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Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (Odia: ଉଦୟଗିରି ଓ ଖଣ୍ଡଗିରି ଗୁମ୍ଫା) are partly natural and partly artificial caves of archaeological, historical and religious importance near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha, India. The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, mentioned as Kumari Parvat in the Hathigumpha inscription. They have a number of finely and ornately carved caves. It is believed that most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks during the reign of King Kharavela. Udayagiri means "Sunrise Hill" and has 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves.
The caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, called lena or leṇa in the inscriptions, were dug out mostly during the reign of Kharavela for the abode of Jaina ascetics. The most important of this group is Ranigumpha in Udayagiri which is a double storeyed monastery.
COUNT OF THE CAVES
B.M. Barua, based on a reading of line 14 of the Hathigumpha inscription, declared that a total of 117 caves were excavated by Kharavela and others on the Kumari hill (Udayagiri). Marshall has counted more than 35 caves in both the hills, while M.M. Ganguli has enumerated only 27 caves.
The number of existing caves at Udayagiri is 18, while Khandagiri has 15. The local names of the existing caves are listed below, numbered according to the enumeration of the Archaeological Survey of India.
THE FAMOUS CAVES
In Udayagiri, Hathigumpha (cave 14) and Ganeshagumpha (cave 10) are especially well known due to art treasures of their sculptures and reliefs as well as due to their historical importance. Rani ka Naur (Queen's Palace cave, cave 1) is also an extensively carved cave and elaborately embellished with sculptural friezes. Khandagiri offers a fine view back over Bhubaneswar from its summit. The Ananta cave (cave 3) depicts carved figures of women, elephants, athletes, and geese carrying flowers.
INSCRIPTIONS IN CAVES IN BRAHMI
HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTIONS
The Hathigumpha cave ("Elephant Cave") has the Hathigumpha inscription, written by Raja Kharavela, the king of Kalinga in India, during the 2nd century BCE. The Hathigumpha inscription consists of seventeen lines incised in deep cut Brahmi letters on the overhanging brow of a natural cavern Hathigumpha in the south side of the Udayagiri hill. It faces the rock edicts of Asoka at Dhauli, situated about six miles away.
OTHER MINOR INSCRIPTIONS
Besides Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela, there are some other minor Brahmi inscriptions in the twin hillocks of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, which were deciphered earlier by Prof RD Banergy during 1915-16 (Epigraphic Indica-XIII) and BM Baraua (Indian Historical Quarterly-XIV). Sadananda Agrawal has given further clarifications about them and are produced as under:
I - MANCAPURI CAVE INSCRIPTION (Upper storey)
This inscription is engraved on the raised space between the second and third doorways of the cave. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
L.1- अरहंत पसादाय कलिंगानं समनानं लेनं कारितं राजिनो ललाकस
L.2- हथिसिहस पपोतस धुतुना कलिंग चकवतिनो सिरिखारवेलस
L.3- अगमहिसिना कारितं
Translation: By the blessings of Arhats, the chief queen of Kharavela, the Cakravarti monarch of Kalinga, the great granddaughter of Hathisiha (Hasti Simha) and the daughter of Lalāka or Lalārka caused to be excavated the cave for the sramanas of Kalinga.
II - MANCAPURI CAVE INSCRIPTION (Upper storey) - A
This inscription is incised on a raised bend between the 3rd and 4th doorways from the left and contains single line. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
ऐरस महाराजस कलिंगाधिपतिना महामेघवाहनस कुदेपसिरिनो लेणं
Translation: This is the cave of Aira Mahameghavahana Maharaja Kudepasiri, the overlord of Kalinga.
Note: Kudepasiri seems to be the immediate successor of Kharavela.
III - MANCAPURI CAVE INSCRIPTION 'B' (Lower storey)
This inscription has been engraved on the right wall of Veranda, to the right of the entrance to the right-hand side chamber of the main wing, consisting of one line. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
कुमारो वडुखस लेणं
Translation: [This is] the cave of Prince Vaḍukha.
Note: On palaeographic ground Prof Banergy considers this inscription to be a little earlier than the inscription of King Kudepasiri. According to Sadananda Agrawal, Prince Badukha stands an obscure figure in history, but Badukha seems to be the son or brother of Kudepasiri.
IV - INSCRIPTIONS IN THE SARPAGUMPHA (Over the door way)
This inscription consisting of one line, is incised over the doorway of the Sarpagumpha. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
चूलकमस कोठाजेया च
Translation: The chamber and veranda/or side chamber of cūlakama.
Note: However Dr. Sahu interpreted Ajeya being united by a Sandhi qualifying Koṭha there by denoting invincible. But he ignored the conjunction ca (Devanagari: च) which follows Koṭha (Devanagari:कोठा) and Jeya (Devanagari:जेया).
V - INSCRIPTIONS IN THE SARPAGUMPHA ( to the left of the doorway) The text in Devanagari script is as under:
L.1- कंमस हलखि
L.2- णय च पसादो
Translation: [The pavilion is the] gift of Kamma and Halakhina.
Note: Most probably Halakhiṇa was the wife of Kamma. Chūlakamma - found in the inscription No.IV and Kamma of this record indicate official designations rather than the proper names. Kamma may be taken as minister of works (Karma saciva) and Cūlakamma appears to be a junior cadre of minister in the Department of works.
