Екатерининский дворец, Царское Село.

 

The Catherine Palace (Russian: Екатерининский дворец) was the Rococo summer residence of the Russian tsars, located in the town of Tsarskoye Selo (Pushkin), 25 km south-east of St. Petersburg, Russia.

The residence originated in 1717, when Catherine I of Russia engaged the German architect Johann-Friedrich Braunstein to construct a summer palace for her pleasure. In 1733, Empress Anna commissioned Mikhail Zemtsov and Andrei Kvasov to expand the Catherine Palace. Empress Elizabeth, however, found her mother's residence outdated and incommodious and in May 1752 asked her court architect Bartolomeo Rastrelli to demolish the old structure and replace it with a much grander edifice in a flamboyant Rococo style. Construction lasted for four years and on 30 July 1756 the architect presented the brand-new 325-meter-long palace to the Empress, her dazed courtiers and stupefied foreign ambassadors.

 

During Elizabeth's lifetime, the palace was famed for its obscenely lavish exterior.[citation needed] More than 100 kilograms of gold were used to gild the sophisticated stucco façade and numerous statues erected on the roof. It was even rumoured that the palace's roof was constructed entirely of gold. In front of the palace a great formal garden was laid out. It centres on the azure-and-white Hermitage Pavilion near the lake, designed by Zemtsov in 1744, overhauled by Rastrelli in 1749 and formerly crowned by a grand gilded sculpture representing The Rape of Persephone. The interior of the pavilion featured dining tables with dumbwaiter mechanisms. The grand entrance to the palace is flanked by two massive "circumferences", also in the Rococo style. A delicate iron-cast grille separates the complex from the town of Tsarskoe Selo.

 

Although the palace is popularly associated with Catherine the Great, she actually regarded its "whipped cream" architecture as old-fashioned. When she ascended the throne, a number of statues in the park were being covered with gold, in accordance with the last wish of Empress Elizabeth, yet the new monarch had all the works suspended upon being informed about the expense. In her memoirs she censured the reckless extravagance of her predecessor:

 

"The palace was then being built, but it was the work of Penelope: what was done today, was destroyed tomorrow. That house has been pulled down six times to the foundation, then built up again ere it was brought to its present state. The sum of a million six hundred thousand rubles was spent on the construction. Accounts exist to prove it; but besides this sum the Empress spent much money out of her own pocket on it, without ever counting".

In order to gratify her passion for antique and Neoclassical art, Catherine employed the Scottish architect Charles Cameron who not only refurbished the interior of one wing in the Neo-Palladian style then in vogue, but also constructed the personal apartments of the Empress, a rather modest Greek Revival structure known as the Agate Rooms and situated to the left from the grand palace. Noted for their elaborate jasper decor, the rooms were designed so as to be connected to the Hanging Gardens, the Cold Baths, and the Cameron Gallery (still housing a collection of bronze statuary) - three Neoclassical edifices constructed to Cameron's designs. According to Catherine's wishes, many remarkable structures were erected for her amusement in the Catherine Park. These include the Dutch Admiralty, Creaking Pagoda, Chesme Column, Rumyantsev Obelisk, and Marble Bridge.

Upon Catherine's death in 1796, the palace was abandoned in favour of the Pavlovsk Palace. Subsequent monarchs preferred to reside in the nearby Alexander Palace and, with only two exceptions, refrained from making new additions to the Catherine Palace, regarding it as a splendid monument to Elizabeth's wealth and Catherine II's glory. In 1817, Alexander I engaged Vasily Stasov to refurbish some interiors of his grandmother's residence in the Empire style. Twenty years later, the magnificent Stasov Staircase was constructed to replace the old circular staircase leading to the Palace Chapel. Unfortunately, most of Stasov's interiors - specifically those dating from the reign of Nicholas I - have not been restored after the destruction caused by the Germans during World War Two.[citation needed]

 

When the German forces retreated after the siege of Leningrad, they had the residence intentionally destroyed,[1] leaving only the hollow shell of the palace behind. Prior to World War II, the Russian archivists managed to document a fair amount of the contents, which proved of great importance in reconstructing the palace. Although the largest part of the reconstruction was completed in time for the Tercentenary of St Petersburg in 2003, much work is still required to restore the palace to its former glory. In order to attract funds, the administration of the palace has leased the Grand Hall to such high-profile events as Elton John's concert for the elite audience in 2001 and the 2005 exclusive party which featured the likes of Bill Clinton, Tina Turner, Whitney Houston, Naomi Campbell, and Sting.

 

In Twentieth Century Fox's 1997 animated feature, "Anastasia", the Catherine Palace is depicted inaccurately as the home of the last imperial family.Although Stasov's and Cameron's Neoclassical interiors are superb manifestations of the late 18th-century and early 19th-century taste, the palace is best known for Rastrelli's grand suit of formal rooms known as the Golden Enfilade. It starts at the spacious airy ballroom, the "Grand Hall" or the "Hall of Lights", with a spectacular painted ceiling, and comprises numerous distinctively decorated smaller rooms, including the reproduced Amber Room.

The Great Hall, or the Light Gallery as it was called in the 18th century, is a formal apartment in the Russian baroque style designed by Bartolomeo Rastrelli between 1752 and 1756. The Great Hall was intended for more important receptions such as balls, formal dinners, and masquerades. The hall was painted in two colors and covers an area of approximately 1,000 square meters. Occupying the entire width of the palace, the windows on the eastern side look out onto the park while the windows of the western side look out to the palace plaza. In the evening, 696 lamps are lit on 12-15 chandeliers located near the mirrors. The halls sculptural and gilded carvings and ornimantation were created according to sketches by Rastrelli and models by Johann Franz Dunker.

Beyond the Great Hall is the dining room for the courtiers in attendance (the Courtiers-in-Attendance Dining Room). The room was designed by Rastrelli in the mid-18th century. The small room is lit by four windows which look out into the formal courtyard. The architect placed false windows with mirrors and mirrored glass on the opposite wall, making the hall more spacious and bright. Decorated in the typical baroque interior style, the hall is filled with gilded wall-carvings, complex gilded pieces on the doors, and ornamental patterns of stylized flowers. The ceiling mural was painted by a well known student of the Russian School from the mid-18th century. It is based on the Greek myth of the sun god Helios and the goddess of the dawn, Eos.

 

Across from the Courtiers-in-Attendance Dining Room, on the other side of the Main Staircase, is the White Formal Dining Room. The hall was used for the empresses' formal dinners or "evening meals". The walls of the dining hall were decorated with the utmost extravagance with gilded carvings. The furnishings consist of gilded carvings on the consoles. The painted mural, The Triumph of Apollo is a copy of a painting completed in the 16th century by Italian artist, Guido Reni.

 

The Portrait Hall is a formal apartment that covers 100 square meters of space. The room's walls boast large formal portraits of Empress Catherine I, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, as well as paintings of Natalya Alexeyevna, sister of Peter the Great, and Empress Catherine II. The inlaid floors of the hall contain precious woods. The Drawing Room of Alexander I was designed between 1752 and 1756 and belonged to the Emperor's private suite. The drawing room stood out from the rest of the formal rooms in the palace due to the fact that the walls were covered in Chinese silk. Other decor in the room was typical for the palace's formal rooms, a ceiling mural, gilded carvings. The elegant card-tables and inlaid wood commode display Japanese, Chinese, and Berlin porcelain.

 

The Green Dining Room, which replaced Rastrelli's "Hanging Garden" in 1773, is the first of the rooms in the northern wing of the Catherine Palace, designed by Cameron for the future Emperor Paul and his wife. The pistachio-coloured walls of the room are lined with stucco figures by Ivan Martos. During the great fire of 1820 the room was seriously damaged, thus sharing the fate of other Cameron's interiors. It was subsequently restored under Stasov's direction.

 

Other Cameron's interiors include the Waiters' Room, with the inlaid floor of rosewood, amaranth and mahogany and stylish Chippendale card-tables; the Blue Formal Dining-Room, with white-and-blue silk wallpapers and Carrara marble chimneys; the Chinese Blue Drawing Room, a curious combination of Adam style with the Chinoiserie; the Choir Anteroom, with walls lined in apricot-colored silk; and the columned boudoir of Alexander I, executed in the Pompeian style.

 

The original title of this monumental sculptural group by Janniot, which was executed by the sculptor in Rome during the last of the three years he spent training at the Académie de France, was A la gloire de Jean Goujon, or Hommage à Jean Goujon. The group, which immediately attracted attention, was to become famous at the International Exposition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts held in Paris in 1925, becoming the symbol of an era and an artistic movement: Art Deco. Jean Goujon, the great Renaissance sculptor, was evoked as the artist who most successfully managed to reconcile modernity and tradition in France. The group consists of three young women, Diana the hunter, two nymphs, a doe (a typical symbol of Art Deco), and various birds. Stylised flowers and fronds complete the composition. The decorative exuberance of the group is further accentuated by the introduction of colour to the faces and hair of the female figures.

Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon.

 

A la gloire de Jean Goujon ou Hommage à Jean Goujon, assim foi intitulado o grupo escultórico monumental de Janniot, executado pelo escultor em Roma, durante o último ano do seu triénio de aprendizagem na Academia de França. O grupo, de imediato notado, viria a adquirir celebridade na Exposição Internacional das Artes Decorativas e Industriais Modernas, realizada em Paris em 1925, tornando-se símbolo de uma época e de uma corrente artística: a Art Déco. Jean Goujon, o grande escultor renascentista, foi evocado como o artista que melhor conseguira conciliar a modernidade com a tradição em França. O grupo é constituído por três mulheres jovens, a Diana caçadora e duas ninfas, uma corça, símbolo típico da Art Déco, e várias aves. Flores e fetos estilizados completam a composição. A exuberância decorativa do conjunto é ainda acentuada pela introdução de cor nos rostos e nas cabeleiras das personagens femininas.

Museu Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa.

Annonçant les gouaches découpées de Matisse, Picasso dessine directement avec ses ciseaux dans les motifs colorés qu’il a sélectionnés pour leur valeur signifiante. Le papier à motifs de briques est utilisé pour représenter le fond du mur, le faux-bois pour le parquet et le cadre du miroir, le papier fleuri pour le bouquet de fleurs…

 

Reprenant la thématique traditionnelle des femmes se coiffant, la composition s’organise autour de trois figures évoquant les compagnes qui se succèdent alors dans la vie de l’artiste : Olga Khokhlova à gauche, Dora Maar au centre et Marie-Thérèse Walter à droite

 

Femmes à leur toilette est l’unique carton de tapisserie conçu en tant que tel par l’artiste. Pour autant, la transposition de la composition ne se fera pas immédiatement, Picasso refusant que l’œuvre quitte son atelier. Il faudra ainsi attendre presque trente ans, et la rétrospective de 1966 au Grand Palais pour que le projet aboutisse, sous l’impulsion d’André Malraux.

 

Véritable défi lancé aux tissiers, la composition Femmes à leur toilette sera finalement tissée à la manufacture des Gobelins entre 1968 et 1976 en quatre exemplaires : deux en couleurs et deux en noir et blanc. Les tapisseries nécessiteront respectivement la teinture de 89 et de 12 couleurs, et entre 12 000 et 16 000 heures de travail chacune.

 

ENGLISH :

Executed in the studio of the rue des Grands-Augustins in winter 1937-1938, this monumental work, by its format and artistic processing, is in the direct line of Guernica

 

Announcing the gouaches cut of Matisse, Picasso draws directly with his scissors in colorful motifs he selected for their significant value. The paper brick patterns is used to represent the far wall, false wood for parquet and mirror frame, ornate paper for the bouquet of flowers ...

 

Taking the traditional theme of women styling, the composition is organized around three figures evoking the companions who then followed in the artist's life: Olga Kokhlova left, Dora Maar in the center and Marie-Thérèse Walter at the right

 

"Women at their toilet" is the only tapestry cartoon designed as such by the artist. However, transposition of the composition will not happen immediately, Picasso refusing the work leaves his workshop. It will thus wait almost thirty years, and the 1966 retrospective at the Grand Palais to make the project succeed, under the leadership of André Malraux.

