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North American Moose (Alces alces), cow and calf moose feeding in a snow covered clearing on the Maligne Lake road in Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada.
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25 October, 2012.
Slide # GWB_20121025_5596.CR2
Use of this image on websites, blogs or other media without explicit permission is not permitted.
© Gerard W. Beyersbergen - all rights reserved
Fracking opponents rally outside the Boulder County Courthouse. County Commissioners were considering extending a moratorium on drilling permits. The current moratorium expires in June. (5/13/13)
"Eixample" (catalão): "Ensanche" (espanhol, português)
Ensanchar:
1. Alargar (aproveitando as ensanchas).
2. Fig. Ampliar.
Ensancha:
s. f.
1. Porção de tecido que fica dentro da costura, para poder alargar a roupa em caso de necessidade.
2. Fig. Ampliação.
3. Liberdade.
4. Sobra.
5. Confiança.
(fonte: www.priberam.pt/DLPO/ )
O fato de ser uma cidade de menor porte em meados do XIX talvez tenha permitido que Barcelona escapasse do caminho percorrido pela Paris do Barão de Haussmann. O plano de Ildefonso Cerdá ( es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan_Cerd%c3%a1 ) preserva a cidade antiga intacta ao adicionar um novo bloco adjacente, já inserido nos padrões (dos engenheiros) que a modernidade da indústria (e da expansão demográfica) exigia. Do ponto de vista do urbanismo, o anexo vai se tornando parte da cidade aos poucos, criando uma interação positiva entre as duas texturas (muito diferente de Haussmann), que passam a se complementar.
Num primeiro momento, a cidadela mantêm sua centralidade sobre o restante, permanecendo a cidade enquanto sede do poder, da religião e do mercado - com alguma importância do valor de uso e de sua espacialidade. Entretanto, o avanço da industrialização faz com que o excedente passe progressivamente a sair de seu controle direto. Isso faz com que a cidade política se esvazie aos poucos, se tornando submissa a outros espaços, até chegar ao ponto de se inserir quase completamente na lógica do urbanismo-espetáculo tão praticado (e vendido ao resto do mundo) por Barcelona desde o início dos anos 90.
Talvez deveríamos incluir dentre as diversas profissões desaparecidas nas últimas décadas o ofício (público) de se "ensanchar a cidade", planejando espaços adjacentes ao tecido urbano consolidado prevendo uma integração orgânica das novas áreas com a cidade existente, sem grandes barreiras (como os nossos viadutos, túneis e vias expressas) ou vazios entre eles. O que fazemos hoje é simplesmente lançar pequenos bolsões de tecido urbano (que não são cidade, apesar das pretensões) no entorno das metrópoles, que muito ao contrário de se integrar, já nascem com a intenção da separação, da negação da cidade expressa em muralhas e acessos fechados. Na outra ponta continuamos a produzir o espaço da exclusão espacial, onde, ao contrário de se negar a cidade, tem-se a cidade negada a estes espaços. O resultado é uma fragmentação espacial venenosa para a própria idéia de cidade, o extremo oposto da integração da imagem acima (no plano do ambiente construído - valendo ressaltar que isso não significa uma garantia de que este espaço bem integrado seja o espaço da inclusão plena, o mercado imobiliário cumpre muito bem o papel de evitar tal associação).
MTA Metro-North President Catherine Rinaldi and Long Island Rail Road President Phil Eng are joined by Bike New York President Ken Podziba and Alzheimer’s Association Vice President of Development Joanne Luciano in Grand Central Terminal on Thu., August 12, 2021 to announce the elimination of the need for bike permits on MTA railroads. The change will officially go into effect on September 7, but permits will be waived for the Five Boro Bike Tour on August 22.
(Marc A. Hermann / MTA)
"Wedding-cake cravings are inspired by this white, triple-decker 1924 cathedral. The church holds Catholic masses in Italian, Chinese, Latin and English and pulls triple wedding shifts on Saturday – Joe DiMaggio and Marilyn Monroe took wedding photos here, but, since they were both divorced, they weren't permitted to marry in the church (they got hitched at City Hall). The mosaic Dante quote over the entryway echoes Beat poets and Beatles: 'The glory of Him who moves all things/Penetrates and glows throughout the universe.'"
see more info and the HISTORY OF at
A springtime snowstorm permitted this unusual vista on Stevens Pass: Amtrak's eastbound Empire Builder passing through fresh snowfall during the last minutes of daylight in the depths of the Tye River valley. The train, about to duck under US 2, is running through Scenic Siding after meeting a westbound BNSF freight which had held the main; just ahead lies the west portal of 7.8-mile (New) Cascade Tunnel. Significant in this portrait of railroading on the pass is the cleared area on the face of Windy Point at right, where the original Great Northern mainline alignment and a snowshed are still visible. The elevation there is about 2800', some 600' above Scenic and only 100' below the east portal of New Cascade Tunnel; by contrast, the east portal of Old Cascade Tunnel was yet another 500' above the summit of today's alignment, stark evidence of the savings in time, distance and fuel consumption offered by the active bore. Also of note, Windy Point now comprises part of the Iron Goat Trail that follows the original GN alignment from Scenic to Wellington, site of the infamous 1910 avalanche that killed 96 railroaders and passengers (check out Martin Burwash's book on the subject, Vis Major).
These days I continued to make photographic hay while the permit sun is shining since additional Covid-19 lockdowns seem to be looming. The target for last weekend was the R Pond complex starting south of Bedwell Bayfront Park in Menlo Park and continuing down to the Facebook Headquarters. This set of fallow salt ponds has always presented photographically interesting colors and textures – testimony to residual salt dating back to their production days. However, change is coming as the South Bay Salt Pond Restoration Project has construction underway in the area.
Sometime next year, Salt Pond R4 should be once again connected to the tides and this will start its slow transformation back into marshland. R4’s neighbor, Salt Pond R3 will be managed to provide a dry, exposed pond suitable for Snowy Plover habitat. These two ponds were once separated by a brine distribution canal. Construction is currently underway to fill that canal thus creating an impressively wide levee with a shallow slope facing R4.
The weather made this photo session doubly challenging due to an overcast sky and highly variable winds. After hiking out to the R3/R4 levee, I found myself in a dead calm. When the wind began to stir out of the north I was able to launch my 8.5-foot, lightweight Rokkaku and this marvel was able to lift the Canon M3 cradle in an almost imperceptible wind. Unfortunately, the wind continued to build and the 8.5-foot kite was considerably overpowered about 20 minutes into the photo session. The phrase “pulling like a mule” comes to mind as in these conditions the principal concern is kite spar failure, which might strand my camera gear somewhere downwind. So, I swapped out for the 7.5-foot Rokkaku at the southern end of the levee which, of course, prompted slack wind from the breeze gods. The answer here was waiting patiently for 15 minutes anticipating the return of the breeze. When it returned, I continued the photo session and by the time I walked back to the northern end of the levee the 7.5-foot kite was overpowered. Again the mule.
In terms of light, it was a predominantly overcast day with generous hints of smoke due to an inversion layer. Now and then, the sun would peek through a gap in the clouds and this was delightful. But, for the large part it was a hazy, sober light. I look forward to reshooting on a brighter day.
I am taking these documentary photographs under a Special Use Permit from the Don Edwards National Wildlife Refuge. Kite flying is prohibited over the Don Edwards National Wildlife Refuge without a Special Use Permit.
......permit renewal time...so cowling's off!
Not to bad looking this old engine. Built in 1946, come for an old cessna (so the log book says.) The Cub was built in 1940.
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Agradeceremos que a modo de epígrafe de las mismas, se mencione: Gentileza arteBA Fundación.
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Aquí aparece el organizador que permite almacenar a la aspiradora junto a sus accesorios.
Muchos pensarán que su diseño es tosco, apresurado o poco agraciado, pero cumple con su función de mantener todo ordenado y a la vista (salvo el bloque motor y la bolsa para la mugre, que quedan ocultos.)
De antemano deben tenerse tres clavos y martillo para poder colgarlo en una pared o puerta del armario para útiles de aseo.
The title is a pun on the phrase ‘Nothing is True, Everything is Permitted’, famously quoted by William S Burroughs, who helped popularise cut-up culture. The evening included live performances by artists, musicians and poets who have creatively dissected, recycled and quoted. Including: Genre Collage the new live audio-visual set from People Like Us that collages film genres using well-known feature films; live improviser Gwilly Edmondez who uses voice, tapes, decks and samples; debut performance of Café Carbon by The Gluts (Gina Birch, Kaffe Matthews, Hayley Newman) and whirlwind wizard of the ivories Felix Kubin.