VI - HARIDAS CAVE INSCRIPTION
This inscription contains one line has been incised over one of the three entrances to the main chamber of the cave from the veranda. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
चूलकमस पसातो कोठाजेया च
Translation: The chamber and veranda (or side chamber) are the gift of cūlakama.
VII - VYAGHRAGUMPHA INSCRIPTION
The record is incised on the outer wall of the inner chamber. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
L.1- नगर अखंदस
L.2- स भूतिनो लेणं
Translation: The cave of Bhūti, the city judge.
VIII - JAMBESAVARA CAVE INSCRIPTION
This inscription has been engraved over the entrances to the inner chamber of the cave. The text in Devanagari script is as under:
महादस बरयाय नकियस लेनं
Translation: The cave of Mahamāda Nākiya and Bāriyā.
X - TATOWAGUMPHA INSCRIPTION (Cave No 1)
The record of this inscription is incised over one of the entrances to the inner chamber. The Text reads in Sanskrit as
पादमुलिकस कुसुमस लेणं x [॥]
Translation: The cave of Kusuma, the padamulika.
Notes: There is a syllable after the word lenam, which may be read as ni or phi,. padamulika literally means, one who serves at the feet [of king].
According to Kishori Lal Faujdar, Here Kusuma seems to be related with Kaswan clan of Jats. He refers an article ‘Hathi Gumpha and three other inscriptions’ (page 24) in Devanagari as under:
कुसवानाम् क्षत्रियानां च सहाय्यतावतां प्राप्त मसिक नगरम्
Kusawānāṃ kshatriyānāṃ ca Sahāyyatāvatāṃ prāpt masika nagaraṃ.
Translation: This translates that the city of 'Masikanagara ' was obtained with the help of 'Kuswan' Kshatriyas.
Note: Sadananda Agrawal has interpreted Masikanagara as Asikanagara and identified with the city Adam (Nagpur district). In view of the evidence of a highly prosperous city unearthed at Adam, Prof AM Shastri is of the opinion that Adam itself represents the Asikanagara of Hathigumpha inscription. It is worth noting in the present context that a terracotta sealing having a legend, has been discovered from Adam, situated on the right bank of the river Wainganga, which reads Asakajanapadasa (Devanagari: असकजनपदस).
XI - ANANTA GUMPHA INSCRIPTION (A)
The record is incised on the architrave between the left ante and the fifth pillar. The text in Oriya script is: Odia: ଦୋହଦ ସମଣନ ଲେଖ (Devanagari: दोहद समणनं लेणं
Translation: The cave of the Dohada Śramaṇas.
LIST OF CAVES AT UDAYAGIRI
Ranigumpha
Bajagharagumpha
Chota Hathigumpha
Alkapurigumpha
Jaya-vijayagumpha
Panasagumpha
Thakuranigumpha
Patalapurigumpha
Mancapurigumpha
Ganesagumpha
Jambesvaragumpha
Vyaghragumpha
Sarpagumpha
Hathigumpha
Dhanagharagumpha
Haridasagumpha
Jagammathgumpha
Rosaigumpha
UDAYAGIRI
The Udayagiri hills fall on your right side when you enter into this area from Bhubaneswar. There are 18 caves in Udayagiri. Compared to Khandagiri, Udayagiri offers more beautiful and better maintained cave shrines.
1. RANI GUMPHA
Rani Gumpha is the largest and most popular cave among the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri. The word 'Rani' means Queen. Although it is not an architectural marvel, it has some ancient beautiful sculptures.
This cave is double storeyed. Each storey has three wings and the central wing is bigger among all the three wings. The lower floor has seven entrances in the middle wing whereas the upper floor has nine columns. The upper portion of the central wing has relief images depicting the victory march of a king. Many of the cells have carved dwara pala images; some of them are disfigured. The area that connects the central wing with right and left wings have some panels where the sculptures of wild animals, fruit laden trees, human figures, women playing musical instruments, monkeys and playful elephants are found. The pilasters contain the toranas (arches) decorated with sculptures of Jain religious importance and royal scenes.
2. BAJAGHARA GUMPHA
Bajaghara Gumpha is very simple and small. It has stone bed and pillow and it was obviously used as the Jain monks' shelter in the ancient times. Apart from the plain rectangular shaped pillars, there is no other sculpture found in this cave.
3. CHOTA HATHI GUMPHA
Chota Hathi Gumpha is small in size. It has six small elephant figures in the facade. The word 'chota hathi' means 'small elephant'.
4. ALKAPURI GUMPHA
Alkapuri Gumpha has a relief sculpture of a lion holding its prey in its mouth. The pillars with the human figures (divine beings) with wings are found in this cave. It is double storeyed.
5. JAYA VIJAYA GUMPHA
Jaya Vijaya Gumpha is double storeyed. It has a relief image of Bodhi tree with umbrella on its top and flanked by people worshipping it.
6. PANASA GUMPHA
Panasa Gumpha is very small and simple cave without any significant features.
7. THAKURANI GUMPHA
Thakurani Gumpha is double storeyd but is very simple in style. It has few tiny relief sculptures.