 

A real challenge for weavers, the composition "Women at their toilet" will finally be woven by Gobelins between 1968 and 1976 in four copies, two in color and two black and white. The tapestries respectively require the dyeing of 89 colors and between 12 000 and 16 000 hours of work each.

 

Women at their toilet, winter 1937 - 1938, Paris, Paper sticked

Wallpapers cut, glued and gouache on paper mounted on canvas, 299 x 448 cm

 

mpp-jep.tumblr.com/femmes_a_leur_toilette

The silhouette of the National Resistance Monument —honouring our executed Freedom Fighters— brings thoughts of death and an eerie chill. People are discerned in the background, strolling along the promenade in Thessaloniki, Greece. The equinox sun gloriously sets behind cloud-laden skies. Autumn came and brought longer nights and cold.

 

An appropriate poem of Odysseus Elytis’s follows, as homage to National Resistance:

 

“They will smell of incense, and their faces charred from their passage through the Large Dark Place.

 

There, where suddenly the Immovable hurled them

 

Face down, on the earth, whose least anemone would poison the air of Hell

 

(One hand in front, as though it tried to seize the future, the other beneath the deserted head, turned sideways,

 

As if it looked for the last time in the eyes of a disembowelled horse, at a pile of smoking ruins)

 

There time released them. One wing, the reddest, hid the world, while the other moved gently in space,

 

And their brows held no furrows or remorse, but from a great depth

 

The ancient unremembered blood began painfully to dawn in the black sky,

 

A new sun, still unripe,

 

A sun unable to melt the white frost of lambs from the living clover, and before anything could sprout a thorn it prophesied the darkness…

 

Beginning valleys, mountains, trees, rivers,

 

Creation shone from vengeance, the same and not the same, and now they travel forth, the hangman killed in them,

 

Peasants of the endless blue!

 

Neither the hour striking twelve in their entrails, nor the Polar voice falling headlong, denied their steps.

 

They read the world insatiably, eyes opened forever, there were suddenly the Immovable hurled them

 

Face down, where the vultures plummeted to savor the mud of their entrails and their blood.”

 

—Odysseus Elytis (“The Sleep of the Brave,” from ‘Six and One Regrets for the Sky,’ translated by Ruth Whitman).

 

shot executed by Pinhole Camera Auloma Panorama 6x12, film scanned by Canon EOS 1100D, Film lomography negative ISO100, film format 120

Copie romaine en marbre, exécutée vers 130-140 après Jésus-Christ, de la statue en bronze créée par Léocharès entre 330 et 320 avant Jésus-Christ. L’attribution de l’original à Léocharès repose sur un passage de l’Histoire naturelle de Pline l’Ancien évoquant un « Apollon au diadème » (XXXIV, 79) et sur la mention par Pausanias d’une statue d’Apollon située devant le temple d’Apollon Alexikakos à Athènes (I, 3, 4). Elle est donc assez fragile, d’autant que les sandales d’Apollon renverraient plutôt au IIIe, voire au IIe s. av. JC : mais il s’agit là peut-être d’une simple retouche du copiste romain.

On ne sait pas exactement quand ni où cette statue a été découverte. Une première copie en aurait été faite en 1498 (Venise, Ca’ d’Oro). Elle est ensuite dessinée dans les jardins du cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, futur pape Jules II, dans un recueil de croquis antérieur à 1509.

3. Winckelmann évoque la statue dès 1755 et en propose une description enthousiaste dans son Histoire de l’Art chez les Anciens (1776).

[I ACCIDENTALY DELETED THIS, THIS IS A REPOST]

this Is the second MOC for the 4 Jedi i made in a previous figbarf (PREVIOUS FIGBARF HERE: flic.kr/p/2oC5inf ) and, in this One, i put 2 of the jedi. here's the story i came up with for this MOC:

 

Jedi Knight Nira Talin and Master Alara Kato were partnered by the Jedi council to investigate in a small city in Lothal. Accompanied by clone Captain CT-2375, Their mission was to stop the separatist forces from conquering the planet's capital and blowing up the Planet.

 

As they landed their starship in the outskirts of Lothal's capital city, the Jedi could sense the tension in the air. The city was under the control of separatists.

 

The Jedi and their clone captain made their way through the shadows, avoiding patrols of Battle Droids. Alara's intuition guided them towards a hidden warehouse, inside a mountain, suspected to be where the general of the separatist mission was hiding.

 

Using their skills in stealth and the Force, the Jedi and CT-2375 infiltrated the warehouse. They encountered fierce resistance from a group of armed mercenaries, but their lightsabers and blasters swiftly dealt with the threat.

 

As they made their way deeper into the warehouse, they discovered crates upon crates of scrap, stolen droid parts and various explosives. It became apparent that the general was planning something far more sinister than they had initially suspected.

 

Just as they were about to disarm the explosives, a squad of Battle Droids arrived, alerted their presence. A fierce battle ensued, with blaster bolts and lightsaber clashes echoing through the warehouse.

 

Despite being outnumbered, the Jedi and CT-2375 fought valiantly, displaying their unity and skill. Their combined efforts allowed them to overcome the Battle Droids and disarming the explosives.

 

With the mission accomplished, the Jedi and their clone trooper found and arrested the Tactical Droid behind the whole operation. After arresting the Tactical Droid, the two Jedi and the Clone Captain returned to their starship on the outskirts of the city.

 

While returning to their starships

Master Alara, Jedi Knight Nira and CT-327 reflected on their successful mission. They knew that their actions had not only prevented a potential catastrophe but also inspired hope in the people of Lothal.

 

While the three are crossing an old and ruined bridge across the Mountains of Lothal, where the starships were located, the Clone Captain recieved a message. Nira ran to the Clone Captain to see why he stopped, when the Emperor forced the clones to execute Order 66.

 

CT-2375, once loyal to Nira, suddenly turned his blaster on his former Jedi leaders. Caught off guard, Nira Talin was unable to defend herself in time. The trooper's blaster bolt pierced through her chest, and Nira fell off the bridge to the rocks under.

 

Alara unleashed a flurry of powerful strikes against the clone troopers, avenging the jedi knight She was partnered with for the mission. Alara fought her way through the Blaster bolts and She used her agility and lightsaber skills to outmaneuver her opponent, successfully neutralizing the clone captain.

 

As she made her escape, Alara Kato realized that she was now one of the few remaining Jedi, tasked with preserving their legacy and fighting against the dark forces that had orchestrated the betrayal. With her master's teachings guiding her, Eira vowed to continue the Jedi's mission, even in the face of adversity.

 

And so she embarked on a journey to seek out other surviving Jedi to rebuild what was lost, and to ensure that the light of the Jedi Order would never be extinguished. She will see herself loose her legs trying to survive the empire troops, but she'll live a long and peaceful Life, deciding to abandon her lightsaber staff and forgetting her past as a Jedi master.

Brilliantly turned out bus and something unusual for the rally this year. Well done to all involved in this project, which was excellently executed.

Admittedly, there are plenty of beautiful 1955-56-57 Chevrolets that show up to Cars & Coffee events but this one appeared exceptionally pretty. The blue on most of the body is a beautiful shade. The flame job with its gradient blues is well-executed. A nice subtle touch is the different but complementary blue color on the B-pillar.

Borgund Stave Church (Norwegian: Borgund stavkyrkje) is a former parish church of the Church of Norway in Lærdal Municipality in Vestland county, Norway. It was built around the year 1200 as the village church of Borgund, and belonged to Lærdal parish (part of the Sogn prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Bjørgvin) until 1868, when its religious functions were transferred to a "new" Borgund Church, which was built nearby. The old church was restored, conserved and turned into a museum. It is funded and run by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments, and is classified as a triple-nave stave church of the Sogn-type. Its grounds contain Norway's sole surviving stave-built free-standing bell tower.

 

Borgund Stave Church was built sometime between 1180 and 1250 AD with later additions and restorations. Its walls are formed by vertical wooden boards, or staves, hence the name "stave church." The four corner posts are connected to one another by ground sills, resting on a stone foundation. The intervening staves rise from the ground sills; each is tongued and grooved, to interlock with its neighbours and form a sturdy wall. The exterior timber surfaces are darkened by protective layers of tar, distilled from pine.

 

Borgund is built on a basilica plan, with reduced side aisles, and an added chancel and apse. It has a raised central nave demarcated on four sides by an arcade. An ambulatory runs around this platform and into the chancel and apse, both added in the 14th century. An additional ambulatory, in the form of a porch, runs around the exterior of the building, sheltered under the overhanging shingled roof. The floor plan of this church resembles that of a central plan, double-shelled Greek cross with an apse attached to one end in place of the fourth arm. The entries to the church are in the three shorter arms of the cross.

 

Structurally, the building has been described as a "cube within a cube", each independent of the other. The inner "cube" is formed by continuous columns that rise from ground level to support the roof. The top of the arcade is formed by arched buttresses, knee jointed to the columns. Above the arcade, the columns are linked by cross-shaped, diagonal trusses, commonly dubbed "Saint Andrew's crosses"; these carry arched supports that offer the visual equivalent of a "second storey". While not a functional gallery, this is reminiscent of contemporary second story galleries of large stone churches elsewhere in Europe. Smaller beams running between these upper supporting columns help clamp everything firmly together. The weight of the roof is thus supported by buttresses and columns, preventing downward and outward movement of the stave walls.

 

The roof beams are supported by steeply angled scissor trusses that form an "X" shape with a narrow top span and a broader bottom span, tied by a bottom truss to prevent collapse. Additional support is given by a truss that cuts across the "X", below the crossing point but above the bottom truss. The roof is steeply pitched, boarded horizontally and clad with shingles. The original outer roof would have been weatherproofed with boards laid lengthwise, rather than shingles. In later years wooden shingles became more common. Scissor beam roof construction is typical of most stave churches.

 

Borgund has tiered, overhanging roofs, topped at their intersection by a shingle-roofed tower or steeple. On each of its four gables is a stylised "dragon" head, swooping from the carved roof ridge crests, Hohler remarks their similarity to the carved dragon heads found on the prows of Norse ships. Similar gable heads appear on small bronze church-shaped reliquaries common in Norway and Europe in this period. Borgund's current dragon heads are possible 18th century replacements; similar, original dragon heads remain on older structures, such as Lom Stave Church and nearby Urnes Stave Church. Borgund is one of the only stave churches to have preserved its crested ridge caps. They are carved with openwork vine and entangled plant designs.

 

The four outer dragon heads are perhaps the most distinctive of all non-Christian symbols adorning Borgund Stave Church. Their function is uncertain, and disputed; if pagan, they are recruited to the Christian cause in the battle between Good and Evil. They may have been intended to keep away evil spirits thought to threaten the church building; to ward off evil, rather than represent it,

 

On the lower side panel of the steeple are four carved circular cutouts. The carvings are weather-beaten, tarred and difficult to decipher, and there is disagreement about what they symbolize. Some[who?] believe they represent the four evangelists, symbolised by an eagle, an ox, a lion and a man. Hauglid describes the carvings as "dragons that extend their heads over to the neighboring field's dragon and bite into it", and points out their similarity to carvings at Høre Stave Church.

 

The church's west portal (the nave's main entrance), is surrounded by a larger carving of dragons biting each other in the neck and tail. At the bottom of the half-columns that flank the front entrance, two dragon heads spew vine stalks that wind upwards and are braided into the dragons above. The carving shares similarities with the west portal of Ål Stave Church, which also has kites[clarification needed] in a band braiding pattern, and follows the usual composition[clarification needed] in the Sogn-Valdres portals, a larger group of portals with very clear similarities. Bugge writes that Christian authority may have come to terms with such pagan and "wild scenes" in the church building because the rift could be interpreted as a struggle between good and evil; in Christian medieval art, the dragon was often used as a symbol of the devil himself but Bugge believes that the carvings were protective, like the dragon heads on the church roof.

 

The church interior is dark, as not much daylight enters the building. Some of the few sources of natural light are narrow circular windows along the roof, examples of daylighting. It was supposed that the narrow apertures would prevent the entry of evil spirits. Three entrances are heavily adorned with foliage and snakes, and are only wide enough for one person to enter, supposedly preventing the entry of evil spirits alongside the churchgoers. The portals were originally painted green, red, black, and white.

