une structuration de l'offre autour, d'une part, d'un certain nombre de disciplines assez populaires (homéopathie, ostéopathie, acuponcture, etc.) et en quête de respectabilité institutionnelle (création d'écoles, de diplômes, de certification, utilisation dans les hôpitaux en tant que « thérapie complémentaire »3), souvent soutenues par un appareil industriel très lucratif37 malgré l'absence de résultats cliniques réellement satisfaisants, et d'autre part d'une prolifération de sous-disciplines plus ou moins ésotériques souvent fondées sur une opposition dogmatique à la médecine scientifique, et de plus en plus liées à la mouvance complotiste (notamment autour de la controverse sur la vaccination) ou à diverses dérives sectaires21. Entre les deux, on trouve une grande diversité de pratiques thérapeutiques plus ou moins bien identifiées, et à durée d’existence souvent courte car fondée essentiellement sur le charisme de leur promoteur, qui donne parfois son nom à la discipline (comme la « technique Alexander », la « méthode Vodder » ou encore la sophrologie caycédienne d'Alfonso Caycedo)38.
Typologie de pratiques[modifier | modifier le code]
Plus de 400 pratiques thérapeutiques « alternatives », « complémentaires » ou « traditionnelles » sont recensées par l’OMS4.
L’OMS et l’Inserm distinguent quatre familles de pratiques4 :
Les thérapies biologiques, utilisant des produits naturels issus de plantes, de minéraux ou d’animaux (ex : phytothérapie, aromathérapie).
Les thérapies manuelles (ex : ostéopathie, chiropraxie, réflexologie).
Les approches corps-esprit (ex : hypnose médicale, méditation, sophrologie).
Les systèmes reposant sur des fondements théoriques propres (ex : acupuncture, homéopathie).
Conventionnelle, non conventionnelle, une approche différente[modifier | modifier le code]
Le naturel et la tradition ancienne[modifier | modifier le code]
Il existe deux principes fréquemment mis en avant par les promoteurs des médecines non conventionnelles et qui feraient la différence avec la médecine conventionnelle :
le recours à la « Nature », la référence au naturel ; le fait qu’une substance est « naturelle » serait un gage de qualité. Cependant les catastrophes naturelles, les maladies, les champignons vénéneux et la plupart des toxines sont également naturels, et pas bienfaisants pour autant. De fait, de nombreux médicaments ont pour principe actif des molécules extraites des plantes ou d'autres organismes, simplement isolés, purifiés et plus ou moins concentrés (l'aspirine en est un exemple)18. Inversement, la notion de « médecine naturelle » (conçue comme traitement basé sur l'utilisation d'un organisme tel quel, comme une plante) a des limites thérapeutiques, la substance active étant, soit diluée parmi les autres composés parfois toxiques ou inhibiteurs, soit présente à des concentrations non thérapeutiques, c'est-à-dire toxiques ou insuffisantes pour entraîner un bénéfice pour le patient ;
la référence à la « tradition » ; il s'agit principalement des traditions attribuées à plus ou moins juste titre à l'Asie (Chine, Inde, Tibet...), à l'Afrique ou à l'Amérique latine, liées aux philosophies et aux cultures de ces pays et dont l'ancienneté annoncée serait garante d'efficacité (voir tradipraticien, médecine traditionnelle). Le journaliste scientifique Florian Gouthière rappelle toutefois que « l’ancienneté d’une pratique n’est jamais une preuve, en soi, de sa validité »39, et qu'il peut y avoir une fixation à des principes pseudo-scientifiques comme la théorie des méridiens dans le cas de l'acuponcture, laquelle a d'ailleurs connu un siècle de désuétude, au xixe siècle, face au progrès de la dissection, avant d'être « ressuscitée » au xxe siècle (dans un but politique et patriotique)39.
L'interprétation des troubles[modifier | modifier le code]
Les thérapies non conventionnelles et la médecine classique diffèrent sur l'interprétation des troubles. Par exemple, la naturopathie élabore les concepts de détoxication/détoxination (les toxines en question n'étant pas toujours spécifiées), alors que ceux-ci n'ont pas de définition en médecine classique40. D'autres parleront en termes de karma, d'« énergie » ou encore d'humeurs, se plaçant donc dans un cadre conceptuel sans fondement scientifique.
Les postulats[modifier | modifier le code]
Cette section est vide, insuffisamment détaillée ou incomplète. Votre aide est la bienvenue ! Comment faire ?
Les médecines non conventionnelles reposent sur certains postulats :
les médecines énergétiques (acupuncture, qi gong, shiatsu…) partent du principe que l'être humain possède un influx vital (prana en indien, ki en japonais ou qi en chinois) qui peut circuler de manière harmonieuse, la maladie étant une perturbation de cette harmonie qu'il convient de ré-équilibrer ;
l'homéopathie est fondée sur des principes selon lesquels :
le mal provient d'un problème inhérent à la personne[réf. nécessaire], le « terrain » est ce qui assure la guérison, et c'est ce terrain qu'il faut traiter,
le traitement se fait selon le principe de similitude : on administre une substance réputée provoquer un symptôme pour soigner ledit symptôme,
plus un produit est dilué et « dynamisé » (secoué vigoureusement) plus il est actif,
l'ostéopathie part du principe que le trouble provient d'un blocage des structures anatomiques entre elles, d'un mauvais fonctionnement « mécanique ». Elle se fonde sur quatre principes : la structure gouverne la fonction, la fonction modèle la structure, l'unité du corps, et l'artère est suprême.
la balnéothérapie postule les bienfaits de l'eau et des bains, méthode à rapprocher du thermalisme.
D'autres font appel à des théories pré-scientifiques comme la théorie des humeurs, ou à des principes plus ou moins occultes (comme le Karma).
Aspect légal[modifier | modifier le code]
Circle-icons-globe.svg
Cette section adopte un point de vue régional ou culturel particulier et doit être internationalisée (septembre 2017).
Selon les pays, les médecines non conventionnelles sont reconnues ou seulement tolérées41. Certains pays exigent toutefois un titre médical ou paramédical pour la pratique de certaines approches.
Union européenne[modifier | modifier le code]
Selon la Commission des questions sociales, de la santé et de la famille du Conseil de l’Europe :
« Les médecines alternatives sont devenues à présent de véritables industries. Dès lors, des abus et des dérives sont possibles, certains étant toujours tentés, par goût du pouvoir ou esprit de lucre, d’utiliser ces médecines à des fins détournées. Il existe donc des risques certains de voir ces médecines exploitées par des charlatans, des groupes sectaires etc…, tous voyant en elles un profit immédiat.