8. PATALAPURI GUMPHA
Patalapuri Gumpha is slightly bigger with a pillared verandah. However, there is no noteable feature in this cave.
9. MANCAPURI & SWARGAPURI GUMPHA
Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha is double storeyed. It has a damaged Jain religious symbol which was probably used for worship.
There are three inscriptions found in this cave. One inscription talks about the chief queen of Kharavela. The other two inscriptions talk about Kudepasiri, the successor of Kharavela and Badukha, the son or brother of Kudepasiri.
10. GANESHA GUMPHA
Ganesha Gumpha is one of the most important caves in Udayagiri. The cave got this name due to carved figure of Ganesha on the back of its right cell. Of course, it would have been carved in the later period and it cannot be the original work. The cave has two big statues of elephants carrying garlands at the entrance. Also, the carved figures of dwara palas are found at the entrances. The carvings in this cave narrate the story of the elopement of Bassavadatta, Princess of Ujjayini, with King Udayan of Kausambi in the company of Vasantaka.
Above this cave, the ruins of an apsidal structure is found. It is believed that the legendary Kalinga Jina was placed here once. Kalinga Jina was the idol of Rishabhanatha, which had been taken away from Kalinga by Mahapadma Nanda. After 300 years, Kharavela won the Sunga King Bahasatimita and brought it back.
11. JAMBESVARA GUMPHA
Jambesvara Gumpha is a very simple and small cave with one column and two pilasters. The inscription tells that it is the cave of Nayaki, wife of Mahamade.
12. VYAGHRA GUMPHA
Vyaghra Gumpha is one of the popular caves in Udayagiri. The cave, which is in ruins, has the entrance carves like a large mouth of a tiger. It is one of the most photographed site in Udayagiri. The word 'vyaghra' means tiger. The inscription found here tells that this cave belongs to the city judge Sabhuti.
13. SARPA GUMPHA
Sarpa Gumpha is unusually very small cave. There are two inscriptions found in this cave. The word 'sarpa' means snake.
14. HATHI GUMPHA
Hathi Gumpha is a natural cavern. On the wall, the inscription erected by Kharavela is found. It is the main source of history of Kharavela. (The word 'hathi' means elephant)
15. DHANAGHARA GUMPHA
Dhanaghara Gumpha is a small cave which has two wide pillars and dwara pala sculptures carved at the entrance.
16. HARIDASA GUMPHA
Haridasa Gumpha is a small cave with three entrances and a verandah in the front side. There is an inscription found here.
17. JAGANNATHA GUMPHA
Jagannatha Gumpha is roughly cut cave with three entrances.
18. RASUI GUMPHA
Rasui Gumpha is unusually very small cave.
(Reeta,14024,SU)
LIST OF CAVES AT KHANDAGIRI
Tatowa gumpha No.-1
Tatowa gumpha No.-2
Ananta gumpha
Tentuli gumpha
Khandagiri gumpha
Dhyana gumpha
Navamuni gumpha
Barabhuji gumpha
Trusula gumpha
Ambika gumpha
Lalatendukesari gumpha
Unnamed
Unnamed
Ekadasi gumpha
Unnamed
The above nomenclature has no historical significance but is accepted at present for the convenience of scholars and general readers. The art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, being almost contemporaneous with that of Sanchi, has a striking resemblance to it but at the same time retains its own individuality and advanced technique.
KHANDAGIRI
The Khandagiri hills fall on your left side when you enter into this area from Bhubaneswar. There are 15 caves in Khandagiri.
1. TATOWA GUMPHA
The parrots are carved above the entrance arch and hence it is called as Tatowa Gumpha. It has two dwarapala figures too.
2. TATOWA GUMPHA
The cave sharing the same name with the first cave has a veranda with pilasters containing exquisite carvings.
3. ANANTA GUMPHA
The cave has sculptures of women, elephants, geese, etc.
4. TENTULI GUMPHA
It is a small rock cut chamber with just one column.
5. KHANDAGIRI GUMPHA
It is a roughly cut cell and has double storeys.
6. DHYANA GUMPHA
It is a roughly cut cell.
7. NAVAMUNI GUMPHA
Navamuni Gumpha is a roughly cut cell with the sculptures of nine Jain Tirthankaras and Sasana Devis.
8. BARABHUJI GUMPHA
Barabhuji Gumpha has two relief images of twelve armed Sasana Devis, hence it is called as Barabhuji (meaning twelve armed) Gumpha. There are few Tirthankara sculptures also found in this cave. The Sasana Devis are worshiped as Hindu deity Durga nowadays. Funnily, the priests in this shrine claim some Jain Tirthankara sculpture as Surya.
9. TRUSULA GUMPHA
Trusula Gumpha appears to be reconverted in the medieval times. There are three sculptures of Rishabha Deva who is found in the standing posture and look beautiful. Apart from these sculptures there are sculptures of 24 Jain Tirthankaras which look rough.
10. AMBIKA GUMPHA
Few relief images of Sasana Devis are found here.
11. LALATENDU KESHARI GUMPHA
The relief images of Mahavira, Parshvanath and few Jain Tirthankaras are found here.
Caves 12, 13 and 15 are unnamed. Cave 14 is very simple and called as Ekadasi Gumpha.
