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When we moved to the mountains of NC in 2019, I didn't realize how cool a place it would be for lichens. If these lichens were 1 foot tall, everyone would want them as decorative plants. As it is, they are there for those who look.
In the riverbed of the Rivière de Galets on the way from Roche Plate to Marla.
Im Flußbett des Rivière de Galets auf dem Weg von Roche Plate nach Marla.
The Cirque de Mafate is a caldera on Réunion Island (France; located in the Indian Ocean). It was formed from the collapse of the large shield volcano the Piton des Neiges.
The very remote and inaccessible cirque was settled in the 19th century by maroon slaves (i.e. slaves who had escaped from their masters), then later by poor white laborers. It owes its name to one maroon leader.
The cirque is entirely enclosed by mountains, especially tall cliffs, known as remparts, save for the sole river exiting, the Rivière des Galets ("river of the pebbles"). Inside the cirque, there are considerable declivities. The îlets are pieces of more-or-less flat lands, on which the hamlets are located.
The name "Mafate" comes from the Malagasy word "Mahafaty", which means lethal, an allusion to the difficulty for accessing the Cirque.
The cirque has one village, La Nouvelle, and several hamlets: Marla, Roche-Plate, the Îlet-aux-Orangers, etc.
The Cirque is entirely public property, managed by the Forestry service, from which the inhabitants rent inexpensive concessions.
There is no main electrical supply. Inhabitants thus produce their own electricity using solar panels (with battery storage), and occasionally diesel generators. However, fuel for the latter must be brought by helicopter at high cost. Because of the reduced available power supply, inhabitants systematically use low-consumption (fluorescent) light bulbs.
Similarly, all inhabitants use solar water heaters. These can be supplemented by gas-powered heaters — but gas canisters must also be brought by helicopter.
La Nouvelle and hamlets have grocery stores where staples can be bought from. Typically, these stores also provide some limited bar and restaurant services (hot coffee and local fast food, such as samosas).
Many inhabitants have opened gîtes (dormitories, WC and showers) where hikers can stay for the night, and often dine, for a fee.
La Nouvelle and several of the hamlets have elementary schools. In 2005, the school at Marla reopened with 6 pupils after being closed for an insufficient number of schoolchildren. There are no secondary nor higher education facilities.
There are several dispensaries between which a few nurses rotate, as well as scheduled visits of a physician, but no permanent health care facilities. All emergencies have to be evacuated by helicopter. There is no Gendarmerie station
One originality of Mafate is that there are no roads. Because of this, it is a major attraction for hikers willing to experience some unspoiled nature, while still benefiting from grocery stores and other amenities. For this reason, with the impending creation of a national park on the heights of Réunion, it seems very unlikely that roads would be ever built.
All access, including for supplies, is by foot or helicopter. There are a number of footpaths for accessing the cirque, among which:
By the Col des Bœufs ("pass of the oxen"), from the Cirque de Salazie, leading to La Nouvelle. This way is the easiest, since there is a forestry road leading to parking lots at the pass.
By the Col du Taïbit from the Cirque de Cilaos.
By the Canalisation des Orangers on the heights of Saint Paul (Réunion).
(Wikipedia)
Der Cirque de Mafate im französischen Übersee-Département Réunion ist die nordwestliche Caldera des Piton des Neiges. Der Talkessel, der größtenteils auf dem Gemeindegebiet von La Possession liegt, erstreckt sich in Nord-Süd-Richtung über etwa zehn Kilometer und in Ost-West-Richtung über etwa fünf Kilometer. Vom Gipfel Grand Bénare fallen die fast senkrechten Felswände über rund 1600 m ab. Der Cirque de Mafate ist die isolierteste Caldera in der Region, die nur zu Fuß oder per Hubschrauber zu erreichen ist. Die Versorgung der lokalen Ortschaften erfolgt heute hauptsächlich durch Hubschrauber, bis vor wenigen Jahren noch in hohen Maße zu Fuß, meistens über den Pass Col des Bœufs (1956 m), der auf einer gut ausgebauten Forststraße vom Cirque de Salazie erreicht werden kann.
Seit August 2010 gehören neben dem Cirque de Mafate auch noch der Cirque de Salazie, der Cirque de Cilaos und der alles überragende Vulkan Piton des Neiges, die alle im Nationalpark Réunion liegen, unter dem Titel Pitons, cirques et remparts de l’île de La Réunion (dt: Gipfel, Talkessel und Steilhänge der Insel Réunion) zum UNESCO-Weltnaturerbe.
(Wikipedia)
La Torre del Oro de Sevilla es una torre albarrana situada en el margen izquierdo del río Guadalquivir, en la ciudad de Sevilla, comunidad autónoma de Andalucía, España, junto a la plaza de toros de la Maestranza. Su altura es de 36 metros. Posiblemente su nombre en árabe era Bury al-dahab, Borg al Azahar, o Borg-al-Azaja en referencia a su brillo dorado que se reflejaba sobre el río. Durante las obras de restauración de 2005, se demostró que este brillo, que hasta entonces una falsa leyenda atribuía a un revestimiento de azulejos, era debido a una mezcla de mortero de cal y paja prensada.
Es una torre formada por tres cuerpos, El primer cuerpo, dodecagonal, fue construido entre 1220 y 1221 por orden del gobernador almohade de Sevilla, Abù l-Ulà. En cuanto al segundo cuerpo, también dodecagonal fue mandado construir por Pedro I el cruel en el siglo XIV, una hipótesis que ha quedado confirmada por los estudios arqueológicos. Por último el cuerpo superior, cilíndrico y rematado en cúpula dorada, fue construido en 1760 por el ingeniero militar Sebastián Van der Borcht tras el terremoto de Lisboa de 1755.
Fue declarada monumento histórico-artístico en 1931 y ha sido restaurada varias veces. En la Edad Contemporánea fue restaurada en 1900, entre 1991 y 1992, en 1995 y en 2005. En su conservación ha sido importante la labor de la Armada. Se encuentra en buen estado de conservación y alberga el Museo Naval de Sevilla.
Comienza su construcción el 30 de marzo de 1220, siendo terminada el 24 de febrero de 1221, casi un año después. Con su construcción se dio por completado el sistema defensivo de la ciudad almohade y fue el punto más importante, ya que defendía al puerto. Fue construida por orden del gobernador almohade de Sevilla, Abù l-Ulà. Cerraba el paso al Arenal mediante un tramo de muralla que la unía con la Torre de la Plata y a través de la actual calle Santander con la Torre de Abd el Aziz o Torre de Santo Tomás, y de allí al Alcázar. Formando parte de las murallas de Sevilla que defendían la ciudad y el Real Alcázar.
En cuanto a la cimentación de la torre, esta consiste en una losa de hormigón de cal con un espesor de unos 5 m. (desde la cota +3m. a la cota -2m.). Dicha cimentación se apoya sobre un terreno blando, pues es una zona aluvial muy cercana al propio río por lo que en su cimentación se añadió madera de pino para darle mayor consistencia. Además de estos 5 metros de cimentación iniciales, en 1760 tras las obras de restauración efectuadas por los desperfectos que ocasionó el llamado terremoto de Lisboa, se macizó como cimentación la planta baja de la torre, lo que supone un aumento de 6 metros. Por ello, actualmente la Torre del Oro cuenta con unos 11 metros de cimentación.
Existe una tradición que dice que, se extendió desde su basamento una gruesa cadena sobre el río hasta otra torre ubicada en la actual calle Fortaleza, situada al otro lado del río, en el actual barrio de Triana; dicha leyenda es falsa ya que la La calle Fortaleza en la orilla de Triana recibe ese nombre en el s. XIX, anteriormente denominada calle Limones, por otro lado y con más acierto, en las Crónicas realizadas por Alfonso X el Sabio, donde describe al detalle la toma de la ciudad de Sevilla, solo se menciona una cadena, la que sujetaba el conjunto de barcas que formaba el puente que unía la orilla de Sevilla y la de Triana, que unía además la ciudad con el castillo, conocido posteriormente como Castillo de San Jorge, en la orilla de Triana.
La flota castellana mandada por el almirante Ramón de Bonifaz, que en dos ocasiones los documentos de la época lo definen como un "ome de Burgos" y "un burgalés de Burgos", rompió el puente en 1248 remontando el río, mientras las tropas de Fernando III de Castilla sitiaban la ciudad. Este pasaje histórico protagonizado por marinos asturianos y cántabros al servicio de la marina castellana quedó inmortalizado en los escudos de Avilés y de las Cuatro Villas de la Costa de Cantabria (Laredo, Castro-Urdiales, Santander y San Vicente de la Barquera) y fue posteriormente incorporado al escudo de Cantabria. En ellos se representa la Torre del Oro y un barco junto a las cadenas rotas.
Tras ser conquistada, se utilizó como capilla dedicada a San Isidoro de Sevilla. Después se utilizó como prisión.
Se llamó Torre del Oro desde la época almohade, el propio Alfonso X cuando narra la conquista de Sevilla ya la nombra como Torre del Oro, claramente por el brillo producto del mortero de cal y paja prensada que presentaba.
A pesar de ello, existen varias teorías sobre el nombre del edificio, todas leyendas sin ninguna prueba consistente y por tanto falsas. Muestra de estas leyendas falsas son, por un lado, en el siglo XVI, un cronista llamado Luis de Peraza dice que la torre se encontraba cubierta de azulejos que brillaban con la luz del Sol. El mismo cronista añade que el rey Pedro I guardó en la torre tesoros de oro y plata, cabe destacar que esta es una de las leyendas más destacada y conocida. Pedro López de Ayala también habla de que en dicha torre Pedro I guardaba tesoros en monedas de oro y plata. Dada la proximidad de la torre al Muelle de la Aduana durante la conquista de América es habitual decir que se llamaba así porque en ella se almacenaba el oro de América, pero el oro se guardaba en una estancia de la Casa de la Contratación (Cuarto del Tesoro) y era procesado en la Casa de la Moneda, a varios metros de allí.
