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The serpent, or snake, is one of the oldest and most widespread mythological symbols. The word is derived from Latin serpens, a crawling animal or snake. Snakes have been associated with some of the oldest rituals known to humankind and represent dual expression of good and evil.In some cultures snakes were fertility symbols, for example the Hopi people of North America performed an annual snake dance to celebrate the union of Snake Youth (a Sky spirit) and Snake Girl (an Underworld spirit) and to renew fertility of Nature. During the dance, live snakes were handled and at the end of the dance the snakes were released into the fields to guarantee good crops. "The snake dance is a prayer to the spirits of the clouds, the thunder and the lightning, that the rain may fall on the growing crops.."In other cultures snakes symbolized the umbilical cord, joining all humans to Mother Earth. The Great Goddess often had snakes as her familiars—sometimes twining around her sacred staff, as in ancient Crete—and they were worshiped as guardians of her mysteries of birth and regeneration.Historically, serpents and snakes represent fertility or a creative life force. As snakes shed their skin through sloughing, they are symbols of rebirth, transformation, immortality, and healing. The ouroboros is a symbol of eternity and continual renewal of life.In the Abrahamic religions, the serpent represents sexual desire. According to the Rabbinical tradition, in the Garden of Eden, the serpent represents sexual passion. In Hinduism, Kundalini is a coiled serpent, the residual power of pure desire.Serpents are represented as potent guardians of temples and other sacred spaces. This connection may be grounded in the observation that when threatened, some snakes (such as rattlesnakes or cobras) frequently hold and defend their ground, first resorting to threatening display and then fighting, rather than retreat. Thus, they are natural guardians of treasures or sacred sites which cannot easily be moved out of harm's way.At Angkor in Cambodia, numerous stone sculptures present hooded multi-headed nāgas as guardians of temples or other premises. A favorite motif of Angkorean sculptors from approximately the 12th century CE onward was that of the Buddha, sitting in the position of meditation, his weight supported by the coils of a multi-headed naga that also uses its flared hood to shield him from above. This motif recalls the story of the Buddha and the serpent king Mucalinda: as the Buddha sat beneath a tree engrossed in meditation, Mucalinda came up from the roots of the tree to shield the Buddha from a tempest that was just beginning to arise.The Gadsden flag of the American Revolution depicts a rattlesnake coiled up and poised to strike. Below the image of the snake is the legend, "Don't tread on me." The snake symbolized the dangerousness of colonists willing to fight for their rights and homeland. The motif is repeated in the First Navy Jack of the US Navy.Serpents are connected with poison and medicine. The snake's venom is associated with the chemicals of plants and fungi[10][11][12] that have the power to either heal, poison or provide expanded consciousness (and even the elixir of life and immortality) through divine intoxication. Because of its herbal knowledge and entheogenic association the snake was often considered one of the wisest animals, being (close to the) divine. Its divine aspect combined with its habitat in the earth between the roots of plants made it an animal with chthonic properties connected to the afterlife and immortality. Asclepius, the God of medicine and healing, carried a staff with one serpent wrapped around it, which has become the symbol of modern medicine. Moses also had a replica of a serpent on a pole, the Nehushtan, mentioned in Numbers 21:8.Serpents are connected with vengefulness and vindictiveness. This connection depends in part on the experience that venomous snakes often deliver deadly defensive bites without giving prior notice or warning to their unwitting victims. Although a snake is defending itself from the encroachment of its victim into the snake's immediate vicinity, the unannounced and deadly strike may seem unduly vengeful when measured against the unwitting victim's perceived lack of blameworthiness.
Edgar Allan Poe's famous short story "The Cask of Amontillado" invokes the image of the serpent as a symbol for petty vengefulness. The story is told from the point of view of the vindictive Montresor, who hatches a secret plot to murder his rival Fortunato in order to avenge real or imagined insults. Before carrying out his scheme, Montresor reveals his family's coat-of-arms to the intended victim: "A huge human foot d'or, in a field azure; the foot crushes a serpent rampant whose fangs are imbedded in the heel." Fortunato, not suspecting that he has offended Montresor, fails to understand the symbolic import of the coat-of-arms, and blunders onward into Montresor's trap.