(Reeta,14024,SU)
TICKETS
Entry fee for Citizens of India and visitors of SAARC (Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Maldives and Afghanistan) and BIMSTEC Countries (Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Myanmar) - Rs. 5 per head and for each foreigner is Rs. 100.00 or US $2.00 and free entry for children below 15 years.
TIMING
The monument remains open from sunrise to sunset.
WIKIPEDIA
St Mary, Rougham, Suffolk
This grand late medieval church sits a good half mile from its village with just the school and an incongruous 1950s rectory for company. The wide churchyard is a perfect foil for its massive bulk. graves sprawl in all directions, and you might easily imagine that all mid-Suffolk comes here to be buried. Above them, St Mary raises its head gloriously to heaven, a riot of medieval aisles, clerestory and flushwork. The inscriptions in the flushwork beneath the battlements are dedicatory inscriptions, asking for prayers for the souls of Robert Drury and John Tillot. Also clear is the Marian imagery, her lily and her monograms. Simon Cotton tells me that it was a big bequest of 50 marks, and as much more as is possible, in 1458 from Roger Tyllot of Rougham, that launched the campaign to build the tower. This guaranteed Tyllot/Tillot the inscription asking us to pray for his soul.
The south aisle is castellated with pierced tracery. One of them has a head in a dish on it, similar to the same thing on the font at Irstead and the screen at Trimingham, both in Norfolk, and so it is probably intended as St John the Baptist. The south aisle predates the tower, but after the tower, and before the Reformation of course, came the north aisle. It can be precisely dated to 1514, because it still bears that date, reading We pray you to remember us that causyde ye yle to be made thus.
The main entrance today is into this north aisle, but the south porch is worth a look, a fine piece of the early 14th Century, rather mutilated when it was reroofed in the 17th Century, the inscription 1632 JT giving the precise date. You step into a large, fine church, perhaps telling us a bit more than we would like about the extent of its 19th Century restoration. Above the nave is a good example of a late medieval hammerbeam roof, splendidly uncluttered, and in reasonable condition. The angels on the hammerbeams have lost their heads and wings, and the figures in the niches of the wall posts are also damaged. But perhaps that merely serves to show how little restored this roof is. It was made safe as part of the mid-19th century restoration. It is interesting to compare it with the much richer and glorious roof of the church at nearby Woolpit.
Indeed, Woolpit church is quite a useful comparison with Rougham. One of Suffolk's most famous churches, and along with Mildenhall the county's most glorious medieval angel roof. What else does Woolpit have? It has carved bench ends in abundance. And here at Rougham is also as fine a set of medieval benches as you could hope to see - about half the entire range in this huge church are early 16th century, arguable the high point of English carpentry, and contemporary with the roof. But they are entirely mutilated. Every single bench end figure has been sawn off at the base. So what happened here? Our knee-jerk reaction, obviously enough, is that St Mary suffered from the depredations of the 17th century puritans, and that awful William Dowsing, who saw off all the medieval art treasures that the parish had carefully accumulated over the previous centuries.
Unfortunately for anyone who likes easy answers, this is nonsense. Dowsing did not come to Rougham. But he did go to Woolpit, with its amazing angel roof and beautiful medieval carved bench ends. So before we start blaming Dowsing, it is as well to look at the evidence.
At Woolpit, William Dowsing recorded that his Deputy found 80 superstitious pictures. Some he brake down, and the rest he gave orders to take down; and 3 crosses to be taken down in 20 days. The superstitious pictures, of course, were in stained glass, not wall paintings. The three crosses were outside, on the gables. But Dowsing doesn't mention the angel roof (a feature that he concerns himself with often elsewhere) and he doesn't mention the bench ends. Why not?
Well, the bench ends problem is solved simply enough. The surviving figures are all animals or mythical beasts. The same survive at neighbouring Tostock, which Dowsing also visited. The reason they survived is perhaps simply that the authorities considered them decorative, and let them be. Despite the portrait that is often painted of him, Dowsing was a conservative soul, and theologically very articulate. He was in the business of rooting out superstitious imagery - that is to say, objects and images that might be used in Catholic liturgical practices. He was also keen to destroy images that he thought blasphemous, for example symbols of the Trinity, and especially angels. Dowsing would know very well that Catholics didn't worship animals.
So why doesn't Dowsing mention Woolpit's angel roof? I would contend that this is for the very same reason that Rougham didn't need a visit - it had already been defaced. The next obvious question is to answer is when did this destruction occur? There are two possibilities. One is that it had been done by other puritans during the furious theological debate over sacramental practice during the 1630s. Far more likely, and the right answer in my opinion, is that the destruction at Rougham was wrought a full hundred years before Dowsing began his progress through the county.
During the later years of Henry VIII, and the entire reign of the boy-King Edward VI, roughly 1538 to 1553, order after order went out from the Protestant reformers at Whitehall and Lambeth Palace demanding the destruction of church imagery. Roods came toppling down, and not a single one survives in all England. Many roodlofts and roodscreens were put to the hatchet and the bonfire. Any wall paintings that remained were whitewashed. Fonts were plastered over, because this was easier than chiselling off the stone carved imagery, and statues were hauled out of their niches. Wooden ones were burnt, those made of stone and alabaster were broken up. Some were sold abroad, we know. It was a holocaust of church furnishings. Much evidence of it survives in Suffolk, and it is almost always blamed on the puritans of a century later. Unlike Dowsing, who had a precise remit, and carefully recorded every visit, the 16th century reformers were not much short of vandals. Of course Cranmer and his cronies had a theological basis for their orders, but by the time these orders reached the parishes they became a licence to destroy.