 

Most of the internal fittings have been removed. There is little in the building, apart from the row of benches that are installed along the wall inside the church in the ambulatory outside of the arcade and raised platform, a soapstone font, an altar (with 17th-century altarpiece), a 16th-century lectern, and a 16th-century cupboard for storing altar vessels. After the Reformation, when the church was converted for Protestant worship, pews, a pulpit and other standard church furnishings were included, however these have been removed since the building has come under the protection of the Fortidsminneforeningen (The Society for the Preservation of Norwegian Ancient Monuments).

 

The interior structure of the church is characterized by the twelve free-standing columns that support the nave's elevated central space. On the long side of the church there is a double interval between the second and third pillars, but with a half pillar resting on the lower bracing beam (the pier) which runs in between. The double interval provides free access from the south portal to the church's central compartment, which would otherwise have been obstructed by the middle bar. The tops of the poles are finished with grotesque, carved human and animal masks. The tie-bars are secured with braces in the form of St. Andrew's crosses with a sun - shaped center and carved leaf shapes along the arms. The crosses reappear in less ornate form as braces along the church walls. On the north and south sides of the nave, a total of eight windows let in small amounts of light, and at the top of the nave's west gable is a window of more recent date - probably from pre-Reformation times. On the south wall of the nave, the inauguration crosses are still on the inside of the wall. The interior choir walls and west portal have engraved figures and runes, some of which date to the Middle Ages. One, among the commonest of runic graffiti, reads "Ave Maria". An inscription by Þórir (Thor), written "in the evening at St. Olav's Mass" blames the pagan Norns for his problems; perhaps a residue of ancient beliefs, as these female beings were thought to rule the personal destinies of all in Norse mythology and the Poetic Edda.

 

The medieval interior of the stave church is almost untouched, save for its restorations and repairs, though the medieval crucifix was removed after the Reformation. The original wooden floor and the benches that run along the walls of the nave are largely intact, together with a medieval stone altar and a box-shaped baptismal font in soapstone. The pulpit is from the period 1550–1570 and the altarpiece dates from 1654, while the frame around the tablet is dated to 1620. The painting on the altarpiece shows the crucifixion in the centre, flanked by the Virgin Mary on the left and John the Baptist on the right. In the tympanum field, a white dove hovers on a blue background. Below the painting is an inscription with golden letters on a black background. A sacrament from the period 1550–1570 in the same style as the pulpit is also preserved. A restoration of the building was carried out in the early 1870s, led by the architect Christian Christie, who removed benches, a second-floor gallery with seating, a ceiling over the chancel, and various windows including two large windows on the north and south sides. As the goal was to return the church to pre-Reformation condition, all post-Reformation interior paintwork was also removed.

 

Images from the 1990s show deer antlers hung on the lower, east-facing pillars. A local story claims that this is all that remains of a whole stuffed reindeer, shot when it tried to enter during a Mass. A travelogue from 1668 claims that a reindeer was shot during a sermon "when it marched like a wizard in front of the other animal carcasses"

 

To the south of the church is a free-standing stave-work bell tower that covers remnants of the mediaeval foundry used to cast the church bell. It was probably built in the mid-13th century. It is Norway's only remaining free-standing stave-work bell tower.It was given a new door around the year 1700 but this was removed and not replaced at some time between the 1920s and 1940s, leaving the foundry pit was exposed. To preserve the interior, new walls were built as cladding on the outside of the stave walls in the 1990s. One of the medieval bells is on display in the new Borgund church.

 

Management

In 1868 the building was abandoned as a church but was turned into a museum; this saved it from the commonplace demolition of stave churches in that period. A new Borgund Church was built in 1868 a short distance south of the old church. The old church has not been formally used for religious purposes since that year. Borgund Stave Church was bought by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments in 1877. The first guidebook in English for the stave church was published in 1898. From 2001, the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage has funded a program to research, restore, conserve and maintain stave churches.

 

Legacy

The church served as an example for the reconstruction of the Fantoft Stave Church in Fana, Bergen, in 1883 and for its rebuilding in 1997. The Gustav Adolf Stave Church in Hahnenklee, Germany, built in 1908, is modeled on the Borgund church. Four replicas exist in the United States, one at Chapel in the Hills, Rapid City, South Dakota, another in Lyme, Connecticut, the third on Washington Island, Wisconsin, and the fourth in Minot, North Dakota at the Scandinavian Heritage Park.

 

Borgund is a former municipality in Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway. It was located in the southeastern part of the traditional district of Sogn. The 635-square-kilometre (245 sq mi) municipality existed from 1864 until its dissolution in 1964. It encompassed an area in the eastern part of the present-day Lærdal Municipality. The administrative center of Borgund was the village of Steinklepp, just northeast of the village of Borgund. Steinklepp was the site of a store, a bank, and a school. The historical Filefjell Kongevegen road passes through the Borgund area.

 

Location

The former municipality of Borgund was situated near the southeastern end of the Sognefjorden, along the Lærdalselvi river. The lower parts of the municipality were farms such as Sjurhaugen and Nedrehegg. They were at an elevation of about 270 m (890 ft) above sea level. Høgeloft, on the border with the neighboring municipality of Hemsedal, is a mountain in the Filefjell range and it was the highest point in Borgund at 1,920 m (6,300 ft) above sea level. The lakes Eldrevatnet, Juklevatnet, and Øljusjøen were also located near the border with Hemsedal.

 

History

Borgund was established as a municipality in 1864 when it was separated from the municipality of Lærdal. Initially it had a population of 963. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the municipality of Borgund (population: 492) was merged with the Muggeteigen area (population: 11) of the neighboring Årdal Municipality and all of Lærdal Municipality (population: 1,755) were all merged to form a new, larger municipality of Lærdal

 

Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway , is a Nordic , European country and an independent state in the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula . Geographically speaking, the country is long and narrow, and on the elongated coast towards the North Atlantic are Norway's well-known fjords . The Kingdom of Norway includes the main country (the mainland with adjacent islands within the baseline ), Jan Mayen and Svalbard . With these two Arctic areas, Norway covers a land area of ​​385,000 km² and has a population of approximately 5.5 million (2023). Mainland Norway borders Sweden in the east , Finland and Russia in the northeast .

 

Norway is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy , where Harald V has been king and head of state since 1991 , and Jonas Gahr Støre ( Ap ) has been prime minister since 2021 . Norway is a unitary state , with two administrative levels below the state: counties and municipalities . The Sami part of the population has, through the Sami Parliament and the Finnmark Act , to a certain extent self-government and influence over traditionally Sami areas. Although Norway has rejected membership of the European Union through two referendums , through the EEA Agreement Norway has close ties with the Union, and through NATO with the United States . Norway is a significant contributor to the United Nations (UN), and has participated with soldiers in several foreign operations mandated by the UN. Norway is among the states that have participated from the founding of the UN , NATO , the Council of Europe , the OSCE and the Nordic Council , and in addition to these is a member of the EEA , the World Trade Organization , the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and is part of the Schengen area .

 

Norway is rich in many natural resources such as oil , gas , minerals , timber , seafood , fresh water and hydropower . Since the beginning of the 20th century, these natural conditions have given the country the opportunity for an increase in wealth that few other countries can now enjoy, and Norwegians have the second highest average income in the world, measured in GDP per capita, as of 2022. The petroleum industry accounts for around 14% of Norway's gross domestic product as of 2018. Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and gas per capita outside the Middle East. However, the number of employees linked to this industry fell from approx. 232,000 in 2013 to 207,000 in 2015.

 

In Norway, these natural resources have been managed for socially beneficial purposes. The country maintains a welfare model in line with the other Nordic countries. Important service areas such as health and higher education are state-funded, and the country has an extensive welfare system for its citizens. Public expenditure in 2018 is approx. 50% of GDP, and the majority of these expenses are related to education, healthcare, social security and welfare. Since 2001 and until 2021, when the country took second place, the UN has ranked Norway as the world's best country to live in . From 2010, Norway is also ranked at the top of the EIU's democracy index . Norway ranks third on the UN's World Happiness Report for the years 2016–2018, behind Finland and Denmark , a report published in March 2019.

 

The majority of the population is Nordic. In the last couple of years, immigration has accounted for more than half of population growth. The five largest minority groups are Norwegian-Poles , Lithuanians , Norwegian-Swedes , Norwegian-Syrians including Syrian Kurds and Norwegian-Pakistani .

 

Norway's national day is 17 May, on this day in 1814 the Norwegian Constitution was dated and signed by the presidency of the National Assembly at Eidsvoll . It is stipulated in the law of 26 April 1947 that 17 May are national public holidays. The Sami national day is 6 February. "Yes, we love this country" is Norway's national anthem, the song was written in 1859 by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson (1832–1910).

 

Norway's history of human settlement goes back at least 10,000 years, to the Late Paleolithic , the first period of the Stone Age . Archaeological finds of settlements along the entire Norwegian coast have so far been dated back to 10,400 before present (BP), the oldest find is today considered to be a settlement at Pauler in Brunlanes , Vestfold .

For a period these settlements were considered to be the remains of settlers from Doggerland , an area which today lies beneath the North Sea , but which was once a land bridge connecting today's British Isles with Danish Jutland . But the archaeologists who study the initial phase of the settlement in what is today Norway reckon that the first people who came here followed the coast along what is today Bohuslân. That they arrived in some form of boat is absolutely certain, and there is much evidence that they could easily move over large distances.

 

Since the last Ice Age, there has been continuous settlement in Norway. It cannot be ruled out that people lived in Norway during the interglacial period , but no trace of such a population or settlement has been found.

 

The Stone Age lasted a long time; half of the time that our country has been populated. There are no written accounts of what life was like back then. The knowledge we have has been painstakingly collected through investigations of places where people have stayed and left behind objects that we can understand have been processed by human hands. This field of knowledge is called archaeology . The archaeologists interpret their findings and the history of the surrounding landscape. In our country, the uplift after the Ice Age is fundamental. The history of the settlements at Pauler is no more than fifteen years old.

 

The Fosna culture settled parts of Norway sometime between 10,000–8,000 BC. (see Stone Age in Norway ). The dating of rock carvings is set to Neolithic times (in Norway between 4000 BC to 1700 BC) and show activities typical of hunters and gatherers .

 

Agriculture with livestock and arable farming was introduced in the Neolithic. Swad farming where the farmers move when the field does not produce the expected yield.

 

More permanent and persistent farm settlements developed in the Bronze Age (1700 BC to 500 BC) and the Iron Age . The earliest runes have been found on an arrowhead dated to around 200 BC. Many more inscriptions are dated to around 800, and a number of petty kingdoms developed during these centuries. In prehistoric times, there were no fixed national borders in the Nordic countries and Norway did not exist as a state. The population in Norway probably fell to year 0.

 

Events in this time period, the centuries before the year 1000, are glimpsed in written sources. Although the sagas were written down in the 13th century, many hundreds of years later, they provide a glimpse into what was already a distant past. The story of the fimbul winter gives us a historical picture of something that happened and which in our time, with the help of dendrochronology , can be interpreted as a natural disaster in the year 536, created by a volcanic eruption in El Salvador .

 

In the period between 800 and 1066 there was a significant expansion and it is referred to as the Viking Age . During this period, Norwegians, as Swedes and Danes also did, traveled abroad in longships with sails as explorers, traders, settlers and as Vikings (raiders and pirates ). By the middle of the 11th century, the Norwegian kingship had been firmly established, building its right as descendants of Harald Hårfagre and then as heirs of Olav the Holy . The Norwegian kings, and their subjects, now professed Christianity . In the time around Håkon Håkonsson , in the time after the civil war , there was a small renaissance in Norway with extensive literary activity and diplomatic activity with Europe. The black dew came to Norway in 1349 and killed around half of the population. The entire state apparatus and Norway then entered a period of decline.

 

Between 1396 and 1536, Norway was part of the Kalmar Union , and from 1536 until 1814 Norway had been reduced to a tributary part of Denmark , named as the Personal Union of Denmark-Norway . This staff union entered into an alliance with Napoléon Bonaparte with a war that brought bad times and famine in 1812 . In 1814, Denmark-Norway lost the Anglophone Wars , part of the Napoleonic Wars , and the Danish king was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January of that year. After a Norwegian attempt at independence, Norway was forced into a loose union with Sweden, but where Norway was allowed to create its own constitution, the Constitution of 1814 . In this period, Norwegian, romantic national feeling flourished, and the Norwegians tried to develop and establish their own national self-worth. The union with Sweden was broken in 1905 after it had been threatened with war, and Norway became an independent kingdom with its own monarch, Haakon VII .