In America some of the Native American tribes give reverence to the rattlesnake as grandfather and king of snakes who is able to give fair winds or cause tempest. Among the Hopi of Arizona the serpent figures largely in one of the dances. The rattlesnake was worshiped in the Natchez temple of the sun and the Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl was a feathered serpent-god. In many Meso-American cultures, the serpent was regarded as a portal between two worlds. The tribes of Peru are said to have adored great snakes in the pre-Inca days and in Chile the Mapuche made a serpent figure in their deluge beliefs. A Horned Serpent is a popular image in Northern American natives' mythology.In one Native North American story, an evil serpent kills one of the gods' cousins, so the god kills the serpent in revenge, but the dying serpent unleashes a great flood. People first flee to the mountains and then, when the mountains are covered, they float on a raft until the flood subsides. The evil spirits that the serpent god controlled then hide out of fear. The Mound Builders associated great mystical value to the serpent, as the Serpent Mound demonstrates, though we are unable to unravel the particular associations.
I was asked by UNIQLO to create six designs for their Nippon-Omiyage T-shirt lineup, the first in the series were Tokyo, Ginza and Kobe. All using handmade typography and a connection to the location itself.
ユニクロの「日本のお土産シリーズ」のデザインに参加させて頂きました。全6デザインの内、今回発売されたのは「東京」「銀座」「神戸」の三都市のお土産です。ハンドメイドのタイポグラフィーを使って、それぞれの街のイメージを表現しています。
The design for Tokyo was all created quite freely by hand using brush and ink, but rather than focusing on the city as a whole I wanted to make a point of including all of the districts within the city that have their own identity, each making Tokyo what it is.
「東京」のデザインは手書きのブラシの線やインクで自由に表現しました。その都市全体にフォーカスするよりも、様々な地域から来た、様々なアイデンティティの集合が東京を作っているという点に注目したかったからです。
DAVOS/SWITZERLAND, 22JAN16 - (FLTR) Zanny Minton Beddoes, Editor-in-Chief, The Economist, United Kingdom, Eric Anderson, Chairman, Planetary Holdings, USA; Young Global Leader, Jennifer Doudna, Professor of Chemistry and of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, USA, Nita A. Farahany, Professor, Law and Philosophy, Duke University, USA, Toomas Hendrik Ilves, President of Estonia; Global Agenda Council on Cyber Security, and Andrew Moore, Dean, School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, USA are captured during the open forum session 'Life in 2030: Humankind and the Machine' at the Annual Meeting 2016 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, January 22, 2016.
WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM/swiss-image.ch/Photo Michele Limina
Regardless of the abuse humankind has inflicted on nature, we know that if we disappeared, everything we did would be reconquered by nature. The exuberant nature in Brazil always makes this very clear and present.
A female boomslang (Dispholidus typus), in Rhino & Lion Park Nature Reserve in Kromdraai, in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site (the male is green).
The boomslang is one of the most venomous snakes in the world, but since it is extremely shy, bites are uncommon. It rarely gets longer than 1.5 meters.
(Boomslange-hunn, in Norwegian)
Check out more photos from Africa here: www.flickr.com/photos/ranveig/sets/72157629475425334/with...
A panoramic view of the "Cradle of Humankind" landscape, Maropeng, South Africa (an UNESCO World Heritage site).
Details: 8 x 18mm Photograph Stitched Panorama.
Original Resolution: 12421 x 2305 pixels.
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"Mrs. Ples" (Australopithecus africanus) was found in this area in 1947, and is currently the oldest human fossil found to date. This gave rise to the idea that Africa is the "Cradle of Humankind".
In 2008 two fossilised skeletons of a new species of early human "Australopithecus sediba" were discovered.
Martin
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SAN FRANCISCO, CA - May 18 - Joni Simpson, Lavania Cartwright and Mary Gibson attend CommonSpirit's Humankindness Gala 2023 on May 18th 2023 at San Francisco in San Francisco, CA (Photo - Drew Altizer Photography)
First published in 1930, “Gladiator” concerns a scientist who invents a serum to "improve" humankind by granting the proportionate strength of an ant and the leaping ability of the grasshopper. The scientist injects his pregnant wife with the serum and his son, Hugo, is born with superhuman strength, speed, and bulletproof skin. Hugo spends much of the novel hiding his powers, rarely getting a chance to openly use them. The novel is widely assumed to have been an inspiration for Superman, though no confirmation exists that Superman creators Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster were influenced by it. The novel was made into a comedy movie in 1938 starring Joe E. Brown and released only two months after Superman first appeared on newsstands. [Source: Wikipedia]
Avon reprinted the novel in 1957 with a new cover:
www.flickr.com/photos/57440551@N03/14451759584/in/set-721...
SAN FRANCISCO, CA - May 18 - Maria Aguirre, Claire Baki, Amanda Calvert and Jamie Chan attend CommonSpirit's Humankindness Gala 2023 on May 18th 2023 at San Francisco in San Francisco, CA (Photo - Drew Altizer Photography)
Taken in 2010.