Eammon Duffy records gangs of drunken youths stumbling around London, breaking into churches and smashing them up, and it is not unlikely that the same thing sometimes happened out in the countryside. In late 1547 in particular, it is as if the gloves came off, and people were able to get away with awful acts with impunity. Duffy records several instances of local landed families fleecing the church of silverware and vestments, and selling them for the proceeds. I think that Rougham's bench ends were sawn off during this holocaust. It would have been a major job, taking several days. What were they? Could they have been representations of the sacraments, virtues and vices, as we find at Tannington, Wilby and Blythburgh? Were they fabulous animals as at Woolpit and Stowlangtoft? Were they images of local people going about their daily business, as at Ixworth Thorpe? Mortlock thought they might have been angels, and that the surviving cushions were clouds.
Of course, we will never know. Two things fascinate me in particular. Firstly, you can find exactly the same thing across the A14 at Elmswell, where the medieval bench ends have been sawn off of cushions in the same way. Secondly, when the Victorians carried out their major restoration here, the new benches they installed are exact replicas of the old ones, even down to the sawn-off scars on the cushions!
And yet, Rougham is not without its medieval survivals. Tucked away in a rather undignified manner in the north aisle are fine brasses of Sir Roger Drury and his wife, which survive from 1405. They are so similar to the pair to the Burgate family at Burgate in north Suffolk that it suggests that this was an all-purpose, off-the-peg design. The 14th Century font at the west end of the nave has surviving traces of colour, its traceried panels echoing the great east window at the far end of the building. The glass on the north side of the chancel dates from 1904 and is by Burlison & Grylls.
And there is one other survival, intriguing and delightful. This is the small collection of mostly 15th Century English glass in the upper lights. Among them is an exquisite and rare virgo lactans, the Blessed Virgin offering her breast to feed the infant Christ, intensely intimate and human. For a moment in time, the centuries fall away.
Some rocks next to the Sinuiju road are decorated with old inscriptions in Chinese letters (hanmun). Some of these inscriptions have been scratched out – maybe they were regarded as remainders of the feudal past?
The archeological excavations and surface investigations at Xanthos have yielded inscriptions in both the Lycian language and Greek, including bilingual texts that are useful in the understanding of Lycian.[22] The Xanthian Obelisk, otherwise known as the Inscribed Pillar, is a trilingual stele which was found in the city; it records an older Anatolian language conventionally known as the Milyan. Wikipedia
Xanthos or Xanthus, also referred to by scholars as Arna, its Lycian name,[1] (Turkish: Ksantos, Lycian: Arñna, Greek: Ξάνθος, Latin: Xanthus) was an ancient city near the present-day village of Kınık, in Antalya Province, Turkey. The ruins are located on a hill on the left bank of the River Xanthos. The number and quality of the surviving tombs at Xanthos are a notable feature of the site, which, together with nearby Letoon, was declared to be a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988.
The city of Xanthos was a centre of culture and commerce for the Lycians, and later for the Persians, Greeks and Romans who in turn conquered the region. Xanthos influenced its neighbours architecturally; the Nereid Monument directly inspired the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in the region of Caria.
History
The acropolis of Xanthos dates from the 8th century BCE.[2] The city was mentioned by ancient Greek and Roman writers. The Greek historian Strabo noted that Xanthos was the largest city in Lycia.[3] The important religious sanctuary of Leto at Letoon, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) south of Xanthos, dates from the late 6th century BC,[4] and was closely associated with the city and linked by a sacred road.[5]
Under the Persian Empire
The Greek historians Herodotus and Appian both described the conquest of the city by the Median general Harpagus on behalf of the Persian Empire, According to Herodotus, the Persians defeated a small Lycian army in the flatlands to the north of the city in c. 540 BC.[6] The Lycians retreated into the city, which Harpagus then besieged. The Lycians destroyed their acropolis, and killed their wives, children and slaves, before engaging the enemy in a suicidal attack.[7]
During the Persian occupation, a local leadership was installed and by 520 BC it was minting coins.[8] By 516 BC Xanthos had been included in the first Nomos of Darius I in the tribute list.[9]
Conquest by Alexander the Great
From Telmessos the army of Alexander the Great marched over the mountains to Xanthos. There representatives from each of the cities of the Lycian League, including the port of Phaselis, personally offered the Lycians' submission, which was accepted. Alexander was encouraged when he found a sacred spring close to the River Xanthus, and obtained from there an inscribed bronze tablet that predicted that the Greeks would destroy the Persian Empire.[10]
Reports on the city's surrender to Alexander the Great differ: Arrian reports a peaceful surrender, but Appian claims that the city was sacked.[7] After Alexander's death, Xanthos was captured by Ptolemy I Soter from Antigonos.[11]
Roman period