En el siglo XVI presentaba un estado ruinoso, por lo que se realizó una obra de consolidación. La torre fue dañada gravemente por el terremoto de Lisboa de 1755, tras lo cual el Marqués de Monte Real propuso su demolición para ensanchar el paseo de coches de caballos y hacer más recto el acceso al puente de Triana; sin embargo, ese proyecto no llegó a realizarse por la oposición del pueblo de Sevilla, que llegaron a anunciárselo al rey, quien intervino. En 1760 se arreglaron los desperfectos macizando la planta inferior de la torre, reforzándola con escombros y mortero, y dejando la puerta del paso de ronda de la muralla como puerta de acceso principal. Ese mismo año se construyó el cuerpo cilíndrico superior, obra del ingeniero militar Sebastián Van der Borcht, artífice también de la Real Fábrica de Tabacos de Sevilla. Estas obras cambiaron el aspecto de la torre respecto al que puede observarse en grabados.
La Revolución de 1868 fue otro momento crítico para la torre, pues los revolucionarios demolieron los lienzos de las murallas y los pusieron en venta, pero la oposición de los hispalenses logró que la torre no se destruyera.
Fue restaurada en 1900 por el ingeniero Carlos Halcón. El 10 de abril de 1923 la torre fue visitada por Alfonso XIII. El 21 de marzo de 1936 se dispuso la instalación en la torre el Museo Marítimo por orden del Ministerio de Marina. En septiembre de 1942 comenzaron las obras de restauración, durante las cuales se mejoraron el aspecto de la fachada y se habilitaron dos plantas para la exhibición del museo y la tercera para alojar investigadores. El 13 de agosto de 1992, en el contexto de la Exposición Universal de Sevilla, se hermanó la Torre del Oro con la Torre de Belem de Lisboa.
El museo se inauguró el 24 de julio de 1944, para lo cual se llevaron 400 piezas del Museo Naval de Madrid. El museo muestra en la actualidad (2008) diversos instrumentos antiguos de navegación y maquetas, además de documentos históricos, grabados y cartas náuticas; y relaciona de Sevilla con el río Guadalquivir y el mar. En 2005 fue nuevamente restaurada.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_del_Oro
The Torre del Oro (Arabic: بُرْج الذَّهَب burj ad̲h̲-d̲h̲ahab, English: "Tower of Gold") is a dodecagonal military watchtower in Seville, southern Spain. It was erected by the Almohad Caliphate in order to control access to Seville via the Guadalquivir river.
Constructed in the first third of the 13th century, the tower served as a prison during the Middle Ages. Its name comes from the golden shine it projected on the river, due to its building materials (a mixture of mortar, lime and pressed hay).
The tower is divided into three levels, the first level, dodecagonal, was built in 1220 by order of the Almohad governor of Seville, Abù l-Ulà; As for the second level, of only 8 meters, also dodecagonal, was built by Peter of Castile in the fourteenth century, a hypothesis that has been confirmed by archaeological studies; The third and uppermost being circular in shape was added after the previous third level, Almohad, was damaged by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Rebuilding of the third level was made by Brusselian military engineer Sebastian Van der Borcht in 1760.
The Torre de la Plata, an octagonal tower, is located nearby, and is believed to have been constructed during the same era.
It is one of two anchor points for a large chain that would have been able to block the river. The other anchor-point has since been demolished or disappeared, possibly collapsing during the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. The chain was used in the city's defense against the Castilian fleet under Ramón de Bonifaz in the 1248 Reconquista. Bonifaz broke the river defenses and isolated Seville from Triana.
The Tower of Gold was built 1220–1221, by order of the Almohad governor of Seville, Abu l-Ulà, with a twelve-sided base. It barred the way to the Arenal district with a section of wall joining it to the Tower of Silver, a part of the city walls that defended the Alcazar.
The tower was badly damaged by the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, and the Marquis of Monte Real proposed demolishing it to widen the way for horse-drawn coaches and straighten access to the bridge of Triana; however, the people of Seville objected and appealed to the king, who intervened. In 1760, the damage was repaired, with repairs to the bottom floor of the tower, reinforcement with rubble and mortar, and the creation of a new main access via the passageway to the path around the wall. That same year, the upper cylindrical body was built, a work of the military engineer Sebastian Van der Borcht, also architect of the Royal Tobacco Factory of Seville. These works changed the appearance of the tower as compared to what is seen in engravings from the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries.
The Revolution of 1868 brought another crisis to the tower as revolutionaries demolished the decorative facing of the walls and put it up for sale. Opposition from the citizens of Seville kept the tower from being destroyed, and in 1900 it was again restored, this time by engineer Carlos Halcón. On April 10, 1923, King Alfonso XIII visited the tower, and on March 21, 1936 the Maritime Museum was installed in the Tower by order of the Admiralty. In September 1942, more restoration work began. The appearance of the facade was improved, two floors were set up for museum display, and the third floor was prepared to house researchers. The museum held its grand opening on July 24, 1944, for which occasion 400 museum pieces were brought from the Naval Museum of Madrid.
On August 13, 1992, the Torre del Oro was made a brother to the Tower of Belem of Lisbon to celebrate the Universal Exposition in Seville. As of 2008 the museum displayed a variety of old navigational instruments and models, as well as historical documents, engravings, and nautical charts, relating Seville to the Guadalquivir River and the sea. The tower was again restored in 2005.
Henry Moore - Form and Material - Museum Beelden aan Zee - The Hague
In collaboration with the Henry Moore Foundation, Museum Beelden aan Zee has made a selection of works from the artist's substantial oeuvre. Around 70 objects and sculptures portray the artistic vision and creative process of one of the most important innovators of modern sculpture. The exhibition in Beelden aan Zee focuses on the influence of nature on his work and his growth and development as a sculptor. From promoting direct carving – carving without using preparatory sketches and studies – to experimenting with casting in lead and bronze. Henry Moore (1898-1986) is one of the most important British artists of the twentieth century. His sculptures balance on the boundary between figurative and abstract art and continue to be a source of inspiration to artists. His work has a recognisable and characteristic formal language. Important themes in his oeuvre are ‘mother and child’ and his reclining figures, which he explored extensively.
From the 1920s, Moore participated in countless British and international exhibitions, with solo as well as group exhibitions, he sold work on a regular basis, and so made a name for himself as an important modernist sculptor. However, the Second World War called a halt to these positive developments. Henry Moore left his teaching post and took up a commission as a war artist. It was in this capacity that he produced his deeply moving Shelter Drawings of Londoners crowding the city's underground stations sheltering from the Blitz. In the 1950s he created larger groups of figures. The prices for his works increased considerably and his fame as an international artist continued to grow. In later years he served as a trustee at both the Tate Gallery and the National Gallery and he was the recipient of a large number of prizes and honours.
El Museo Lázaro Galdiano, en Madrid (España), es un museo estatal de origen privado, que alberga una amplia y heterogénea colección, formada con interés enciclopédico hacia todas las artes y técnicas. Este excepcional conjunto, constituido por más de 12 600 piezas, fue reunido por el coleccionista y editor José Lázaro Galdiano, quien al morir en 1947 lo legó al Estado español junto con su residencia madrileña, la sede de su editorial La España Moderna y una biblioteca de 20 000 volúmenes.
Tras crearse la Fundación Lázaro Galdiano y adaptarse como museo la antigua residencia del donante (Parque Florido, en el barrio de Salamanca de Madrid), la colección se presentó al público el 27 de enero de 1951. Desde entonces su prestigio entre los entendidos se ha extendido ampliamente, y sus fondos se consideran indispensables para estudiar muchos aspectos de la historia del arte, por lo que participan en exposiciones tanto españolas como internacionales.
Entre sus obras de arte más valiosas destaca el conjunto de pinturas, dibujos y grabados de Goya, con piezas mundialmente conocidas como El aquelarre o Las brujas, encargadas por los duques de Osuna (1797-1798). También hay que citar ejemplos relevantes de El Bosco, Lucas Cranach el Viejo, El Greco, Murillo, Zurbarán, Claudio Coello, Luis Paret o Federico de Madrazo, así como una miniatura en pergamino de Giulio Clovio y dos bronces de Giambologna. Pero posiblemente la obra más singular del museo es la pintura sobre tabla El Salvador joven, realizada en el taller de Leonardo da Vinci a partir de un diseño perdido del maestro.
Posee además un pequeño conjunto de pintura británica, una escuela muy poco frecuente en España; de hecho el Museo Lázaro Galdiano y el Prado eran (hasta la apertura del Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza) los dos únicos museos españoles con una colección significativa. Incluye ejemplos de Lely (el único del siglo XVII, los demás son del XVIII), Constable, Reynolds y Romney, a los que se suma un retrato del estadounidense Gilbert Stuart.
El museo fue reformado íntegramente entre los años 2001 y 2004 para poder conservar adecuadamente sus fondos y hacer la visita más cómoda y centrada en las piezas de máxima calidad. Hay abiertas al público cuatro plantas, enteramente remozadas respetando los techos y carpinterías originales.
Colecciones
Pintura
El Salvador joven, cuadro del círculo de Leonardo da Vinci, atribuido actualmente a Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio o Marco d'Oggiono.
Especialmente valiosa es la colección de pintura, que incluye piezas relevantes de grandes maestros españoles y europeos entre los siglos XV y XIX. Un metódico estudio de la colección ha ido cribando las atribuciones más dudosas, lo que supuso descartar varias llamativas, como la de un Salvador joven que en vida de Lázaro Galdiano se asignaba a Leonardo da Vinci. Aunque no sea original suyo, es muy relevante y ahora algunos expertos lo atribuyen a un pintor próximo a él, como Boltraffio (atribución que figura en la cartela explicativa de la obra en el Museo) o Marco d'Oggiono, a quien se adjudicaba en la exposición «Leonardo da Vinci: pintor en la corte de Milán» para la que en otoño de 2011 fue prestada a la National Gallery de Londres. También se han barajado los nombres de Pseudo Boltraffio (pintor activo en Milán a principios del siglo XVI) y Ambrogio de Predis. Es la mejor obra leonardesca conservada en España y su alta calidad hace que sea muy demandada para exposiciones en otras instituciones, como la mencionada en la National Gallery o la que en tres sedes (Mantua, Padua y Verona), se celebró en Italia sobre Andrea Mantegna y su época (Palacio del Té, Mantua, noviembre de 2006 a enero de 2007).