Biography
Since 1991 London-based artist Vicki Bennett has been making music, radio, and films under the name People Like Us. By animating and recontextualising found footage, she presents an equally witty and dark view of popular culture. Her work has been presented at Tate Modern; The National Film Theatre, London; ICA, London; Sydney Opera House; Pompidou Centre, Paris; Sonar, Barcelona; The Walker Art Center, Minneapolis; The Barbican, London; plus on the BBC and Channel 4. Since 2003, People Like Us has broadcast DO or DIY an ongoing experimental arts radio show on WFMU, which has had over a million downloads. She has also performed radio sessions for the BBC’s John Peel, Mixing It, and also CBC, KPFA and many more.
The Gluts is a group made up of three London-based artists: Hayley Newman, Kaffe Matthews and Gina Birch. Their collaboration started with Café Carbon, a musical performed on the streets of Copenhagen during the United Nations Climate Summit in 2009. Hayley Newman is a visual artist, she has performed and exhibited at Matt’s Gallery, London; The Ikon Gallery, Birmingham; and the Centre d’Art Contemporain, Geneva. Kaffe Matthews has been making and performing new electro-acoustic music worldwide since 1990, she has released 6 solo CDs on the label Annette Works. In 2006 she received an Award of Distinction, Prix Ars Electronica. Gina Birch is an English musician and filmmaker, best know as a founding member of The Raincoats.
Felix Kubin is an electronic musician based in Hamburg. He has been involved with music since he was 8 years old, when he studied piano, organ and glockenspiel. His first solo album Filmmusik was released in 1998 by his label, Gagarin Records. Kubin regularly collaborates on theatric and animation productions, writes radio plays and is a self-described dadaist. His musical influences include Stockhausen and Ligeti, as well as groups such as Kraftwerk and DAF.
William Edmondes is an improvisor and composer working with recorded media, digital sequencing, guitar, Gameboys and voice, based in Newcastle and York. He performs and releases material under several names, most frequently as Gwilly Edmondez.
Curated and produced by AV Festival 10 and Vicki Bennett.
LOS ANGELES - The Los Angeles FIre Department held a Girls Camp on September 15-16, 2018 at the LAFD Frank Hotchkin Memorial Training Center in Elysian Park.
Girls age 14-18 were given an opportunity to see what it takes to be a Firefighter for the City of Los Angeles.
With personal guidance from female LAFD Firefighters, this two-day program was filled with team building and camaraderie, excitement and fun, and plenty of opportunity for hands-on activities with actual firefighting tools, equipment and protective gear. Attendees were able to gain confidence and new friendships as they worked in teams while exploring new challenges.
LAFD Event Date: 091518 & 091618
Photo Use Permitted via Creative Commons - Credit: LAFD Photo
Connect with us: LAFD.ORG | News | Facebook | Instagram | Reddit | Twitter: @LAFD @LAFDtalk
I will post more photographs when time permits, but I have a few minutes here in the coffee shop of the Bright Angel Lodge on the rim of the Grand Canyon, and wanted to post this one picture to let everyone know that Jackie and I are having a wonderful time as we start our marriage with a journey across the American Southwest.
Here, Jackie poses with our rental car in front of Wilson Mountain in Sedona, Arizona. This was in the middle of a drive yesterday that took us from a bed and breakfast in Cave Creek, Arizona, where the high was a balmy 70°F, to Montezuma Caste and Tuzigoot National Monuments in the Verde Valley where we saw an ancient cliff dwelling and the ruins of a Pueblo, and finally up through Sedona and on to the Colorado Plateau where Flagstaff, Arizona, and Grand Canyon Village registered high temperatures around 45°F and lows around 12°F!
I should say a word about the rental car.
I chose to pick up the rental car at the small airport in Scottsdale, rather than any of the rental car locations in Phoenix, because the price of renting from a reputable company there (National Car Rental) was only one-third to one-half the cost! Being frugal, I reserved a modest mid-sized car, but once I mentioned that I had just gotten married, the friendly man at the National counter brightened up, said that he had been married for 35 years, and took me to the parking lot to give me a free upgrade to the Ford Mustang convertible. A grin spread across his face and happiness into his southwest Asian accent as he gestured: "From me — your wedding present!"
Thanks to the low 40mph speed limit, we were comfortable driving with the top down the whole way through Sedona and up Oak Creek Canyon, until in the shadows of its upper end it became too cold. Wedding present, indeed!
Que Deus não permita que eu perca o ROMANTISMO, mesmo sabendo que as rosas não falam...
Que eu não perca o OTIMISMO, mesmo sabendo que o futuro que nos espera pode não ser tão alegre...
Que eu não perca a VONTADE DE VIVER, mesmo sabendo que a vida é, em muitos momentos, dolorosa...
Que eu não perca a vontade de TER GRANDES AMIGOS, mesmo sabendo que, com as voltas do mundo, eles acabam indo embora de nossas vidas...
Que eu não perca a vontade de AJUDAR AS PESSOAS, mesmo sabendo que muitas delas são incapazes de ver, reconhecer e retribuir, esta ajuda...
Que eu não perca o EQUILÍBRIO, mesmo sabendo que inúmeras forças querem que eu caia...
Que eu não perca a VONTADE DE AMAR, mesmo sabendo que a pessoa que eu mais amo pode não sentir o mesmo sentimento por mim...
Que eu não perca a LUZ E O BRILHO NO OLHAR, mesmo sabendo que muitas coisas que verei no mundo escurecerão meus olhos...
Que eu não perca a GARRA , mesmo sabendo que a derrota e a perda são dois adversários extremamente perigosos...
Que eu não perca a RAZÃO, mesmo sabendo que as tentações da vida são inúmeras e deliciosas...
Que eu não perca o SENTIMENTO DE JUSTIÇA, mesmo sabendo que o prejudicado possa ser eu...
Que eu não perca o meu FORTE ABRAÇO, mesmo sabendo que um dia meus braços estarão fracos...
Que eu não perca a BELEZA E A ALEGRIA DE VER, mesmo sabendo que muitas lágrimas brotarão dos meus olhos e escorrerão por minha alma...
Que eu não perca o AMOR POR MINHA FAMÍLIA, mesmo sabendo que ela muitas vezes me exigiria esforços incríveis para manter a sua harmonia...
Que eu não perca a vontade de DOAR ESTE ENORME AMOR que existe em meu coração, mesmo sabendo que muitas vezes ele será submetido e até rejeitado...
Que eu não perca a vontade de SER GRANDE, mesmo sabendo que o mundo é pequeno...
E acima de tudo...
Deus me ama infinitamente!
Que um pequeno grão de alegria e esperança dentro de cada um é capaz de mudar e transformar qualquer coisa, pois...
A VIDA É CONSTRUÍDA NOS SONHOS E CONCRETIZADA NO AMOR!
Hong Kong Transport - Trucks
The Hong Kong Truck Culture
The number of Trucks, Vans* and Special Purpose Vehicles (Light, Medium & Heavy) registered + licenced in Hong Kong seems to fluctuate between 120,000 - 125,000 vehicles and presumably new trucks registered are offset by old trucks being retired or sold over the border in China.
*Vans are classified as Light Goods Vehicles and are not shown in this album
In Hong Kong Trucks are classified as GOODS VEHICLES By the Transport Department - see below
☛Light Goods Vehicles - Goods vehicles of permitted gross vehicle weight not exceeding 5.5 tonnes.
☛Medium Goods Vehicles - Goods vehicles of permitted gross vehicle weight exceeding 5.5 tonnes but not exceeding 24 tonnes.
☛Heavy Goods Vehicles - Goods vehicles of permitted gross vehicle weight exceeding 24 tonnes but not exceeding 38 tonnes.
The major truck types you tend to see in urban areas are trucks carrying construction materials or waste, dump trucks, concrete mixers and all sizes of delivery trucks... outside of the urban areas it is container trucks and large trucks carrying construction materials.
The following brands of Trucks can be seen on the streets of Hong Kong and include:-
Beiben ✚ Bell ✚ CAMC ✚ CNHTC ✚ DAF ✚ Dennis ✚ Dong Feng ✚ FAW ✚ Fuso ✚ Foton ✚ Ford ✚ Hino ✚ Howo ✚ Hyundai ✚ Isuzu ✚ Iveco ✚ JAC ✚ Kato ✚ KIA ✚ Liebherr ✚ MAN ✚ Mercedes Benz ✚ Mitsubishi ✚ Nissan ✚ Renault ✚ Scania ✚ Shacman ✚ Sinotruk ✚ Suzuki ✚ Toyota ✚ UD ✚ Volvo ✚ Zoomlion
Hong Kong is a brand conscious place even for trucks (!) hence the popularity of the European brands, Scania and Man are very popular and even the older trucks look the business and they are utterly reliable.