Xanthus was in the Roman province of Lycia.[12] In 42 BC Brutus came to Lycia in the Roman Civil Wars, to obtain funds for his campaign in that year before the Battle of Philippi. The Lycian League refused to contribute; Brutus besieged Xanthos and the city was once again destroyed and only 150 Xanthian men survived the carnage. But Plutarch describes the carnage as self-inflicted, with Brutus and his Romans trying but unable to save the city from flames. In his words, 150 “did not escape having their lives saved.” Plutarch explains such suicidal behavior by the city’s similar response to Persian conquest generations earlier. [13] It was rebuilt under Mark Antony.[14]
Most of the buildings visible today were built during the Later Empire. The town took on a grid plan. A large piazza with porticoes was built in the west, probably where the classical agora was. There was also a triple-naved building which may have started as a pagan basilica and then become a church. There was probably a large porticoed avenue terminated with. a gateway.[15]
Byzantine period
Xanthos, like the rest of Lycia, prospered in the later Roman period. Luxury houses were built on the Lycian acropolis. Several churches were also built, including a large basilica (74m x 29m), a small chapel, and another large basilica on the acropolis. In the sixth century, earthquakes damaged many buildings, and they were repaired. The city wall was also reinforced because of the Arab threat. The city was subsequently destroyed and deserted.[15]
Ecclesiastical history
Xanthus was a suffragan of the Metropolitan Archbishopric of Myra.[14]
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Xanthoupolis was a titular diocese under the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, whose bishop assisted the Metropolitan Province of Smyrna, part of the larger Province of Asia Minor. Its last known bishop was Father Ignatios, later Metropolitan of Libya under the Patriarchate of Alexandria, who presided over this diocese from 1863 to 1884.[citation needed]
In the Catholic Church, the diocese was nominally restored in 1933 as the Titular bishopric of Xanthus.[16]
Archaeology
Further information: Tombs at Xanthos
The Harpy Tomb sculptures in the British Museum
Excavations at Xanthos have shown that wooden structures were destroyed in c. 470 BC,probably by the Athenian Kimon. Xanthos was later rebuilt in stone.[17]
The Nereid Monument, the Tomb of Payava, and the original sculptures of the Harpy Tomb are exhibited in the British Museum.[18][19][20] The Harpy Tomb itself is located in its original location at Xanthos, now with replica reliefs.[21]
Ġgantija is a megalithic temple complex from the Neolithic on the Mediterranean island of Gozo. The Ġgantija temples are the earliest of the Megalithic Temples of Malta. The Ġgantija temples are older than the pyramids of Egypt. Their makers erected the two Ġgantija temples during the Neolithic (c. 3600–2500 BC), which makes these temples more than 5500 years old and the world's second oldest existing manmade religious structures after Göbekli Tepe. Together with other similar structures, these have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Megalithic Temples of Malta. The temples are elements of a ceremonial site in a fertility rite. Researchers have the numerous figurines and statues found on site associated with that cult. According to local Gozitan folklore, a giantess who ate nothing but broad beans and honey bore a child from a man of the common people. With the child hanging from her shoulder, she built these temples and used them as places of worship.
The Ramkhamhaeng inscription, also known as inscription #1. King Ramkhamhaeng is widely credited with the invention of the Thai alphabet, and this is the earliest known inscription using these letters, believed to date from 1292 CE. The inscription itself mentions that there was no Thai writing before this date.
However, doubt has been cast on the inscription’s authenticity. It certainly demonstrates idiosyncrasies that are not apparent in other inscriptions of that era or later, such as the alphabetic nature of the script (vowels are represented not by diacritic marks as in modern Thai, but by inline vowel letters).
At any rate, it would be short-sighted not to pay credit to the role of Brahmi-derived Pallava, Mon and Old Khmer in the formation of the proto-Thai alphabet.
Ms. ownership inscription of Gottlieb Paul Christ (1707-1786):
"Theophili Pauli Christii Coburgensis Onoldibati[?] a C.N. MDCCLX."
[Gottlieb Paul Christ (1707-1786), professor, librarian and court functionary at Ansbach.
In their finding aid Aldine Press Books at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin (Austin: The Center, 1998), Craig W. Kallendorf and Maria X. Wells identify the ex-libris "Theophili Pauli Christi" as "Gottlieb Paul Christ (18th cent.), prof. at Anspach Gymnasium". According to his biographical entry in C.A. Baader, Lexikon Verstorbener Schrifsteller des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts (Augsburg: Von Jenisch- und Stage'schen Buchhandlung, 1825), Bd. 2, T. 1, p. 22, Christ was born in Coburg but came to Ansbach in 1728 to take service with Freiherr von Seckendorff (probably Christoph Ludwig Freiherr von Seckendorff-Aberdar). He went abroad on several diplomatic missions and became the librarian for the Ansbacher Schlossbibliothek. (According to E.F.C. Oertel in Georg Ludwig Oeder der erste Rektor bei der Einweihung des neuen Gymnasiums in Ansbach am 12. Juni 1737 ... (Ansbach: Oertel, 1837) p. 54-55, he got the job in 1738; according to the Schlossbibliothek's history web page, he was the second librarian to be appointed.) In 1737 he was appointed professor at the gymnasium in Ansbach and published a number of works on historical subjects; he also continued to serve at court as a councillor.