 

Norway remained neutral during the First World War , and at the outbreak of the Second World War, Norway again declared itself neutral, but was invaded by National Socialist Germany on 9 April 1940 .

 

Norway became a member of the Western defense alliance NATO in 1949 . Two attempts to join the EU were voted down in referendums by small margins in 1972 and 1994 . Norway has been a close ally of the United States in the post-war period. Large discoveries of oil and natural gas in the North Sea at the end of the 1960s led to tremendous economic growth in the country, which is still ongoing. Traditional industries such as fishing are also part of Norway's economy.

 

Stone Age (before 1700 BC)

When most of the ice disappeared, vegetation spread over the landscape and due to a warm climate around 2000-3000 BC. the forest grew much taller than in modern times. Land uplift after the ice age led to a number of fjords becoming lakes and dry land. The first people probably came from the south along the coast of the Kattegat and overland into Finnmark from the east. The first people probably lived by gathering, hunting and trapping. A good number of Stone Age settlements have been found which show that such hunting and trapping people stayed for a long time in the same place or returned to the same place regularly. Large amounts of gnawed bones show that they lived on, among other things, reindeer, elk, small game and fish.

 

Flintstone was imported from Denmark and apart from small natural deposits along the southern coast, all flintstone in Norway is transported by people. At Espevær, greenstone was quarried for tools in the Stone Age, and greenstone tools from Espevær have been found over large parts of Western Norway. Around 2000-3000 BC the usual farm animals such as cows and sheep were introduced to Norway. Livestock probably meant a fundamental change in society in that part of the people had to be permanent residents or live a semi-nomadic life. Livestock farming may also have led to conflict with hunters.

 

The oldest traces of people in what is today Norway have been found at Pauler , a farm in Brunlanes in Larvik municipality in Vestfold . In 2007 and 2008, the farm has given its name to a number of Stone Age settlements that have been excavated and examined by archaeologists from the Cultural History Museum at UiO. The investigations have been carried out in connection with the new route for the E18 motorway west of Farris. The oldest settlement, located more than 127 m above sea level, is dated to be about 10,400 years old (uncalibrated, more than 11,000 years in real calendar years). From here, the ice sheet was perhaps visible when people settled here. This locality has been named Pauler I, and is today considered to be the oldest confirmed human traces in Norway to date. The place is in the mountains above the Pauler tunnel on the E18 between Larvik and Porsgrunn . The pioneer settlement is a term archaeologists have adopted for the oldest settlement. The archaeologists have speculated about where they came from, the first people in what is today Norway. It has been suggested that they could come by boat or perhaps across the ice from Doggerland or the North Sea, but there is now a large consensus that they came north along what is today the Bohuslän coast. The Fosna culture , the Komsa culture and the Nøstvet culture are the traditional terms for hunting cultures from the Stone Age. One thing is certain - getting to the water was something they mastered, the first people in our country. Therefore, within a short time they were able to use our entire long coast.

 

In the New Stone Age (4000 BC–1700 BC) there is a theory that a new people immigrated to the country, the so-called Stone Ax People . Rock carvings from this period show motifs from hunting and fishing , which were still important industries. From this period, a megalithic tomb has been found in Østfold .

It is uncertain whether there were organized societies or state-like associations in the Stone Age in Norway. Findings from settlements indicate that many lived together and that this was probably more than one family so that it was a slightly larger, organized herd.

 

Finnmark

In prehistoric times, animal husbandry and agriculture were of little economic importance in Finnmark. Livelihoods in Finnmark were mainly based on fish, gathering, hunting and trapping, and eventually domestic reindeer herding became widespread in the Middle Ages. Archaeological finds from the Stone Age have been referred to as the Komsa culture and comprise around 5,000 years of settlement. Finnmark probably got its first settlement around 8000 BC. It is believed that the coastal areas became ice-free 11,000 years BC and the fjord areas around 9,000 years BC. after which willows, grass, heather, birch and pine came into being. Finnmarksvidda was covered by pine forest around 6000 BC. After the Ice Age, the land rose around 80 meters in the inner fjord areas (Alta, Tana, Varanger). Due to ice melting in the polar region, the sea rose in the period 6400–3800 BC. and in areas with little land elevation, some settlements from the first part of the Stone Age were flooded. On Sørøya, the net sea level rise was 12 to 14 meters and many residential areas were flooded.

 

According to Bjørnar Olsen , there are many indications of a connection between the oldest settlement in Western Norway (the " Fosnakulturen ") and that in Finnmark, but it is uncertain in which direction the settlement took place. In the earliest part of the Stone Age, settlement in Finnmark was probably concentrated in the coastal areas, and these only reflected a lifestyle with great mobility and no permanent dwellings. The inner regions, such as Pasvik, were probably used seasonally. The archaeologically proven settlements from the Stone Age in inner Finnmark and Troms are linked to lakes and large watercourses. The oldest petroglyphs in Alta are usually dated to 4200 BC, that is, the Neolithic . Bjørnar Olsen believes that the oldest can be up to 2,000 years older than this.

 

From around 4000 BC a slow deforestation of Finnmark began and around 1800 BC the vegetation distribution was roughly the same as in modern times. The change in vegetation may have increased the distance between the reindeer's summer and winter grazing. The uplift continued slowly from around 4000 BC. at the same time as sea level rise stopped.

 

According to Gutorm Gjessing, the settlement in Finnmark and large parts of northern Norway in the Neolithic was semi-nomadic with movement between four seasonal settlements (following the pattern of life in Sami siida in historical times): On the outer coast in summer (fishing and seal catching) and inland in winter (hunting for reindeer, elk and bear). Povl Simonsen believed instead that the winter residence was in the inner fjord area in a village-like sod house settlement. Bjørnar Olsen believes that at the end of the Stone Age there was a relatively settled population along the coast, while inland there was less settlement and a more mobile lifestyle.

 

Bronze Age (1700 BC–500 BC)

Bronze was used for tools in Norway from around 1500 BC. Bronze is a mixture of tin and copper , and these metals were introduced because they were not mined in the country at the time. Bronze is believed to have been a relatively expensive material. The Bronze Age in Norway can be divided into two phases:

 

Early Bronze Age (1700–1100 BC)

Younger Bronze Age (1100–500 BC)

For the prehistoric (unwritten) era, there is limited knowledge about social conditions and possible state formations. From the Bronze Age, there are large burial mounds of stone piles along the coast of Vestfold and Agder, among others. It is likely that only chieftains or other great men could erect such grave monuments and there was probably some form of organized society linked to these. In the Bronze Age, society was more organized and stratified than in the Stone Age. Then a rich class of chieftains emerged who had close connections with southern Scandinavia. The settlements became more permanent and people adopted horses and ard . They acquired bronze status symbols, lived in longhouses and people were buried in large burial mounds . Petroglyphs from the Bronze Age indicate that humans practiced solar cultivation.

 

Finnmark

In the last millennium BC the climate became cooler and the pine forest disappears from the coast; pine forests, for example, were only found in the innermost part of the Altafjord, while the outer coast was almost treeless. Around the year 0, the limit for birch forest was south of Kirkenes. Animals with forest habitats (elk, bear and beaver) disappeared and the reindeer probably established their annual migration routes sometime at that time. In the period 1800–900 BC there were significantly more settlements in and utilization of the hinterland was particularly noticeable on Finnmarksvidda. From around 1800 BC until year 0 there was a significant increase in contact between Finnmark and areas in the east including Karelia (where metals were produced including copper) and central and eastern Russia. The youngest petroglyphs in Alta show far more boats than the earlier phases and the boats are reminiscent of types depicted in petroglyphs in southern Scandinavia. It is unclear what influence southern Scandinavian societies had as far north as Alta before the year 0. Many of the cultural features that are considered typical Sami in modern times were created or consolidated in the last millennium BC, this applies, among other things, to the custom of burying in brick chambers in stone urns. The Mortensnes burial ground may have been used for 2000 years until around 1600 AD.

 

Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 1050 AD)

 

The Einangsteinen is one of the oldest Norwegian runestones; it is from the 4th century

 

Simultaneous production of Vikings

Around 500 years BC the researchers reckon that the Bronze Age will be replaced by the Iron Age as iron takes over as the most important material for weapons and tools. Bronze, wood and stone were still used. Iron was cheaper than bronze, easier to work than flint , and could be used for many purposes; iron probably became common property. Iron could, among other things, be used to make solid and sharp axes which made it much easier to fell trees. In the Iron Age, gold and silver were also used partly for decoration and partly as means of payment. It is unknown which language was used in Norway before our era. From around the year 0 until around the year 800, everyone in Scandinavia (except the Sami) spoke Old Norse , a North Germanic language. Subsequently, several different languages ​​developed in this area that were only partially mutually intelligible. The Iron Age is divided into several periods:

 

Early Iron Age

Pre-Roman Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 0)

Roman Iron Age (c. 0–c. AD 400)

Migration period (approx. 400–600). In the migration period (approx. 400–600), new peoples came to Norway, and ruins of fortress buildings etc. are interpreted as signs that there has been talk of a violent invasion.

Younger Iron Age

Merovingian period (500–800)

 

The Viking Age (793–1066)

Norwegian Vikings go on plundering expeditions and trade voyages around the coastal countries of Western Europe . Large groups of Norwegians emigrate to the British Isles , Iceland and Greenland . Harald Hårfagre starts a unification process of Norway late in the 8th century , which was completed by Harald Hardråde in the 1060s . The country was Christianized under the kings Olav Tryggvason , fell in the battle of Svolder ( 1000 ) and Olav Haraldsson (the saint), fell in the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 .

 

Sources of prehistoric times

Shrinking glaciers in the high mountains, including in Jotunheimen and Breheimen , have from around the year 2000 uncovered objects from the Viking Age and earlier. These are objects of organic material that have been preserved by the ice and that elsewhere in nature are broken down in a few months. The finds are getting older as the melting makes the archaeologists go deeper into the ice. About half of all archaeological discoveries on glaciers in the world are made in Oppland . In 2013, a 3,400-year-old shoe and a robe from the year 300 were found. Finds at Lomseggen in Lom published in 2020 revealed, among other things, well-preserved horseshoes used on a mountain pass. Many hundreds of items include preserved clothing, knives, whisks, mittens, leather shoes, wooden chests and horse equipment. A piece of cloth dated to the year 1000 has preserved its original colour. In 2014, a wooden ski from around the year 700 was found in Reinheimen . The ski is 172 cm long and 14 cm wide, with preserved binding of leather and wicker.

 

Pytheas from Massalia is the oldest known account of what was probably the coast of Norway, perhaps somewhere on the coast of Møre. Pytheas visited Britannia around 325 BC. and traveled further north to a country by the "Ice Sea". Pytheas described the short summer night and the midnight sun farther north. He wrote, among other things, that people there made a drink from grain and honey. Caesar wrote in his work about the Gallic campaign about the Germanic tribe Haruders. Other Roman sources around the year 0 mention the land of the Cimbri (Jutland) and the Cimbri headlands ( Skagen ) and that the sources stated that Cimbri and Charyds lived in this area. Some of these peoples may have immigrated to Norway and there become known as hordes (as in Hordaland). Sources from the Mediterranean area referred to the islands of Scandia, Scandinavia and Thule ("the outermost of all islands"). The Roman historian Tacitus wrote around the year 100 a work about Germania and mentioned the people of Scandia, the Sviones. Ptolemy wrote around the year 150 that the Kharudes (Hordes) lived further north than all the Cimbri, in the north lived the Finnoi (Finns or Sami) and in the south the Gutai (Goths). The Nordic countries and Norway were outside the Roman Empire , which dominated Europe at the time. The Gothic-born historian Jordanes wrote in the 5th century about 13 tribes or people groups in Norway, including raumaricii (probably Romerike ), ragnaricii ( Ranrike ) and finni or skretefinni (skrid finner or ski finner, i.e. Sami) as well as a number of unclear groups. Prokopios wrote at the same time about Thule north of the land of the Danes and Slavs, Thule was ten times as big as Britannia and the largest of all the islands. In Thule, the sun was up 40 days straight in the summer. After the migration period , southern Europeans' accounts of northern Europe became fuller and more reliable.