La pintura medieval española cuenta con un nutrido repertorio, con varias obras de referencia. Un Autorretrato de Pedro Berruguete sigue recibiendo opiniones divergentes de los críticos respecto a su autoría. Lo superan varias tablas que Lázaro reunió a bajo precio cuando eran despreciadas como «arte bárbaro». Fue una faceta coleccionista que le acarreó críticas, trocadas en elogios décadas después, cuando el arte medieval español fue cobrando estimación. Algún experto afirmó entonces que en esta parcela del arte, la Colección Lázaro Galdiano aventajaba al Prado. En la actualidad exhibe obras de artistas tan renombrados como Miguel Ximénez, Diego de la Cruz, García del Barco, Juan de Soreda, Bartolomé de Castro, Maestro de Astorga, un tríptico firmado por Juan de Sevilla o la famosa Virgen de Mosén Esperandeu de Santa Fe de Blasco de Grañén, único ejemplo del autor conservado en un museo madrileño.
Pinturas importantes de la escuela española del siglo XVI son un Retrato de doña Ana de Austria de Sánchez Coello, y dos obras de El Greco: una Adoración de los Reyes Magos de su etapa veneciana y un San Francisco en éxtasis de su primera etapa toledana. Puede verse además un Noli me tangere pintado por su hijo Jorge Manuel Theotocópuli. También entraña interés una Sagrada Familia de marcado gusto italianizante, debida a Gregorio Martínez (activo en 1565-1598).
Se atribuye a Velázquez una pequeña Cabeza de muchacha de perfil, y el museo dispone además de una buena copia del famoso Retrato de Luis de Góngora cuyo original se conserva en el museo de Boston.
La pintura española del siglo XVII cuenta con más ejemplos: La condesa de Monterrey de Juan Carreño de Miranda, un magnífico San Diego de Alcalá de Zurbarán, Santa Rosa de Lima de Murillo, y ejemplos de Claudio Coello, Mateo Cerezo, Juan Martín Cabezalero, Alonso del Arco, Francisco de Solís, Antonio de Pereda, José Antolínez, Francisco Rizi...
De los siglos XVIII y XIX, destacan: la famosa Tienda de Geniani de Paret, y autores como Miguel Jacinto Meléndez, Joaquín Inza, Ramón Bayeu (Autorretrato), Mariano Salvador Maella, José del Castillo, Agustín Esteve, Zacarías González Velázquez, Luis Eusebi (dos aguadas de tema alegórico), Alenza, Eugenio Lucas Velázquez, su hijo Eugenio Lucas Villaamil, Vicente López, Antonio María Esquivel (Autorretrato), Juan Antonio Ribera (Retrato del escultor Antonio Solá), Ricardo Balaca, Valeriano Domínguez Bécquer, Francisco Lameyer, Emilio Sala y Francés, y los Madrazo: José (El Papa Pío VII),[4] sus hijos Federico (Retrato de Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda, Retrato de señora) y Luis (La marquesita de Roncali), y Ricardo, hijo de Federico (Retrato de Consuelo Gaztambide Aguader).
El grupo de obras de Goya bastaría por sí solo para abrir un pequeño museo monográfico. Entre las siete pinturas reconocidas como autógrafas destacan: Las brujas y El aquelarre de 1798, un Entierro de Cristo pintado para el oratorio privado de los Condes de Sobradiel en Zaragoza y una Magdalena penitente de su etapa juvenil. También posee el pequeño lienzo La trilla, modelo reducido para el famoso cartón de tapiz La era (Museo del Prado), así como grabados de todas las series del autor —con numerosas pruebas de estado—, además de dibujos o cartas autógrafas.
De las escuelas extranjeras destaca la Flamenca y de los Países Bajos, con cuatro tablas de Adriaen Isenbrandt, una interesante Virgen con el niño de Gérard David, antaño creída del denominado Maestro del Follaje Dorado, así como una de las pocas pinturas atribuidas a Michel Sittow (La Virgen con el Niño y san Bernardo) y diversas obras de Hans Memling y Quentin Massys. Hay también retratos de Antonio Moro (El rey Juan III de Portugal), así como los creídos de Joos Van Cleve y Bernard Van Orley. Dentro de la época barroca se pueden destacar El archiduque Leopoldo Guillermo en su gabinete de pinturas de David Teniers el Joven, una tabla sobre El jardín del Edén de Jan Brueghel el Joven, una gran Virgen con el Niño de Erasmus Quellinus II y un bodegón de Pieter Boel. En 2018 se ha presentado la nueva atribución a Michaelina Wautier de un San Juan Bautista antes creído de Juan Martín Cabezalero; de ser cierta tal autoría, ha de ser el único ejemplo conocido de Wautier en España. Un Retrato de Saskia atribuido antaño a Rembrandt se descartó como copia, aunque el museo guarda un valioso conjunto de cincuenta grabados del artista (expuestos temporalmente en 2018),[5] un San Jerónimo caravaggiesco de Hendrick van Somer y tres efigies femeninas de la Holanda barroca pintadas por Nicolaes Maes, Justus van Egmont y Ludolf de Jongh.
Mención aparte merece El Bosco, con tres ejemplos: un San Juan Bautista en meditación reconocido unánimemente como original del maestro, que figuró como tal en la exposición antológica que el Prado le dedicó en 2016; una gran Coronación de espinas (h. 1516), considerada obra de un seguidor, previa a las versiones más conocidas de El Escorial y del Museo San Pío V de Valencia; y La visión de Tondal, considerada obra de taller.
La pintura italiana incluye una Sagrada Familia de Giulio Clovio (miniatura realizada con destino al rey Carlos I de España), Cabeza de san Juan Bautista de Marco Palmezzano, un monumental Bautismo de Cristo atribuido a Orazio Samacchini, una Estigmatización de San Francisco de Asís de Jacopo da Empoli, dos lienzos de Giuseppe Marullo y Pacecco de Rosa, y el espléndido San Lorenzo de Bernardo Cavallino, obra maestra del autor napolitano (para la colección de pintura barroca italiana, puede consultarse Anexo:Pintura italiana del Barroco en las colecciones públicas madrileñas). Hay también maestros del siglo XVIII como Alessandro Magnasco, Gregorio de Ferrari, y Lorenzo Tiepolo, del cual hay una gran representación de retratos masculinos y femeninos.
Relativamente numerosa es la representación de la pintura británica, muy escasa en España, con obras de Lely, Reynolds, Constable, Romney, etc. Su presencia en la colección se debe al gusto personal de la esposa de Lázaro Galdiano, la argentina Paula Florido y Toledo (1856-1932). La mayoría de estas obras se adquirieron en la primera década del siglo XX en la Galerie Sedelmeyer de París. Hay que citar también la tabla El niño Jesús y san Juanito de Lucas Cranach el Viejo y un Calvario atribuido a su hijo, Lucas Cranach el Joven, así como un Retrato de hombre de Ulrich Apt antiguamente atribuido a Hans von Kulmbach, una efigie de Carlos III pintada por Mengs y una escena alegórica atribuida al francés Charles-François de la Traverse.
Destaca también la rica colección de iluminaciones o miniaturas pintadas, que rivaliza con la del Prado; entre ellas se incluye la ya citada de Clovio y de Giovanni Castello y Juan de Salazar. También hay que mencionar un retrato de George Washington, basado en un famoso retrato de Gilbert Stuart, y otra efigie del I duque de Fernán-Núñez pintada por Jean-Baptiste Isabey.
Escultura y artes decorativas El fondo de esculturas es más reducido, si bien cuenta con piezas singulares como un Cristo atado a la columna del italiano Michelangelo Naccherino, estatua de cuerpo entero esculpida en mármol a tamaño natural. Se cree que pudo formar pareja con una Virgen con el Niño que actualmente preside la fachada de la iglesia de Jesús Nazareno en Cudillero. Hay que citar un busto romano de Lucio Vero del siglo II, dos Santos evangelistas fundidos por Giambologna, la llamada Madonna Cernazai, de Niccolò di Giovanni Fiorentino, que perteneció al magnate William Randolph Hearst, y esculturas en terracota de Juan de Juni (Cristo flagelado), Venancio Vallmitjana (una estatuilla de Velázquez de cuerpo entero) o del francés Carpeaux.
Los esmaltes constituyen uno de los grandes atractivos del museo. La colección cuenta con ejemplares muy valiosos y raros, desde piezas de Limoges de los siglos XIII y XVI a obras neobizantinas sobre oro del siglo XIX. Destacada es también la colección de marfiles, en la que descuellan varios cofres árabes y bizantinos, una caja para café dinastía timúrida del siglo XIV, otra gótica francesa del XIV, además de dípticos de la escuela de París y de altares medievales italianos.
Las joyas cuentan con una representación múltiple de obras helenísticas y romanas, árabes, góticas, renacentistas, barrocas y románticas. Muy importante por la diversidad de tipos es el conjunto de bronces de la Antigüedad, de la Edad Media y, en gran abundancia, italianos del Renacimiento. Igualmente son numerosas y selectas las muestras de orfebrería religiosa de todos los estilos. El fondo de medallas incluye ejemplos de Pisanello, Pompeo Leoni, Jacome da Trezzo y otros maestros del género. Se exhibe en la planta alta del museo, habilitada como almacén visitable.
Existen también valiosas piezas de cerámica, italianas y españolas de distintas épocas, así como ánforas griegas y porcelana oriental. Destacan también los tejidos antiguos, italianos y árabes, y la colección de armas con un riquísimo muestrario de espadas, presidido por el estoque que el papa Inocencio VIII regaló a Íñigo López de Mendoza y Quiñones, segundo conde de Tendilla. También se exhiben abanicos y joyas que lució la esposa de Lázaro Galdiano. Todo ello forma uno de los más importantes despliegues de artes suntuarias que se pueden contemplar en España.
En la antigua sede de la editorial La España Moderna, anexa al museo, se custodian la biblioteca y el archivo de José Lázaro Galdiano, con incunables y manuscritos de incalculable valor. Destaca el manuscrito original de Los verdaderos retratos... con efigies dibujadas por Francisco Pacheco.
El solar está dotado de exuberantes jardines, con árboles centenarios, que conforman un rincón inusual por su tranquilidad en un área tan transitada como el barrio de Salamanca.
Droplet light painting @ 100mm - 1.6 sec at f/6.3
...Planet scan --- Epsilon 3E-858
Log date: 2046 - Deep space probe scan
---sensors online---
Atmosphere: nitrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, helium
Orbit sequence: 4-RE-001100
Objective complete: Scans confirm -carbon based signatures...
photo edit-lightroom
creature sculp-zbrush
final edit-photoshop
life form by © Zack Podratz 2012
Is the vulture hovering above Austria? Could also be a turtle.
The exploitation rights for this text are the property of the Vienna Tourist Board. This text may be reprinted free of charge until further notice, even partially and in edited form. Forward sample copy to: Vienna Tourist Board, Media Management, Invalidenstraße 6, 1030 Vienna; media.rel@wien.info. All information in this text without guarantee.
Author: Andreas Nierhaus, Curator of Architecture/Wien Museum
Last updated January 2014
Architecture in Vienna
Vienna's 2,000-year history is present in a unique density in the cityscape. The layout of the center dates back to the Roman city and medieval road network. Romanesque and Gothic churches characterize the streets and squares as well as palaces and mansions of the baroque city of residence. The ring road is an expression of the modern city of the 19th century, in the 20th century extensive housing developments set accents in the outer districts. Currently, large-scale urban development measures are implemented; distinctive buildings of international star architects complement the silhouette of the city.
Due to its function as residence of the emperor and European power center, Vienna for centuries stood in the focus of international attention, but it was well aware of that too. As a result, developed an outstanding building culture, and still today on a worldwide scale only a few cities can come up with a comparable density of high-quality architecture. For several years now, Vienna has increased its efforts to connect with its historical highlights and is drawing attention to itself with some spectacular new buildings. The fastest growing city in the German-speaking world today most of all in residential construction is setting standards. Constants of the Viennese architecture are respect for existing structures, the palpability of historical layers and the dialogue between old and new.
Culmination of medieval architecture: the Stephansdom
The oldest architectural landmark of the city is St. Stephen's Cathedral. Under the rule of the Habsburgs, defining the face of the city from the late 13th century until 1918 in a decisive way, the cathedral was upgraded into the sacral monument of the political ambitions of the ruling house. The 1433 completed, 137 meters high southern tower, by the Viennese people affectionately named "Steffl", is a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture in Europe. For decades he was the tallest stone structure in Europe, until today he is the undisputed center of the city.
The baroque residence
Vienna's ascension into the ranks of the great European capitals began in Baroque. Among the most important architects are Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt. Outside the city walls arose a chain of summer palaces, including the garden Palais Schwarzenberg (1697-1704) as well as the Upper and Lower Belvedere of Prince Eugene of Savoy (1714-22). Among the most important city palaces are the Winter Palace of Prince Eugene (1695-1724, now a branch of the Belvedere) and the Palais Daun-Kinsky (auction house in Kinsky 1713-19). The emperor himself the Hofburg had complemented by buildings such as the Imperial Library (1722-26) and the Winter Riding School (1729-34). More important, however, for the Habsburgs was the foundation of churches and monasteries. Thus arose before the city walls Fischer von Erlach's Karlskirche (1714-39), which with its formal and thematic complex show façade belongs to the major works of European Baroque. In colored interior rooms like that of St. Peter's Church (1701-22), the contemporary efforts for the synthesis of architecture, painting and sculpture becomes visible.
Upgrading into metropolis: the ring road time (Ringstraßenzeit)
Since the Baroque, reflections on extension of the hopelessly overcrowed city were made, but only Emperor Franz Joseph ordered in 1857 the demolition of the fortifications and the connection of the inner city with the suburbs. 1865, the Ring Road was opened. It is as the most important boulevard of Europe an architectural and in terms of urban development achievement of the highest rank. The original building structure is almost completely preserved and thus conveys the authentic image of a metropolis of the 19th century. The public representational buildings speak, reflecting accurately the historicism, by their style: The Greek Antique forms of Theophil Hansen's Parliament (1871-83) stood for democracy, the Renaissance of the by Heinrich Ferstel built University (1873-84) for the flourishing of humanism, the Gothic of the Town Hall (1872-83) by Friedrich Schmidt for the medieval civic pride.
Dominating remained the buildings of the imperial family: Eduard van der Nüll's and August Sicardsburg's Opera House (1863-69), Gottfried Semper's and Carl Hasenauer's Burgtheater (1874-88), their Museum of Art History and Museum of Natural History (1871-91) and the Neue (New) Hofburg (1881-1918 ). At the same time the ring road was the preferred residential area of mostly Jewish haute bourgeoisie. With luxurious palaces the families Ephrussi, Epstein or Todesco made it clear that they had taken over the cultural leadership role in Viennese society. In the framework of the World Exhibition of 1873, the new Vienna presented itself an international audience. At the ring road many hotels were opened, among them the Hotel Imperial and today's Palais Hansen Kempinski.
Laboratory of modernity: Vienna around 1900
Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06) was one of the last buildings in the Ring road area Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06), which with it façade, liberated of ornament, and only decorated with "functional" aluminum buttons and the glass banking hall now is one of the icons of modern architecture. Like no other stood Otto Wagner for the dawn into the 20th century: His Metropolitan Railway buildings made the public transport of the city a topic of architecture, the church of the Psychiatric hospital at Steinhofgründe (1904-07) is considered the first modern church.
With his consistent focus on the function of a building ("Something impractical can not be beautiful"), Wagner marked a whole generation of architects and made Vienna the laboratory of modernity: in addition to Joseph Maria Olbrich, the builder of the Secession (1897-98) and Josef Hoffmann, the architect of the at the western outskirts located Purkersdorf Sanatorium (1904) and founder of the Vienna Workshop (Wiener Werkstätte, 1903) is mainly to mention Adolf Loos, with the Loos House at the square Michaelerplatz (1909-11) making architectural history. The extravagant marble cladding of the business zone stands in maximal contrast, derived from the building function, to the unadorned facade above, whereby its "nudity" became even more obvious - a provocation, as well as his culture-critical texts ("Ornament and Crime"), with which he had greatest impact on the architecture of the 20th century. Public contracts Loos remained denied. His major works therefore include villas, apartment facilities and premises as the still in original state preserved Tailor salon Knize at Graben (1910-13) and the restored Loos Bar (1908-09) near the Kärntner Straße (passageway Kärntner Durchgang).
Between the Wars: International Modern Age and social housing
After the collapse of the monarchy in 1918, Vienna became capital of the newly formed small country of Austria. In the heart of the city, the architects Theiss & Jaksch built 1931-32 the first skyscraper in Vienna as an exclusive residential address (Herrengasse - alley 6-8). To combat the housing shortage for the general population, the social democratic city government in a globally unique building program within a few years 60,000 apartments in hundreds of apartment buildings throughout the city area had built, including the famous Karl Marx-Hof by Karl Ehn (1925-30). An alternative to the multi-storey buildings with the 1932 opened International Werkbundsiedlung was presented, which was attended by 31 architects from Austria, Germany, France, Holland and the USA and showed models for affordable housing in greenfield areas. With buildings of Adolf Loos, André Lurçat, Richard Neutra, Gerrit Rietveld, the Werkbundsiedlung, which currently is being restored at great expense, is one of the most important documents of modern architecture in Austria.
Modernism was also expressed in significant Villa buildings: The House Beer (1929-31) by Josef Frank exemplifies the refined Wiener living culture of the interwar period, while the house Stonborough-Wittgenstein (1926-28, today Bulgarian Cultural Institute), built by the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein together with the architect Paul Engelmann for his sister Margarete, by its aesthetic radicalism and mathematical rigor represents a special case within contemporary architecture.
Expulsion, war and reconstruction
After the "Anschluss (Annexation)" to the German Reich in 1938, numerous Jewish builders, architects (female and male ones), who had been largely responsible for the high level of Viennese architecture, have been expelled from Austria. During the Nazi era, Vienna remained largely unaffected by structural transformations, apart from the six flak towers built for air defense of Friedrich Tamms (1942-45), made of solid reinforced concrete which today are present as memorials in the cityscape.
The years after the end of World War II were characterized by the reconstruction of the by bombs heavily damaged city. The architecture of those times was marked by aesthetic pragmatism, but also by the attempt to connect with the period before 1938 and pick up on current international trends. Among the most important buildings of the 1950s are Roland Rainer's City Hall (1952-58), the by Oswald Haerdtl erected Wien Museum at Karlsplatz (1954-59) and the 21er Haus of Karl Schwanzer (1958-62).
The youngsters come
Since the 1960s, a young generation was looking for alternatives to the moderate modernism of the reconstruction years. With visionary designs, conceptual, experimental and above all temporary architectures, interventions and installations, Raimund Abraham, Günther Domenig, Eilfried Huth, Hans Hollein, Walter Pichler and the groups Coop Himmelb(l)au, Haus-Rucker-Co and Missing Link rapidly got international attention. Although for the time being it was more designed than built, was the influence on the postmodern and deconstructivist trends of the 1970s and 1980s also outside Austria great. Hollein's futuristic "Retti" candle shop at Charcoal Market/Kohlmarkt (1964-65) and Domenig's biomorphic building of the Central Savings Bank in Favoriten (10th district of Vienna - 1975-79) are among the earliest examples, later Hollein's Haas-Haus (1985-90), the loft conversion Falkestraße (1987/88) by Coop Himmelb(l)au or Domenig's T Center (2002-04) were added. Especially Domenig, Hollein, Coop Himmelb(l)au and the architects Ortner & Ortner (ancient members of Haus-Rucker-Co) by orders from abroad the new Austrian and Viennese architecture made a fixed international concept.
MuseumQuarter and Gasometer
Since the 1980s, the focus of building in Vienna lies on the compaction of the historic urban fabric that now as urban habitat of high quality no longer is put in question. Among the internationally best known projects is the by Ortner & Ortner planned MuseumsQuartier in the former imperial stables (competition 1987, 1998-2001), which with institutions such as the MUMOK - Museum of Modern Art Foundation Ludwig, the Leopold Museum, the Kunsthalle Wien, the Architecture Center Vienna and the Zoom Children's Museum on a wordwide scale is under the largest cultural complexes. After controversies in the planning phase, here an architectural compromise between old and new has been achieved at the end, whose success as an urban stage with four million visitors (2012) is overwhelming.
The dialogue between old and new, which has to stand on the agenda of building culture of a city that is so strongly influenced by history, also features the reconstruction of the Gasometer in Simmering by Coop Himmelb(l)au, Wilhelm Holzbauer, Jean Nouvel and Manfred Wehdorn (1999-2001). Here was not only created new housing, but also a historical industrial monument reinterpreted into a signal in the urban development area.
New Neighborhood
In recent years, the major railway stations and their surroundings moved into the focus of planning. Here not only necessary infrastructural measures were taken, but at the same time opened up spacious inner-city residential areas and business districts. Among the prestigious projects are included the construction of the new Vienna Central Station, started in 2010 with the surrounding office towers of the Quartier Belvedere and the residential and school buildings of the Midsummer quarter (Sonnwendviertel). Europe's largest wooden tower invites here for a spectacular view to the construction site and the entire city. On the site of the former North Station are currently being built 10,000 homes and 20,000 jobs, on that of the Aspangbahn station is being built at Europe's greatest Passive House settlement "Euro Gate", the area of the North Western Railway Station is expected to be developed from 2020 for living and working. The largest currently under construction residential project but can be found in the north-eastern outskirts, where in Seaside Town Aspern till 2028 living and working space for 40,000 people will be created.
In one of the "green lungs" of Vienna, the Prater, 2013, the WU campus was opened for the largest University of Economics of Europe. Around the central square spectacular buildings of an international architect team from Great Britain, Japan, Spain and Austria are gathered that seem to lead a sometimes very loud conversation about the status quo of contemporary architecture (Hitoshi Abe, BUSarchitektur, Peter Cook, Zaha Hadid, NO MAD Arquitectos, Carme Pinós).
Flying high
International is also the number of architects who have inscribed themselves in the last few years with high-rise buildings in the skyline of Vienna and make St. Stephen's a not always unproblematic competition. Visible from afar is Massimiliano Fuksas' 138 and 127 meters high elegant Twin Tower at Wienerberg (1999-2001). The monolithic, 75-meter-high tower of the Hotel Sofitel at the Danube Canal by Jean Nouvel (2007-10), on the other hand, reacts to the particular urban situation and stages in its top floor new perspectives to the historical center on the other side.
Also at the water stands Dominique Perrault's DC Tower (2010-13) in the Danube City - those high-rise city, in which since the start of construction in 1996, the expansion of the city north of the Danube is condensed symbolically. Even in this environment, the slim and at the same time striking vertically folded tower of Perrault is beyond all known dimensions; from its Sky Bar, from spring 2014 on you are able to enjoy the highest view of Vienna. With 250 meters, the tower is the tallest building of Austria and almost twice as high as the St. Stephen's Cathedral. Vienna, thus, has acquired a new architectural landmark which cannot be overlooked - whether it also has the potential to become a landmark of the new Vienna, only time will tell. The architectural history of Vienna, where European history is presence and new buildings enter into an exciting and not always conflict-free dialogue with a great and outstanding architectural heritage, in any case has yet to offer exciting chapters.
As the mist forms in the valley below, Drummond 'Greyhound' 4-4-0 No.30120, in characteristic style for such a cherished old girl, leaks steam profusely as she plods positively up the grade heading a demonstration freight at Charlie's Gate on the Bodmin and Wenford Railway, shortly after dawn on 10th November 2012.
Of all of Dugald Drummond's designs for the LSWR, his 'T9' express passenger class could probably be described as his most successful. They were popular with their crews and nicknamed "greyhounds" due to their sprightly acceleration. This was due to the design being remarkably free-running with a well steaming boiler, substantial fire grate and masterfully applied Stephenson link motion. One engine, LSWR/SR 120 (BR 30120), was saved for preservation by the National Railway Museum. Withdrawn from Exmouth Junction shed, Exeter in 1961 she remained in capital stock. In March 1962 she was out-shopped from Eastleigh Works following a heavy casual repair and returned to service in L&SWR green working ordinary services as well as special trains. She was finally withdrawn from capital stock in July 1963 but continued to work special trains until October of that year.
Following lengthy periods in store at Fratton, Stratford, Preston Park, Tyseley and York, she was again overhauled in the early 1980s on the Mid Hants Railway and returned to steam in 1983. However, because of the steep gradients on the Mid Hants, she moved to the Swanage Railway in 1991 and remained there until her boiler certificate expired in 1993. She then moved to the Bluebell Railway, where she remained as a static exhibit on public display and under cover, until 1st February 2008. She then moved to the Bodmin and Wenford Railway, and was returned to steam in August 2010 following a heavy overhaul including repairs to the cylinder block at the Flour Mill Workshop in the Forest of Dean. She has been repainted in early British Railways lined black colour scheme and is regularly used on passenger trains at Bodmin as well as the occasional charter, as in this image.
© Gordon Edgar - All rights reserved. Please do not use my images without my explicit permission
Colonial Williamsburg is the historic district of the independent city of Williamsburg, Virginia. It consists of many of the buildings that, from 1699 to 1780, formed colonial Virginia's capital. The capital straddled the boundary of two of the original shires of Virginia, James City Shire (now James City County), and Charles River Shire (now York County). For most of the 18th century, Williamsburg was the center of government, education and culture in the Colony of Virginia.
Colonial Williamsburg is meant to be an interpretation of a Colonial American city, with exhibits including dozens of authentic or accurately-recreated colonial houses and relating to American Revolutionary War history. Prominent buildings in Colonial Williamsburg include the Raleigh Tavern, the Capitol, The Governor's Palace, and Bruton Parish Church. However, rather than simply an effort to preserve antiquity, the combination of extensive restoration and thoughtful recreation of the entire colonial town facilitates envisioning the atmosphere and understanding the ideals of 18th century American revolutionary leaders. It was here that Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, James Monroe, James Madison, George Wythe, Peyton Randolph, and dozens more helped mold democracy in the Commonwealth of Virginia and the United States.
The Historic Area is located just east of the College of William and Mary, founded at Middle Plantation in 1693, just prior to the establishment of the town as capital of Virginia and its renaming. The university's historic Wren Building stands at the west end of Duke of Gloucester Street.
Colonial Williamsburg is a major source of tourism to Williamsburg, as well as a touchstone for many world leaders and heads of state, including U.S. Presidents. The United States hosted the first World Economic Conference at Colonial Williamsburg in 1983. It is the centerpiece of the surrounding Historic Triangle of Virginia area, which has become a popular tourist destination for visitors domestic and foreign. The other two points of the Historic Triangle are Jamestown and Yorktown.
Contents
Early in the 20th century, the restoration and recreation of Colonial Williamsburg, one of the largest historic restorations ever undertaken, was championed by the Reverend Dr. W.A.R. Goodwin and the patriarch of the Rockefeller family, John D. Rockefeller, Jr., along with the active participation of his wife, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, who wanted to celebrate the patriots and the early history of the United States.
Many of the missing Colonial structures were reconstructed on their original sites during the 1930s. Other structures were restored to the best estimates of how they would have looked during the eighteenth century, with all traces of later buildings and improvements removed. Dependency structures and animals help complete the ambiance. Most buildings are open for tourists to look through, with the exception of several buildings that serve as residences for Colonial Williamsburg employees.
Notable structures include the large Capitol and the Governor's Palace, each carefully recreated and landscaped as closely as possible to original 18th century specifications, as well as Bruton Parish Church and the Raleigh Tavern.
The major goal of the Restoration was not to merely preserve or recreate the physical environment of the colonial period, but to facilitate education about the origins of the idea of America, which was conceived during many decades before the American Revolution.
In this environment, Colonial Williamsburg strives to tell the story of how diverse peoples, having different and sometimes conflicting ambitions, evolved into a society that valued liberty and equality.
This image forms part of a 'little planet' 360 timelapse I made:
The same image is also part of the BBC's EURO 2016 intro credits I worked on. You can view that here: www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36488058
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Viola trinervata forma semialba, rocky hillsides adjacent to WA Hwy. 821 (Canyon Rd.), Yakima River Canyon, north of Roza, Kittitas Co., WA, 13 Apr 2021.
Tortue, coq, poussin et en train de gonfler, le joueur de cornemuse au vestival des ballons de Château d'Oex
Couldn't decide what to draw for Day 12 of Inktober, so I drew what was in front of me. It's a decorative mini dress form (about a foot tall) that I had wired with buttons & beads many years ago. This is not an accurate representation.
I posted a photo of the actual dress from on Flickr years ago.
You can see it here
CSL Pineglen eases past the Indiana Harbor as it heads to CHS 1 for a load of grain. On the far right is the Anderson unloading at C. Reiss.
Forming one side of Piazza del Duomo and opening on the other side to Piazza della Scala, the grand Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II was designed by Giuseppe Mengoni and built between 1865 and 1877. It was then the largest shopping arcade in Europe, with a dome soaring 48 meters above its mosaic floor.
Marking the beginning of modern architecture in Italy, today it stands as a splendid example of 19th-century industrial iron and glass construction. And it's still a beautiful, vibrant place where locals meet for lunch or coffee in its elegant cafés and browse in its luxury shops. It is so much a part of local life that the inhabitants of Milan refer to it as "il salotto" (the salon) [planetware.com]
PGB Photographer & Creative - © Philip Romeyn - Phillostar Gone Ballistic 2021 - Photo may not be edited from its original form. Commercial use is prohibited without contacting me.
The Flatiron Building, originally the Fuller Building, is a triangular 22-story, 285-foot-tall (86.9 m) steel-framed landmarked building located at 175 Fifth Avenue in the eponymous Flatiron District neighborhood of the borough of Manhattan, New York City. Designed by Daniel Burnham and Frederick Dinkelberg, it was one of the tallest buildings in the city upon its 1902 completion, at 20 floors high, and one of only two "skyscrapers" north of 14th Street—the other being the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower, one block east. The building sits on a triangular block formed by Fifth Avenue, Broadway, and East 22nd Street—where the building's 87-foot (27 m) back end is located—with East 23rd Street grazing the triangle's northern (uptown) peak. As with numerous other wedge-shaped buildings, the name "Flatiron" derives from its resemblance to a cast-iron clothes iron.
Called "one of the world's most iconic skyscrapers and a quintessential symbol of New York City", the building anchors the south (downtown) end of Madison Square and the north (uptown) end of the Ladies' Mile Historic District. The neighborhood around it is called the Flatiron District after its signature, iconic building. The building was designated a New York City landmark in 1966, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1989.
The Flatiron Building sits on a triangular block formed by Fifth Avenue to the west, Broadway to the east, and East 22nd Street to the south. The western and eastern facades converge, forming a "peak" at its northern corner where Fifth Avenue and Broadway intersect with East 23rd Street. The shape of the site arises from Broadway's diagonal alignment relative to the Manhattan street grid. The site measures 197.5 feet (60.2 m) on Fifth Avenue, 214.5 feet (65.4 m) on Broadway, and 86 feet (26 m) on 22nd Street. Above the ground level, all three corners of the triangle are curved.
Adjacent buildings include the Toy Center to the north, the Sohmer Piano Building to the southwest, the Scribner Building to the south, and Madison Green to the southeast. Entrances to the New York City Subway's 23rd Street station, served by the R and W trains, are adjacent to the building. The Flatiron Building is at the northern end of the Ladies' Mile Historic District, which extends between 15th Street to the south and 24th Street to the north. By the 1990s, the blocks south of the building had also become known as the Flatiron District
At the beginning of March 1901, media outlets reported that the Newhouse family was planning to sell "Eno's flatiron" for about $2 million to Cumberland Realty Company, an investment partnership created by Harry S. Black, CEO of the Fuller Company. The Fuller Company was the first true general contractor that dealt with all aspects of buildings' construction (except for design), and they specialized in erecting skyscrapers. Black intended to construct a new headquarters building on the site, despite the recent deterioration of the surrounding neighborhood. At the end of that March, the Fuller Company organized a subsidiary to develop a building on the site. The sale was finalized in May 1901.
Black hired Daniel Burnham's architectural firm to design a 21-story building on the site in February 1901. It would be Burnham's first in New York City, the tallest building in Manhattan north of the Financial District, and the first skyscraper north of Union Square (at 14th Street). The Northwestern Salvage and Wrecking Company began razing the site in May 1901, after the majority of existing tenants' leases had expired. Most of the Cumberland's remaining tenants readily vacated the building in exchange for monetary compensation. The sole holdout was Winfield Scott Proskey, a retired colonel who refused to move out until his lease expired later that year. Cumberland Realty unsuccessfully attempted to deactivate Proskey's water and gas supply, and Proskey continued to live in the Cumberland while contractors demolished all of the surrounding apartments. By the end of May 1901, Cumberland Realty discovered that Proskey was bankrupt, and his creditors took over the lease and razed the rest of the Cumberland that June.
The New York Herald published an image of the site on June 2, 1901, with the caption "Flatiron Building". The project's structural engineer, Corydon Purdy, filed plans for a 20-story building on the site were filed that August. The Flatiron Building was not the first building of its triangular ground-plan, although it was the largest at the time of its completion. Earlier buildings with a similar shape include a triangular Roman temple built on a similarly constricted site in the city of Verulamium, Britannia; Bridge House, Leeds, England (1875); the I.O.O.F. Centennial Building (1876) in Alpena, Michigan; and the English-American Building in Atlanta (1897). The Real Estate Record and Guide published a drawing of the building in October 1901; though the drawing was captioned "The Cumberland", it was very similar to the Flatiron Building's final design.
The Atlantic Terra Cotta Company began producing architectural terracotta pieces for the building in August 1901. Around the same time, the New York City Department of Buildings (DOB) indicated that it would refuse to approve Purdy's initial plans unless the engineers submitted detailed information about the framework, fireproofing, and wind-bracing systems. Purdy complied with most of the DOB's requests, submitting detailed drawings and documents, but he balked at the department's requirement that the design include fire escapes. For reasons that are unclear, the DOB dropped its requirement that the building contain fire escapes. In addition, the building was originally legally required to contain metal-framed windows, although this would have increased the cost of construction. The city's Board of Building Commissioners had granted an exemption to Black's syndicate, prompting allegations of favoritism. A new Buildings Department commissioner was appointed at the beginning of 1902, promising to enforce city building codes; this prompted general contractor Thompson–Starrett Co. to announce that the building's window frames would be made of fireproof wood with a copper coating.
The building's steel frame was manufactured by the American Bridge Company in Pennsylvania. The frame had risen above street level by January 1902. Construction was then halted for several weeks, first because of a delay in steel shipments, then because of a blizzard that occurred in February. Further delays were caused by a strike at the factory of Hecla Iron Works, which was manufacturing elevators and handrails for the building. The steel was so meticulously pre-cut that, according to The New York Times, the steel pieces could be connected "without so much as the alteration of a bored hole, or the exchange of a tiny rivet". Workers used air-powered tools to rivet the steel beams together, since such equipment was more efficient than steam-powered tools at conducting power over long distances. The frame was complete by February 1902, and workers began installing the terracotta tiles as the framework of the top stories were being finished. By mid-May, the building was half-covered by terracotta tiling. The terracotta work was completed the next month, and the scaffolding in front of the building was removed. The Fifth Avenue Building Company had invested $1.5 million in the project.
Officials of the Fuller Company announced in August 1902 that the structure would be officially named after George A. Fuller, founder of the Fuller Company and "father of the skyscraper", who had died two years earlier. By then, the site had been known as the "flatiron" for several years; according to Christopher Gray of The New York Times, Burnham's and Fuller's architectural drawings even labeled the structure as the "Flatiron Building". Although the Fuller name was used for some time after the building's completion, locals persisted in calling it the Flatiron, to the displeasure of Harry Black and the building's contractors. In subsequent years, the edifice officially came to be known as the Flatiron Building, and the Fuller name was transferred to a newer 40-story structure at 597 Madison Avenue.
In the weeks before the official opening, the Fuller Company distributed six-page brochures to potential tenants and real-estate brokers. The brochures advertised the building as being "ready for occupancy" on October 1, 1902. The Fuller Company took the 19th floor for its headquarters. When completed, the Flatiron Building was much taller than others in the neighborhood; when New York City Fire Department officials tested the building's standpipes in November 1902, they found that "the 'flat-iron' building would be of great aid in fighting the fire" in any surrounding buildings. Following the building's completion, the surrounding neighborhood evolved from an entertainment district to a commercial hub. Initially, the building was topped by a flagpole, which was maintained by one man, "Steeplejack" Kay, for four decades. Henry Clay Frick expressed interest in purchasing the structure in 1904 for $5 million, but he ultimately withdrew his offer.
During the building's construction, Black had suggested that the "cowcatcher" retail space be installed at the northern tip of the building, occupying 93 square feet (8.6 m2) of unused space at the extreme northern end of the lot. This would maximize use of the building's lot and produce some retail income. Burnham initially refused to consider Black's suggestion, and, in April 1902, Black asked a draftsman at the Fuller Company to draw up plans for the retail space. Black submitted plans for the annex to the DOB in May 1902. The DOB rejected the initial plans because the walls were too thin, but the department approved a revised proposal that June, to Burnham's disapproval. The retail space in the "cowcatcher" was leased by United Cigar Stores.
Another addition to the building not in the original plan was the penthouse, which was constructed after the rest of the building had been completed. By 1905, the Fuller Company needed to expand its technical drawing facilities. As a result, the company filed plans for a penthouse with the New York City Department of Buildings that March. The penthouse would cost $10,000 and would include fireproof partitions and a staircase from the existing 20th floor. The penthouse, intended for use as artists' studios, was quickly rented out to artists such as Louis Fancher, many of whom contributed to the pulp magazines which were produced in the offices below.
New York, often called New York City or simply NYC, is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each of which is coextensive with a respective county. It is a global city and a cultural, financial, high-tech, entertainment, and media center with a significant influence on commerce, health care, scientific output, life sciences, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, dining, art, fashion, and sports. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy, and is sometimes described as the world's most important city and the capital of the world.
With an estimated population in 2022 of 8,335,897 distributed over 300.46 square miles (778.2 km2), the city is the most densely populated major city in the United States. New York has more than double the population of Los Angeles, the nation's second-most populous city. New York is the geographical and demographic center of both the Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. by both population and urban area. With more than 20.1 million people in its metropolitan statistical area and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, New York City is one of the world's most populous megacities. The city and its metropolitan area are the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. In 2021, the city was home to nearly 3.1 million residents born outside the U.S., the largest foreign-born population of any city in the world.
New York City traces its origins to Fort Amsterdam and a trading post founded on the southern tip of Manhattan Island by Dutch colonists in approximately 1624. The settlement was named New Amsterdam (Dutch: Nieuw Amsterdam) in 1626 and was chartered as a city in 1653. The city came under English control in 1664 and was renamed New York after King Charles II granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York. The city was temporarily regained by the Dutch in July 1673 and was renamed New Orange; however, the city has been named New York since November 1674. New York City was the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. The modern city was formed by the 1898 consolidation of its five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx, and Staten Island, and has been the largest U.S. city ever since.
Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the world's premier financial and fintech center and the most economically powerful city in the world. As of 2022, the New York metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan economy in the world with a gross metropolitan product of over US$2.16 trillion. If the New York metropolitan area were its own country, it would have the tenth-largest economy in the world. The city is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by market capitalization of their listed companies: the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. New York City is an established safe haven for global investors. As of 2023, New York City is the most expensive city in the world for expatriates to live. New York City is home to the highest number of billionaires, individuals of ultra-high net worth (greater than US$30 million), and millionaires of any city in the world
The written history of New York City began with the first European explorer, the Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524. European settlement began with the Dutch in 1608 and New Amsterdam was founded in 1624.
The "Sons of Liberty" campaigned against British authority in New York City, and the Stamp Act Congress of representatives from throughout the Thirteen Colonies met in the city in 1765 to organize resistance to Crown policies. The city's strategic location and status as a major seaport made it the prime target for British seizure in 1776. General George Washington lost a series of battles from which he narrowly escaped (with the notable exception of the Battle of Harlem Heights, his first victory of the war), and the British Army occupied New York and made it their base on the continent until late 1783, attracting Loyalist refugees.
The city served as the national capital under the Articles of Confederation from 1785 to 1789, and briefly served as the new nation's capital in 1789–90 under the United States Constitution. Under the new government, the city hosted the inauguration of George Washington as the first President of the United States, the drafting of the United States Bill of Rights, and the first Supreme Court of the United States. The opening of the Erie Canal gave excellent steamboat connections with upstate New York and the Great Lakes, along with coastal traffic to lower New England, making the city the preeminent port on the Atlantic Ocean. The arrival of rail connections to the north and west in the 1840s and 1850s strengthened its central role.
Beginning in the mid-19th century, waves of new immigrants arrived from Europe dramatically changing the composition of the city and serving as workers in the expanding industries. Modern New York traces its development to the consolidation of the five boroughs in 1898 and an economic and building boom following the Great Depression and World War II. Throughout its history, New York has served as a main port of entry for many immigrants, and its cultural and economic influence has made it one of the most important urban areas in the United States and the world. The economy in the 1700s was based on farming, local production, fur trading, and Atlantic jobs like shipbuilding. In the 1700s, New York was sometimes referred to as a breadbasket colony, because one of its major crops was wheat. New York colony also exported other goods included iron ore as a raw material and as manufactured goods such as tools, plows, nails and kitchen items such as kettles, pans and pots.
The area that eventually encompassed modern day New York was inhabited by the Lenape people. These groups of culturally and linguistically related Native Americans traditionally spoke an Algonquian language now referred to as Unami. Early European settlers called bands of Lenape by the Unami place name for where they lived, such as "Raritan" in Staten Island and New Jersey, "Canarsee" in Brooklyn, and "Hackensack" in New Jersey across the Hudson River from Lower Manhattan. Some modern place names such as Raritan Bay and Canarsie are derived from Lenape names. Eastern Long Island neighbors were culturally and linguistically more closely related to the Mohegan-Pequot peoples of New England who spoke the Mohegan-Montauk-Narragansett language.
These peoples made use of the abundant waterways in the New York region for fishing, hunting trips, trade, and occasionally war. Many paths created by the indigenous peoples are now main thoroughfares, such as Broadway in Manhattan, the Bronx, and Westchester. The Lenape developed sophisticated techniques of hunting and managing their resources. By the time of the arrival of Europeans, they were cultivating fields of vegetation through the slash and burn technique, which extended the productive life of planted fields. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bay. Historians estimate that at the time of European settlement, approximately 5,000 Lenape lived in 80 settlements around the region.
The first European visitor to the area was Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian in command of the French ship La Dauphine in 1524. It is believed he sailed into Upper New York Bay, where he encountered native Lenape, returned through the Narrows, where he anchored the night of April 17, and left to continue his voyage. He named the area New Angoulême (La Nouvelle-Angoulême) in honor of Francis I, King of France of the royal house of Valois-Angoulême and who had been Count of Angoulême from 1496 until his coronation in 1515. The name refers to the town of Angoulême, in the Charente département of France. For the next century, the area was occasionally visited by fur traders or explorers, such as by Esteban Gomez in 1525.
European exploration continued on September 2, 1609, when the Englishman Henry Hudson, in the employ of the Dutch East India Company, sailed the Half Moon through the Narrows into Upper New York Bay. Like Christopher Columbus, Hudson was looking for a westerly passage to Asia. He never found one, but he did take note of the abundant beaver population. Beaver pelts were in fashion in Europe, fueling a lucrative business. Hudson's report on the regional beaver population served as the impetus for the founding of Dutch trading colonies in the New World. The beaver's importance in New York's history is reflected by its use on the city's official seal.
The first Dutch fur trading posts and settlements were in 1614 near present-day Albany, New York, the same year that New Netherland first appeared on maps. Only in May 1624 did the Dutch West India Company land a number of families at Noten Eylant (today's Governors Island) off the southern tip of Manhattan at the mouth of the North River (today's Hudson River). Soon thereafter, most likely in 1626, construction of Fort Amsterdam began. Later, the Dutch West Indies Company imported African slaves to serve as laborers; they were forced to build the wall that defended the town against English and Indian attacks. Early directors included Willem Verhulst and Peter Minuit. Willem Kieft became director in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in Kieft's War against the Native Americans. The Pavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-day Jersey City, resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch. Holland sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29, 1645.
On May 27, 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival and ruled as a member of the Dutch Reformed Church. The colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was incorporated as a city on February 2, 1653. The first mayors (burgemeesters) of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year. By the early 1660s, the population consisted of approximately 1500 Europeans, only about half of whom were Dutch, and 375 Africans, 300 of whom were slaves.
A few of the original Dutch place names have been retained, most notably Flushing (after the Dutch town of Vlissingen), Harlem (after Haarlem), and Brooklyn (after Breukelen). Few buildings, however, remain from the 17th century. The oldest recorded house still in existence in New York, the Pieter Claesen Wyckoff House in Brooklyn, dates from 1652.
On August 27, 1664, four English frigates under the command of Col. Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam's harbor and demanded New Netherland's surrender, as part of an effort by King Charles II's brother James, Duke of York, the Lord High Admiral to provoke the Second Anglo-Dutch War. Two weeks later, Stuyvesant officially capitulated by signing Articles of Surrender and in June 1665, the town was reincorporated under English law and renamed "New York" after the Duke, and Fort Orange was renamed "Fort Albany". The war ended in a Dutch victory in 1667, but the colony remained under English rule as stipulated in the Treaty of Breda. During the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch briefly recaptured the city in 1673, renaming the city "New Orange", before permanently ceding the colony of New Netherland to England for what is now Suriname in November 1674 at the Treaty of Westminster.
The colony benefited from increased immigration from Europe and its population grew faster. The Bolting Act of 1678, whereby no mill outside the city was permitted to grind wheat or corn, boosted growth until its repeal in 1694, increasing the number of houses over the period from 384 to 983.
In the context of the Glorious Revolution in England, Jacob Leisler led Leisler's Rebellion and effectively controlled the city and surrounding areas from 1689 to 1691, before being arrested and executed.
Lawyers
In New York at first, legal practitioners were full-time businessmen and merchants, with no legal training, who had watched a few court proceedings, and mostly used their own common sense together with snippets they had picked up about English law. Court proceedings were quite informal, for the judges had no more training than the attorneys.
By the 1760s, the situation had dramatically changed. Lawyers were essential to the rapidly growing international trade, dealing with questions of partnerships, contracts, and insurance. The sums of money involved were large, and hiring an incompetent lawyer was a very expensive proposition. Lawyers were now professionally trained, and conversant in an extremely complex language that combined highly specific legal terms and motions with a dose of Latin. Court proceedings became a baffling mystery to the ordinary layman. Lawyers became more specialized and built their reputation, and their fee schedule, on the basis of their reputation for success. But as their status, wealth and power rose, animosity grew even faster. By the 1750s and 1760s, there was a widespread attack ridiculing and demeaning the lawyers as pettifoggers (lawyers lacking sound legal skills). Their image and influence declined. The lawyers organized a bar association, but it fell apart in 1768 during the bitter political dispute between the factions based in the Delancey and Livingston families. A large fraction of the prominent lawyers were Loyalists; their clientele was often to royal authority or British merchants and financiers. They were not allowed to practice law unless they took a loyalty oath to the new United States of America. Many went to Britain or Canada (primarily to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia) after losing the war.
For the next century, various attempts were made, and failed, to build an effective organization of lawyers. Finally a Bar Association emerged in 1869 that proved successful and continues to operate.
By 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200. The Dutch West Indies Company transported African slaves to the post as trading laborers used to build the fort and stockade, and some gained freedom under the Dutch. After the seizure of the colony in 1664, the slave trade continued to be legal. In 1703, 42% of the New York households had slaves; they served as domestic servants and laborers but also became involved in skilled trades, shipping and other fields. Yet following reform in ethics according to American Enlightenment thought, by the 1770s slaves made up less than 25% of the population.
By the 1740s, 20% of the residents of New York were slaves, totaling about 2,500 people.
After a series of fires in 1741, the city panicked over rumors of its black population conspiring with some poor whites to burn the city. Historians believe their alarm was mostly fabrication and fear, but officials rounded up 31 black and 4 white people, who over a period of months were convicted of arson. Of these, the city executed 13 black people by burning them alive and hanged the remainder of those incriminated.
The Stamp Act and other British measures fomented dissent, particularly among Sons of Liberty who maintained a long-running skirmish with locally stationed British troops over Liberty Poles from 1766 to 1776. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York City in 1765 in the first organized resistance to British authority across the colonies. After the major defeat of the Continental Army in the Battle of Long Island in late 1776, General George Washington withdrew to Manhattan Island, but with the subsequent defeat at the Battle of Fort Washington the island was effectively left to the British. The city became a haven for loyalist refugees, becoming a British stronghold for the entire war. Consequently, the area also became the focal point for Washington's espionage and intelligence-gathering throughout the war.
New York was greatly damaged twice by fires of suspicious origin, with the Loyalists and Patriots accusing each other of starting the conflagration. The city became the political and military center of operations for the British in North America for the remainder of the war. Continental Army officer Nathan Hale was hanged in Manhattan for espionage. In addition, the British began to hold the majority of captured American prisoners of war aboard prison ships in Wallabout Bay, across the East River in Brooklyn. More Americans lost their lives aboard these ships than died in all the battles of the war. The British occupation lasted until November 25, 1783. George Washington triumphantly returned to the city that day, as the last British forces left the city.
Starting in 1785 the Congress met in the city of New York under the Articles of Confederation. In 1789, New York became the first national capital under the new Constitution. The Constitution also created the current Congress of the United States, and its first sitting was at Federal Hall on Wall Street. The first Supreme Court sat there. The United States Bill of Rights was drafted and ratified there. George Washington was inaugurated at Federal Hall. New York remained the national capital until 1790, when the role was transferred to Philadelphia.
During the 19th century, the city was transformed by immigration, a visionary development proposal called the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 which expanded the city street grid to encompass all of Manhattan, and the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, which connected the Atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of the Midwestern United States and Canada. By 1835, New York had surpassed Philadelphia as the largest city in the United States. New York grew as an economic center, first as a result of Alexander Hamilton's policies and practices as the first Secretary of the Treasury.
In 1842, water was piped from a reservoir to supply the city for the first time.
The Great Irish Famine (1845–1850) brought a large influx of Irish immigrants, and by 1850 the Irish comprised one quarter of the city's population. Government institutions, including the New York City Police Department and the public schools, were established in the 1840s and 1850s to respond to growing demands of residents. In 1831, New York University was founded by U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin as a non-denominal institution surrounding Washington Square Park.
This period started with the 1855 inauguration of Fernando Wood as the first mayor from Tammany Hall. It was the political machine based among Irish Americans that controlled the local Democratic Party. It usually dominated local politics throughout this period and into the 1930s. Public-minded members of the merchant community pressed for a Central Park, which was opened to a design competition in 1857; it became the first landscape park in an American city.
During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the city was affected by its history of strong commercial ties to the South; before the war, half of its exports were related to cotton, including textiles from upstate mills. Together with its growing immigrant population, which was angry about conscription, sympathies among residents were divided for both the Union and Confederacy at the outbreak of war. Tensions related to the war culminated in the Draft Riots of 1863 led by Irish Catholics, who attacked black neighborhood and abolitionist homes. Many blacks left the city and moved to Brooklyn. After the Civil War, the rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply, and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new and better life in the United States, a role acknowledged by the dedication of the Statue of Liberty in 1886.
From 1890 to 1930, the largest cities, led by New York, were the focus of international attention. The skyscrapers and tourist attractions were widely publicized. Suburbs were emerging as bedroom communities for commuters to the central city. San Francisco dominated the West, Atlanta dominated the South, Boston dominated New England; Chicago dominated the Midwest United States. New York City dominated the entire nation in terms of communications, trade, finance, popular culture, and high culture. More than a fourth of the 300 largest corporations in 1920 were headquartered here.
In 1898, the modern City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn (until then an independent city), Manhattan, and outlying areas. Manhattan and the Bronx were established as two separate boroughs and joined with three other boroughs created from parts of adjacent counties to form the new municipal government originally called "Greater New York". The Borough of Brooklyn incorporated the independent City of Brooklyn, recently joined to Manhattan by the Brooklyn Bridge; the Borough of Queens was created from western Queens County (with the remnant established as Nassau County in 1899); and the Borough of Richmond contained all of Richmond County. Municipal governments contained within the boroughs were abolished, and the county governmental functions were absorbed by the city or each borough. In 1914, the New York State Legislature created Bronx County, making five counties coterminous with the five boroughs.
The Bronx had a steady boom period during 1898–1929, with a population growth by a factor of six from 200,000 in 1900 to 1.3 million in 1930. The Great Depression created a surge of unemployment, especially among the working class, and a slow-down of growth.
On June 15, 1904, over 1,000 people, mostly German immigrant women and children, were killed when the excursion steamship General Slocum caught fire and sank. It is the city's worst maritime disaster. On March 25, 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in Greenwich Village took the lives of 146 garment workers. In response, the city made great advancements in the fire department, building codes, and workplace regulations.
Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication, marking its rising influence with such events as the Hudson-Fulton Celebration of 1909. Interborough Rapid Transit (the first New York City Subway company) began operating in 1904, and the railroads operating out of Grand Central Terminal and Pennsylvania Station thrived.
From 1918 to 1920, New York City was affected by the largest rent strike wave in its history. Somewhere between several 10,000's and 100,000's of tenants struck across the city. A WW1 housing and coal shortage sparked the strikes. It became marked both by occasional violent scuffles and the Red Scare. It would lead to the passage of the first rent laws in the nations history.
The city was a destination for internal migrants as well as immigrants. Through 1940, New York was a major destination for African Americans during the Great Migration from the rural American South. The Harlem Renaissance flourished during the 1920s and the era of Prohibition. New York's ever accelerating changes and rising crime and poverty rates were reduced after World War I disrupted trade routes, the Immigration Restriction Acts limited additional immigration after the war, and the Great Depression reduced the need for new labor. The combination ended the rule of the Gilded Age barons. As the city's demographics temporarily stabilized, labor unionization helped the working class gain new protections and middle-class affluence, the city's government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul under Fiorello La Guardia, and his controversial parks commissioner, Robert Moses, ended the blight of many tenement areas, expanded new parks, remade streets, and restricted and reorganized zoning controls.
For a while, New York ranked as the most populous city in the world, overtaking London in 1925, which had reigned for a century.[58] During the difficult years of the Great Depression, the reformer Fiorello La Guardia was elected as mayor, and Tammany Hall fell after eighty years of political dominance.
Despite the effects of the Great Depression, some of the world's tallest skyscrapers were built during the 1930s. Art Deco architecture—such as the iconic Chrysler Building, Empire State Building, and 30 Rockefeller Plaza— came to define the city's skyline. The construction of the Rockefeller Center occurred in the 1930s and was the largest-ever private development project at the time. Both before and especially after World War II, vast areas of the city were also reshaped by the construction of bridges, parks and parkways coordinated by Robert Moses, the greatest proponent of automobile-centered modernist urbanism in America.
Returning World War II veterans and immigrants from Europe created a postwar economic boom. Demands for new housing were aided by the G.I. Bill for veterans, stimulating the development of huge suburban tracts in eastern Queens and Nassau County. The city was extensively photographed during the post–war years by photographer Todd Webb.
New York emerged from the war as the leading city of the world, with Wall Street leading the United States ascendancy. In 1951, the United Nations relocated from its first headquarters in Flushing Meadows Park, Queens, to the East Side of Manhattan. During the late 1960s, the views of real estate developer and city leader Robert Moses began to fall out of favor as the anti-urban renewal views of Jane Jacobs gained popularity. Citizen rebellion stopped a plan to construct an expressway through Lower Manhattan.
After a short war boom, the Bronx declined from 1950 to 1985, going from predominantly moderate-income to mostly lower-income, with high rates of violent crime and poverty. The Bronx has experienced an economic and developmental resurgence starting in the late 1980s that continues into today.
The transition away from the industrial base toward a service economy picked up speed, while the jobs in the large shipbuilding and garment industries declined sharply. The ports converted to container ships, costing many traditional jobs among longshoremen. Many large corporations moved their headquarters to the suburbs or to distant cities. At the same time, there was enormous growth in services, especially finance, education, medicine, tourism, communications and law. New York remained the largest city and largest metropolitan area in the United States, and continued as its largest financial, commercial, information, and cultural center.
Like many major U.S. cities, New York suffered race riots, gang wars and some population decline in the late 1960s. Street activists and minority groups such as the Black Panthers and Young Lords organized rent strikes and garbage offensives, demanding improved city services for poor areas. They also set up free health clinics and other programs, as a guide for organizing and gaining "Power to the People." By the 1970s the city had gained a reputation as a crime-ridden relic of history. In 1975, the city government avoided bankruptcy only through a federal loan and debt restructuring by the Municipal Assistance Corporation, headed by Felix Rohatyn. The city was also forced to accept increased financial scrutiny by an agency of New York State. In 1977, the city was struck by the New York City blackout of 1977 and serial slayings by the Son of Sam.
The 1980s began a rebirth of Wall Street, and the city reclaimed its role at the center of the worldwide financial industry. Unemployment and crime remained high, the latter reaching peak levels in some categories around the close of the decade and the beginning of the 1990s. Neighborhood restoration projects funded by the city and state had very good effects for New York, especially Bedford-Stuyvesant, Harlem, and The Bronx. The city later resumed its social and economic recovery, bolstered by the influx of Asians, Latin Americans, and U.S. citizens, and by new crime-fighting techniques on the part of the New York Police Department. In 1989, New York City elected its first African American Mayor, David Dinkins. He came out of the Harlem Clubhouse.
In the late 1990s, the city benefited from the nationwide fall of violent crime rates, the resurgence of the finance industry, and the growth of the "Silicon Alley", during the dot com boom, one of the factors in a decade of booming real estate values. New York was also able to attract more business and convert abandoned industrialized neighborhoods into arts or attractive residential neighborhoods; examples include the Meatpacking District and Chelsea (in Manhattan) and Williamsburg (in Brooklyn).
New York's population reached an all-time high in the 2000 census; according to census estimates since 2000, the city has continued to grow, including rapid growth in the most urbanized borough, Manhattan. During this period, New York City was a site of the September 11 attacks of 2001; 2,606 people who were in the towers and in the surrounding area were killed by a terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, an event considered highly traumatic for the city but which did not stop the city's rapid regrowth. On November 3, 2014, One World Trade Center opened on the site of the attack. Hurricane Sandy brought a destructive storm surge to New York in the evening of October 29, 2012, flooding numerous streets, tunnels, and subway lines in Lower Manhattan. It flooded low-lying areas of Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. Electrical power was lost in many parts of the city and its suburbs.