DNB heading: Christ, Gottlieb Paul 1707-1786]
Other examples of Gottlieb Paul Christ provenance
Penn Libraries call number: LatC P7198 En543n Folio
Jesuit ms. ownership inscription:
Colleg. Soc. Jesu cat. inscrip.
Penn Libraries call number: FC5 P3668 535r 1537
The inscription reads-In proud memory of our son Jonathon Mark Rowlands of West Cross who died tragically on september 14th 1987 Aged 18 years and gave the gift of life through transplant surgery to three others. As a dialysis nurse i could not pass this by without taking a photo. I could imagine the three people who's lives jonathon saved sitting here but happily they're enjoying themselves elsewhere probably but always have this special lad in their minds and their hearts. TO BECOME A DONOR JUST TAKES SECONDS www.uktransplant.org.uk/ukt/how_to_become_a_donor/how_to_... but it saves lifes
Location : Souq Al hamediya , Old Damascus , Syria
Device : Nikon D300
Note : No Edit
© 2009 Saad Alenzi
Greek inscription at the Bollingen "Tower" of C.G. Jung; the inscription itself dates to 1950.
The central figure is Homunculus-Mercurius-Telesphorus, wearing a hooded cape and carrying a lantern. He is surrounded by a quaternary Mandala of alchemical significance, with the top quarter dedicated to Saturnus, the bottom quarter to Mars, the left quarter to Sol-Jupiter ("male") and the right quarter to Luna-Venus ("female"). The Greek inscription translates to approximately:
"Aion (Time, Eternity, the Eon) is a child at play, gambling; a child's is the kingship. Telesphorus ("the Accomplisher") traverses the dark places of the world, like a star flashing from the deep, leading the way to the Gates of the Sun and the Land of Dreams"
Time is a child at play, gambling; a child's is the kingship is a fragment attributed to Heraclitus.
to the Gates of the Sun and the Land of Dreams is a quote of the Odyssey (24.11), referring to Hermes the psychopomp leading the spirits of the slain suitors away.
This gate marks the point where the rebuilding of the land walls ended in 447 AD, just barely in time to frustrate Attila The Hun's designs on Constantinople. This celebratory inscription in Latin pairs with its Greek counterpart above the gate and reads, in English, "By the command of Theodosius, Constantine erected these strong walls in less than two months. Scarcely could Pallas herself have built so strong a citadel in so short a span."
A large stone building with the inscription
"1826 rebuilt at the curates sole cost", then some Latin which I think means, "No one was born to himself"
Document with seal of Charlotte Sophie Bentinck-Von Aldenburg (1715-1800)
Established heading: Bentinck-Von Aldenburg, Charlotte Sophie, 1715-1800
Penn Libraries call number: GrC C6483 Ef530h 1558
Dedicatory inscription to Pontius Pilate in Caesarea, Israel. This find helps to substantiate the existence of Pontius Pilate. Pontius Pilate's house and administration center was in Caesarea.
Caesarea is located along the Western coast of Israel, North of Tel Aviv and along the Mediteranean Sea. The ancient town of Caesarea was built by King Herod the Great (37 - 4 B.C.) in honor of his patron, Augustus Caesar. This city served as an administration center and headquarters.
Caesarea was inhabited by Romans, Samaritans, and Jews, and contained all the indulgences of Roman society.
It was here that the first Gentile, Cornelius, converted to Christianity and was baptized.
For more information on this inscription, check out this link.
Scratched on the glass of this horse's arse is the inscription of the glazier who relpaired the window in 1794.
Detail of a panel from the Apocalypse sequence that fills the larger part of the great east window of York Minster, photographed ex-situ following restoration.
The east window at York is one of wonders of gothic art and the largest medieval window in existance. It's original glazing, comprising 119 narrative scenes from the Old Testament and the Apocalypse, is as good as complete. It was created by the workshop of John Thornton of Coventry in 1405-8 (at a cost of around £56!).
Though the Minster's original glazing is unusually well preserved (by English standards) there has been considerably loss of clarity through the centuries of repair and patching which have resulted in heavier leadwork, intruded pieces of infill and extra leads (often across faces) where breakages have occured, often reducing the image to a confusing mosaic patchwork, difficult to decipher from ground level.
The latest restoration by the York Glazier's Trust aims to restore some of this lost legibility using modern conservation techniques and research by sensitive releading of each panel,and removing disfiguring insertions to give back some of the clarity and brilliance it's original form possessed in order to be read from a distance (a similar process has just been completed on the nearby St William window (also by Thornton) where comparison between pre and post restoration photos show what an enormous success the project has been).
Storing the World's largest medieval window has prooved a challenge, at first all 119 panels (with almost as many tracery pieces) where stored in crates in the Minster's stoneyard, until late 2009 when fire broke out in the rooms above, necessitating the evacuation of the massive window and rescuing it from what could have been the biggest loss to our national heritage since the Civil War! Happily all was saved from danger and is now stored within the Minster for the remainder of the project.
A few panels have been temporarily displayed at ground level in the cathedral allowing close-up detailed views of images normally only visible with the aid of binoculars
Earlier Post and Description :
www.flickr.com/photos/chithiram-pesuthadi/30095019583/in/...
www.flickr.com/photos/chithiram-pesuthadi/30612806832/in/...
www.flickr.com/photos/chithiram-pesuthadi/30114704263/in/...
www.flickr.com/photos/chithiram-pesuthadi/30750043045/in/...
www.flickr.com/photos/chithiram-pesuthadi/30713363986/in/...
www.flickr.com/photos/chithiram-pesuthadi/30662274941/in/...
www.flickr.com/photos/chithiram-pesuthadi/30662272501/in/...
www.flickr.com/photos/chithiram-pesuthadi/30115106913/
Inscriptions:
This cave has four Vattezhuthu (வட்டெழுத்து) inscriptions (Travancore Archaeological Series (T. A. S.) vol. I., p. 413.) inscribed one on each side of the entrance and others on each side of the pillars. One of which bears the name of the ruler and his regnal year. The inscription, dated in the 18th regnal year of Rajaraja Chola I (முதலாம் இராஜராஜ சோழன்) found on the western cave wall, registers the gift of Muttom (முட்டம்), the village (name changed as Mummudi-chola-nallur மும்முடிச்சோழநல்லூர்) in Valluva-nadu (வள்ளுவநாடு) under Rajaraja-thennadu (இராஜராஜ தென்னாடு). The gift was made for the celebration of a festival for Mahadeva of Tirunandikarai (திருநந்திக்கரை மகாதேவர்) and also for ablution of the deity in the river, on the Satabhisha, star (சதய நட்சத்திரம்) day in the Tamil month Aippasi, (ஐப்பசி) (October - November) in the year 1003 A.D, being the birthday of the king. Records a provision made by the king for supply of one nazhi (நாழி) measure ghee every day for lighting the perpetual lamp in the name of Rajaraja Chola I in the temple.
Inscription Travancore Archaeological Series (T. A. S.) Vol. III, p. 206 records gift of nine buffalo(s) for the provision of burning a perpetual lamp with one uri measure ghee each day for Tirunandikarai Lord by Ainurruva Mutharaiyan alias Sithakutti Ambi of Veikottumalai under Nanjilnadu and the buffalo(s) were handed-over to Idayarmangalavan Pavithiran, an official serving under the village elders (sabha). The inscription commences with these words 'the year of annihilation weaponry in Karaikanda Eswaram (‘கறைக்கண்ட ஈசுவரத்துக் கலமறுத்த யாண்டு’) refering the date of inscription. According to Gopinatha Rao, the temple 'Karaikanda Eswaram' is the saivite temple located near Katikaipattinam in Eranial taluk. The inscription was inscribed in an year when the Chera war-ships were destroyed in Karaikanda Eswaram.
Inscription Travancore Archaeological Series (T. A. S.) Vol. III, pp. 200-203 inscribed on a pillar, whose date assignable to eight century A.D., records the gift of 'Ur' (ஊர்-a village). For this purpose one Dhaliyazhavan (தளியாழ்வான்), along with the 'elders' of Tirunandikarai (திருநந்திக்கரை பெருமக்கள்) assembled in Kurunthambakkam (குருந்தம்பாக்கம்). The assembly converted the Ur's name into Sri Nandimangalam and gifted to one Nambi Ganapathi (நம்பி கணபதி) for purposes of mid-night offerings (நள்ளிரவுத் திருவமுது) to the Lord of the temple. The four boundaries (எல்லைகள்) are cited for the village under gift and include a river (name not known) (ஒரு பெயரற்ற ஆறு), Nandhi river (நந்தியாறு), Mudukonur (முதுகோனூர்) and Pakkamangalam (பாக்கமங்கலம்). Gopinatha Rao, who copied and recorded the inscription, has pointed out the present existence of Mudukonur and Pakkamangalam near Nandhimangalam.
Inscription Travancore Archaeological Series (T. A. S.) Vol. III, pp. 203-206 comprising 40 lines was inscribed on another pillar. This inscription records the gift of land by Mangalacheri Narayanan Sivakaran to Tiruvallavazh Mahadevar of Tirunandikarai (திருநந்திக்கரையில் உறையும் திருவல்லவாழ் மகாதேவர்). The inscription lists out the land pieces. Resolved the wages to be issued from the land produce accrued from the above land: four measures (கலம் Kalam) to Santhipuram, five measures (கலம் Kalam) to Uvachar (category of temple staff), five measures (கலம் Kalam) to Udayar (category of temple staff) and cleaning staff as well as for puja rituals, The perpetual lamps were lit using 60 measures (uri - உரி) of ghee from the remaining land produce.
The most important artifact from the ancient city of Adab is the limestone statue of Lugaldalu. The inscription on its shoulder introduces him as the "King of Adab" and the statue is stated to have been devoted to E-shar, the temple of the chief god of Adab. Lugaldalu, who was not listed in the Sumerian king lists, is thought to be a governor of Adab in circa mid-3rd millennium BC. This is one of the 'deputy priest' statues placed in the temples according to the Sumerian belief. Those statues continued to express gratitude to the god on behalf of persons they were representing, when they were out of the temple.
Inv. no. 3235
Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.
Iglesia de San Román
Toledo ✶ España ✶ Spain
13th century church with rich mudejar decoration
20221019_162836
Inscription on the monument base could be translated as "Nothing is more valuable than freedom and independence"
I did my best to enhance the inscriptions through post processing, but they were in pale sandstone in the shade.