An ad on the old elevator structure for the Harvard Square subway station in Cambridge touts three centimeters (1.2 inches) of foam in a glass of Stella Artois beer. The sign set up by the homeless guy on the left reads, "Seeking human kindness."
The Damanhur, Temples Of Humankind, a gorgeous series of underground temples in northern Italy.
www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/worldnews.ht...
"History of the Humankind" by Carlos Rodriguez was painted in 1969, and clearly depicts the triumph of the communists in Russia as the apogee of the whole history of humanity! The creative intelligentsia in Latin America was overwhelmingly supportive of the extreme left ideas and the USSR throughout the XX century, long after most of their counterparts in Europe either abandoned such a stance, or at least became critical of the Communist policies.
"История Человечества" написанная Карлосом Родригесом в 1969 г. показывает триумф коммунистов в Советском Союзе как апогей всей истории! Творческая интеллигенция в Латинской Америке в течение ХХ века поддерживала левые идеи в целом и СССР в частности, несмотря на то что творческий класс на Западе или отмежевался от левых, или по крайней мере стал критически рассматривать политику коммунистов.
SAN FRANCISCO, CA - May 18 - Dawn Bui and Kieu Tran attend CommonSpirit's Humankindness Gala 2023 on May 18th 2023 at San Francisco in San Francisco, CA (Photo - Devlin Shand for Drew Altizer Photography)
James Cunningham Seawall Race 2009
photos by Ron Sombilon Gallery
JAMES CUNNINGHAM (1873 to 1963)
James Cunningham was a Scottish Immigrant who was passionate about the Seawall. He was a master stonemason who coordinated the construction of the seawall for 32 of the 53 years it took to complete.
His dedication to the construction project is commemorated by a plaque in the cliff face opposite Siwash Rock.
It is in his honour that Lions Gate Road Runners originated and continues to hold the James Cunningham Seawall Race on the last Sunday of every October.
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"On Jan. 15, 2016, Wikipedia officially celebrates 15 years as the Internet’s 'free encyclopedia,' cataloging humankind’s achievements in real time [since 2001]. In that time, it has hastened the end of Microsoft’s Encarta encyclopedia and supplanted Britannica as the dominant reference work in English. While the digital landscape has changed drastically over the last decade, Wikipedia has not, and still delivers that rare site that strives for neutrality and accuracy, all with no commercial advertisements.
Each month, nearly 100,000 volunteers from around the world actively contribute content to Wikipedia so that anyone may freely read, copy or redistribute its articles.
Additionally, Wikidata, launched in 2012, was designed to help Wikipedia structure 15 years' worth of users’ text contributions into a database that allows for cross-referencing and linking to the outside world. By having precise technical descriptions of information in its database, Wikidata makes searching, filtering, and joining collections of human knowledge possible on a massive scale. It has been so successful that Google canceled its own similar project, Freebase, to throw its support to Wikidata. In its announcement, the search giant noted the superiority of the Wikimedia project as a 'community-driven effort to collect and curate structured knowledge.'
Overseeing the Wikimedia movement’s financial and legal issues is the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation, based in San Francisco, which employs some 250 employees in a variety of fundraising, outreach and engineering positions."
— Washington Post, 15 January 2016.
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Tackling the greatest challenge known to humankind. Extreme poverty is more than just a number – it is the denial of basic freedoms and human dignity. USAID fights extreme poverty around the world each day.
Explore the story via USAID’s Extreme Possibilities storytelling hub: go.usa.gov/3fpVw
Photo Credit: Morgana Wingard / USAID
The Maropeng Visitor Centre is an award-winning, world-class exhibition, focusing on the development of humans and our ancestors over the past few million years. The Cradle of Humankind region in South Africa is approximately 90 minutes' drive from the Johannesburg city centre.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maropeng_visitor_centre,_...
Ramadan (Arabic : رمضان Ramaḍān, Arabic pronunciation: [rɑmɑˈdˤɑːn] ) (also Ramadhan, Ramadaan, Ramazan) is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar , which lasts 29 to 30 days. It is the Islamic month of fasting , in which participating Muslims refrain from eating and drinking [1] and is intended to teach Muslims about patience, humility, and spirituality. Muslims fast for the sake of God (Arabic : الله, trans: Allah ) and to offer more prayer than usual. Compared to the solar calendar , the dates of Ramadan vary, moving backwards by about eleven days each year depending on the moon ; thus, a person will have fasted every day of the calendar year in 34 years' time. Muslims believe Ramadan to be an auspicious month for the revelations of God to humankind, being the month in which the first verses of the Qur'an were revealed to the Islamic prophet , Muhammad .