 

Settlement in prehistoric times

Norway has around 50,000 farms with their own names. Farm names have persisted for a long time, over 1000 years, perhaps as much as 2000 years. The name researchers have arranged different types of farm names chronologically, which provides a basis for determining when the place was used by people or received a permanent settlement. Uncompounded landscape names such as Haug, Eid, Vik and Berg are believed to be the oldest. Archaeological traces indicate that some areas have been inhabited earlier than assumed from the farm name. Burial mounds also indicate permanent settlement. For example, the burial ground at Svartelva in Løten was used from around the year 0 to the year 1000 when Christianity took over. The first farmers probably used large areas for inland and outland, and new farms were probably established based on some "mother farms". Names such as By (or Bø) show that it is an old place of residence. From the older Iron Age, names with -heim (a common Germanic word meaning place of residence) and -stad tell of settlement, while -vin and -land tell of the use of the place. Farm names in -heim are often found as -um , -eim or -em as in Lerum and Seim, there are often large farms in the center of the village. New farm names with -city and -country were also established in the Viking Age . The first farmers probably used the best areas. The largest burial grounds, the oldest archaeological finds and the oldest farm names are found where the arable land is richest and most spacious.

 

It is unclear whether the settlement expansion in Roman times, migrations and the Iron Age is due to immigration or internal development and population growth. Among other things, it is difficult to demonstrate where in Europe the immigrants have come from. The permanent residents had both fields (where grain was grown) and livestock that grazed in the open fields, but it is uncertain which of these was more important. Population growth from around the year 200 led to more utilization of open land, for example in the form of settlements in the mountains. During the migration period, it also seems that in parts of the country it became common to have cluster gardens or a form of village settlement.

 

Norwegian expansion northwards

From around the year 200, there was a certain migration by sea from Rogaland and Hordaland to Nordland and Sør-Troms. Those who moved settled down as a settled Iron Age population and became dominant over the original population which may have been Sami . The immigrant Norwegians, Bumen , farmed with livestock that were fed inside in the winter as well as some grain cultivation and fishing. The northern border of the Norwegians' settlement was originally at the Toppsundet near Harstad and around the year 500 there was a Norwegian settlement to Malangsgapet. That was as far north as it was possible to grow grain at the time. Malangen was considered the border between Hålogaland and Finnmork until around 1400 . Further into the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, there was immigration and settlement of Norwegian speakers along the coast north of Malangen. Around the year 800, Norwegians lived along the entire outer coast to Vannøy . The Norwegians partly copied Sami livelihoods such as whaling, fur hunting and reindeer husbandry. It was probably this area between Malangen and Vannøy that was Ottar from the Hålogaland area. In the Viking Age, there were also some Norwegian settlements further north and east. East of the North Cape are the scattered archaeological finds of Norwegian settlement in the Viking Age. There are Norwegian names for fjords and islands from the Viking Age, including fjord names with "-anger". Around the year 1050, there were Norwegian settlements on the outer coast of Western Finnmark. Traders and tax collectors traveled even further.

 

North of Malangen there were Norse farming settlements in the Iron Age. Malangen was considered Finnmark's western border until 1300. There are some archaeological traces of Norse activity around the coast from Tromsø to Kirkenes in the Viking Age. Around Tromsø, the research indicates a Norse/Sami mixed culture on the coast.

 

From the year 1100 and the next 200–300 years, there are no traces of Norwegian settlement north and east of Tromsø. It is uncertain whether this is due to depopulation, whether it is because the Norwegians further north were not Christianized or because there were no churches north of Lenvik or Tromsø . Norwegian settlement in the far north appears from sources from the 14th century. In the Hanseatic period , the settlement was developed into large areas specialized in commercial fishing, while earlier (in the Viking Age) there had been farms with a combination of fishing and agriculture. In 1307 , a fortress and the first church east of Tromsø were built in Vardø . Vardø became a small Norwegian town, while Vadsø remained Sami. Norwegian settlements and churches appeared along the outermost coast in the Middle Ages. After the Reformation, perhaps as a result of a decline in fish stocks or fish prices, there were Norwegian settlements in the inner fjord areas such as Lebesby in Laksefjord. Some fishing villages at the far end of the coast were abandoned for good. In the interior of Finnmark, there was no national border for a long time and Kautokeino and Karasjok were joint Norwegian-Swedish areas with strong Swedish influence. The border with Finland was established in 1751 and with Russia in 1826.

 

On a Swedish map from 1626, Norway's border is indicated at Malangen, while Sweden with this map showed a desire to control the Sami area which had been a common area.

 

The term Northern Norway only came into use at the end of the 19th century and administratively the area was referred to as Tromsø Diocese when Tromsø became a bishopric in 1840. There had been different designations previously: Hålogaland originally included only Helgeland and when Norse settlement spread north in the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, Hålogaland was used for the area north approximately to Malangen , while Finnmark or "Finnmarken", "the land of the Sami", lay outside. The term Northern Norway was coined at a cafe table in Kristiania in 1884 by members of the Nordlændingernes Forening and was first commonly used in the interwar period as it eventually supplanted "Hålogaland".

 

State formation

The battle in Hafrsfjord in the year 872 has long been regarded as the day when Norway became a kingdom. The year of the battle is uncertain (may have been 10-20 years later). The whole of Norway was not united in that battle: the process had begun earlier and continued a couple of hundred years later. This means that the geographical area became subject to a political authority and became a political unit. The geographical area was perceived as an area as it is known, among other things, from Ottar from Hålogaland's account for King Alfred of Wessex around the year 880. Ottar described "the land of the Norwegians" as very long and narrow, and it was narrowest in the far north. East of the wasteland in the south lay Sveoland and in the north lay Kvenaland in the east. When Ottar sailed south along the land from his home ( Malangen ) to Skiringssal, he always had Norway ("Nordveg") on his port side and the British Isles on his starboard side. The journey took a good month. Ottar perceived "Nordveg" as a geographical unit, but did not imply that it was a political unit. Ottar separated Norwegians from Swedes and Danes. It is unclear why Ottar perceived the population spread over such a large area as a whole. It is unclear whether Norway as a geographical term or Norwegians as the name of a ethnic group is the oldest. The Norwegians had a common language which in the centuries before Ottar did not differ much from the language of Denmark and Sweden.

 

According to Sverre Steen, it is unlikely that Harald Hårfagre was able to control this entire area as one kingdom. The saga of Harald was written 300 years later and at his death Norway was several smaller kingdoms. Harald probably controlled a larger area than anyone before him and at most Harald's kingdom probably included the coast from Trøndelag to Agder and Vestfold as well as parts of Viken . There were probably several smaller kingdoms of varying extent before Harald and some of these are reflected in traditional landscape names such as Ranrike and Ringerike . Landscape names of "-land" (Rogaland) and "-mark" (Hedmark) as well as names such as Agder and Sogn may have been political units before Harald.

 

According to Sverre Steen, the national assembly was completed at the earliest at the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 and the introduction of Christianity was probably a significant factor in the establishment of Norway as a state. Håkon I the good Adalsteinsfostre introduced the leasehold system where the "coastal land" (as far as the salmon went up the rivers) was divided into ship raiders who were to provide a longship with soldiers and supplies. The leidange was probably introduced as a defense against the Danes. The border with the Danes was traditionally at the Göta älv and several times before and after Harald Hårfagre the Danes had control over central parts of Norway.

 

Christianity was known and existed in Norway before Olav Haraldson's time. The spread occurred both from the south (today's Denmark and northern Germany) and from the west (England and Ireland). Ansgar of Bremen , called the "Apostle of the North", worked in Sweden, but he was never in Norway and probably had little influence in the country. Viking expeditions brought the Norwegians of that time into contact with Christian countries and some were baptized in England, Ireland and northern France. Olav Tryggvason and Olav Haraldson were Vikings who returned home. The first Christians in Norway were also linked to pre-Christian local religion, among other things, by mixing Christian symbols with symbols of Odin and other figures from Norse religion.

 

According to Sverre Steen, the introduction of Christianity in Norway should not be perceived as a nationwide revival. At Mostratinget, Christian law was introduced as law in the country and later incorporated into the laws of the individual jurisdictions. Christianity primarily involved new forms in social life, among other things exposure and images of gods were prohibited, it was forbidden to "put out" unwanted infants (to let them die), and it was forbidden to have multiple wives. The church became a nationwide institution with a special group of officials tasked with protecting the church and consolidating the new religion. According to Sverre Steen, Christianity and the church in the Middle Ages should therefore be considered together, and these became a new unifying factor in the country. The church and Christianity linked Norway to Roman Catholic Europe with Church Latin as the common language, the same time reckoning as the rest of Europe and the church in Norway was arranged much like the churches in Denmark, Sweden and England. Norway received papal approval in 1070 and became its own church province in 1152 with Archbishop Nidaros .

 

With Christianity, the country got three social powers: the peasants (organized through the things), the king with his officials and the church with the clergy. The things are the oldest institution: At allthings all armed men had the right to attend (in part an obligation to attend) and at lagthings met emissaries from an area (that is, the lagthings were representative assemblies). The Thing both ruled in conflicts and established laws. The laws were memorized by the participants and written down around the year 1000 or later in the Gulationsloven , Frostatingsloven , Eidsivatingsloven and Borgartingsloven . The person who had been successful at the hearing had to see to the implementation of the judgment themselves.

 

Early Middle Ages (1050s–1184)

The early Middle Ages is considered in Norwegian history to be the period between the end of the Viking Age around 1050 and the coronation of King Sverre in 1184 . The beginning of the period can be dated differently, from around the year 1000 when the Christianization of the country took place and up to 1100 when the Viking Age was over from an archaeological point of view. From 1035 to 1130 it was a time of (relative) internal peace in Norway, even several of the kings attempted campaigns abroad, including in 1066 and 1103 .

 

During this period, the church's organization was built up. This led to a gradual change in religious customs. Religion went from being a domestic matter to being regulated by common European Christian law and the royal power gained increased power and influence. Slavery (" servitude ") was gradually abolished. The population grew rapidly during this period, as the thousands of farm names ending in -rud show.

 

The urbanization of Norway is a historical process that has slowly but surely changed Norway from the early Viking Age to today, from a country based on agriculture and sea salvage, to increasingly trade and industry. As early as the ninth century, the country got its first urban community, and in the eleventh century we got the first permanent cities.

 

In the 1130s, civil war broke out . This was due to a power struggle and that anyone who claimed to be the king's son could claim the right to the throne. The disputes escalated into extensive year-round warfare when Sverre Sigurdsson started a rebellion against the church's and the landmen's candidate for the throne , Magnus Erlingsson .

 

Emergence of cities

The oldest Norwegian cities probably emerged from the end of the 9th century. Oslo, Bergen and Nidaros became episcopal seats, which stimulated urban development there, and the king built churches in Borg , Konghelle and Tønsberg. Hamar and Stavanger became new episcopal seats and are referred to in the late 12th century as towns together with the trading places Veøy in Romsdal and Kaupanger in Sogn. In the late Middle Ages, Borgund (on Sunnmøre), Veøy (in Romsdalsfjorden) and Vågan (in Lofoten) were referred to as small trading places. Urbanization in Norway occurred in few places compared to the neighboring countries, only 14 places appear as cities before 1350. Stavanger became a bishopric around 1120–1130, but it is unclear whether the place was already a city then. The fertile Jæren and outer Ryfylke were probably relatively densely populated at that time. A particularly large concentration of Irish artefacts from the Viking Age has been found in Stavanger and Nord-Jæren.

 

It has been difficult to estimate the population in the Norwegian medieval cities, but it is considered certain that the cities grew rapidly in the Middle Ages. Oscar Albert Johnsen estimated the city's population before the Black Death at 20,000, of which 7,000 in Bergen, 3,000 in Nidaros, 2,000 in Oslo and 1,500 in Tunsberg. Based on archaeological research, Lunden estimates that Oslo had around 1,500 inhabitants in 250 households in the year 1300. Bergen was built up more densely and, with the concentration of exports there, became Norway's largest city in a special position for several hundred years. Knut Helle suggests a city population of 20,000 at most in the High Middle Ages, of which almost half in Bergen.

 

The Bjarkøyretten regulated the conditions in cities (especially Bergen and Nidaros) and in trading places, and for Nidaros had many of the same provisions as the Frostating Act . Magnus Lagabøte's city law replaced the bjarkøretten and from 1276 regulated the settlement in Bergen and with corresponding laws also drawn up for Oslo, Nidaros and Tunsberg. The city law applied within the city's roof area . The City Act determined that the city's public streets consisted of wide commons (perpendicular to the shoreline) and ran parallel to the shoreline, similarly in Nidaros and Oslo. The roads were small streets of up to 3 cubits (1.4 metres) and linked to the individual property. From the Middle Ages, the Norwegian cities were usually surrounded by wooden fences. The urban development largely consisted of low wooden houses which stood in contrast to the relatively numerous and dominant churches and monasteries built in stone.

 

The City Act and supplementary provisions often determined where in the city different goods could be traded, in Bergen, for example, cattle and sheep could only be traded on the Square, and fish only on the Square or directly from the boats at the quayside. In Nidaros, the blacksmiths were required to stay away from the densely populated areas due to the risk of fire, while the tanners had to stay away from the settlements due to the strong smell. The City Act also attempted to regulate the influx of people into the city (among other things to prevent begging in the streets) and had provisions on fire protection. In Oslo, from the 13th century or earlier, it was common to have apartment buildings consisting of single buildings on a couple of floors around a courtyard with access from the street through a gate room. Oslo's medieval apartment buildings were home to one to four households. In the urban farms, livestock could be kept, including pigs and cows, while pastures and fields were found in the city's rooftops . In the apartment buildings there could be several outbuildings such as warehouses, barns and stables. Archaeological excavations show that much of the buildings in medieval Oslo, Trondheim and Tønsberg resembled the oblong farms that have been preserved at Bryggen in Bergen . The land boundaries in Oslo appear to have persisted for many hundreds of years, in Bergen right from the Middle Ages to modern times.

 

High Middle Ages (1184–1319)

After civil wars in the 12th century, the country had a relative heyday in the 13th century. Iceland and Greenland came under the royal authority in 1262 , and the Norwegian Empire reached its greatest extent under Håkon IV Håkonsson . The last king of Haraldsätten, Håkon V Magnusson , died sonless in 1319 . Until the 17th century, Norway stretched all the way down to the mouth of Göta älv , which was then Norway's border with Sweden and Denmark.

 

Just before the Black Death around 1350, there were between 65,000 and 85,000 farms in the country, and there had been a strong growth in the number of farms from 1050, especially in Eastern Norway. In the High Middle Ages, the church or ecclesiastical institutions controlled 40% of the land in Norway, while the aristocracy owned around 20% and the king owned 7%. The church and monasteries received land through gifts from the king and nobles, or through inheritance and gifts from ordinary farmers.

 

Settlement and demography in the Middle Ages

Before the Black Death, there were more and more farms in Norway due to farm division and clearing. The settlement spread to more marginal agricultural areas higher inland and further north. Eastern Norway had the largest areas to take off and had the most population growth towards the High Middle Ages. Along the coast north of Stad, settlement probably increased in line with the extent of fishing. The Icelandic Rimbegla tells around the year 1200 that the border between Finnmark (the land of the Sami) and resident Norwegians in the interior was at Malangen , while the border all the way out on the coast was at Kvaløya . From the end of the High Middle Ages, there were more Norwegians along the coast of Finnmark and Nord-Troms. In the inner forest and mountain tracts along the current border between Norway and Sweden, the Sami exploited the resources all the way down to Hedmark.

 

There are no censuses or other records of population and settlement in the Middle Ages. At the time of the Reformation, the population was below 200,000 and only in 1650 was the population at the same level as before the Black Death. When Christianity was introduced after the year 1000, the population was around 200,000. After the Black Death, many farms and settlements were abandoned and deserted, in the most marginal agricultural areas up to 80% of the farms were abandoned. Places such as Skien, Veøy and Borgund (Ålesund) went out of use as trading towns. By the year 1300, the population was somewhere between 300,000 and 560,000 depending on the calculation method. Common methods start from detailed information about farms in each village and compare this with the situation in 1660 when there are good headcounts. From 1300 to 1660, there was a change in the economic base so that the coastal villages received a larger share of the population. The inland areas of Eastern Norway had a relatively larger population in the High Middle Ages than after the Reformation. Kåre Lunden concludes that the population in the year 1300 was close to 500,000, of which 15,000 lived in cities. Lunden believes that the population in 1660 was still slightly lower than the peak before the Black Death and points out that farm settlement in 1660 did not reach the same extent as in the High Middle Ages. In 1660, the population in Troms and Finnmark was 6,000 and 3,000 respectively (2% of the total population), in 1300 these areas had an even smaller share of the country's population and in Finnmark there were hardly any Norwegian-speaking inhabitants. In the High Middle Ages, the climate was more favorable for grain cultivation in the north. Based on the number of farms, the population increased 162% from 1000 to 1300, in Northern and Western Europe as a whole the growth was 200% in the same period.

 

Late Middle Ages (1319–1537)

Due to repeated plague epidemics, the population was roughly halved and the least productive of the country's farms were laid waste. It took several hundred years before the population again reached the level before 1349 . However, those who survived the epidemics gained more financial resources by sharing. Tax revenues for the state almost collapsed, and a large part of the noble families died out or sank into peasant status due to the fall in national debt . The Hanseatic League took over trade and shipping and dominated fish exports. The Archbishop of Nidaros was the country's most powerful man economically and politically, as the royal dynasty married into the Swedish in 1319 and died out in 1387 . Eventually, Copenhagen became the political center of the kingdom and Bergen the commercial center, while Trondheim remained the religious center.

 

From Reformation to Autocracy (1537–1660)

In 1537 , the Reformation was carried out in Norway. With that, almost half of the country's property was confiscated by the royal power at the stroke of a pen. The large seizure increased the king's income and was able, among other things, to expand his military power and consolidated his power in the kingdom. From roughly the time of the Reformation and in the following centuries, the state increased its power and importance in people's lives. Until around 1620, the state administration was fairly simple and unspecialised: in Copenhagen, the central administration mainly consisted of a chancellery and an interest chamber ; and sheriffs ruled the civil (including bailiffs and sheriffs) and the military in their district, the sheriffs collected taxes and oversaw business. The accounts were not clear and without summaries. The clergy, which had great power as a separate organization, was appointed by the state church after the Reformation, administered from Copenhagen. In this period, Norway was ruled by (mainly) Danish noble sheriffs, who acted as intermediaries between the peasants and the Oldenborg king in the field of justice, tax and customs collection.

 

From 1620, the state apparatus went through major changes where specialization of functions was a main issue. The sheriff's tasks were divided between several, more specialized officials - the sheriffs retained the formal authority over these, who in practice were under the national administration in Copenhagen. Among other things, a separate military officer corps was established, a separate customs office was established and separate treasurers for taxes and fees were appointed. The Overbergamtet, the central governing body for overseeing mining operations in Norway, was established in 1654 with an office in Christiania and this agency was to oversee the mining chiefs in the Nordenfjeld and Sønnenfjeld areas (the mines at Kongsberg and Røros were established in the previous decades). The formal transition from county government to official government with fixed-paid county officials took place after 1660, but the real changes had taken place from around 1620. The increased specialization and transition to official government meant that experts, not amateurs, were in charge of each area, and this civil service meant, according to Sverre Steen that the dictatorship was not a personal dictatorship.

 

From 1570 until 1721, the Oldenborg dynasty was in repeated wars with the Vasa dynasty in Sweden. The financing of these wars led to a severe increase in taxation which caused great distress.

 

Politically-geographically, the Oldenborg kings had to cede to Sweden the Norwegian provinces of Jemtland , Herjedalen , Idre and Särna , as well as Båhuslen . As part of the financing of the wars, the state apparatus was expanded. Royal power began to assert itself to a greater extent in the administration of justice. Until this period, cases of violence and defamation had been treated as civil cases between citizens. The level of punishment was greatly increased. During this period, at least 307 people were also executed for witchcraft in Norway. Culturally, the country was marked by the fact that the written language became Danish because of the Bible translation and the University of Copenhagen's educational monopoly.

 

From the 16th century, business became more marked by production for sale and not just own consumption. In the past, it was particularly the fisheries that had produced such a large surplus of goods that it was sold to markets far away, the dried fish trade via Bergen is known from around the year 1100. In the 16th century, the yield from the fisheries multiplied, especially due to the introduction of herring in Western Norway and in Trøndelag and because new tools made fishing for herring and skre more efficient. Line fishing and cod nets that were introduced in the 17th century were controversial because the small fishermen believed it favored citizens in the cities.

 

Forestry and the timber trade became an important business, particularly because of the boom saw which made it possible to saw all kinds of tables and planks for sale abroad. The demand for timber increased at the same time in Europe, Norway had plenty of forests and in the 17th century timber became the country's most important export product. There were hundreds of sawmills in the country and the largest had the feel of factories . In 1680, the king regulated the timber trade by allowing exports only from privileged sawmills and in a certain quantity.

 

From the 1520s, some silver was mined in Telemark. When the peasants chased the German miners whereupon the king executed five peasants and demanded compensation from the other rebellious peasants. The background for the harsh treatment was that the king wanted to assert his authority over the extraction of precious metals. The search for metals led to the silver works at Kongsberg after 1624, copper in the mountain villages between Trøndelag and Eastern Norway, and iron, among other things, in Agder and lower Telemark. The financial gain of the quarries at that time is unclear because there are no reliable accounts. Kongsberg ma

A proper selfie moment executed at the dance floor of the Saturday night chiptunes dance.

No tour of Palo Alto landmarks would be complete without at stop, figuratively speaking, at the Glass Slipper Inn.

 

This motel, executed in a neo-Disneyland style, was in its heyday when we arrived in Palo Alto in 1967. And it's still there today, amazingly enough.

 

I don't recall that it looked so washed out 50 years ago.

 

El Camino Real, Palo Alto, California.

February 14, 1929 is infamous in history as the date of the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.

Five members of the North Side Irish Gang led by Bugs Moran, plus gang collaborators Reinhardt H. Schwimmer and John May, were stood up against awall of the garage at in the Lincoln Park neighborhood of Chicago's North Side, and executed. Two men dressed as Police Officers had brought their guard down allowing other shooters to come in with the Gang dressed and armed in police uniforms. The mobsters were unarmed (not expecting trouble from the Police).

 

Never underestimate the power of friends.

The OBL (Osama Bin Ladin) raid has been accurately recreated in lego for the one and only Brick Fair Virginia 2013. This collaborative MOC has been registered as an official collaboration and will be on display in a specific place at the convention for attendees and the public to veiw.

🇫🇷 La tour a été construite en 1307,pendant la période de l'occupation pisane de la ville, par l'architecte sarde Giovanni Capula , qui avait construit deux ans plus tôt la tour jumelle de San Pancrazio(plus haute tour de Cagliari)

D'une hauteur de 31 m, elle est construite sur trois côtés en calcaire blanc provenant de Colle di Bonaria, à proximité, le dernier côté étant laissé ouvert.Plus tard, pendant la domination aragonaise, la tour a été modifiée et utilisée comme prison... et ses murs ont été utilisés pour suspendre les têtes coupées, des personnes exécutées dans la prison L'une des deux seules tours pisanes encore debout dans la ville tire son nom de la figure d'éléphant sculptée, située sur le mur extérieur, à côté de la herse. .

 

🇬🇧 Beneath the marble floor of the Cathedral there are several underground chambers, most of which are not open to the public, designed to house the tombs of various personalities over the centuries, including archbishops, nobles, viceroys and saints. The most important of these is the Martyrs' Shrine, located under the choir, which owes its name to the 179 niches containing what are thought to be the relics of numerous saints found in several paleo-Christian cemeteries in Cagliari;

 

🇮🇹 Sotto il pavimento marmoreo della cattedrale si trovano diverse camere sotterranee, la maggior parte delle quali non visitabili, che furono progettate per il passaggio dei secoli alle tombe di vari personaggi, tra cui arcivescovi, nobili, viceré e santiIl più notevole è il Santuario dei Martiri, sotto il coro Deve il suo nome alle 179 nicchie contenenti presunte reliquie di numerosi santi trovate in diversi cimiteri paleocristiani cagliaritani;

 

🇩🇪 Unter dem Marmorfußboden der Kathedrale befinden sich mehrere unterirdische Kammern, von denen die meisten nicht besichtigt werden können und die im Laufe der Jahrhunderte als Grabstätten verschiedener Persönlichkeiten, darunter Erzbischöfe, Adlige, Vizekönige und Heilige, dienten Die bemerkenswerteste ist die Wallfahrtskirche der Märtyrer unter dem Chor Sie verdankt ihren Namen den 179 Nischen, in denen die Reliquien zahlreicher Heiliger vermutet werden, die in mehreren frühchristlichen Friedhöfen von Cagliari gefunden wurden;

 

🇪🇸 Bajo el suelo de mármol de la catedral hay varias cámaras subterráneas, la mayoría no visitadas, que fueron diseñadas para perdurar a lo largo de los siglos y albergar las tumbas de diversos personajes, incluyendo arzobispos, nobles, virreyes y santos. La más notable es el Santuario de los Mártires, bajo el coro. Debe su nombre a los 179 nichos que contienen presuntas reliquias de numerosos santos encontrados en varios cementerios paleocristianos de Cagliari.

 

www.gooisemereninformatie.nl/naarden-menu/grote-sint-vitu...

 

In the Grote Kerk in Naarden there are 27 church paintings on the vault of the central nave in large dimensions, which were once applied to the white wood with glue paint.

 

The images represent the Last Judgment and scenes from the life of Jesus. On the other hand, there are ten representations from the Old Testament. P1310641

 

The performances are therefore based on scenes from the Old and New Testament and were largely based on woodcuts by Albrecht Dürer and work by Jacob Cornelisz.

 

The beams, carvings and styles were painted in watercolor, with ornaments, weapons and attributes. The scenes, placed high above the church building, were set in elegantly executed edges with a late Gothic character.

 

This corresponded to the vault paintings in the St. Laurenskerk in Alkmaar. Most of the performances included the weapons of the guilds or of persons who had originally donated them.

 

A painting of a church of this size was rare in the Netherlands and the work was, in view of the age and wars it had experienced, even in reasonable condition before the restoration.

 

Buys van Oostsanen

 

The 27 ceiling paintings were probably made in the early sixteenth century by a group of artists around Jacob Cornelisz (Buys) van Oostsanen. Monogram of the painter of the vaults

 

Van Oostsanen (1475-1533), born, as the name already says in Oostzaan, settled in Amsterdam in 1500 and bought there, with an interval of twenty years, two houses in the Kalverstraat.

 

His workshop included paintings, glass paintings and church vestments. In addition, Van Oostsanen and his employees carried out vault paintings in the large churches of Naarden, Alkmaar and Hoorn. Van Oostsanen died in 1533.

 

Importance of the paintings

 

The dating of the paintings in the Grote Kerk in Naarden was derived from the Count's Crown. One of the images featured the coat of arms of Charles the Fifth, who was elected emperor in 1519, so the paintings have to be dated earlier. Part of a vault painting

 

According to authorities in this field, the paintings were the most complete and intact series on a barrel vault that had been handed down in a church in the Netherlands.

 

Of the church paintings, the painter J.A. de Rijk, later professor at the R.K. Seminar "Hageveld", made accurate and fairly detailed drawings, which were exhibited at the exhibition of Gooise antiquities in 1882 and which were taken over by the Dutch Society of Liberal Arts and Sciences.

 

The fact that the sketches were on display was due to the efforts of First Lieutenant Adjutant of Artillery, A.N.J. Fabius.

 

Presentation of the images (general)

 

The vault of the choir abbits, in figures of two or three times the size of man, represents the Last Judgment. This is the end of the whole and the end, to which all other ideas lead.

 

On the north side are scenes from the life of the Saviors:

 

The fear of the Lord in the Olive Garden - David and the Mount of Olives

The betrayal of Judas - kisses of men

The Flagellation of the Lord - Chastisement

The derision of the soldiers - taunting Elisha

The carrying of the cross - Isaac carrying the wood of sacrifice on his shoulders

The Crucifixion - Copper serpent in the desert

The Entombment - Jonas Devoured by a Sea Monster

The Resurrection - Simon who carried the gate of Gaza on his back

Ascension - Ascension of the prophet Elias to heaven

The Descent of the Holy Spirit - Declaration of the Ten Commandments on Sinai

The Last Judgment is directly in line with this. Opposite these ten scenes, in equal dimensions, on the other, or east side, are ten representations from the Old Testament, pre-depictions of the aforementioned. P1310622

 

Most of the scenes still included the weapons of the guilds or of special persons who had donated them. Some paintings depicted patron saints: Our Lady, the apostles Peter and Paul, St. George with the dragon, St. Sebastian and St. Hubert.

 

On one of the beams of the ceiling paintings was the following verse: "If one wrote 1618 sach. In May the 20th day, Do it was written here. God protects this church from any dangier."

 

It is wrongly thought that the ceiling paintings would not have been completed until 1618, but it is possible that the verse was from a visitor to the church. P1310105

 

The choir polygon consisted of five subjects. Over the centuries, these have suffered a lot from over- or additional paintings.

 

The Last Judgment was presented here. In the center sat Christ, flanked by trumpet angels.

 

The dead came down from their graves below. The northern polygon area was filled by a very beautifully executed angel, the southern one by devils and demons.

While waiting for parts on my ongoing MOC, I decided to challenge myself to make a Star Wars vignette during a weekend, inspired by a concept art from a cancelled game “Star Wars: 1313”.

 

Level 1313 was Coruscant's most infamous level, so deep that the world above forgot about it, which made it a pefect home for the criminal underworld... and a great place to hide...

 

Check out the cinematic video of this MOC on my YouTube channel: youtu.be/P3abN3Xxpis

After executing a legit carrier break, an F/A-18F Super Hornet from VFA-122 Flying Eagles is seen on short final, Runway 18 at NAS JRB Fort Worth.

He was the son of Arthur Capell, 1st Baron Capell of Hadham (who was executed in 1649) and of Elizabeth Morrison, daughter and heir of Sir Charles Morrison of Cassiobury in Hertfordshire, and was baptized on 2 January 1632.

 

In June 1648, then a sickly boy of sixteen, he was taken by Lord Fairfax's soldiers from Hadham to Colchester, which his father was defending, and carried every day around the works with the hope of inducing Lord Capel to surrender the place.

 

At the Restoration he was created Viscount Malden and Earl of Essex (20 April 1661), the latter title having previously died out with Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex. It was granted with special remainder to the male issue of his father, and Capel was made lord-lieutenant of Hertfordshire and a few years later Lord Lieutenant of Wiltshire.

 

Early on, he showed himself antagonistic to the court, to Roman Catholicism, and to the extension of the royal prerogative, and was coupled by Charles II with Denzil Holles as "stiff and sullen men," who would not yield against their convictions to his solicitations. In 1669 he was sent as ambassador to King Christian V of Denmark, in which capacity he gained credit by refusing to strike his flag to the governor of Kronborg.

 

In 1672 he was made a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Ireland. He remained in office till 1677, and his administration was greatly commended by Burnet and Ormonde, the former describing it "as a pattern to all that come after him." He identified himself with Irish interests, and took immense pains to understand the constitution and the political necessities of the country, appointing men of real merit to office, and maintaining an exceptional independence from solicitation and influence.

 

The purity and patriotism of his administration were in strong contrast to the hopeless corruption prevalent in that at home and naturally aroused bitter opposition, as an obstacle to the unscrupulous employment of Irish revenues for the satisfaction of the court and the king's expenses. In particular he came into conflict with Lord Ranelagh, to whom had been assigned the Irish revenues on condition of his supplying the requirements of the crown, and whose accounts Essex refused to pass. He opposed strongly the lavish gifts of forfeited estates to court favourites and mistresses, prevented the grant of Phoenix Park to the duchess of Cleveland, and refused to encumber the administration by granting reversions. Finally the intrigues of his enemies at home, and Charles's continual demands for money, which Ranelagh undertook to satisfy, brought about his recall in April 1677.

 

He immediately joined the country party and the opposition to Lord Danby's government, and on the latter's fall in 1679 was appointed a commissioner of the treasury, and the same year a member of Sir William Temple's new-modelled council. He followed the lead of Lord Halifax, who advocated not the exclusion of James, but the limitation of his sovereign powers, and looked to the Prince of Orange rather than to the Duke of Monmouth as the leader of Protestantism, incurring thereby the hostility of Lord Shaftesbury, but at the same time gaining the confidence of Charles.

 

He was appointed by Charles together with Halifax to hear the charges against the Duke of Lauderdale. In July he wrote a wise and statesmanlike letter to the king, advising him to renounce his project of raising a new company of guards. Together with Halifax he urged Charles to summon the parliament, and after his refusal resigned the treasury in November, the real cause being, according to one account, a demand upon the treasury by the duchess of Cleveland for £25,000, according to another "the niceness of touching French money," "that makes my Lord Essex's squeasy stomach that it can no longer digest his employment."

 

Subsequently his political attitude underwent a change, the exact cause of which is not clear—probably a growing conviction of the dangers threatened by a Roman Catholic sovereign of the character of James. He now, in 1680, joined Shaftesbury's party and supported the Exclusion Bill, and on its rejection by the Lords carried a motion for an association to execute the scheme of expedients promoted by Halifax. On 25 January 1681 at the head of fifteen peers he presented a petition to the king, couched in exaggerated language, requesting the abandonment of the session of parliament at Oxford. He was a jealous prosecutor of the Roman Catholics in the popish plot, and voted for Lord Stafford's attainder, on the other hand interceding for Archbishop Plunkett, implicated in the pretended Irish plot. He, however, refused to follow Shaftesbury in his extreme courses, declined participation in the latter's design to seize the Tower in 1682, and on Shaftesbury's consequent departure from England became the leader of Monmouth's faction, in which were now included Lord Russell, Algernon Sidney, and Lord Howard of Escrick.

 

Essex took no part in the wilder schemes of the party, but after the discovery of the Rye House Plot in June 1683, and the capture of the leaders, he was arrested at Cassiobury and imprisoned in the Tower.

 

His spirits and fortitude appear immediately to have abandoned him, and on July 13 he was discovered in his chamber with his throat cut. His death was attributed, quite groundlessly, to Charles and James, and the evidence points clearly if not conclusively to suicide, his motive being possibly to prevent an attainder and preserve his estate for his family. Lord Ailesbury wrote: "The Earl asked very coldly for a razor to cut his nails, and being accustomed so to do gave no manner of suspicion. He went into a small closet," where his servant afterward found him "dead and wallowing in blood"... the assumption being that the reason he "cutt his own throat with a knife" was because of his knowledge of the Rye House Plot. If not killed by them, he was, however, undoubtedly a victim of the Stuart administration, and the antagonism and tragic end of men like Essex, deserving men, naturally devoted to the throne, constitutes a severe indictment of the Stuart rule.

  

Local skater executes with no fear.

A wee composite shot of the members of Bone Island, a Glasgow-based rock group.

I'm particularly pleased with this shot as I only had about 5 minutes to set it up and execute it as the next band were waiting outside the door to use the studio :)

 

Explored: Highest position: 30 on Saturday, April 26, 2014

Hong Kong Airlines

Airbus A330-343 (MSN 1105)

B-LNS

HX337 PEK-HKG

* Executing go around.

Executed by spatula on canvas

Size 120x80 cm

 

iacolinothecolorist.blogspot.it/

  

Greater Manchester Police have made 18 arrests, seized a substantial amount of Class A drugs and shut down a cannabis farm after executing a series of warrants in Salford.

 

This morning, Wednesday 14 October 2015, more than 200 officers executed warrants at 22 addresses across Eccles and Pendleton as part of a Project Gulf operation designed to tackle organised crime.

 

Gulf is part of Programme Challenger, the Greater Manchester approach to tackling organised criminality across the region.

 

The raids are the result of an intelligence-led operation conducted over a number of months into offences such as supplying Class A drugs and other criminality. Searches at a number of properties are still on-going.

 

Fifteen men and three women have so far been arrested on suspicion of supplying Class A drugs. They remain in custody for questioning.

 

Searches of the 22 properties also uncovered a cannabis farm, and have resulted in officers seizing a substantial amount of cocaine, crack cocaine, heroin, cannabis, a stolen motorbike and some cash.

 

Superintendent Mark Kenny, of Salford Division, said: “These warrants are a result of a sustained and in-depth operation into the supply of Class A drugs not just in Salford, but Greater Manchester as a whole.

 

“They have utilised some excellent work by my officers in the gathering of intelligence and information, which has allowed us to seize a significant amount of drugs which would soon have been poisoning our streets.

 

“We have also been successful in confiscating a large amount of cash, hitting the dealers where it hurts.

 

“We would not have been able to carry out these warrants had it not been for members of the public coming to us with information and intelligence, and that is very pleasing.

 

“However, our investigations are continuing and if anyone has any information they think will assist I would encourage them to contact us.

 

“Our communities have already shown they are prepared to work with us in the fight against drugs and organised crime and I would like to express my thanks to those who came forward and helped us reduce the amount of dangerous narcotics in their areas.

 

“But there is still more to do and, as with any fight against organised crime groups embedded in our communities, we need residents to come to us with information so we can put a stop to this criminality.

 

“If you see drug dealing taking place in your area, come to us, we can help to put a stop to it and help to make Greater Manchester a safer place to live.”

 

Anyone with information is asked to call police on 101 or the independent charity Crimestoppers, anonymously, on 0800 555 111.

 

"You will appreciate your existence once you acquaint that every barrier has an exit door."

 

[HaMeDi©aL 2006]

Johannes Vermeer, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Attribution not legally required

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Little_Street

The Little Street (Het Straatje) is a painting by the Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer, executed c. 1657-1658. It is exhibited at the Rijksmuseum of Amsterdam, and signed, below the window in the lower left-hand corner, "I V MEER".

 

The Little Street by Jan Vermeer depicts a small fragment of Delft, his hometown and place of residence. The small painting (54.3x44 cm) is a significant piece in Vermeer’s body of work. Besides the famous View on Delft (ca. 1660-1661), The Little Street is the only other recognized townscape created by Vermeer. Although there are records of another townscape painted by Vermeer, it remains unknown and lost. Just like Vermeer’s famous interiors, The Little Street embodies qualities of intimacy and domesticity. The artist shows the beauty found in the mundane, the figures of women and children going about their daily activities. The women diligently cleaning and doing needlework in front of the simple households represent the ideal of domestic virtue. The vine growing on the building on the left also relates to domesticity, as it was considered a symbol of love, fidelity and marriage since ancient times.

 

This beautifully executed sculpture was erected in 2001 close to Minehead harbour, marking the start (or end) of the South West Coastal Path. It was designed by Sarah Ward, a student at West Somerset College who was only 19 at the time, and made by established metal sculptor Owen Cunningham. It's simple and effective and although mentions on Google don't say what it's made of (one said bronze, which it isn't), I'm pretty sure it's galvanised steel. We set out to find it a year or so back but didn't walk close enough to the harbour, so coming across it at last was a bonus.

Catedral de Barcelona @ Barcelona, Cataluña, España

On Black / Fondo Negro then press F11 / luego presiona F11

 

La Catedral de la Santa Cruz y Santa Eulalia (nombre oficial de la Catedral) es la catedral gótica de Barcelona, sede del Arzobispado de Barcelona, en Cataluña, España.

 

La catedral actual se construyó durante los siglos XIII a XV sobre la antigua catedral románica, edificada a su vez sobre una iglesia de la época visigoda a la que precedió una basílica paleocristiana, cuyos restos pueden verse en el subsuelo, en el Museo de Historia de la Ciudad. La finalización de la imponente fachada en el mismo estilo, sin embargo, es mucho más moderna (siglo XIX). El edificio es Bien de Interés Cultural y, desde el 2 de noviembre de 1929, Monumento Histórico-Artístico Nacional.

 

Está dedicada a la Santa Cruz y a Santa Eulalia, patrona de la ciudad de Barcelona (actualmente es más celebrada como tal es la Virgen de la Merced que, estrictamente, es patrona de la diócesis de Barcelona, pero no de la ciudad), una joven doncella que, de acuerdo con la tradición católica, sufrió el martirio durante la época romana. Una de tales historias cuenta que fue expuesta desnuda en el foro de la ciudad y que milagrosamente, a mitad de primavera, cayó una nevada que cubrió su desnudez. Las enfurecidas autoridades romanas la metieron en un barril con vidrios rotos, clavos y cuchillos clavados en él y lanzaron cuesta abajo el barril (de acuerdo con la tradición, se trataría de la calle Baixada de Santa Eulàlia, Cuesta de Santa Eulalia). Y así, hasta trece martirios diferentes, uno por cada año de edad de la santa. Finalmente, fue crucificada en una cruz en forma de aspa, que es el emblema de la catedral y la diócesis, así como el atributo iconográfico de la santa.

-----------------------------------------------------------------

The Cathedral of Santa Eulalia (official name) is the Gothic cathedral seat of the Archbishop of Barcelona, Spain. (Though sometimes inaccurately so called, the famous Sagrada Família is not a cathedral). The cathedral was constructed throughout the 13th to 15th centuries, with the principal work done in the 14th century. The cloisters enclosing the Well of the Geese (Fuente de las Ocas) were completed about 1450. The neo-Gothic façade was constructed over the nondescript exterior that is common to Catalan churches in the 19th century.

 

The cathedral was constructed over the crypt of a former Visigothic chapel, dedicated to Saint James, which was the proprietary church of the Viscounts of Barcelona, one of whom, Mir Gerberto, sold it in 1058 to bishop Guisleberto. Its site faced the Roman forum of Barcelona,

 

It is a hall church, vaulted over five aisles, the outer two divided into chapels. The transept is truncated. The east end is a chevet of nine radiating chapels connected by an ambulatory. The high altar is raised, allowing a clear view into the crypt.

 

The cathedral is dedicated to Eulalia of Barcelona, co-patron saint of Barcelona, a young virgin who, according to Catholic tradition, suffered martyrdom during Roman times in Barcelona. One story is that she was exposed naked in the public square and a miraculous snowfall in mid-spring covered her nudity. The enraged Romans put her into a barrel with knives stuck into it and rolled it down a street (according to tradition, the one now called 'Baixada de Santa Eulalia'). The body of Saint Eulalia is entombed in the cathedral's crypt.

 

The choir stalls retain the coats-of-arms of the knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece. In his first trip into Spain, Charles, the future Holy Roman Emperor, selected Barcelona as the site of a chapter of his Order. The king had arrived for his investiture as Count of Barcelona, and the city, as a Mediterranean port, offered the closest communication with other far-flung Hapsburg dominions, while the vast proportions of the cathedral would accommodate the grand ceremonies required. In 1518 the Order's herald, Thomas Isaac, and its treasurer, Jean Micault, were commissioned to prepare the sanctuary for the first sitting of the chapter in 1519. Juan de Borgonya executed the painted decoration of the sanctuary.

Divided reverse. No correspondence.

 

Austro-Hungarian military execute civilians in their preferred method, death by slow strangulation. This scene is made all that more horrific when you realise that three more condemned are being forced to watch on as they await their turn on the gallows.

 

The military justification for the massacre of civilians was that many were “partisans” engaged in a guerrilla war against the invading forces. As early as 17 August, the Austro-Hungarian general, Lothar von Hortstein, complained that it was impossible to send reconnaissance patrols into Serb territory because “all were killed by the rural people”. But it is also certain that popular anti-Serb sentiment gave the military the impression it had been given carte blanche to commit atrocities. A popular song in Vienna in August of that year was entitled “Alle Serben müssen sterben” (“All Serbs must die”).

www.seraphimsl.com/?p=147994

"Execute Order 66."

A shot-

Then the Jedi tumbled over the habours walls, and where he touched the ground, his cold blood colored the water dark red.

 

This is my entry for the Dark Times Group, hope you all like it:)

The style is inspired by the cancelled game Star Wars 1313 and maybe some Cyber Punk...:D

Benji

Definitely B l a c k M a g i c

Eighth Prime Minister of Pakistan

1973-77

Deposed and executed

But it isn’t over.

 

My armour damaged, my nose bleeds....yet I still stand firmly. Friends around me may have fallen, but I feel the electricity surging through my veins.

 

Then Igarashi stands up as well, his face heavily scarred. He tries to use his “powers” on me, but he fails to do so when I’ve finally got a hold—as I shock him right on the spot. It's over for him. Connor, covered in dust and grime, rises but behind him, knocking Igarashi on his feet.

 

Now the student looms over his defeated sensei, huh, well played. I couldn’t be more glad to see him alive, my older brother. He was holding a staff, despite the rough, scarred edges, in his left hand, and the katana on his right. Even if I can't see through his mask, I could picture how his eyes would look like, being ready to execute him right away.

 

Connor: “This is over, Igarashi. You’ve used up your powers, and it’s out of your reach for the katana to be understood. This is a relic to be respected. Worse yet, you lied to us far too long. You have committed so much heinous crimes for too long. Ambition for power and all that... ”

Igarashi: “Yes—-young one.....yes! I conspired against you....because possessing the sword meant I would ascend to the highest rank of the crime families! I wanted more power....the ability of a superhuman.....but you had to stop me! You have given yourself to the cause of your family and friends more than us!”

Connor: “Unfortunately you misused it, and that’s not how it works. Abusing the greatest thing the guild ever stood for: honour. I’m sorry, but you’re going to—“

Igarashi: “Die?! Fine, go ahead and kill me! Do not forget who trained you? Who raised you to become the man today?!”

Oddcrow: “Wait! Cease your fighting at one! Dusksmoke, you’re not going to kill your sensei! I only did my part to protect you....I thought sacrifice was a way out.”

Connor: “Yes. But I’m holding back. People like him don’t deserve death like this, despite the actions he’s done. But he did have a hand in raising me. I guess I’m going to call it fair. In fact, you’re the one to make a choice. Because you’re going to be the next leader. You were my sensei after all. This isn’t a matter of his nationality or race, but I believe you have potential and true leadership. My fellow guild, would you agree?”

Assassins: “Yes. We vote in favour. He....is our new leader.”

Oddcrow: “Alright. He’ll be exiled. To an island where he will be spending the rest of his life. Take him away.”

Igarashi: "Wait--no, you can't do this! You will regret this! I will come back! I will have more power, and I will wield the katana however I see fit! Dusksmoke, you will pay!"

Connor: "No, you won't. I'll make you won't see the light of day if you try to ever make a return. Your last days and fate will be a collective judgement. Send him off, please."

 

***

Oddcrow: “Well, I guess this isn’t too bad after all, from a schoolteacher to a guild master....”

Dustsmmoke: “Nah, it’s good. You ever seen a cybernetic warrior going around doing stuff? That’s what I did....I saved children. From the Spectres.”

Oddcrow: “All these years, we were mistaken on the wars from the outsiders. However with Connor’s faith, he managed to bring us together. To shape a better guild. Because we’re not killers, exactly.”

Ty: “That’s honourable.”

Erin: “Yes. And will his old classmates and best friends, I can't wait for our big reunion”

Ty: “Glad to know you’ve got my back, like Avalon does.”

Sam: “This is where we’re leaving off, are we? To save the day again!”

Edens: "Well, I can't exactly leave you hanging at the end of every mission like that, fill the paperworks and---

Riley/Jesse: “C’mon Doc, at least give us the holiday back!”

Edens: “Right, right....vacation continues. No disruptions. Only if it's emergency. Two weeks, sound good?”

Kieran: “Let’s call for a celebration. Let's cheer ”

Oddcrow: “You are granted an extended stay in Japan. Go anywhere you want, how about that too? For Avalon, you are deemed worthy and you can come whenever you please. You have gained our trust. We are in your debt and would be gladly to call you allies.”

Edens: "For sure, we have your word. