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The Colosseum is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, just east of the Roman Forum. It is the largest ancient amphitheatre ever built, and is still the largest standing amphitheatre in the world, despite its age. Construction began under the Emperor Vespasian (r. 69–79 AD) in 72 and was completed in AD 80 under his successor and heir, Titus (r. 79–81). Further modifications were made during the reign of Domitian (r. 81–96). The three emperors who were patrons of the work are known as the Flavian dynasty, and the amphitheatre was named the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium; Italian: Anfiteatro Flavio [aɱfiteˈaːtro ˈflaːvjo]) by later classicists and archaeologists for its association with their family name (Flavius).
The Colosseum is built of travertine limestone, tuff (volcanic rock), and brick-faced concrete. It could hold an estimated 50,000 to 80,000 spectators at various points in its history, having an average audience of some 65,000; it was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles including animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, dramas based on Roman mythology, and briefly mock sea battles. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although substantially ruined by earthquakes and stone robbers taking spolia, the Colosseum is still a renowned symbol of Imperial Rome and was listed as one of the New 7 Wonders of the World. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and has links to the Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum. The Colosseum is depicted on the Italian version of the 5 euro cent coin.
The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran as well as an artificial lake/marsh. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre, in effect, placing it both symbolically and geographically at the heart of Rome.
Construction was funded by the opulent spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 AD led to the Siege of Jerusalem. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." It is often assumed that Jewish prisoners of war were brought back to Rome and contributed to the massive workforce needed for the construction of the amphitheatre. This claim is disputed; it would, nonetheless, be commensurate with Roman practice to add humiliation to the defeated population. Along with this free source of unskilled labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters and decorators undertook the more specialized tasks necessary for building the Colosseum. The Colosseum was constructed with several different materials: wood, limestone, tuff, tiles, cement, and mortar.
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Vespasian in around 70–72 AD (73–75 AD according to some sources). The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished by his son, Titus, in 80, and the inaugural games were held in 80 or 81 AD. Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius), which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. Honorius banned the practice of gladiator fights in 399 and again in 404. Gladiatorial fights are last mentioned around 435. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use. By the late 6th century a small chapel had been built into the structure of the amphitheater, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle. In the early to mid 14th century, the Pope's relocation to Avignon caused a population decline in Rome that left the region insecure. The colosseum was largely abandoned by the public and became a popular den for bandits.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvial terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. In 1377, after the Pope's return to Rome, the Colosseum was restored by a religious order called Arciconfraternita del SS. Salvatore ad Sancta Sanctorum, who then inhabited a northern portion of it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheater was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime. The iron clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death. In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Significance in Christianity).
However, there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone before the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition, other than the reasonably plausible conjecture that some of the many martyrs may well have been.
Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of Lire 40 billion ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices).
In recent years, the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released, or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold in November 2012 following the abolishment of capital punishment in the American state of Connecticut in April 2012.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002), Paul McCartney (May 2003), Elton John (September 2005), and Billy Joel (July 2006).
March 6- April 3
Sandow Birk: "Depravities of War"
Muriel Hasbun: "barquitos de papel and other stories"
Jessica Benjamin and Sirajski: "of Wrath and Proxy Wars"
Congress’ Role in the Making and Execution of National Security Policy in the Trump Era
President Obama and the Republican Congress were usually at odds over national security policy. With a Republican in the White House now, will the President and Congress see eye to eye on threats and their solutions, or will differing institutional pressures and perspectives keep the respective ends of Pennsylvania Avenue apart? And, will the congressional investigations of Russia’s attempt to influence the presidential election end with a bang or a whimper? However the investigations conclude, what impact will they have on the relationship between the two branches?
Michael McCaul, Chairman, House Committee on Homeland Security; US Representative for Texas’ 10th Congressional District
Stephanie Murphy, US Representative for Florida’s 7th Congressional District
Adam Schiff, Ranking Member, House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence; US Representative for California’s 28th Congressional District
Mac Thornberry, Chairman, House Armed Services Committee; US Representative for Texas’ 13th Congressional District
Moderator: Ryan Lizza, Washington Correspondent, The New Yorker
Photo Credit: Dan Bayer
Kurdish political prisoners Farzad Kamangar, Ali Haydarian, Farhad Vakili, Shirin Alam Hooli and Mehdi Eslamian were executed by Iranian Islamic regime on May 9th 2010.
Kurdish people and Iranian opposition groups demonstrated to condemn execution of political prisoners.
The Kurds and Iranians living in Finland arranged several demonstrations as well.
These photos were taken on demonstration held on May 15th 2010.
The road of those who were shot.
The Rieme-Oostakker Place of Execution is the place in the Ghent district of Oostakker where 66 resistance fighters were executed by the Naxi occupation force between February 8, 1943 and August 24, 1944.
This memory is also kept alive the 20 resistance fighters who were killed on the execution site at Rieme . That site was destroyed in 1998 during the construction of the Kluizendok of Ghent Port.
The executions were carried out in secret and the victims were buried anonymously. Some of the resistance fighters killed in Rieme was found in a mass grave in Hechtel.
Moreover, there were German soldiers and Belgian criminals also shot. Because of these circumstances, it is still unclear how many people were killed. After the Liberation the mass grave was uncovered in Oostakker. The victims were identified and buried in their hometowns.
The crosses on the ground thus have a symbolic meaning. Nevertheless, the execution place is a cemetery since in 1952 the remains of 15 decapitated West Flemish political prisoners were moved here from their graves in Munich.
On the grounds is a railway carriage which carried hundreds of Belgians to concentration camps in Germany and Poland. In 1966 the execution place gained the status of a protected landscape.
Signal the firing squad awesome band from the sunshine coast, that will pretty much make your ears melt off the only way they should melt off through pure brutality and utter madness, you can check these guys out on there MySpace here (http://www.myspace.com/signalthefiringsquad) and catch them on the Brisbane leg of the Summer Slaughter Tour on the 14th of March at the red room with the red shore
Stobist Info:
1) 580 EXII shot through stofen omnibounce general left of camera
Canon 5D Mk II
50mm f/1.4
Van Nelle Factory, Rotterdam The Netherlands – Architects: Brinkman and Van der Vlugt – masterplan 1914 – 1923; design 1923 – 1925; execution 1925 - 1931
The Van Nelle Factory is one of the highlights of the Modern Movement in the Netherlands. The impressive glass building is not only an example of functionalism and rational production, but also improved working conditions for workers in the twentieth century. The restored building is now one of the most important monuments of Rotterdam
The Firm Van Nelle was selling coffee, tea, tobacco and snuff in Rotterdam since 1782. The entirely new complex consists of the actual factory building, an office building, a warehouse, expedition and storage depots along the canal, a boiler house and several workshops. A cafeteria and sports fields were also to be found in the area. The factory building consists of three elongated in height sloping parts separated by stairwells. Tobacco has eight, coffee five and tea factory three floors. The staircases house the washing and changing facilities, toilets and lifts, separated for men and women. This allowed for continues factory floors and easily adjustable layouts. By using a concrete frame the non-load bearing facades could be made almost entirely of glass with only thin steel frames. Light and air could penetrate deep into the building. The expedition and storage strip along the water is connected to the main building by overhead conveyor bridges. Another sky bridge connects the plant to the office at the entrance of the complex. The office consists of a strip with two layers of offices and a large open space with glass walls and glass meeting rooms. The office follows the curve in the road. During construction, a tea room on the roof of the tobacco factory was added.
In 1942, low-rise warehouses designed by Brinkman and Van den Broek were realized. In 1974 at the back of the building, a new distribution centre was built. In 1951 other products such as pudding and chewing gum made their entrance. After a takeover by the American Standard Brands in 1989, Van Nelle competitor Sara Lee / Douwe Egberts, sold the complex in 1995, so it could finally get the status of national monument. Using the name Van Nelle Design Factory, the complex started a new life. The factory complex was restored by Wessel de Jonge and Claessens Erdmann. The transparency of the factory floor was maintained as much as possible by the new climate walls on the inside. The new inner facades are made of aluminium and therefore clearly identifiable as new elements. On the floors office spaces of various sizes have been realized for the creative sector. The ground floor is used for exhibitions and conferences. The adjacent buildings have been restored and are used by a number of architectural firms.
Registan (a sandy place): this public square was the centre of Samarkand and the site of a large market. It came to be used as the place where royal proclamations were made, public executions held, and trade & commerce conducted. In the 15th and 17th centuries, madrasas were built on three sides of the square. This design, madrasas facing each other across a square or street, is called a kosh, a "double, pair", as the building of madrasas are opposite each other on the sides of the street or square.
Janid dynasty (Astrakhanids or Toqay Timurids) 1599-1745, were the last Genghisid descendants to rule Bukhara.
Patron: Yalangtush Bakhodur (also known as Zhalantos Bahadur or Yalangtush Bi Alchin) 1576-1656, from the Uzbek tribe Alchin, was the military governor of Samarkand who ruled at the behest of the Bukhara-based Janid dynasty.
Architect: Usto Abdu Jabour.
Execution Rocks Lighthouse is located in Long Island Sound. Legend has it that the British used to chain prisoners to the rocks at low tide and wait for them to drown as the tide came in. The lighthouse was built in the 1840's and recently handed over to a non-profit for restoration. It is a 30 minute boat ride away from the shore, and has no electricity or running water, plus it is rumored to be haunted.
Galgen Hospental ( forca gibet gallows Richtstätte Richtplatz lieu d'exécution luogo di esecuzione place of execution ) im St. Annawald zwischen Hospental und Andermatt im Urserental - Urseren im Kanton Uri der Schweiz
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Wanderug zum T.omas.ee am Dienstag den 03. September 2013
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Mit dem Z.ug von B.ern - B.rig - A.nderm.att auf den O.bera.lpp.ass
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Wanderung O.bera.lpp.ass - L.ai da T.uma ( U.R - 2`343m ) - B.adush.ütte ( G.R - 2`505m ) - P.azolas.tock ( G.R - U.R - 2`740m - P.iz N.urschalas ) - O.bera.lpp.ass
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Mit dem F.ahrr.ad O.bera.lpp.ass - A.nderm.att - S.t. A.nna ( U.R - 1`450m ) - S.t. A.nnaw.ald ( U.R - 1`400m ) - H.ospent.al - A.nderm.att - S.chöllenen
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Zu F.uss R.undw.eg S.chöllenen
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Mit dem F.ahrr.ad von S.chöllenen hinunter nach G.öschenen
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Mit dem Z.ug von G.öschenen über L.uzern zurück nach B.ern
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Hurni130903 AlbumZZZZ130903T.omas.ee KantonUri
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So, after a lot of ebaying my models have started turning up. Here's Darth Maul. Having just had a disagreement with a trooper he's off for a stroll.......
Where Zyklon B was first used as a means of mass execution. Auschwitz was a smaller camp, and the mass executions in the "showers" were more common in the sister camp Birkenau.
According to Kaleme website, Hamid Ghassemi-Shall and his family have been informed of his imminent execution during this week’s visit at Evin Prison.
Hamid Ghassemi-Shall, 42, was arrested in 2008 while visiting his family, and was later charged with espionage.
He was sentenced to death in 2009. An Iranian court has rejected an appeal.
“Canada is gravely concerned by indications that the execution of Mr. Ghassemi-Shall may be carried out imminently,” Baird said in a joint statement Sunday with Diane Ablonczy, the junior minister for foreign affairs.
Baird called on the Iranian government to grant clemency to Ghassemi-Shall on compassionate and humanitarian grounds and to respect its international human rights obligations.
The Iranian-born Ghassemi-Shall emigrated to Canada after Iran’s 1979 revolution, and most recently lived in Toronto.
He is awaiting execution in Tehran’s notorious Evin prison, where another Canadian — photojournalist Zahra Kazemi of Montreal — was beaten, raped and killed in 2003.
Another Canadian resident, web programmer Saeed Malekpour of Richmond Hill, Ont., is also on death row in Evin prison. Malekpour, who was born in Iran, is charged with setting up a website that was used to post pornography. He maintains his innocence and says he was tortured into confessing to crimes against Islam.
Prime Minister Stephen Harper is also calling on Iran to spare the life of an Iranian-Canadian convicted of espionage and awaiting execution.
Harper warned there will be consequences if Hamid Ghassemi-Shall is executed.
Harper’s warning followed a similar statement by Foreign Affairs Minister John Baird who said Sunday that Ottawa is “gravely concerned” by indications that Ghassemi-Shall’s execution may be imminent.
“We urge Iran to reverse its current course and to adhere to its international human rights obligations,” Baird said.
■■■■■ www.persianicons.org/human-right/iranian-canadian-facing-... ■■■■■
Zwei Galgensäulen - Ruinen des Galen Vicosoprano ( Letzte Hinrichtung 01. Oktober 1795 - forca gibet gallows Richtstätte lieu d'exécution luogo di esecuzione place of execution ) in der Waldlichtung Cudin bei Vicosoprano in der Gemeinde Bregaglia im Bergell im Kanton Graubünden - Grischun der Schweiz
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Ausflug ins B.ergell am Samstag den 19. Dezember 2015
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Mit dem Z.ug von B.ern über Z.ürich - C.hur nach S.t. M.oritz und weiter mit dem P.osta.uto bis C.astasegna
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Zu. F.uss C.astasegna - B.ondo - P.romontogno
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P.er A.utos.top von P.romontogno nach V.icosoprano
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B.esuch der K.irchen und dem G.algen von V.icosoprano
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Mit dem P.osta.uto von V.icosoprano nach M.aloja
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B.esuch der S.perrstelle M.aloja
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Mit dem B.us von M.aloja nach S.t. M.oritz und weiter mit dem Z.ug über S.agliains - K.losters - L.andquart - Z.ürich nach B.ern
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Hurni151219 AlbumZZZZ151219AusflugBergell KantonGraubünden KantonGrischun AlbumGraubünden AlbumGraubündenBergell
E - Mail : chrigu.hurni@bluemail.ch
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Execution Rocks Lighthouse is located in Long Island Sound. Legend has it that the British used to chain prisoners to the rocks at low tide and wait for them to drown as the tide came in. The lighthouse was built in the 1840's and recently handed over to a non-profit for restoration. It is a 30 minute boat ride away from the shore, and has no electricity or running water, plus it is rumored to be haunted.
Galgen Seengen ( forca gibet gallows Richtstätte Richtplatz lieu d'exécution luogo di esecuzione place of execution ) im Wald bei Seengen im Kanton Aargau der Schweiz
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S.chlössert.our durch den Kanton A.argau am Dienstag den 29. Oktober 2013
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Mit dem Z.ug von B.ern über O.lten nach W.ilde.gg
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Besuch des S.chloss W.ilde.gg
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Mit dem B.us von W.ilde.gg nach L.enzb.urg
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Besichtigung S.tadtk.irche L.enzb.urg - S.chloss L.enzb.urg und des M.useum B.urgh.alde in L.enzb.urg
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Mit dem Z.ug von L.enzb.urg nach H.allw.il
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Ca. 30 Minuten Fussmarsch zum W.assers.chloss H.allw.il
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Mit dem B.us vom S.chloss H.allw.il nach B.onisw.il
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Mit dem Z.ug von B.onisw.il über L.uzern zurück nach B.ern
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Hurni131029 AlbumZZZZ131029S.chlösserA.argau KantonAargau
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Zwei Galgensäulen - Ruinen des Galen Vicosoprano ( Letzte Hinrichtung 01. Oktober 1795 - forca gibet gallows Richtstätte lieu d'exécution luogo di esecuzione place of execution ) in der Waldlichtung Cudin bei Vicosoprano in der Gemeinde Bregaglia im Bergell im Kanton Graubünden - Grischun der Schweiz
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Ausflug ins B.ergell am Samstag den 19. Dezember 2015
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Mit dem Z.ug von B.ern über Z.ürich - C.hur nach S.t. M.oritz und weiter mit dem P.osta.uto bis C.astasegna
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Zu. F.uss C.astasegna - B.ondo - P.romontogno
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P.er A.utos.top von P.romontogno nach V.icosoprano
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B.esuch der K.irchen und dem G.algen von V.icosoprano
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Mit dem P.osta.uto von V.icosoprano nach M.aloja
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B.esuch der S.perrstelle M.aloja
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Mit dem B.us von M.aloja nach S.t. M.oritz und weiter mit dem Z.ug über S.agliains - K.losters - L.andquart - Z.ürich nach B.ern
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Hurni151219 AlbumZZZZ151219AusflugBergell KantonGraubünden KantonGrischun AlbumGraubünden AlbumGraubündenBergell
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Kilmainham Gaol - Old Prison - Dublin Ireland - Cross marking the place of execution of the leaders of the 1916 Rising
In the woods north of Barack X, the gas chamber building is the execution wall where the Nazis shot Russian POWs who were thought to be Communist commissars, and other political prisoners. A ditch about six feet in front of the wall was designed to catch the flow of blood. The photograph shows a marker at this execution spot, which was called the "pistol range."
Execution Rocks Lighthouse is located in Long Island Sound. Legend has it that the British used to chain prisoners to the rocks at low tide and wait for them to drown as the tide came in. The lighthouse was built in the 1840's and recently handed over to a non-profit for restoration. It is a 30 minute boat ride away from the shore, and has no electricity or running water, plus it is rumored to be haunted.