Contents
[hide ]
· 1 Origins of Ramadan
· 2 The Beginning of Ramadan
· 3 Practices during Ramadan
o 3.1 Fasting
o 3.2 Prayer and reading of the Qur'an
o 3.3 Iftar
o 3.4 Charity
o 3.5 Laylat al-Qadr
· 4 Eid ul-Fitr
· 5 Cultural aspects
o 5.1 Decorations
· 6 Economic aspects
· 7 See also
· 8 References
· 9 External links
[edit ] Origins of Ramadan
The word Ramadan is derived from an Arabic root rmḍ, as in words like "ramiḍa" or "ar-ramaḍ" denoting intense heat,[2] scorched ground and shortness of rations. Ramadan, as a name for the month, is of Islamic origin. Prior to Islam and the exclusion of intercalary days from the Islamic calendar, the name of the month was Natiq and the month fell in the warm season.[3] The word was thus chosen as it well represented the original climate of the month and the physiological conditions precipitated from fasting. In the Qur'an, God proclaims that "fasting has been written down (as obligatory) upon you, as it was upon those before you". According to a hadith , it might refer to the Jewish practice of fasting on Yom Kippur .[4] [5]
[edit ] The Beginning of Ramadan
Hilāl (the crescent ) is typically a day (or more) after the astronomical new moon. Since the new moon indicates the beginning of the new month, Muslims can usually safely estimate the beginning of Ramadan.[6]
There are many disagreements each year however, on when Ramadan starts. This stems from the tradition to sight the moon with the naked eye and as such there are differences for countries on opposite sides of the globe.[7] More recently however, some Muslims are leaning towards using astronomical calculations to avoid this confusion.
For the year of 1432 Hijri , the first day of Ramadan was determined to be August 1, 2011.
[edit ] Practices during Ramadan
[edit ] Fasting
Main article: Sawm
During the month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from dawn to dusk.
The month of Ramadan is the one in which the Qur'an was sent down - right Guidance to mankind, and clear signs of Guidance and Distinction of truth from falsehood. Those among you who witness it, let him fast therein. Whoever is sick or on a journey, then a number of other days. God desires ease for you, and desires not hardship. Thus may you fulfil the number of days assigned, magnify God for having guided you, and perhaps you will be thankful.
Ayah 185, Sura 2 (Al-Baqara ), translation by Tarif Khalidi see:[2] [8]
Ramadan is a time of reflecting, believing and worshiping God. Muslims are expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam and to avoid obscene and irreligious sights and sounds. Sexual intercourse among spouse is allowed after one has ended the fast. During fasting intercourse is prohibited as well as eating and drinking, one is also encouraged to resist all temptations while you are fasting. Purity of both thoughts and actions is important. The act of fasting is said to redirect the heart away from worldly activities, its purpose being to cleanse the inner soul and free it from harm. It also teaches Muslims to practice self-discipline, self-control,[9] sacrifice, and empathy for those who are less fortunate; thus encouraging actions of generosity and charity (Zakat ).[10]
Muslims should start observing the fasting ritual upon reaching the age of puberty , so long as they are healthy, sane and have no disabilities or illnesses. The elderly, the chronically ill, and the mentally ill are exempt from fasting, although the first two groups must endeavor to feed the poor in place of their missed fasting. Also exempt are pregnant women if they believe it would be harmful to them or the unborn baby, women during the period of their menstruation, and women nursing their newborns. A difference of opinion exists among Islamic scholars as to whether this last group must make up the days they miss at a later date, or feed poor people as a recompense for days missed.[11] While fasting is not considered compulsory in childhood , many children endeavour to complete as many fasts as possible as practice for later life. Lastly, those traveling (musaafir) are exempt, but must make up the days they miss.[12] More specifically, Twelver Shī‘ah define those who travel more than 14 mi (23 km) in a day as exempt.[10]
[edit ] Prayer and reading of the Qur'an
In addition to fasting, Muslims are encouraged to read the entire Qur'an. Some Muslims perform the recitation of the entire Qur'an by means of special prayers, called Tarawih , which are held in the mosques every night of the month, during which a whole section of the Qur'an (Juz' , which is 1/30 of the Qur'an) is recited. Therefore the entire Qur'an would be completed at the end of the month.
Ramadan is also a time when Muslims are to slow down from worldly affairs and focus on self-reformation, spiritual cleansing and enlightenment; this is to establish a link between themselves and God through prayer, supplication, charity, good deeds, kindness and helping others. Since it is a festival of giving and sharing, Muslims prepare special foods and buy gifts for their family and friends and for giving to the poor and needy who cannot afford it; this can involve buying new clothes, shoes and other items of need. There is also a social aspect involving the preparation of special foods and inviting people for Iftar .
[edit ] Iftar
Main article: Iftar
Iftar in Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Is Istanbul ,Turkey
Muslims all around the world will abstain from food and drink, through fasting, from dawn to sunset. At sunset, the family will gather the fast-breaking meal known as Iftar . The meal starts with the eating of a date — just as Prophet Muhammad used to do. Then it's time for the Maghrib prayer, which is the fourth of the five daily prayers, after which the main meal is served. [13]
Over time, Iftar has grown into banquet festivals. This is a time of fellowship with families, friends and surrounding communities, but may also occupy larger spaces at mosques or banquet halls, where a hundred or more may gather at a time.[14]
Most markets close down during evening prayers and the Iftar meal, but then re-open and stay open for a good part of the night. Muslims can be seen shopping, eating, spending time with their friends and family during the evening hours. In many Muslim countries, this can last late into the evening, to early morning. However, if they try to attend to business as usual, it can become a time of personal trials, fasting without coffee or water.
[edit ] Charity
Charity is very important in Islam, and even more so during Ramadhan. According to tradition, Ramadhan is a particularly blessed time to give in charity, as the reward is 700 times greater than any other time of the year. For that reason, Muslims will spend more in charity (sadaqa), and many will pay their zakat during Ramadhan, to receive the blessings (reward). In many Muslim countries, it is not uncommon to see people giving food to the poor and the homeless, and to even see large public areas for the poor to come and break their fast. It is said that if a person helps a fasting person to break their fast, then they receive a reward for that fast, without diminishing the reward that the fasting person got for their fast.
[edit ] Laylat al-Qadr
Main article: Laylat al-Qadr
Sometimes referred to as "the night of decree or measures", Laylat al-Qadr is considered the most holy night of the year.[15] Muslims believe that Laylat al-Qadr is the night in which the Qur'an was first revealed to the Prophet Muhammad . Also, it is believed to have occurred on an odd-numbered night during the last 10 days of Ramadan, either the night of the 21st, 23rd, 25th, 27th or 29th. Shiites also commemorate the attack on Imam `Ali ibn Abi Talib and his subsequent martyrdom every year on the 19th, 21st and 23rd of Ramadan.
[edit ] Eid ul-Fitr
Main article: Eid ul-Fitr
The holiday of Eid ul-Fitr (Arabic : عيد الفطر) marks the end of the fasting period of Ramadan and the first day of the following month, after another new moon has been sighted. The Eid falls after 29 or 30 days of fasting, per the lunar sighting. Eid ul-Fitr means the back to the fitrah ; usually a special celebration is made. Food is donated to the poor (Zakat al-fitr ); everyone puts on their best, usually new, clothes; and communal prayers are held in the early morning, followed by feasting and visiting relatives and friends. The prayer is two Raka'ah only, and it is sunnah muakkad [16] as opposed to the compulsory (Fard) five daily prayers. Muslims are expected to do this as an act of worship, and to thank God.
[edit ] Cultural aspects
[edit ] Decorations
Ramadan is met with various decorations throughout the streets. In Egypt , lanterns are known to be a symbol of Ramadan. They are hung across the cities of Egypt, part of an 800 year old tradition, the origin of which is said to lie in the Fatimid era where the Caliph Al-Muizz Lideenillah was greeted by people holding lanterns to celebrate his ruling. From that time lanterns were used to light mosques and houses throughout the city.
In other Muslim countries, lights are strung up in public squares, and across city streets, to add to the festivities of the month. In the West, many Muslim households have taken to decorating the inside of their homes to make Ramadhan a more special time for their children.
[edit ] Economic aspects
In Egypt, national statistics have pointed to substantial increase in consumption of food, electricity, and medications related to digestive disorders during the month of Ramadan as compared with the monthly average in the rest of the year.[17]
SAN FRANCISCO, CA - May 18 - Mike Schore and Shelly Schore attend CommonSpirit's Humankindness Gala 2023 on May 18th 2023 at San Francisco in San Francisco, CA (Photo - Drew Altizer Photography)
Looking at the wooden canopy over the Books of Remembrance in the Kellogg Bay (right) on the north side of the nave of the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. The Boardman Bay (left), also known as the Humanitarian Bay, is dedicated to those who have been servants to humankind.
The canopy was originally part of the tomb of Woodrow Wilson. Wilson died on February 3, 1924, almost three years after his second term as president ended. He was buried in a private service (per his wishes; there was no state funeral) on February 6, 1924, at the Washington National Cathedral.
Wilson's body was interred in the burial vault beneath the Bethlehem Chapel -- the only part of the cathedral constructed at that time. There are eight vaults below the chapel, four to the east and four to the west. Each vault has an upper and lower shelf. Wilson's coffin was placed on the upper shelf of the southwesternmost vault (above the body of Henry Vaughn, first architect of the cathedral). A concrete slab five inches thick, topped by a three inch thick of Alabama marble, sealed the crypt.
Directly above the body, in the chapel, was a marble sill or seat. A glass window allowed someone sitting on the sill to see out into the south corridor of the crypt level. This sill was removed, and a marble slab inscribed with Wilson's name and his date of birth and dead installed. Constantly banked with flowers, this was the "tomb" of Woodrow Wilson.
Hundreds of people visited the tomb every day. In the first year alone, more than 189,425 people had visited the chapel to see where Wilson was buried.
It quickly became apparent that a larger memorial was needed. By May or June 1924, Mrs. Edith Wilson was consulting architects and designers about a larger tomb. The architectural firm of Cram & Ferguson designed a cenotaph (empty tomb) in the shape of a sarcophagus. The Wilson family chose a crusader's sword as the only emblem to be worked into the concave lid of the cenotaph, with only Wilson's name, date of birth, and date of death inscribed into the lid. The sides of the cenotaph were plainly decorated with plinths. The cenotaph was carved in Boston, and cenotaph was quietly emplace without fanfare in November 1924.
Above the cenotaph was a richly carved wooden canopy. The words "I am the resurrection and the life, saith the Lord" were carved into the front of the canopy, and its major design elements incorporated thistles (a nod to Wilson's Scottish heritage). A black wrought-iron grille sealed off the cenotaph from the public.
In 1951, Wilson's grandson, Francis B. Sayre, Jr., was named Dean of the National Cathedral. Sayre's goal was to complete the cathedral, whose construction had stalled for decades. By 1956, the walls of the nave had gone up and been roofed over. Since Wilson's entombment at the cathedral, the plan had been to move his body into a sarcophagus in the nave. Sayre, Mrs. Wilson, and Wilson's surviving daughter, Eleanor, chose a bay on the south side of the nave about halfway between the crossing and the narthex. Sayre himself designed the tomb, consulting with Cram & Ferguson. The cenotaph was moved from the Bethlehem Chapel to the center of the arch facing the nave. The sarcophagus now faced inward toward the bay. New ends for the sarcophagus were fabricated to fit with the low wall helping to seal off the bay from the nave. The the cenotaph's original outward face and the lid were reused. A new back of the sarcophagus also had to be constructed. This surface, which faced the nave, contained the coat of arms of the six colleges Wilson had attended.
Two niches to the right and left of the bay were also used. The Wilson family chose four inscriptions typical of Wilson's views: To the east were quotations from his first inaugural address and his "War Message" to Congress; to the west were quotations from his submissal of the Treaty of Versailles to Congress, and his final published words.
Hungarian refugee Erwin Bessanyi designed the lancet windows in the bay, which are meditations on the theme of "Peace." A two foot wide bronze medallion depicting the Great Seal of the President of the United States was laid into the floor of the bay. Originally, three
historic flags stood in the niches to either side of the bay: the U.S. flag carried by the first detachment of troops to reach London in 1917, and the U.S. flags presented to Wilson at his inaugurals in 1913 and 1917.
The new sarcophagus cost $150,000, paid for by the Wilson family and admirers of the ex-president.
The Wilson Bay was dedicated on November 11, 1956 -- the 100th anniversary of Woodrow Wilson's birth. His body was moved from the burial vault to the new sarcophagus. His good friend, Bernard Baruch, was the keynote speaker at the event. Former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt read from "Pilgrim's Progress."
Today, the Wilson Bay is almost unchanged. However, the flags have been replaced with modern nylon flags. The three flags now depict the current flag of the United States, the Presidential Flag of the United States (which depicts the Great Seal of the President on a blue background), and the flag of Princeton University.
Ramadan (Arabic : رمضان Ramaḍān, Arabic pronunciation: [rɑmɑˈdˤɑːn] ) (also Ramadhan, Ramadaan, Ramazan) is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar , which lasts 29 to 30 days. It is the Islamic month of fasting , in which participating Muslims refrain from eating and drinking [1] and is intended to teach Muslims about patience, humility, and spirituality. Muslims fast for the sake of God (Arabic : الله, trans: Allah ) and to offer more prayer than usual. Compared to the solar calendar , the dates of Ramadan vary, moving backwards by about eleven days each year depending on the moon ; thus, a person will have fasted every day of the calendar year in 34 years' time. Muslims believe Ramadan to be an auspicious month for the revelations of God to humankind, being the month in which the first verses of the Qur'an were revealed to the Islamic prophet , Muhammad .
Contents
[hide ]
· 1 Origins of Ramadan
· 2 The Beginning of Ramadan
· 3 Practices during Ramadan
o 3.1 Fasting
o 3.2 Prayer and reading of the Qur'an
o 3.3 Iftar
o 3.4 Charity
o 3.5 Laylat al-Qadr
· 4 Eid ul-Fitr
· 5 Cultural aspects
o 5.1 Decorations
· 6 Economic aspects
· 7 See also
· 8 References
· 9 External links
[edit ] Origins of Ramadan
The word Ramadan is derived from an Arabic root rmḍ, as in words like "ramiḍa" or "ar-ramaḍ" denoting intense heat,[2] scorched ground and shortness of rations. Ramadan, as a name for the month, is of Islamic origin. Prior to Islam and the exclusion of intercalary days from the Islamic calendar, the name of the month was Natiq and the month fell in the warm season.[3] The word was thus chosen as it well represented the original climate of the month and the physiological conditions precipitated from fasting. In the Qur'an, God proclaims that "fasting has been written down (as obligatory) upon you, as it was upon those before you". According to a hadith , it might refer to the Jewish practice of fasting on Yom Kippur .[4] [5]
[edit ] The Beginning of Ramadan
Hilāl (the crescent ) is typically a day (or more) after the astronomical new moon. Since the new moon indicates the beginning of the new month, Muslims can usually safely estimate the beginning of Ramadan.[6]
There are many disagreements each year however, on when Ramadan starts. This stems from the tradition to sight the moon with the naked eye and as such there are differences for countries on opposite sides of the globe.[7] More recently however, some Muslims are leaning towards using astronomical calculations to avoid this confusion.
For the year of 1432 Hijri , the first day of Ramadan was determined to be August 1, 2011.
[edit ] Practices during Ramadan
[edit ] Fasting
Main article: Sawm
During the month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from dawn to dusk.
The month of Ramadan is the one in which the Qur'an was sent down - right Guidance to mankind, and clear signs of Guidance and Distinction of truth from falsehood. Those among you who witness it, let him fast therein. Whoever is sick or on a journey, then a number of other days. God desires ease for you, and desires not hardship. Thus may you fulfil the number of days assigned, magnify God for having guided you, and perhaps you will be thankful.
Ayah 185, Sura 2 (Al-Baqara ), translation by Tarif Khalidi see:[2] [8]
Ramadan is a time of reflecting, believing and worshiping God. Muslims are expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam and to avoid obscene and irreligious sights and sounds. Sexual intercourse among spouse is allowed after one has ended the fast. During fasting intercourse is prohibited as well as eating and drinking, one is also encouraged to resist all temptations while you are fasting. Purity of both thoughts and actions is important. The act of fasting is said to redirect the heart away from worldly activities, its purpose being to cleanse the inner soul and free it from harm. It also teaches Muslims to practice self-discipline, self-control,[9] sacrifice, and empathy for those who are less fortunate; thus encouraging actions of generosity and charity (Zakat ).[10]
Muslims should start observing the fasting ritual upon reaching the age of puberty , so long as they are healthy, sane and have no disabilities or illnesses. The elderly, the chronically ill, and the mentally ill are exempt from fasting, although the first two groups must endeavor to feed the poor in place of their missed fasting. Also exempt are pregnant women if they believe it would be harmful to them or the unborn baby, women during the period of their menstruation, and women nursing their newborns. A difference of opinion exists among Islamic scholars as to whether this last group must make up the days they miss at a later date, or feed poor people as a recompense for days missed.[11] While fasting is not considered compulsory in childhood , many children endeavour to complete as many fasts as possible as practice for later life. Lastly, those traveling (musaafir) are exempt, but must make up the days they miss.[12] More specifically, Twelver Shī‘ah define those who travel more than 14 mi (23 km) in a day as exempt.[10]
[edit ] Prayer and reading of the Qur'an
In addition to fasting, Muslims are encouraged to read the entire Qur'an. Some Muslims perform the recitation of the entire Qur'an by means of special prayers, called Tarawih , which are held in the mosques every night of the month, during which a whole section of the Qur'an (Juz' , which is 1/30 of the Qur'an) is recited. Therefore the entire Qur'an would be completed at the end of the month.
Ramadan is also a time when Muslims are to slow down from worldly affairs and focus on self-reformation, spiritual cleansing and enlightenment; this is to establish a link between themselves and God through prayer, supplication, charity, good deeds, kindness and helping others. Since it is a festival of giving and sharing, Muslims prepare special foods and buy gifts for their family and friends and for giving to the poor and needy who cannot afford it; this can involve buying new clothes, shoes and other items of need. There is also a social aspect involving the preparation of special foods and inviting people for Iftar .
[edit ] Iftar
Main article: Iftar
Iftar in Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Is Istanbul ,Turkey
Muslims all around the world will abstain from food and drink, through fasting, from dawn to sunset. At sunset, the family will gather the fast-breaking meal known as Iftar . The meal starts with the eating of a date — just as Prophet Muhammad used to do. Then it's time for the Maghrib prayer, which is the fourth of the five daily prayers, after which the main meal is served. [13]
Over time, Iftar has grown into banquet festivals. This is a time of fellowship with families, friends and surrounding communities, but may also occupy larger spaces at mosques or banquet halls, where a hundred or more may gather at a time.[14]
Most markets close down during evening prayers and the Iftar meal, but then re-open and stay open for a good part of the night. Muslims can be seen shopping, eating, spending time with their friends and family during the evening hours. In many Muslim countries, this can last late into the evening, to early morning. However, if they try to attend to business as usual, it can become a time of personal trials, fasting without coffee or water.
[edit ] Charity
Charity is very important in Islam, and even more so during Ramadhan. According to tradition, Ramadhan is a particularly blessed time to give in charity, as the reward is 700 times greater than any other time of the year. For that reason, Muslims will spend more in charity (sadaqa), and many will pay their zakat during Ramadhan, to receive the blessings (reward). In many Muslim countries, it is not uncommon to see people giving food to the poor and the homeless, and to even see large public areas for the poor to come and break their fast. It is said that if a person helps a fasting person to break their fast, then they receive a reward for that fast, without diminishing the reward that the fasting person got for their fast.
[edit ] Laylat al-Qadr
Main article: Laylat al-Qadr
Sometimes referred to as "the night of decree or measures", Laylat al-Qadr is considered the most holy night of the year.[15] Muslims believe that Laylat al-Qadr is the night in which the Qur'an was first revealed to the Prophet Muhammad . Also, it is believed to have occurred on an odd-numbered night during the last 10 days of Ramadan, either the night of the 21st, 23rd, 25th, 27th or 29th. Shiites also commemorate the attack on Imam `Ali ibn Abi Talib and his subsequent martyrdom every year on the 19th, 21st and 23rd of Ramadan.
[edit ] Eid ul-Fitr
Main article: Eid ul-Fitr
The holiday of Eid ul-Fitr (Arabic : عيد الفطر) marks the end of the fasting period of Ramadan and the first day of the following month, after another new moon has been sighted. The Eid falls after 29 or 30 days of fasting, per the lunar sighting. Eid ul-Fitr means the back to the fitrah ; usually a special celebration is made. Food is donated to the poor (Zakat al-fitr ); everyone puts on their best, usually new, clothes; and communal prayers are held in the early morning, followed by feasting and visiting relatives and friends. The prayer is two Raka'ah only, and it is sunnah muakkad [16] as opposed to the compulsory (Fard) five daily prayers. Muslims are expected to do this as an act of worship, and to thank God.
[edit ] Cultural aspects
[edit ] Decorations
Ramadan is met with various decorations throughout the streets. In Egypt , lanterns are known to be a symbol of Ramadan. They are hung across the cities of Egypt, part of an 800 year old tradition, the origin of which is said to lie in the Fatimid era where the Caliph Al-Muizz Lideenillah was greeted by people holding lanterns to celebrate his ruling. From that time lanterns were used to light mosques and houses throughout the city.
In other Muslim countries, lights are strung up in public squares, and across city streets, to add to the festivities of the month. In the West, many Muslim households have taken to decorating the inside of their homes to make Ramadhan a more special time for their children.
[edit ] Economic aspects
In Egypt, national statistics have pointed to substantial increase in consumption of food, electricity, and medications related to digestive disorders during the month of Ramadan as compared with the monthly average in the rest of the year.[17]