Isuzu is the market leader in terms of sale volume for all types of trucks.
(Source - The Transport Department, Hong Kong Government)
☛.... and if you want to read about my views on Hong Kong, then go to my blog, link below
✚ www.j3consultantshongkong.com/j3c-blog
☛ Photography is simply a hobby for me, I do NOT sell my images and all of my images can be FREELY downloaded from this site in the original upload image size or 5 other sizes, please note that you DO NOT have to ask for permission to download and use any of my images!
This image is licensed cc-by-nc-sa. Media (including blogs) are permitted to use my images provided they provide attribution in the form of "Photo by Andrew Bossi" or something along those lines.
It would be very much appreciated (though not required) if you provide a link back to my photo. Send me a message on Flickr or at thisisbossi@gmail.com if you use my image & I'll add a link on the photo's page back to your article.
If you want the highest-resolution image: simply right-click on the photo and select "Original".
Also, if I've mis-titled or mis-tagged anything: just let me know. If you recognise someone I should tag: again, just let me know.
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In response to the Congressional budget debacle which proved that DC is but a colony -- prone to being singled out unlike any other city in the country -- a number of activists, elected officials, and general citizens came out in force upon the grounds of Capitol Hill.
The crowd first formed on the sidewalk, but after some opening remarks by elected officials and activists: they quickly spilled into the street. The Capitol Police had been on hand & I'd thought it amusing that a couple were taking photos & videos... it wasn't until I saw the wristbands come out when I realised these weren't officers enjoying the moment; they were recording evidence.
With many minutes of warning, large portions of the group shifted over the sidewalk; whilst a core of dedicated supporters -- including our Mayor, a number of councilmembers, and members of DC Vote -- remained behind to block the roadway. The officers began to surround the group & repeated their warnings to get back on the sidewalk or face arrest.
Now in all fairness to the Capitol Police: they were doing their job. They were quite courteous about it & the protest was similarly jubilant right back. One woman was first to be bound, soon followed by several other activists. Then came Muriel Bowser: first councilmember to be arrested.
In general, I tend to dislike political grandstanding... but this was different. If our council was being arrested by our own police, I'd think it a cheesy photo op... but now our locally-elected officials were being arrested by the very forces we were out to protest: the Feds. This wasn't a mere photo op arrest; this was actually a legitimate arrest... the kind of thing that goes on your record; the kind of thing you spent a night in jail for.
Now granted, I don't expect anyone will be in jail longer than tomorrow; I'd be surprised if any were still locked up by midnight tonight. But it was Councilmember Bowser's arrest which really hit a moment... you could see the look on her face was of some worried concern: someone who had never been arrested before & didn't show up here today expecting to be arrested. As she was placed into the police van: her look of concern changed to a bit more worry. I mean this as no knock against Councilmember Bowser's committment; rather I felt it really help to humanise the entire event. It made me respect her all the more.
Yvette Alexander stood right beside us for quite some time, complicated in that she didn't have her ID on her. While it was entertaining to see our top officials being frisked, it was also quite entertaining that our easily-recognisable councilmember needed her ID... prompting a standerby to call one of her staffers with the best introduction I've ever heard over a phone: "Hi, your councilmember has been arrested." Also, kudos to Councilmember Alexander for going to jail in high heels!
There is a lot I can complain about with the council in general; and certainly with individual councilmembers & even the mayor. Heck, that's what politicians are for: you're not supposed to always like them. But this was an opportunity to set aside some of those issues (frankly, I'd say DC was glad to have a unifying moment after the past couple weeks) and cheer on our own brothers & sisters as they stood up in support of our rights.
It was certainly a proud moment to be a DC resident and a fine boost to our collective esteem after several weeks of turmoil within our local & federal levels of government. It's aggravating that my support for small & local government is inhibited by those in Congress whom advocate small & local government. If I wanted to live in a colony, I'd have moved to Williamsburg.
The Church of Saint Anne is a French Roman Catholic church and part of the Domaine national français located in the Muslim Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, near the start of the Via Dolorosa, next to the Lions' Gate.
History of the site
During the Roman period a pagan shrine for the cult of the god of healing (a syncretic mix between the Egyptian god Serapis and the Greek god Asclepius), stood on the grounds next to the two Pools of Bethesda.
A Byzantine basilica was built over the remains of the shrine in the 5th century. Partially destroyed by the Persians in 614, it was subsequently restored. Baldwin I, the first titled Crusader king of Jerusalem, banished his wife Arda to the old Benedictine convent which still existed here in 1104. A small Crusader church, the so-called Moustier, was then erected over the wall separating the northern and southern Pools of Bethesda, among the ruins of the Byzantine church.
The current Church of St Anne was built sometime between 1131 and 1138, during the reign of Queen Melisende. It was erected near the remains of the Byzantine basilica, over the site of a grotto believed by the Crusaders to be the childhood home of the Virgin Mary, mother of Jesus. It is dedicated to Anne and Joachim, the parents of Saint Mary, who according to tradition lived here.
Unlike many other Crusader churches, St. Anne's was not destroyed after the 1187 conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin (Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn). In 1192, Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn converted the building into a madrasa (Islamic educational institution), known as al-Madrasa as-Salahiyya (of Saladin), as is still written in the Arabic inscription above the entrance. In the 15th century it was considered as the most prestigious college in the city, counting among its more prominent students the Islamic jurist and city historian, Mujir al-Din (1456–1522).
During Muslim Ottoman rule in Palestine, Christian pilgrims were only permitted inside the grotto after paying a fee. Eventually the madrasa was abandoned and the former church building fell into disrepair. In 1856, in gratitude for French support during the Crimean War, the Ottoman sultan Abdülmecid I presented it to Napoleon III.
In 1862, the French government dispatched the architect Christophe-Edouard Mauss to Jerusalem for this purpose. In 1873, while working on the renovations, Mauss discovered the vestiges of the Bethesda Pool next to the church.
Since 1878, it has been administered by the Missionaries of Africa, a Catholic order, commonly called the "White Fathers" for the colour of their robes. Between 1882 and 1946 the site has housed a seminary for the training of Greek-Catholic priests.
Built between 1131 and 1138 to replace a previous Byzantine church, and shortly thereafter enlarged by several meters, the church is an excellent example of Romanesque architecture. The three-aisled basilica incorporates cross-vaulted ceilings and pillars, clear clean lines and a somewhat unadorned interior. The nave is separated from the lower lateral aisles by arcades of arches. The high altar, designed by the French sculptor Philippe Kaeppelin incorporates many different scenes. On the front of the altar are depicted the Nativity (left), the Descent from the Cross (center) and the Annunciation (right); on the left-hand end is the teaching of Mary by her mother, on the right-hand end her presentation in the Temple. In the south aisle is a flight of steps leading down to the crypt, in a grotto believed by the Crusaders to be Mary's birthplace. An altar dedicated to Mary is located there. The Byzantine basilica was partly stretched over two water basins, collectively known as the Pools of Bethesda, and built upon a series of piers, one of which still stands today in its entirety.
In 1862, the French architect Christophe-Edouard Mauss was dispatched by his government to Jerusalem with the special assignment of restoring the time-damaged church.
Acoustics
The church's acoustics are particularly suited to Gregorian chant, which makes it a pilgrimage site for soloists and choirs.
Property
The church is listed as one of four French government properties in the Holy Land as part of the "Domaine national français". In line with international law, which treats East Jerusalem as occupied territory, France does not recognize Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem, where the Church of Saint Anne is located. In 1996, during Jacques Chirac's visit to Jerusalem, the French president refused to enter the church until Israeli soldiers who accompanied him left. Similarly in January 2020, French President Emmanuel Macron was involved in an altercation with Israeli security officers at the church.
Jerusalem is an ancient city in West Asia, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is considered holy to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Both Israel and Palestine claim Jerusalem as their capital; Israel maintains its primary governmental institutions there, and the State of Palestine ultimately foresees it as its seat of power. Neither claim, however, is widely recognized internationally.
Throughout its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, captured and recaptured 44 times, and attacked 52 times. The part of Jerusalem called the City of David shows first signs of settlement in the 4th millennium BCE, in the shape of encampments of nomadic shepherds. During the Canaanite period (14th century BCE), Jerusalem was named as Urusalim on ancient Egyptian tablets, probably meaning "City of Shalem" after a Canaanite deity. During the Israelite period, significant construction activity in Jerusalem began in the 10th century BCE (Iron Age II), and by the 9th century BCE, the city had developed into the religious and administrative centre of the Kingdom of Judah. In 1538, the city walls were rebuilt for a last time around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire. Today those walls define the Old City, which since the 19th century has been divided into four quarters – the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger. Since 1860, Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old City's boundaries. In 2022, Jerusalem had a population of some 971,800 residents, of which almost 60% were Jews and almost 40% Palestinians. In 2020, the population was 951,100, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353,800 (37.2%), Christians 16,300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).
According to the Hebrew Bible, King David conquered the city from the Jebusites and established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son, King Solomon, commissioned the building of the First Temple. Modern scholars argue that Jews branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatrous—and later monotheistic—religion centred on El/Yahweh. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, assumed central symbolic importance for the Jewish people. The sobriquet of holy city (Hebrew: עיר הקודש, romanized: 'Ir ha-Qodesh) was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, which Christians adopted as their own "Old Testament", was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection there. In Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. The city was the first qibla, the standard direction for Muslim prayers (salah), and in Islamic tradition, Muhammad made his Night Journey there in 621, ascending to heaven where he speaks to God, according to the Quran. As a result, despite having an area of only 0.9 km2 (3⁄8 sq mi), the Old City is home to many sites of seminal religious importance, among them the Temple Mount with its Western Wall, Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the areas captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured and later annexed by Jordan. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently effectively annexed it into Jerusalem, together with additional surrounding territory.[note 6] One of Israel's Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the country's undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset (Israel's parliament), the residences of the Prime Minister (Beit Aghion) and President (Beit HaNassi), and the Supreme Court. The international community rejects the annexation as illegal and regards East Jerusalem as Palestinian territory occupied by Israel.
Etymology
The name "Jerusalem" is variously etymologized to mean "foundation (Semitic yry' 'to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the pagan god Shalem"; the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city.
Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion, whose name is based on the same root S-L-M from which the Hebrew word for "peace" is derived (Shalom in Hebrew, cognate with Arabic Salam). The name thus offered itself to etymologizations such as "The City of Peace", "Abode of Peace", "Dwelling of Peace" ("founded in safety"), or "Vision of Peace" in some Christian authors.
The ending -ayim indicates the dual, thus leading to the suggestion that the name Yerushalayim refers to the fact that the city initially sat on two hills.
Ancient Egyptian sources
The Execration Texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called rwšꜣlmm or ꜣwšꜣmm, variously transcribed as Rušalimum, or Urušalimum, may indicate Jerusalem. Alternatively, the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba (1330s BCE), which reference an Úrušalim, may be the earliest mention of the city.
Hebrew Bible and Jewish sources
The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua. According to a Midrash, the name is a combination of two names united by God, Yireh ("the abiding place", the name given by Abraham to the place where he planned to sacrifice his son) and Shalem ("Place of Peace", the name given by high priest Shem).
Oldest written mention of Jerusalem
One of the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states: "I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem", or as other scholars suggest: "Yahweh is the God of the whole earth. The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem". An older example on papyrus is known from the previous century.
In extra-biblical inscriptions, the earliest known example of the -ayim ending was discovered on a column about 3 km west of ancient Jerusalem, dated to the first century BCE.
Jebus, Zion, City of David
An ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the Bronze Age on the hill above the Gihon Spring, was, according to the Bible, named Jebus. Called the "Fortress of Zion" (metsudat Zion), it was renamed as the "City of David", and was known by this name in antiquity. Another name, "Zion", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole, and afterwards to represent the whole biblical Land of Israel.
Greek, Roman and Byzantine names
In Greek and Latin, the city's name was transliterated Hierosolyma (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greek hieròs, ἱερός, means holy), although the city was renamed Aelia Capitolina for part of the Roman period of its history.
Salem
The Aramaic Apocryphon of Genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen 22:13) equates Jerusalem with the earlier "Salem" (שלם), said to be the kingdom of Melchizedek in Genesis 14. Other early Hebrew sources, early Christian renderings of the verse and targumim, however, put Salem in Northern Israel near Shechem (Sichem), now Nablus, a city of some importance in early sacred Hebrew writing. Possibly the redactor of the Apocryphon of Genesis wanted to dissociate Melchizedek from the area of Shechem, which at the time was in possession of the Samaritans. However that may be, later Rabbinic sources also equate Salem with Jerusalem, mainly to link Melchizedek to later Temple traditions.
Arabic names
In Arabic, Jerusalem is most commonly known as القُدس, transliterated as al-Quds and meaning "the holy" or "the holy sanctuary", cognate with Hebrew: הקדש, romanized: ha-qodesh. The name is possibly a shortened form of مدينة القُدس Madīnat al-Quds "city of the holy sanctuary" after the Hebrew nickname with the same meaning, Ir ha-Qodesh (עיר הקדש). The ق (Q) is pronounced either with a voiceless uvular plosive (/q/), as in Classical Arabic, or with a glottal stop (ʔ) as in Levantine Arabic. Official Israeli government policy mandates that أُورُشَلِيمَ, transliterated as Ūrušalīm, which is the name frequently used in Christian translations of the Bible into Arabic, be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with القُدس, giving أُورُشَلِيمَ-القُدس, Ūrušalīm-al-Quds. Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called "Qudsi" (قُدسي) or "Maqdasi" (مقدسي), while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as a demonym.
Given the city's central position in both Jewish nationalism (Zionism) and Palestinian nationalism, the selectivity required to summarize some 5,000 years of inhabited history is often influenced by ideological bias or background. Israeli or Jewish nationalists claim a right to the city based on Jewish indigeneity to the land, particularly their origins in and descent from the Israelites, for whom Jerusalem is their capital, and their yearning for return. In contrast, Palestinian nationalists claim the right to the city based on modern Palestinians' longstanding presence and descent from many different peoples who have settled or lived in the region over the centuries. Both sides claim the history of the city has been politicized by the other in order to strengthen their relative claims to the city, and that this is borne out by the different focuses the different writers place on the various events and eras in the city's history.
Prehistory
The first archaeological evidence of human presence in the area comes in the form of flints dated to between 6000 and 7000 years ago, with ceramic remains appearing during the Chalcolithic period, and the first signs of permanent settlement appearing in the Early Bronze Age in 3000–2800 BCE.
Bronze and Iron Ages
The earliest evidence of city fortifications appear in the Mid to Late Bronze Age and could date to around the 18th century BCE. By around 1550–1200 BCE, Jerusalem was the capital of an Egyptian vassal city-state, a modest settlement governing a few outlying villages and pastoral areas, with a small Egyptian garrison and ruled by appointees such as king Abdi-Heba. At the time of Seti I (r. 1290–1279 BCE) and Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BCE), major construction took place as prosperity increased. The city's inhabitants at this time were Canaanites, who are believed by scholars to have evolved into the Israelites via the development of a distinct Yahweh-centric monotheistic belief system.
Archaeological remains from the ancient Israelite period include the Siloam Tunnel, an aqueduct built by Judahite king Hezekiah and once containing an ancient Hebrew inscription, known as the Siloam Inscription; the so-called Broad Wall, a defensive fortification built in the 8th century BCE, also by Hezekiah; the Silwan necropolis (9th–7th c. BCE) with the Monolith of Silwan and the Tomb of the Royal Steward, which were decorated with monumental Hebrew inscriptions; and the so-called Israelite Tower, remnants of ancient fortifications, built from large, sturdy rocks with carved cornerstones. A huge water reservoir dating from this period was discovered in 2012 near Robinson's Arch, indicating the existence of a densely built-up quarter across the area west of the Temple Mount during the Kingdom of Judah.
When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. When Hezekiah ruled, Jerusalem had no fewer than 25,000 inhabitants and covered 25 acres (10 hectares).
In 587–586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered Jerusalem after a prolonged siege, and then systematically destroyed the city, including Solomon's Temple. The Kingdom of Judah was abolished and many were exiled to Babylon. These events mark the end of the First Temple period.
Biblical account
This period, when Canaan formed part of the Egyptian empire, corresponds in biblical accounts to Joshua's invasion, but almost all scholars agree that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value for early Israel.
In the Bible, Jerusalem is defined as lying within territory allocated to the tribe of Benjamin though still inhabited by Jebusites. David is said to have conquered these in the siege of Jebus, and transferred his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem which then became the capital of a United Kingdom of Israel, and one of its several religious centres. The choice was perhaps dictated by the fact that Jerusalem did not form part of Israel's tribal system, and was thus suited to serve as the centre of its confederation. Opinion is divided over whether the so-called Large Stone Structure and the nearby Stepped Stone Structure may be identified with King David's palace, or dates to a later period.
According to the Bible, King David reigned for 40 years and was succeeded by his son Solomon, who built the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah. Solomon's Temple (later known as the First Temple), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish religion as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant. On Solomon's death, ten of the northern tribes of Israel broke with the United Monarchy to form their own nation, with its kings, prophets, priests, traditions relating to religion, capitals and temples in northern Israel. The southern tribes, together with the Aaronid priesthood, remained in Jerusalem, with the city becoming the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.
Classical antiquity
In 538 BCE, the Achaemenid King Cyrus the Great invited the Jews of Babylon to return to Judah to rebuild the Temple. Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, 70 years after the destruction of the First Temple.
Sometime soon after 485 BCE Jerusalem was besieged, conquered and largely destroyed by a coalition of neighbouring states. In about 445 BCE, King Artaxerxes I of Persia issued a decree allowing the city (including its walls) to be rebuilt. Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and centre of Jewish worship.
Many Jewish tombs from the Second Temple period have been unearthed in Jerusalem. One example, discovered north of the Old City, contains human remains in a 1st-century CE ossuary decorated with the Aramaic inscription "Simon the Temple Builder". The Tomb of Abba, also located north of the Old City, bears an Aramaic inscription with Paleo-Hebrew letters reading: "I, Abba, son of the priest Eleaz(ar), son of Aaron the high (priest), Abba, the oppressed and the persecuted, who was born in Jerusalem, and went into exile into Babylonia and brought (back to Jerusalem) Mattathi(ah), son of Jud(ah), and buried him in a cave which I bought by deed." The Tomb of Benei Hezir located in Kidron Valley is decorated by monumental Doric columns and Hebrew inscription, identifying it as the burial site of Second Temple priests. The Tombs of the Sanhedrin, an underground complex of 63 rock-cut tombs, is located in a public park in the northern Jerusalem neighbourhood of Sanhedria. These tombs, probably reserved for members of the Sanhedrin and inscribed by ancient Hebrew and Aramaic writings, are dated to between 100 BCE and 100 CE.
When Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire, Jerusalem and Judea came under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V Epiphanes lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized city-state came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias and his five sons against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem as its capital.
In 63 BCE, Pompey the Great intervened in a struggle for the Hasmonean throne and captured Jerusalem, extending the influence of the Roman Republic over Judea. Following a short invasion by Parthians, backing the rival Hasmonean rulers, Judea became a scene of struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian forces, eventually leading to the emergence of an Edomite named Herod. As Rome became stronger, it installed Herod as a client king of the Jews. Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city. He built walls, towers and palaces, and expanded the Temple Mount, buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons. Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size. Shortly after Herod's death, in 6 CE Judea came under direct Roman rule as the Iudaea Province, although the Herodian dynasty through Agrippa II remained client kings of neighbouring territories until 96 CE.
Roman rule over Jerusalem and Judea was challenged in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), which ended with a Roman victory. Early on, the city was devastated by a brutal civil war between several Jewish factions fighting for control of the city. In 70 CE, the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The contemporary Jewish historian Josephus wrote that the city "was so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation." Of the 600,000 (Tacitus) or 1,000,000 (Josephus) Jews of Jerusalem, all of them either died of starvation, were killed or were sold into slavery. Roman rule was again challenged during the Bar Kokhba revolt, beginning in 132 CE and suppressed by the Romans in 135 CE. More recent research indicates that the Romans had founded Aelia Capitolina before the outbreak of the revolt, and found no evidence for Bar Kokhba ever managing to hold the city.
Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period, when the city covered two km2 (3⁄4 sq mi) and had a population of 200,000.
Late Antiquity
Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian combined Iudaea Province with neighbouring provinces under the new name of Syria Palaestina, replacing the name of Judea. The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina, and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially "secularized" the city. Historical sources and archaeological evidence indicate that the rebuilt city was now inhabited by veterans of the Roman military and immigrants from the western parts of the empire.
The ban against Jews was maintained until the 7th century, though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.
Jerusalem.
In the 5th century, the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, ruled from the recently renamed Constantinople, maintained control of the city. Within the span of a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Byzantine to Persian rule, then back to Roman-Byzantine dominion. Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early 7th century push through Syria, his generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked Jerusalem (Persian: Dej Houdkh) aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen up against the Byzantines.
In the Siege of Jerusalem of 614, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool, and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This episode has been the subject of much debate between historians. The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629.
Middle Ages
After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, Byzantine Jerusalem was taken by Umar ibn al-Khattab in 638 CE. Among the first Muslims, it was referred to as Madinat bayt al-Maqdis ("City of the Temple"), a name restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city "was called Iliya, reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of 70 CE: Aelia Capitolina". Later the Temple Mount became known as al-Haram al-Sharif, "The Noble Sanctuary", while the city around it became known as Bayt al-Maqdis, and later still, al-Quds al-Sharif "The Holy, Noble". The Islamization of Jerusalem began in the first year A.H. (623 CE), when Muslims were instructed to face the city while performing their daily prostrations and, according to Muslim religious tradition, Muhammad's night journey and ascension to heaven took place. After 13 years, the direction of prayer was changed to Mecca. In 638 CE the Islamic Caliphate extended its dominion to Jerusalem. With the Muslim conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city. The Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab signed a treaty with Christian Patriarch of Jerusalem Sophronius, assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule. Christian-Arab tradition records that, when led to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, one of the holiest sites for Christians, the caliph Umar refused to pray in the church so that Muslims would not request conversion of the church to a mosque. He prayed outside the church, where the Mosque of Umar (Omar) stands to this day, opposite the entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. According to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers.
When the Arab armies under Umar went to Bayt Al-Maqdes in 637 CE, they searched for the site of al-masjid al-aqsa, "the farthest place of prayer/mosque", that was mentioned in the Quran and Hadith according to Islamic beliefs. Contemporary Arabic and Hebrew sources say the site was full of rubbish, and that Arabs and Jews cleaned it. The Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of a shrine on the Temple Mount, now known as the Dome of the Rock, in the late 7th century. Two of the city's most-distinguished Arab citizens of the 10th-century were Al-Muqaddasi, the geographer, and Al-Tamimi, the physician. Al-Muqaddasi writes that Abd al-Malik built the edifice on the Temple Mount in order to compete in grandeur with Jerusalem's monumental churches.
Over the next four hundred years, Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region vied for control of the city. Jerusalem was captured in 1073 by the Seljuk Turkish commander Atsız. After Atsız was killed, the Seljuk prince Tutush I granted the city to Artuk Bey, another Seljuk commander. After Artuk's death in 1091 his sons Sökmen and Ilghazi governed in the city up to 1098 when the Fatimids recaptured the city.
A messianic Karaite movement to gather in Jerusalem took place at the turn of the millennium, leading to a "Golden Age" of Karaite scholarship there, which was only terminated by the Crusades.
Crusader/Ayyubid period
In 1099, the Fatimid ruler expelled the native Christian population before Jerusalem was besieged by the soldiers of the First Crusade. After taking the solidly defended city by assault, the Crusaders massacred most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants, and made it the capital of their Kingdom of Jerusalem. The city, which had been virtually emptied, was recolonized by a variegated inflow of Greeks, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Georgians, Armenians, Syrians, Egyptians, Nestorians, Maronites, Jacobite Miaphysites, Copts and others, to block the return of the surviving Muslims and Jews. The north-eastern quarter was repopulated with Eastern Christians from the Transjordan. As a result, by 1099 Jerusalem's population had climbed back to some 30,000.
In 1187, the city was wrested from the Crusaders by Saladin who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city. Under the terms of surrender, once ransomed, 60,000 Franks were expelled. The Eastern Christian populace was permitted to stay. Under the Ayyubid dynasty of Saladin, a period of huge investment began in the construction of houses, markets, public baths, and pilgrim hostels as well as the establishment of religious endowments. However, for most of the 13th century, Jerusalem declined to the status of a village due to city's fall of strategic value and Ayyubid internecine struggles.
From 1229 to 1244, Jerusalem peacefully reverted to Christian control as a result of a 1229 treaty agreed between the crusading Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and al-Kamil, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, that ended the Sixth Crusade. The Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places, and Arab sources suggest that Frederick was not permitted to restore Jerusalem's fortifications.
In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Khwarezmian Tatars, who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews. The Khwarezmian Tatars were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247.
Mamluk period
From 1260 to 1516/17, Jerusalem was ruled by the Mamluks. In the wider region and until around 1300, many clashes occurred between the Mamluks on one side, and the crusaders and the Mongols, on the other side. The area also suffered from many earthquakes and black plague. When Nachmanides visited in 1267 he found only two Jewish families, in a population of 2,000, 300 of whom were Christians, in the city. The well-known and far-traveled lexicographer Fairuzabadi (1329–1414) spent ten years in Jerusalem.
The 13th to 15th centuries was a period of frequent building activity in the city, as evidenced by the 90 remaining structures from this time. The city was also a significant site of Mamluk architectural patronage. The types of structures built included madrasas, libraries, hospitals, caravanserais, fountains (or sabils), and public baths. Much of the building activity was concentrated around the edges of the Temple Mount or Haram al-Sharif. Old gates to the Haram lost importance and new gates were built, while significant parts of the northern and western porticoes along the edge of the Temple Mount plaza were built or rebuilt in this period. Tankiz, the Mamluk amir in charge of Syria during the reign of al-Nasir Muhammad, built a new market called Suq al-Qattatin (Cotton Market) in 1336–7, along with the gate known as Bab al-Qattanin (Cotton Gate), which gave access to the Temple Mount from this market. The late Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay also took interest in the city. He commissioned the building of the Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya, completed in 1482, and the nearby Sabil of Qaytbay, built shortly after in 1482; both were located on the Temple Mount. Qaytbay's monuments were the last major Mamluk constructions in the city.
Modern era
In 1517, Jerusalem and its environs fell to the Ottoman Turks, who generally remained in control until 1917.[180] Jerusalem enjoyed a prosperous period of renewal and peace under Suleiman the Magnificent—including the rebuilding of magnificent walls around the Old City. Throughout much of Ottoman rule, Jerusalem remained a provincial, if religiously important centre, and did not straddle the main trade route between Damascus and Cairo. The English reference book Modern history or the present state of all nations, written in 1744, stated that "Jerusalem is still reckoned the capital city of Palestine, though much fallen from its ancient grandeaur".
The Ottomans brought many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates and regular stagecoach and carriage services were among the first signs of modernization in the city. In the mid 19th century, the Ottomans constructed the first paved road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and by 1892 the railroad had reached the city.
With the annexation of Jerusalem by Muhammad Ali of Egypt in 1831, foreign missions and consulates began to establish a foothold in the city. In 1836, Ibrahim Pasha allowed Jerusalem's Jewish residents to restore four major synagogues, among them the Hurva. In the countrywide Peasants' Revolt, Qasim al-Ahmad led his forces from Nablus and attacked Jerusalem, aided by the Abu Ghosh clan, and entered the city on 31 May 1834. The Christians and Jews of Jerusalem were subjected to attacks. Ibrahim's Egyptian army routed Qasim's forces in Jerusalem the following month.
Ottoman rule was reinstated in 1840, but many Egyptian Muslims remained in Jerusalem and Jews from Algiers and North Africa began to settle in the city in growing numbers. In the 1840s and 1850s, the international powers began a tug-of-war in Palestine as they sought to extend their protection over the region's religious minorities, a struggle carried out mainly through consular representatives in Jerusalem. According to the Prussian consul, the population in 1845 was 16,410, with 7,120 Jews, 5,000 Muslims, 3,390 Christians, 800 Turkish soldiers and 100 Europeans. The volume of Christian pilgrims increased under the Ottomans, doubling the city's population around Easter time.
In the 1860s, new neighbourhoods began to develop outside the Old City walls to house pilgrims and relieve the intense overcrowding and poor sanitation inside the city. The Russian Compound and Mishkenot Sha'ananim were founded in 1860, followed by many others that included Mahane Israel (1868), Nahalat Shiv'a (1869), German Colony (1872), Beit David (1873), Mea Shearim (1874), Shimon HaZadiq (1876), Beit Ya'aqov (1877), Abu Tor (1880s), American-Swedish Colony (1882), Yemin Moshe (1891), and Mamilla, Wadi al-Joz around the turn of the century. In 1867 an American Missionary reports an estimated population of Jerusalem of 'above' 15,000, with 4,000 to 5,000 Jews and 6,000 Muslims. Every year there were 5,000 to 6,000 Russian Christian Pilgrims. In 1872 Jerusalem became the centre of a special administrative district, independent of the Syria Vilayet and under the direct authority of Istanbul called the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem.
The great number of Christian orphans resulting from the 1860 civil war in Mount Lebanon and the Damascus massacre led in the same year to the opening of the German Protestant Syrian Orphanage, better known as the Schneller Orphanage after its founder. Until the 1880s there were no formal Jewish orphanages in Jerusalem, as families generally took care of each other. In 1881 the Diskin Orphanage was founded in Jerusalem with the arrival of Jewish children orphaned by a Russian pogrom. Other orphanages founded in Jerusalem at the beginning of the 20th century were Zion Blumenthal Orphanage (1900) and General Israel Orphan's Home for Girls (1902).
The National Trust has now changed its policy and is permitting non-flash photography inside most of its properties.
The title is a pun on the phrase ‘Nothing is True, Everything is Permitted’, famously quoted by William S Burroughs, who helped popularise cut-up culture. The evening included live performances by artists, musicians and poets who have creatively dissected, recycled and quoted. Including: Genre Collage the new live audio-visual set from People Like Us that collages film genres using well-known feature films; live improviser Gwilly Edmondez who uses voice, tapes, decks and samples; debut performance of Café Carbon by The Gluts (Gina Birch, Kaffe Matthews, Hayley Newman) and whirlwind wizard of the ivories Felix Kubin.
Biography
Since 1991 London-based artist Vicki Bennett has been making music, radio, and films under the name People Like Us. By animating and recontextualising found footage, she presents an equally witty and dark view of popular culture. Her work has been presented at Tate Modern; The National Film Theatre, London; ICA, London; Sydney Opera House; Pompidou Centre, Paris; Sonar, Barcelona; The Walker Art Center, Minneapolis; The Barbican, London; plus on the BBC and Channel 4. Since 2003, People Like Us has broadcast DO or DIY an ongoing experimental arts radio show on WFMU, which has had over a million downloads. She has also performed radio sessions for the BBC’s John Peel, Mixing It, and also CBC, KPFA and many more.
The Gluts is a group made up of three London-based artists: Hayley Newman, Kaffe Matthews and Gina Birch. Their collaboration started with Café Carbon, a musical performed on the streets of Copenhagen during the United Nations Climate Summit in 2009. Hayley Newman is a visual artist, she has performed and exhibited at Matt’s Gallery, London; The Ikon Gallery, Birmingham; and the Centre d’Art Contemporain, Geneva. Kaffe Matthews has been making and performing new electro-acoustic music worldwide since 1990, she has released 6 solo CDs on the label Annette Works. In 2006 she received an Award of Distinction, Prix Ars Electronica. Gina Birch is an English musician and filmmaker, best know as a founding member of The Raincoats.
Felix Kubin is an electronic musician based in Hamburg. He has been involved with music since he was 8 years old, when he studied piano, organ and glockenspiel. His first solo album Filmmusik was released in 1998 by his label, Gagarin Records. Kubin regularly collaborates on theatric and animation productions, writes radio plays and is a self-described dadaist. His musical influences include Stockhausen and Ligeti, as well as groups such as Kraftwerk and DAF.
William Edmondes is an improvisor and composer working with recorded media, digital sequencing, guitar, Gameboys and voice, based in Newcastle and York. He performs and releases material under several names, most frequently as Gwilly Edmondez.
Curated and produced by AV Festival 10 and Vicki Bennett.
With about 15 minutes to permit passengers to get off and any who are travelling just to Grosmont, the train terminates there at the NYMR shed as this is the last service until next weekend, some attempt in the top panorama to show the scene, spoiled a bit by the palisade fence, along the lines into the station. St. Hilda's church can be seen up on the hill to the right and beyond that, just visible at far right in the top picture but more clearly seen in the lower two pictures, is Dracula's, Whitby Abbey. James Cook's tribute statue, commemorating his discovery of Australia (though he wasn't the first there!), is at the foot of this hill on this side of the harbour next to the pair of famous Whale-bones, forming an arch over the path down to the harbour side. Whitby Abbey was rendered famous in fiction by Bram Stoker's 1897 novel 'Dracula', as it was here that Dracula came ashore as a creature resembling a large dog and proceeded to climb the 199 steps which lead up to the ruins. In the lower left composite picture, the evening walkers cross the line with seemingly little interest in the Black 5's spirited exit, and slipping possibly, from the station about 15 minutes later and I had assumed it may just have come out on the platform 2 line so picked my spot accordingly, but it didn't and they don't at all I think; it ran round and coupled on the front coming back along the same line and very close to the camera, as the lower right picture well shows! Dracula's 'Black Abbey', Black 5, 45428 and its pall of Black smoke all combine together to present a unique happening on this, the old Whitby & Pickering line with plenty to celebrate in the weekend's events.. A zoom in and close inspection of the lower left picture will reveal the gap in the terrace of houses, below and to the left of the Abbey on the hillside, which marks the spot where adverse weather, i.e. days of rain, caused a landslip and all 5 cottages were left hanging above a chasm; the local authority deemed the houses structurally unsafe and they were demolished leaving this gap. The side wall of the house immediately to the left of the gap has been propped up with large wooden buttresses which can also be seen in this picture..., see the BBC news item on this from 28th November 2012-
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KENNEDY SPACE CENTER, FLA. -- Near Launch Pad 39B, wild pigs (at right) root for food near a stand of trees while Space Shuttle Discovery rolls out to the pad. The 4.2-mile journey from the Vehicle Assembly Building began at 12:45 p.m. EDT. The rollout is an important step before launch of Discovery on mission STS-121 to the International Space Station. Discovery's launch is targeted for July 1 in a launch window that extends to July 19. During the 12-day mission, Discovery's crew will test new hardware and techniques to improve shuttle safety, as well as deliver supplies and make repairs to the station.
Descripción del circuito.
POR representa la batería a descargar. El circuito está formado por 4 bloques idénticos de manera que sólo comentaré uno de ellos.
El objetivo es lograr una corriente de descarga de unos 500-700 mA para una tensión de batería nominal de 1.20V de manera que no se permita que la tensión de la misma baje de 0.70V. Si una batería NiMh o NiCd entra en régimen de descarga profunda, por ejemplo conectando una simple resistencia es muy probable que se produzca el efecto de inversión de polaridad lo que destruye la batería.
Por otro lado deseamos que el circuito no requiera alimentación externa, para que pueda ser utilizado en cualquier lugar y situación y sea lo más barato posible. Asumimos que el 100% de los usuarios de baterías NiMh ya disponen de un cargador rápido o semi rápido por lo que el descargador será un complemento ideal para proteger las pilas del proceso de carga a partir de estados de descarga intermedios.
El transistor Q1 BD237, en configuración emisor común, es el elemento de control, el cual, a través de R1 y R2 como carga de colector, crean la corriente de descarga de la batería. La mayor parte de la energía se disipa en el transistor que alcanzará temperaturas considerables.
Pero es necesario un elemento de control que corte la descarga cuando la tensión de la batería se reduce por debajo de un umbral seguro. El diodo de barrera Schottky D1 junto a la tensión base-emisor de Q1 forman un conjunto que comienza a conducir sólo cuando la tensión de la batería es superior a la tensión de las dos uniones polarizadas en sentido directo. La medidas sobre el prototipo indican unos valores típicos de 170mV para el diodo y de 574 mV para la tensión de base de Q1. En total 0.744 mV que será la tensión de fin de descarga.
Es interesante ajustar al máximo esta tensión puesto que valores superiores limitan demasiado la corriente de descarga, lo que alarga el proceso en exceso. Igualmente la tensión de la batería es muy escasa y teniendo en cuenta la tensión de colector-emisor en saturación de Q1, del orden de 847mV es necesario asegurarnos que Q1 está en saturación y elegir el transistor con la mayor beta posible. La caída de tensión en contactos y pistas es del orden de 60mV a corriente de descarga nominal.
La corriente de base es del orden de 3.37mA para una descarga media de 642mA.
En la tabla Excel se muestran varios valores de tensiones y corrientes de fin de descarga y de descarga de una batería cargada. La temperatura de los transistores alcanza 90ºC lo cual sugiere el uso de un pequeño disipador en el próximo diseño.
Respecto a la construcción. Se emplea una placa de tiras de fibra de vidrio material FR4. El esquema está diseñado con KiCad (Open Source) y el C.I con Veecad (comercial).
Sinagoga del Tránsito
La Sinagoga del Tránsito, o Sinagoga de Samuel ha-Leví, situada en la ciudad de Toledo, es un edificio del siglo XIV erigido bajo el mecenazgo de Samuel ha-Levi en tiempos del rey Pedro I. Es una sinagoga construida en estilo mudéjar en la que destaca una armadura de par y nudillo , la Gran Sala de oración ornamentada con arquillos que permiten la entrada de luz exterior y frisos policromados en yeso decorados con motivos vegetales, geométricos y epigráficos, además de motivos heráldicos de la corona de Castilla.
Contenido
Contexto histórico
La sinagoga fue construida entre los años 1357 y 1363, según las inscripciones que aparecen en el propio edificio. Fue realizada por orden de Samuel ha-Leví, miembro de la comunidad judía que, entre otros cargos, fue consejero y almojarife del Reino de Castilla durante el reinado de Pedro I de Castilla. La construcción se realizó pese a la existencia de la prohibición de erigir sinagogas, hecho que figura en Las Siete Partidas de Alfonso X, pero se incluía una provisión que permite a la Corona hacer excepciones a esta norma. Este fue el caso de la Sinagoga del Tránsito, cuya construcción fue permitida por Pedro I como agradecimiento por el apoyo y fidelidad de los judíos de la ciudad de Toledo al monarca en su lucha por la recuperación de la ciudad tras haber pasado a estar bajo control de Enrique de Trastámara.
En esta época la aljama de Toledo se convirtió en la más rica e influyente de Castilla y algunos judíos, de la misma manera que en época árabe, ocuparon cargos importantes dentro de la Corte. Castilla, y como máximo exponente dentro de ella la ciudad de Toledo, presentaba una religión dominante y dos minorías aceptadas (mudéjar y judía) siempre que no interfiriesen con el cristianismo. Además, se facilitaba la conversión de las religiones minoritarias al cristianismo, mientras que el caso contrario era castigado. La comunidad judía se encontraba presente en Toledo desde época romana y visigoda. En época árabe estaba situada en la Madinat al Yahud, en la parte sudoccidental de la urbe, y tenía un carácter semi independiente dentro de la propia ciudad. La aljama de la ciudad de Toledo contaba con su propia organización y tres áreas fundamentales: fiscal, jurisdiccional y religiosa. Aunque eran siervos del rey, poseían privilegios, teniendo los rabinos una amplia autoridad en aspectos de derecho privado y ritual.
La sinagoga era la institución fundamental judía en los principales núcleos urbanos de Castilla, después de su conquista a los musulmanes. En los fueros municipales eran entendidas como el "lugar donde los judíos podían reunirse para hacer sus juramentos", además de resolver litigios y pleitos. Esta interpretación hacía referencia a la presencia de una sinagoga comunitaria, pero esto no impedía la existencia de otras casas de oración más pequeñas para uso privado, establecidas a menudo por las familias más ricas.
Evolución histórica de la sinagoga
La Sinagoga del Tránsito se encuentra dentro de la judería, que estaba conformada por carnicerías, zocos, murallas, puertas, casas, calles, adarves, casas de estudio de la ley y hasta un total de diez sinagogas más. Toda esta información es conocida gracias a un poema del siglo XIV de Yakob Albeneh. También son conocidos, gracias a él, el nombre de algunos barrios de la judería como el de Hamanzeit. La minoría hebrea se asentó en la parte occidental de la ciudad; la judería tenía su propia muralla interior y la multitud de adarves y callejones facilitaban la defensa con puertas y cierres en la calle. La conquista de Toledo por los cristianos no cambió la situación de la comunidad judía y en el siglo XIII desaparece la cerca y el barrio judío se mezcla con la ciudad.A través de una serie de excavaciones realizadas a principios de 2000, se pudo determinar que bajo los cimientos de la sinagoga se dispondría de un complejo de baños, llamado Hamman de Zeit, que fue destruido para la edificación de la sinagoga entre 1357 y 1363. Además del terreno de la zona de baños, se derribaron las casas cercanas y sobre ese terreno se levantó la sinagoga, de autor desconocido, gracias al mecenazgo de Samuel ha-Leví. Junto a la Sinagoga se construiría la Mikve posiblemente también sufragada por Samuel ha-Leví.
Tras la expulsión de los judíos en 1492, la judería es ocupada por la nobleza y el área de la sinagoga es concedido por los Reyes Católicos a la Orden de Calatrava, que sitúa allí el priorato de San Benito y la convierte en iglesia privada de la Orden, construyendo al lado norte un archivo para las Órdenes militares de Calatrava y Alcántara.
En el siglo XVII la iglesia de San Benito pasa a ser conocida popularmente como "del Tránsito" debido al encargo que un caballero calatravo realiza al pintor de la escuela toledana Juan Correa de Vivar, de un cuadro del Tránsito de Nuestra Señora, que adornó el altar plateresco desde entonces.
Hasta el siglo XIX la iglesia sigue perteneciendo a las órdenes militares, apareciendo en la documentación como "ermita de San Benito", extramuros de la ciudad, muy abandonada y en continuo deterioro.La desamortización de 1835 apenas afecta al edificio pero si a los bienes muebles y en 1877 el rey, de conformidad con la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando y a propuesta de la Dirección General de Instrucción Publica, declara la capilla del Tránsito como Monumento Nacional.
Posteriormente, en el año 1964, se decide que la Sinagoga Samuel ha-Leví sea la sede del museo sefardí, el cual tiene como objetivo conservar el legado de la cultura hispano-judía y sefardí para que quede integrada como parte esencial del Patrimonio Histórico Español, tarea que desempeña hasta la actualidad.
Análisis de la obra
Las dimensiones de este templo son 23 metros de longitud, 9,5 ancho y 17 m de altura. El edificio tiene una planta salón, rectangular, como en muchos edificios cristianos de la época. El alzado se divide en dos plantas, la primera es la zona donde se situaría la zona del rito y en la zona superior todavía se aprecia la ubicación de las vigas que sostenían el lugar dónde se ponían las mujeres, que ocultas de los hombres por celosías asistían a la liturgia.
Análisis técnico
Materiales
Los materiales principales de esta construcción son el ladrillo, la mampostería, la madera y el yeso. El exterior está formado por mampostería en el grueso del edificio, con ladrillos reforzando a la vez que realizando un efecto decorativo, en esquinas, alrededor de los vanos y estructuras superiores. El ladrillo se puede considerar la piedra angular, es la cantería del árabe que influenció directamente al mudéjar, que no se concibe sin este material. La alternancia de estos materiales consigue un enriquecimiento de la sinagoga, que por lo que podemos contemplar son materiales sencillos y de un coste bajo.
En el interior, destaca la utilización del yeso aplicado en las paredes con efecto decorativo, y la madera de artesonado, en concreto de conífera, que cubre toda la superficie de la sinagoga. También se puede encontrar madera en las celosías, ventanas y puertas, y un último material, el marfil, decorativo en incrustaciones de la techumbre. La yesería y la madera están policromadas, lo que supuso una utilización muy variada en lo pigmentos, son materiales ligeros, a los cuales se les saca el máximo partido arquitectónico. El pavimento está formado por losas de cerámica algunas vidriadas y otras no, de diferentes colores, pero podría ser que las que no están vidriadas se deba a un desgaste y no a un propósito concreto.
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In response to the Congressional budget debacle which proved that DC is but a colony -- prone to being singled out unlike any other city in the country -- a number of activists, elected officials, and general citizens came out in force upon the grounds of Capitol Hill.
The crowd first formed on the sidewalk, but after some opening remarks by elected officials and activists: they quickly spilled into the street. The Capitol Police had been on hand & I'd thought it amusing that a couple were taking photos & videos... it wasn't until I saw the wristbands come out when I realised these weren't officers enjoying the moment; they were recording evidence.
With many minutes of warning, large portions of the group shifted over the sidewalk; whilst a core of dedicated supporters -- including our Mayor, a number of councilmembers, and members of DC Vote -- remained behind to block the roadway. The officers began to surround the group & repeated their warnings to get back on the sidewalk or face arrest.
Now in all fairness to the Capitol Police: they were doing their job. They were quite courteous about it & the protest was similarly jubilant right back. One woman was first to be bound, soon followed by several other activists. Then came Muriel Bowser: first councilmember to be arrested.
In general, I tend to dislike political grandstanding... but this was different. If our council was being arrested by our own police, I'd think it a cheesy photo op... but now our locally-elected officials were being arrested by the very forces we were out to protest: the Feds. This wasn't a mere photo op arrest; this was actually a legitimate arrest... the kind of thing that goes on your record; the kind of thing you spent a night in jail for.
Now granted, I don't expect anyone will be in jail longer than tomorrow; I'd be surprised if any were still locked up by midnight tonight. But it was Councilmember Bowser's arrest which really hit a moment... you could see the look on her face was of some worried concern: someone who had never been arrested before & didn't show up here today expecting to be arrested. As she was placed into the police van: her look of concern changed to a bit more worry. I mean this as no knock against Councilmember Bowser's committment; rather I felt it really help to humanise the entire event. It made me respect her all the more.
Yvette Alexander stood right beside us for quite some time, complicated in that she didn't have her ID on her. While it was entertaining to see our top officials being frisked, it was also quite entertaining that our easily-recognisable councilmember needed her ID... prompting a standerby to call one of her staffers with the best introduction I've ever heard over a phone: "Hi, your councilmember has been arrested." Also, kudos to Councilmember Alexander for going to jail in high heels!
There is a lot I can complain about with the council in general; and certainly with individual councilmembers & even the mayor. Heck, that's what politicians are for: you're not supposed to always like them. But this was an opportunity to set aside some of those issues (frankly, I'd say DC was glad to have a unifying moment after the past couple weeks) and cheer on our own brothers & sisters as they stood up in support of our rights.
It was certainly a proud moment to be a DC resident and a fine boost to our collective esteem after several weeks of turmoil within our local & federal levels of government. It's aggravating that my support for small & local government is inhibited by those in Congress whom advocate small & local government. If I wanted to live in a colony, I'd have moved to Williamsburg.
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Only smiling and happy faces of the thousands spectators during the parade of the Costumés de Venise at Bruges this weekend
El programa de becas Erasmus Mundus permitirá a los estudiantes y a los docentes universitarios de todo el mundo cursar estudios de postgrado en las universidades europeas
Golden Eagle - Tonka
The Golden Eagle is one of the largest, fastest, nimblest raptors in North America. Lustrous gold feathers gleam on the back of its head and neck; a powerful beak and talons advertise its hunting prowess.The golden eagle is one of the best-known birds of prey in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the most widely distributed species of eagle.
Sometimes seen attacking large mammals, or fighting off coyotes or bears in defense of its prey and young, the Golden Eagle has long inspired both reverence and fear.
The golden eagle is a very large, dark brown raptor with broad wings, ranging from 26 to 40 inches in length and from 6 to over 7ft in wingspan!
The voice of the golden eagle is considered weak, high and shrill, even being emphatically described as “quite pathetic” and “puppy-like”, considering the formidable size and nature of the species, "Silent but deadly"
The golden eagle is not threatened at the species level but efforts need to be taken to prevent extinctions . Within the United States, the golden eagle is legally protected by the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. (see below for additional info)
Hope you enjoy! /www.flickr.com/photos/pix-by-pegisue/
Pix.by.PegiSue
Taken at:
SD Zoo Safari Park
The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act:
The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act (16 U.S.C. 668-668c), enacted in 1940, and amended several times since then, prohibits anyone, without a permit issued by the Secretary of the Interior, from "taking" bald eagles, including their parts, nests, or eggs. The Act provides criminal penalties for persons who "take, possess, sell, purchase, barter, offer to sell, purchase or barter, transport, export or import, at any time or any manner, any bald eagle ... [or any golden eagle], alive or dead, or any part, nest, or egg thereof." The Act defines "take" as "pursue, shoot, shoot at, poison, wound, kill, capture, trap, collect, molest or disturb."
-USFWS: Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act
Cadets are permitted to climb on top and inside the tank brought to Branch Orientation at Keyes Park, 6th Regiment, Basic Camp Cadets attended Branch Orientation at Keyes Park August 14, 2019, during Cadet Summer Training at Fort Knox, Ky. | Photo by Madison Thompson, Cadet Summer Training Public Affairs Office
R-707 is seen with her train consisting of two 3 car "N" sets at Spencer Street Station, ready to haul the 10:00am passenger train to Geelong and return. The loco would return to Melbourne mid afternoon. These steam hauled passenger trains were permitted to run at line speed of 110KPH (70MPH). 9:46am, Wednesday the 25th of September, 1991.
Finally got everything together and found the time to get Kevin his permit... pretty much had to force him to go, he wasn't interested. :)