Pour les sectes, la santé est un thème porteur : elles s ’en servent pour attirer de nouveaux adeptes, et sont tentées d’utiliser ces médecines parallèles pour couper les adeptes du monde médical extérieur à la secte. Dans la mesure où elles prônent l’inutilité de la médecine traditionnelle et la nécessité d’arrêter tout traitement, y compris dans le cas de maladies graves comme le cancer et le SIDA, les dangers sont considérables pour les individus. Les médias se sont fait l’écho de plusieurs cas d’adeptes atteints de cancer et décédés après avoir abandonné toute thérapie37. »
France[modifier | modifier le code]
La commission Nicolas de 2002 a permis la reconnaissance de l'acupuncture et de l'homéopathie comme des pratiques médicales légales. Le titre professionnel d'ostéopathe a lui été reconnu, de même que celui de chiropracteur, par la loi du 4 mars 200242. Cependant, ces reconnaissances de titres professionnels ne sont pas pour autant des validations de ces théories, et l'Académie de Médecine considère que « l’insertion des ThC [thérapies complémentaires, en l'occurrence pour ce document l'acupuncture, l'hypnose, l'ostéopathie et le tai-chi] dans les soins dispensés par les hôpitaux, notamment les CHU, semble présenter un réel intérêt si elle est comprise non comme une reconnaissance et une valorisation de ces méthodes, mais comme un moyen de préciser leurs effets, de clarifier leurs indications et d’établir de bonnes règles pour leur utilisation3. ». De ce fait, un certain nombre de ces pratiques thérapeutiques se sont ajoutées à la liste des médecines à exercice particulier, pratiquées à titre subsidiaire par des médecins généralistes, mais non reconnues par la Sécurité sociale. Parmi celles-ci, nous pouvons notamment compter l'acupuncture, l'homéopathie, la médecine gériatrique ou la nutrition.
Selon l'article 39 du code de déontologie médicale et l'article R4127-39 du code de la santé publique43 : « Les médecins ne peuvent proposer aux malades ou à leur entourage comme salutaire ou sans danger un remède ou un procédé illusoire ou insuffisamment éprouvé. Toute pratique de charlatanerie est interdite44 ». Le code de déontologie et le code de santé publique impliquent de potentielles sanctions ordinales comme pénales pour la pratique de méthodes insuffisamment éprouvées, même si certaines pratiques alternatives sans risque restent de fait tolérées.
Selon la Question Parlementaire no 11662 intitulée « Médecines douces et risques de dérives sectaires »45 : « Le ministère rappelle que les pratiques dites de « médecines douces », si elles ne sont pas exercées par des membres du corps médical, doivent strictement rester dans le champ du bien-être et de la détente. Tout acte à visée diagnostique ou thérapeutique ne peut être pratiqué que par les membres du corps médical. »
Cas de l'herboristerie et de la phytothérapie[modifier | modifier le code]
En raison de l'existence de composants actifs potentiellement dangereux dans de nombreuses plantes, l'usage des plantes médicinales est très réglementé en France46. « En France, les médicaments à base de plantes sont dispensés exclusivement dans les officines pharmaceutiques du fait de l’existence du monopole pharmaceutique. Il existe toutefois une possibilité de laisser certains de ces médicaments en libre accès pour les clients ; le libre accès est limité à certaines spécialités pharmaceutiques ayant des indications thérapeutiques bien précises définies par décret. [...] Certaines plantes très actives, donc potentiellement toxiques, sont inscrites sur l’une des listes (I ou II) des substances vénéneuses et ne peuvent de ce fait être délivrées en pharmacie que sur prescription médicale47. » Les plantes sont donc à utiliser avec précaution : une huile essentielle peut contenir jusqu'à 2 000 principes actifs48. Un certain nombre de ces principes actifs possèdent des propriétés médicalement intéressantes, mais leur usage doit être contrôlé car comme pour toute substance ayant un effet sur le métabolisme, un mauvais dosage ou une mauvaise utilisation peuvent avoir des effets indésirables graves. Il est donc important de respecter la posologie et la durée de la prise, et d'être encadré si possible par un spécialiste diplômé. Ainsi, le millepertuis, le ginkgo ou le pamplemousse peuvent provoquer une diminution ou une augmentation de l’effet thérapeutique d’autres médicaments par interaction médicamenteuse. De même, l’absinthe ou le thuya peuvent être toxiques pour le système nerveux : c’est pourquoi en France certaines huiles essentielles ne peuvent être délivrées que par un pharmacien49.
Un régime dérogatoire est prévu pour les herboristes, et près d’un tiers des plantes médicinales inscrites à la pharmacopée, jugées sans risque à dosage raisonnable, a été libéralisé en 200850.
La plupart des médicaments de phytothérapie sont disponibles sans ordonnance en France mais ils peuvent aussi être prescrits47.
Suisse[modifier | modifier le code]
La Suisse a décidé, en juillet 1999, d’intégrer à l’essai cinq nouvelles médecines parallèles (après le succès de la chiropratique) dans le remboursement de l’assurance maladie obligatoire : l’homéopathie, la thérapie neurale, la phytothérapie, la médecine anthroposophique et la médecine traditionnelle chinoise. Après évaluation, ces médecines se sont avérées inefficaces et l’essai a été stoppé en juin 200551,52. En outre, l’usage de ces médecines ne réduisait pas la consommation des autres médecines. Ainsi, le 3 juin 2005, Pascal Couchepin (Conseiller fédéral) a donc décidé d’exclure ces méthodes de l’assurance de base. Selon l’ATS — Le Temps53, « il n’a pas été suffisamment prouvé que les cinq méthodes complémentaires satisfaisaient aux critères d’économicité, mais surtout d’efficacité et d’adéquation selon la loi sur l’assurance maladie (LAMal). »
Après une interruption du remboursement en juin 200551, il a été décidé de recommencer à rembourser temporairement ces médecines complémentaires à partir de 2012, pour une période d'essai de 5 ans54. La proposition d'inscrire la « prise en compte des médecines complémentaires » dans la Constitution a en outre été acceptée par 67 % des votants lors de la votation populaire du 17 mai 200955.
Par décision du Conseil fédéral du 16 juin 2017, les prestations médicales de la médecine anthroposophique, de l'homéopathie classique, de la médecine traditionnelle chinoise, de la phytothérapie et de l'acupuncture devaient être définitivement remboursées par l’assurance maladie de base à partir du 1er août 2017. Les nouvelles dispositions mettent ainsi sur un pied d’égalité les médecines complémentaires administrées par des médecins avec les autres disciplines médicales conventionnelles. Par cette décision, le gouvernement reconnaît que la médecine complémentaire remplit les exigences légales, notamment celles de l’article 32 de la loi sur l’assurance-maladie qui « permet de rembourser uniquement des prestations efficaces, appropriées et économiques ». Les prestations controversées et/ou nouvelles seront examinées sur demande, en cas de problème ou de doute, par une Commission fédérale des prestations générales et des principes (CFPP)56,57.
Allemagne[modifier | modifier le code]
Article détaillé : Heilpraktiker.
En Allemagne et dans certains cantons suisses existe depuis 1939 un statut officiel de « Heilpraktiker », regroupant les praticiens de diverses écoles alternatives sélectionnés sur la base d'un examen d'admission (essentiellement utilisé par des naturopathes et certains psychanalystes d'écoles marginales).
Utilisation des médecines non conventionnelles[modifier | modifier le code]
France[modifier | modifier le code]
Il existe peu de statistiques sur l'usage de ces médecines par la population. Un sondage SOFRES en 1985, CSA en 1988, une enquête chez des personnes hospitalisées en 1993, une étude réalisée par le CREDES en 1997 et les chiffres du rapport de l’OMS en 2002 sur la médecine traditionnelle sont les points de référence pour cette question58. Les résultats sont fluctuants, l’OMS donne un taux de 75 % et de 49 % dans le même rapport, mais il est généralement avancé que la moitié de la population française a recours à une médecine non conventionnelle et que les femmes sont les plus nombreuses à les utiliser.
La revue Science et Vie de janvier 2015 montre que « la mesure scientifique de l’efficacité des médecines alternatives se heurte à de nombreuses difficultés que la multiplication des études ne parvient pas vraiment à résoudre. Mais cette incertitude scientifique ne semble nullement entamer la confiance des français envers ces thérapies. Ainsi, 40 % d’entre eux y font appel et 78 % les jugent efficaces lorsqu’elles sont utilisées en prévention et 72 % estiment que, même dans le cas du cancer, les médecines complémentaires sont importantes en plus des traitement médicaux classiques59. »
L'Académie de médecine française a publié en 2013 un rapport intitulé « Thérapies complémentaires - acupuncture, hypnose, ostéopathie, tai-chi - leur place parmi les ressources de soin »3. Ce rapport, qui se fonde sur une synthèse de la bibliographie disponible sur le sujet, constate que « l’intérêt qui leur est porté dont témoigne le grand nombre de publications qui leur sont relatives, la croissance en nombre dans notre pays des projets de recherche clinique les concernant, et les connaissances en neurobiologie qui permettent d’en approcher le mécanisme obligent à les considérer avec sérieux, quand bien même leur efficacité n’est évoquée que dans un nombre limité de situations et fondée sur un niveau de preuve insuffisant. Cela ne justifie pas pour autant l'engouement probablement excessif du public en leur faveur. Ces pratiques doivent rester à leur juste place : celle de méthodes adjuvantes pouvant compléter les moyens de la médecine. »
La Mission interministérielle de vigilance et de lutte contre les dérives sectaires (MIVILUDES) a mis gratuitement à disposition dans son Guide santé et dérives sectaires21 une fiche intitulée « Comment reconnaître un charlatan ou un pseudo thérapeute sectaire ? ». Parmi les principaux traits récurrents qui définissent un pseudo-thérapeute, la mission note le dénigrement systématique de la médecine conventionnelle, la promesse d'une guérison miracle, la mise en valeur de bienfaits impossibles à évaluer ou mesurer (en termes de karma, d'aura, d'énergétique, etc.), la promesse d'une prise en charge globale (prétention holiste) agissant autant sur le corps que l'esprit voire l'âme, et l'utilisation d'un vocabulaire technique opaque (« ondes cosmiques, cycles lunaires, dimension vibratoire, purification, énergies, cosmos, conscience... »).
Le médecin et criminologue Jean-Marie Abgrall est l'auteur de plusieurs enquêtes sur le sujet (comme La mécanique des sectes en 1996 ou Les Charlatans de la santé en 1998). Il décrit ainsi le phénomène :
« Profitant de l’attirance grandissante du public pour les thérapies alternatives et les médecines douces, les groupes les plus divers investissent, depuis plusieurs décennies mais plus encore aujourd’hui dans des proportions inquiétantes, le domaine de la santé et du bien-être par une multitude d’offres de soins et d’accompagnement au développement personnel, assorties de promesses de guérison et de vie harmonieuse ici-bas et même au-delà.
Ce succès génère des risques divers, depuis l’escroquerie pure et simple jusqu’à la dérive « thérapeutique », voire sectaire au sens des critères retenus par les pouvoirs publics60. »
En mars 2018, 124 médecins et professionnels de santé publient un appel « contre les « médecines alternatives » qu'ils qualifient de « fake médecine » (« fausse médecine ») mettant en garde contre le risque d'arnaque, de charlatanerie et de dérive sectaire, et dénonçant le manque d'éthique des personnes proposant des soins dont l'efficacité n'est pas prouvée. Ils demandent l'exclusion de ces disciplines du champ médical, face au constat d'un entrisme de plus en plus prononcé61,62. Le philosophe Roger-Pol Droit indique en conclusion d'une analyse sur le sujet :
« En fait, derrière le débat « vraie médecine » contre « fausses médecines », plus de questions se profilent qu'on ne le voit d'abord. Il se pourrait qu'il indique un symptôme majeur de la crise contemporaine de la pratique médicale. Décider si la médecine est une science ou un art est une question qui traverse les siècles. Oublier qu'elle doit être les deux est un trait du nôtre63. »
États-Unis[modifier | modifier le code]
Aux États-Unis, cinquante-sept pour cent des femmes atteintes de cancer du sein auraient recours aux médecines non conventionnelles et plus la personne se sent malade plus elle aurait tendance à multiplier ces traitements. À côté des traitements biologiques (fortifiants), les méthodes les plus habituelles sont les thérapies de relaxation tête et corps, les cassettes de musique ou de vidéo64.
Toujours dans le cadre du cancer du sein, des études préliminaires portent sur la classique Grande Camomille de nos grands-mères dont une substance, le parthénolide, permettrait in vivo la lutte contre la résistance des cellules au tamoxifène65.
En 2008 l'American Hospital Association (en) faisait état de 37 % des hôpitaux qui rendent disponible l'utilisation de thérapies alternatives et complémentaires. Bien qu'appréciées de certains patients, ces pratiques ne sont pas toujours bien accueillies par les médecins dans les hôpitaux66.
Une étude clinique de 2017 a pointé que dans le cadre de cancers traitables, le recours aux médecines non conventionnelles (« alternative medicines ») sans aucun traitement conventionnel du cancer (« conventional cancer treatment ») diminuait drastiquement les chances de survies. Ce cas de figure reste cependant rare67.
Pays en développement[modifier | modifier le code]
Selon l'OMS : « Jusqu’à 80 % des populations des pays en développement s’en remettent à la médecine traditionnelle pour les soins de santé primaires, par tradition culturelle ou faute d’autres alternatives68. »
En Europe[modifier | modifier le code]
Une revue systématique publiée en 2018 a identifié les facteurs prédictifs qui font que les personnes issues de la population générale en Europe se tournent vers les médecines alternatives et complémentaires69. Les facteurs prédictifs de recours à des praticiens de ces médecines sont le fait d'être de sexe féminin et le fait de reporter être atteint d'une maladie chronique. Le statut marital n'est cependant pas un facteur prédictif. Le fait d'être de sexe féminin est aussi un facteur prédictif du recours à des produits issus des médecines alternatives et complémentaires. Les auteurs concluent cependant que ces facteurs prédictifs ne sont pas différents de ceux concernant le recours à des praticiens de santé plus conventionnels.
Pratique des médecines non conventionnelles en France[modifier | modifier le code]
Par des médecins, en milieu hospitalier[modifier | modifier le code]
Le serment d'Hippocrate réactualisé indique que le médecin doit respecter « toutes les personnes […] sans aucune discrimination selon leur état ou leurs convictions70. » Pour autant, l'utilisation d'une médecine non-conventionnelle par un médecin, éventuellement au sein d'un hôpital, n'est pas une forme de validation de la méthode. D'un point de vue juridique, les médecins ne doivent pas divulguer dans les milieux médicaux un procédé nouveau de diagnostic ou de traitement insuffisamment éprouvé sans accompagner leur communication des réserves qui s'imposent. Ils ne doivent pas faire une telle divulgation dans le public non médical71. Les médecins ne peuvent proposer aux malades ou à leur entourage comme salutaire ou sans danger un remède ou un procédé illusoire ou insuffisamment éprouvé. Toute pratique de charlatanisme est interdite43. D'un point de vue pragmatique, tant que la méthode apporte bien-être et réconfort au patient, le médecin peut parfois l'utiliser même s'il est convaincu que l'effet n'est que placebo (la médecine conventionnelle utilise d'ailleurs fréquemment des placebos). Dans le même ordre d'idées, la présence de lieux de prière et d'aumôneries au sein d'un hôpital n'indique pas que le personnel soignant soit croyant, mais qu'il respecte la croyance des patients et accepte de mettre en œuvre tout ce qui n'est pas néfaste et apporte du réconfort.
Certains professionnels de santé médicaux (médecin, sage-femme) et paramédicaux (infirmier, kinésithérapeute, etc.) ont parfois recours à des pratiques non conventionnelles en milieu hospitalier3. Mais ces pratiques peuvent aussi être proposées par des personnes qui ne sont ni médecins ni paramédicaux. Certains praticiens ne peuvent procéder à aucun acte médical, tel que le diagnostic, la thérapie ou la prescription de médicaments. Face à la diversité de ces pratiques non conventionnelles avec des praticiens très hétérogènes, des tentatives de réglementation et de contrôle tentent de se mettre en place, notamment pour surveiller les éventuelles dérives sectaires en dehors des établissements hospitaliers publics21. Le Pr Loïc Capron, président de la Commission médicale d’établissement de l’Assistance publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, déclare en 2015 : « Il existe une continuité entre ces pseudo-thérapies et les sectes, qui peuvent pénétrer par cette voie dans l’hôpital. En tant que responsable de la qualité et de la sécurité des soins, je lutte contre tout ce qui n’est pas evidence based72. »
D'après un rapport de l'Académie de médecine française, l'utilisation de ces pratiques dans les hôpitaux publics, « et notamment dans les CHU, est acceptable dans la mesure où l’hôpital n’est pas considéré comme garant de leur efficacité, mais comme lieu d’exemplarité de leur pratique et espace ouvert à la recherche les concernant. L’expérience de ces établissements devrait contribuer à terme à l’élaboration d’un guide de bonnes pratiques destiné à tous les intervenants publics ou privés ». Le rapport recommande que ces pratiques demeurent « à leur juste place : celle de méthodes adjuvantes pouvant compléter les moyens de la médecine. Elles ne doivent être préconisées que dans les cas où leur utilité est plausible, et au terme d’une démarche médicale par laquelle on se sera assuré qu’il n’y a pas, parmi les moyens éprouvés de la thérapeutique, une solution plus nécessaire ou plus recommandable. En conséquence, elles ne doivent jamais être choisies par le patient comme une solution de premier recours, ni comme une solution de remplacement qui exposerait à des erreurs ou retard de diagnostic et à des pertes de chance. Une attention particulière doit d’autre part être portée au risque de complications (notamment des manipulations cervicales), au risque de diffusion abusive de méthodes d’utilité improbable (telle l’ostéopathie crânienne préventive du nouveau né), et au risque de dérive sectaire avec éloignement définitif de la médecine conventionnelle, particulièrement redoutable en cancérologie3. »
Un état des lieux en 2013 des thérapies complémentaires utilisées à l'Assistance publique - Hôpitaux de Paris indique qu'elles sont « mises en pratique, dans 95 % des cas, par des professionnels de santé : médecins, sages-femmes, infirmières, infirmières anesthésistes, masseurs-kinésithérapeutes, psychomotriciens, psychologues. Les médecins titulaires qui sont impliqués dans ces soins ne les pratiquent qu'à temps partiel. On remarque toutefois que dans 5 % des cas, les pratiques complémentaires sont réalisées par des intervenants indéterminés, professionnels de santé ou non, exerçant éventuellement de façon bénévole3. »
Caractéristiques problématiques de certaines thérapies[modifier | modifier le code]
Certaines thérapies non-conventionnelles peuvent partager un certain nombre de caractéristiques21[travail inédit ?] :
absence de formation médicale des praticiens : si certaines méthodes bien établies comme l'ostéopathie bénéficient de nos jours de formations reconnues par l’État (ce qui n'implique cependant en aucun cas une reconnaissance d'efficacité de la méthode), un certain nombre de médecines non conventionnelles sont pratiquées par des personnes sans formation médicale (ou avec une formation sans rapport avec la technique concernée, ce qui est le cas des « médecins homéopathes »), et généralement formées elles-mêmes par une simple poignée de stages sans valeur institutionnelle15. Ainsi, « L’absence de reconnaissance par l’État des formations et des diplômes délivrés [...] peut induire un amateurisme de la part de certains pseudo-thérapeutes. D’autant que n’importe qui peut se déclarer « kinésiologue » ou « maître reiki » et enseigner ces techniques. [...] Il est possible de devenir maître reiki en trois ou quatre stages de formation accélérée les week-ends »15. Cette facilité à monter en grade fait partie pour la MIVILUDES de la stratégie de nombreuses mouvances suspectes : « On fait également miroiter à l’adepte la possibilité de devenir lui-même « praticien » voire formateur, ce qui est en soi très valorisant et réconfortant pour une personne en perte de repères »15. De fait, la plupart des médecines non-conventionnelles sont officiellement « accessible sans diplôme particulier » selon la fiche Rome K1103 de Pôle Emploi73, même si certains instituts délivrent des diplômes, souvent coûteux et sans valeur institutionnelle15.
Selon le ministère des Affaires sociales et de la Santé, « l’enseignement de ces pratiques [non conventionnelles] ne donne pas lieu à des diplômes nationaux, à l’exception de l’acupuncture. Cependant, certaines formations font l’objet de diplômes d’université (DU) ou de diplômes interuniversitaires (DIU) placés sous la seule responsabilité d’une ou de plusieurs universités. Ces diplômes ne signifient pas, ipso facto, que l’efficacité et l’innocuité de la technique sont prouvées. Ce sont des diplômes complémentaires qui, à eux seuls, ne donnent pas le droit à l’exercice d’une profession de santé. Certaines formations sont par ailleurs délivrées au sein d’organismes privés sans aucun contrôle des institutions publiques quant à leur contenu, et sans reconnaissance par l’Etat des diplômes délivrés74. » Le Canard enchaîné relève en 201575 certains diplômes universitaires éloignés de la médecine fondée sur les preuves et proposés à des prix élevés par quelques universités, et relate l’envoi d’une lettre la même année (restée sans réponse) aux ministres de la Santé et de l’Éducation nationale, signée par une douzaine de personnalités médicales et scientifiques76 demandant la suppression « de ces diplômes universitaires se rapportant au domaine médical, mis en place localement et donc sans évaluation nationale »72.
absence de preuves de l'efficacité du soin : toute méthode thérapeutique qui a prouvé son efficacité et son innocuité est rapidement intégrée à la médecine dite ici « conventionnelle ». Ainsi, la médecine non-conventionnelle regroupe des techniques dont l'efficacité n'a pas été démontrée, à quelques exceptions près, ou bien qui présentent des risques de blessure (voir la section « Recherche » ci-après). Par exemple comme dans le cas de l'homéopathie, l'inefficacité de la méthode a au contraire été démontrée à de multiples reprises, mais les promoteurs de la méthode trouvent toujours des artifices rhétoriques pour discréditer les preuves scientifiques (en).
utilisation de concepts sans définition : de nombreuses techniques reposent sur des concepts flous et sans définition concrète77, qu'ils soient empruntés à des religions asiatiques (karma, ki...), à des théories européennes des siècles passés (dynamisation, humeurs...) ou à un jargon scientifique détourné (onde, énergie, « mysticisme quantique »...). D'autres termes simplement vagues sont également utilisés, comme la prétention « holiste » ou « orientale », la promotion du « bien-être », une mystérieuse « purification » (ou « détoxication ») ou surtout l'appel à la « nature », qui peut justifier tout et son contraire. L'entretien de ce flou a pour effet de faire cohabiter sous des mêmes bannières de simples « remèdes de grand-mère », des arnaques organisées, des groupes New Age et des mouvances sectaires, souvent difficiles à distinguer. Un certain nombre de ces pratiques se sont structurées commercialement, et infiltrent notamment les réseaux écologistes et bio pour diffuser sous couvert de « naturel » des méthodes fantaisistes au mieux inefficace et au pire dangereuses : un véritable florilège y est notamment présent chaque année au Salon Marjolaine, à l'origine dédié à l'agriculture biologique78.
Avertissement des autorités françaises sur les dérives de certaines thérapies non conventionnelles : panneau affiché au salon Marjolaine, organisé par Nature et progrès.
recours à la pensée magique : face à l'absence de preuve scientifique de l'efficacité d'une technique, les promoteurs de « traitements miracles » vont souvent faire appel à la pensée magique, c'est-à-dire à la croyance en des mécanismes occultes que la science moderne ne parviendrait pas à détecter alors que le praticien, lui, en maîtrise les arcanes grâce à son processus initiatique79. Ce mécanisme permet de discréditer les études scientifiques portant sur la méthode concernée, et justifie l'absence de nécessité pour le thérapeute d'avoir à prouver ses affirmations. Enfin, cela constitue aussi une échappatoire ad hoc, puisque l'inefficacité de la méthode peut être reprochée au patient (« incrédule », porteur de « mauvaises ondes »...) plutôt qu'au praticien.
risque d'emprise psychologique ou de dérive sectaire : de nombreuses thérapies non conventionnelles se posent comme des alternatives non seulement thérapeutiques mais aussi ontologiques, assurant reposer sur un système de pensée radicalement différent de celui de la science, et invitent donc les patients à embrasser non pas une simple technique de soin mais toute une vision du monde, souvent qualifiée de « holiste » ou attribuée à l'« orient ». À partir de là, le risque d'emprise psychologique est majeur, et la Mission interministérielle de vigilance et de lutte contre les dérives sectaires met régulièrement en garde contre les nombreuses dérives existantes, consistant le plus souvent à « valoriser la victime pour mieux asseoir l’emprise du gourou thérapeute. Il s’agira de convaincre l’adepte qu’il est exceptionnel et que pour aller mieux et retrouver son énergie, sa joie de vivre et tout son potentiel, il devra se séparer de son conjoint, se couper de ses amis, et surtout suivre des stages, généralement coûteux, mais nécessaires pour accéder au bien-être. [...] Petit à petit la relation va se baser sur l’admiration du patient envers son thérapeute, qui pourra imposer toutes ses exigences, allant jusqu’à la soumission totale de l’adepte qui aura subi des pressions réitérées afin d’altérer son jugement »15.
Une économie publique[modifier | modifier le code]
Des études réalisées ces dernières années montrent une amélioration du confort des utilisateurs, une diminution au recours des méthodes conventionnelles et une diminution des dépenses de santé80,81.
Certains admettent que des pratiques non-conventionnelles soient remboursées par l'assurance maladie en France pour réaliser une diminution des dépenses de santé. Selon Frédéric Adnet, professeur de médecine d’urgence à l'université Paris-XIII : « Si la sécurité sociale rembourse certains traitements dénués de fondements scientifiques, cela résulte très probablement d’un calcul mercantile. Ces mêmes patients pourraient devenir – en cas de non-remboursement – des sur-consommateurs de soins lourds dans leur quête d’un soulagement psycho-affectif bien plus pénalisant en termes de finances publiques et probablement plus dangereux en termes de iatrogénie. Cet état de fait n’est donc, finalement, pas choquant82. »
L'expérience de la Suisse entre 1999 et 2005 semble montrer que le remboursement de médecines non-conventionnelles ne génère pas d'économie, ni de surcoût. Elles ne représentaient que 0,16 % des dépenses de l'assurance obligatoire, mais de nombreuses dépenses sont prises en charge par les patients ou de plus en plus par leurs assurances ou mutuelles complémentaires.
Il existe de possibles effets nuisibles : ainsi des malades se tournant exclusivement vers des thérapies dont l'efficacité n'a pas été prouvée ne pourront pas bénéficier d'un diagnostic précoce par la médecine scientifique, mettant leurs jours en danger3.
Recherches[modifier | modifier le code]
Selon l'OMS : « Il existe des données empiriques et scientifiques qui mettent en évidence les bénéfices de l’acupuncture, des médecines manuelles et de plusieurs plantes médicinales dans le traitement de maladies chroniques ou bénignes68. ».
Dans une notice de lecture de l'ouvrage Médecines douces : info ou intox ? de Simon Singh et Edzard Ernst, qui se présente comme « l’évaluation des médecines alternatives la plus honnête et la plus précise du monde » Martin Brunschwig pour Science et pseudo-sciences considère que « le défi est brillamment relevé : S. Sing et E. Ernst offrent en effet un travail d’une rigueur et d’une richesse exemplaire, émaillé d’explications et de références aux études qui ont permis d’apporter les preuves d’efficacité de certains traitements plus que d’autres11 » ; il indique par ailleurs que « les médecines alternatives sont en grande partie évaluées, et un nombre infime d’entre elles ont prouvé un effet spécifique mais faible. Les auteurs indiquent d’ailleurs fort justement que lorsque c’est le cas, au lieu de « s’accrocher » à une efficacité très faible, pour certains effets, à la limite du démontrable (que les tenants des médecines alternatives ne manqueront pas de monter en épingle), on ferait mieux, dans tous les cas, de se tourner vers les traitements conventionnels, plus efficaces11. »
Dans le cas de l'acupuncture, la collaboration Cochrane cite un cas où une efficacité est démontrée légèrement supérieure au placebo83 mais récuse ou ne peut conclure, faute de preuve pour les autres indications où l'acupuncture a été scientifiquement évaluée84. On sait en revanche que l'expérience qui a lancé la mode de l’acupuncture aux États-Unis dans les années 1970 avait été falsifiée par les services chinois39. On retrouve également dans la littérature des cas d'iatrogénie de l'acupuncture85.
Aux États-Unis le National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) qui dépend des National Institutes of Health, a pour mission de financer et mener des recherches scientifiques rigoureuses dans le domaine des médecines complémentaires et alternatives. L'institut a été créé en 1991 sous le nom Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) avant de devenir le NCCAM en 1998, son budget était de 2 millions de dollars à sa création, il a atteint 50 millions en 1999 et 128,8 millions en 201086. Les critiques reprochent au NCCAM l'absence de résultats significatifs malgré son budget important et la promotion des pseudo-sciences pour des raisons politiques et démagogiques87,88.
The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine est un magazine américain évalué par les pairs, soutenu par la Commission for Scientific Medicine and Mental Health, consacré à l'étude des médecines non conventionnelles89.
Depuis les années 2000, la base de données MEDLINE a introduit une indexation facilitant les recherches sur le sujet des médecines complémentaires et alternatives. The Cochrane Library (en) dispose d'une importante base de données d'essais contrôlés ainsi que des revues systématiques1.
On trouve dans la littérature scientifique de plus en plus d'études sur les médecines non conventionnelles, cependant des méta-analyses montrent que certaines de ces études sont de qualité trop faible pour être scientifiquement significatives90, et sont parfois financées par des conglomérats de praticiens dans un but publicitaire (voir l'article junk science), voire dans le cas de la médecine traditionnelle chinoise par un État dans un but politique91.
L'approche scientifique[modifier | modifier le code]
La médecine conventionnelle applique un traitement si son efficacité est prouvée (ou dans certains cas semble prouvée, car la méthode scientifique peut parfois composer avec la logique mercantile ou culturelle92), s'il a une supériorité sur la physiologie de l'homéostasie mise dans les meilleures conditions (effet placebo). L'efficacité d'un traitement est mesuré à partir de critères de mesures : un paramètre biologique (ex : la glycémie), psychologique (ex : l'anxiété), épidémiologique (ex : la survie à cinq ans, la mortalité). On peut ainsi utiliser des molécules ayant réussi les tests expérimentaux sans connaître, dans un premier temps, les mécanismes biochimiques de l'action thérapeutique de ces substances (exemple : aspirine, la pénicilline) 93. L'explication de leur action évoluerait par l'avancée des connaissances scientifiques, cela ne changerait rien au résultat des mesures expérimentées.
D'une manière générale, le fait qu'une théorie, une conception a priori, soit vraie ou fausse est indépendant du résultat atteint ; on peut expliquer un fait réel par une théorie fausse, et le fait que la théorie soit fausse n'empêche pas le fait d'être vrai. Par exemple, au Moyen Âge, on savait fabriquer du fer et du savon, pourtant, la théorie qui expliquait les transformations de la matière, l'alchimie, n'est plus reconnue comme vérité aujourd'hui94.
Donc :
si l'on prouve que la théorie sous-jacente à une médecine donnée est fausse, cela n'implique pas que les traitements liés à cette médecine soient inefficaces (même principe épistémologique que celui évoqué pour le savon et l'alchimie) ;
le fait qu'un traitement soit efficace ne valide pas pour autant la théorie médicale qui le justifie (même principe épistémologique que celui évoqué pour le savon et l'alchimie) ;
la preuve de l'efficacité doit se faire par comparaison avec la physiologie dans les conditions d'un placebo positif, sur un nombre suffisant de cas pour que l'on puisse avoir une différence significative statistiquement (cf. Essai clinique)
L'efficacité visible d'une technique ne justifie pas forcément son utilisation, qui peut avoir des effets négatifs. Par exemple, on a longtemps soigné la syphilis avec du mercure ou en inoculant la malaria, ce qui donnait lieu à une rémission apparente, mais tua sans doute indirectement plus de patients que la maladie elle-même95 (cf. Autorisation de mise sur le marché).
Relations entre médecins conventionnels et non-conventionnels[modifier | modifier le code]
Des médecins ont été poursuivis en France pour avoir utilisé des méthodes thérapeutiques sans validation scientifique. La notion « d’exercice illégal de la médecine » condamne par ailleurs toute personne qui s’aventurerait à manipuler la santé d'un patient par des traitements ou méthodes invasifs sans qu’il en ait été prouvé l’innocuité et l’efficacité.
Les laboratoires pharmaceutiques sont alors soupçonnés de faire pression auprès des gouvernements pour avoir une législation restrictive. À l’inverse, est cité le cas des Laboratoires Boiron (France), des Laboratoires Lehning (France), Heel et DHU Schwabe (Allemagne), grands pourvoyeurs d’emplois en Europe, et qui ont obtenu du gouvernement français que les préparations homéopathiques soient remboursées en 198496, puis de l’Union européenne que les mêmes préparations puissent avoir une autorisation de mise sur le marché sans procéder à des essais cliniques97.
L’effet placebo et le réconfort sans danger qu’apportent, entre autres, certaines méthodes ont un certain intérêt. Les promoteurs de certaines médecines non-conventionnelles s’appuient sur cet effet placebo pour montrer que le psychisme est fondamental dans la guérison ; cependant, l’effet placebo peut agir alors même que l’on sait qu’il s’agit d’un effet placebo98.
Affaires[modifier | modifier le code]
Le recours aux médecines parallèles devrait être parcimonieux et adapté : le traitement d’une maladie grave et avancée nécessitant des soins médicaux importants peut être retardé par le recours exclusif à une médecine non conventionnelle3.
Au xxie siècle, il existe encore de nombreuses maladies incurables et parfois mal comprises, telles que certains cancers ou encore la maladie d'Alzheimer. Ces maladies peuvent entraîner une grande anxiété chez les malades et leurs familles, ainsi qu'un douloureux complexe d'impuissance99. Cette fragilité émotionnelle a attiré de nombreux thérapeutes para-médicaux malintentionnés et autres escrocs, qui face à l'impuissance de la médecine moderne proposent des méthodes « alternatives » soi-disant miracles, facturées à des prix souvent astronomiques99,100. On assiste ainsi à la prolifération de tout une pseudo-science autour de certaines maladies comme l'autisme, de leurs causes hypothétiques et de leur soi-disant traitement, impliquant autant de simples charlatans que de riches fondations, ainsi que certaines mouvances sectaires100, surfant sur des effets de mode (comme le régime sans gluten101) ou la théorie du complot (voir notamment la Controverse sur le rôle de la vaccination dans l'autisme102,103). Grâce aux importants revenus générés par ces pseudo-thérapies, de puissants instituts se sont formés aux États-Unis pour promouvoir et centraliser ce genre de méthodes (comme la Strategic Autism Initiative), appuyés par une communication et un lobbyisme actifs, impliquant des personnalités du show-business et certains politiciens populistes, jusqu'à Donald Trump104. Cette communication est généralement basée sur des témoignages isolés et invérifiables et une grande force de persuasion, parfois assortis de fausses études scientifiques99. En réponse, la FDA américaine a publié des guides d'aide aux victimes (comme le « Beware of False or Misleading Claims for Treating Autism [archive] »99), et des associations d'aide aux victimes se sont montées, comme la Autism Rights Watch. En France, c'est notamment la Mission interministérielle de vigilance et de lutte contre les dérives sectaires qui a été saisie du problème (voir par exemple son Guide santé et dérives sectaires21).
En France, le procès d’un couple, accusé de mauvais traitement sur son enfant décédé en 2000, à la suite d'une carence alimentaire (l'autopsie a révélé une « infection aiguë secondaire à une malnutrition chronique
Chris Huhne, Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change, Ambassador Mxakato-Diseko of South Africa, Foreign Secretary William Hague with and Martin Davidson, Chief Executive at the British Council answer questions on Climate Change, 8 November 2011. The debate was chaired by Rick Edwards.
World Bank Group staff asking a question to President Jim Yong Kim at the Townhall Meeting on December 6, 2013. Photo © Ken Katsurayama/World Bank
Athletic Goddess! Nikon D810 Photos Pretty Swimsuit Bikini Fitness Model Goddess: Sigma 50mm F1.4 DG HSM Art Lens for Nikon Cameras!
Loved shooting the awesome Sigma 50mm F1.4 DG HSM Art Lens for Nikon Cameras! It was a bit tough sometimes to achieve optimum focus at F1.4 due to the shallow depth of field, but hey--not every eyelash has to be perfectly sharp! I could do it if I and the model were perfectly still, or F1.8 or F2.0 did the trick too. Kept switching it up! We had fun and she loves the photos! :)
All the best on your epic hero's odyssey from Johnny Ranger McCoy!
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Modeling the new black & gold & "Gold 45 Revolver" Gold'N'Virtue swimsuits with the main equation to Dynamic Dimensions Theory on the swimsuits: dx4/dt=ic. Yes I have a Ph.D. in physics! :) You can read more about my research and Hero's Odyssey Physics here:
herosodysseyphysics.wordpress.com/ MDT PROOF#2: Einstein (1912 Man. on Rel.) and Minkowski wrote x4=ict. Ergo dx4/dt=ic--the foundational equation of all time and motion which is on all the shirts and swimsuits. Every photon that hits my Nikon D800e's sensor does it by surfing the fourth expanding dimension, which is moving at c relative to the three spatial dimensions, or dx4/dt=ic!
Instagram: instagram.com/45surf
Fine art swimsuit model, ballerina, and ballet photography!
Nikon D810 Photos Pretty Swimsuit Bikini Fitness Model Goddess Sigma 50mm F1.4 DG HSM Art Lens for Nikon Cameras!
45SURF Fine Art!
After looking through my work,what do you think about Nikon vs. Sony? Do you prefer the Nikon D810 and Nikkor / Tamron / Sigma lenses /glass, or the Sony A7r and Sony Sonnar Carl Zeiss e-mount glass/lenses? I love them both! And I am so excited about the Sony A7rII !
Feel free to ask me any questions! Always love sharing tech talk and insights! :)
And all the best on Your Epic Hero's Odyssey!
The new Lightroom rocks!
Scouts hike along Thomas Road for the first area show. 2010 National Scout Jamboree at Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia, Wednesday July 28, 2010. Photo by Jim Brown
**********Beginning of Shooting Data Section**********
Canon EOS 5D Mark II iso - 500 f/11 shutter - 1/500
file name - 6732-07-001-128 date - 7/28/10 time - 8:26:49 AM
program - Program AE white balance - Auto
meter - multi-segment tone comp - 0 exp. comp - 0.0
flash - off
President Cyril Ramaphosa replies to Questions for Oral Reply in the National Council of Provinces (NCOP) in Parliament, Cape Town. (Photo: GCIS)
Agriculture Secretary To Vilsack, answers questions for the press at the USDA headquarters in Washington. D.C. on October 25, 2022. Building on the momentum of the White House Conference on Hunger, Nutrition, and Health, USDA host a ‘Come to the Table’ National Summit on Nutrition Security and Healthcare. The USDA Summit brings together key actors in the healthcare sector to showcase their efforts to advance nutrition security and learn about innovative approaches and best practices. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, more than 42% of American adults – about 100 million people – suffered from obesity before the pandemic began. Nearly three-fourths of American adults are overweight or obese. Roughly one in five children also suffers from obesity. The costs associated with rising rates of obesity- along with diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and cancer – are among the greatest threats to the fiscal future of the United States. USDA and its partners at HHS are taking a whole-of-government approach to tackling this issue. When we reduce diet-related disease, we save money for all Americans through reduced healthcare expenditures at hospitals, healthcare plans, VA clinics, local health clinics, and Medicare/Medicaid while enabling Americans to lead healthier, more productive lives. (USDA photos by Christophe Paul)
what advantage is there to being born with a silver spoon ... when the riches of life come from within
submitted to 100 words
76/100 words: question
If you have any questions or would like to contribute to this archive, please visit www.underjams.art and contact me on Twitter DM or Telegram ♥
jsc2018e048495 (May 14, 2018) --- At the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, Expedition 56 crew member Sergey Prokopyev of Roscosmos (right) answers a reporter’s question May 14 during a crew news conference. Prokopyev, Serena Auñón-Chancellor of NASA (left) and Alexander Gerst of the European Space Agency (center) will launch June 6 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan on the Soyuz MS-09 spacecraft for a six month mission on the International Space Station. Credit: NASA/Elizabeth Weissinger
How do you render metallic colors from LDD? This image shows the difference between the two when rendered with Bluerender.
To bee or not to bee,
that is the question ? . .
Sorry Bill (if that's your real name anyways),
but I couldn't help myself. :{(
But a serious question for nature photographers in any event.
Feel free to add your 2 ¢ . . .
I am trying to put together a better list of what fits my clothing. Right now I own Minifee and I've been told that some of my clothing fits Bluefairy msds. I would really appreciate it if anyone could take the time to let me know what other MSD sculpts fit my clothing so I can list it on my Etsy. You can PM me if you'd like. Thank you! <3
The Street Triple is a favourite, may skeptics questioned the need for an R version with a bike this good. The Street Triple features the same 675cc triple as the Daytona and R models. Its ultra nimble handling and smooth power delivery offers riders a truly exhilarating experience.
For any question or request:
bankvideo@yahoo.com
All over the capital, the Arirang adverts (« Grand mass gymnastic and artistic performance », « Welcome to Pyongyang » and so on) warn the profane…Between August and October, takes place one of the biggest and most impressive performances in the world. The tone is set : even the Beijing Olympics ceremony can’t compete with the mass games organized by the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). The show is held several times a week and welcomes tourists from all over the World, including the US, in one of the most isolated and despised country on earth. The well-called « mass games » are designed to emphasize group dynamics rather than individual performances as the supreme emblem of communism. Prepared by hundred of thousands performers all along the year, after their classes for the youngest of them, they are entirely dedicated to the NK’s leader Kim Jong Il and his deceased father Kim Il Sung, considered as the « Eternal president » and « sun of the 21st century »…
In the surroundings of Pyongyang's May Day giant Stadium, two girls are running to perform for the Arirang show. They are already dressed in their gymnastic outfits, as well as some 100,000 others who participate to the performance. They all come to honour their self-proclaimed « dear leader » Kim Jong Il, after a very hard and gruelling training, since their earliest age. Yet, it has been many years that Kim Jong Il has not shown up, formally for business reasons. But officials now admit the western medias’ assertions of illness. Anyways, Kim Jong Il or not, the mass games are held every year in Pyongyang, as a means for the regime to show to the entire world the country’s strength and good shape. To reach this sole purpose, not less than 100,000 people are involved in a choreographed show of simultaneous dancing and gymnastics. Many symbols are displayed by thousands of trained athlets, whether they are adults or even children. Hand over their heart, the young pupils sing in chorus "We are the happiest children in the world", one of the famous propaganda songs in North Korea. Many dancers make movements either with ribbons or colourful flowers named « kimjonglias » after the leader Kim Jong Il. All along the show, a live band plays a ceremonious music.
On the background, some 20,000 young koreans sit on the terraces, facing the spectators. They flip coloured cards at a high speed to form a fresco of animated and detailed images, changing from one to another. Each time they turn the page to create a new giant picture, they cry out. It creates a awe-inspiring atmosphere, as the shout is mixed with the noise of thousands of pages turned at the same moment. The figures are stunning : to compose these images, 2000 children are needed to make only one soldier, 20,000 for a north korean flag. Hiding a much more grim reality, the panels represent Pyongyang enlightened by night, wheat fields ready for harvest, scientists at work, atoms as symbols of the nuclear bomb and others for the reunification of two Koreas. One of the North Korea’s myths (history according to them) is recounted by the means of a huge image made by thousands of children. It represents the two pistols reportedly used by Kim Il Sung, when he founded the Anti-Japanese People’s Guerrilla Army in 1932. When the pistols appear, the audience applauses loudly. Among them, many soldiers attend the show as the ultimate award after years of good and faithful service.The thousands and thousands of boys and girls involved create a giant mass movement in the stadium which leaves the public stunned. These talented performers are used to that kind of performance: in North Korea they have to dance, sing, jump and spin around as many times as there are celebrations, always in praise of their leaders. There are mainly two sorts of shows. The first one is the classical artistic show, named "Arirang" after the famous korean folk song (whose story sometimes changes, but most often recounts the legend of a disappointed woman who hopes that her lover will return to her –metaphor of the break-up with South Korea). The second one is a more political show, which was untitled in 2008 "Prosper our country" and intended to show the country’s greatest achievements and its struggle against the foreign oppressors.
The show continues in the same way for one hour. Thereafter, the thousands of people present vanish in the dark and silent streets of Pyongyang, which contrast with the flood of lights and music in the stadium. Within the space of a few hours, it gives us a a strange feeling, between the real and unreal, of another universe both terrifying and fantastic.
Pyongyang North Korea 북한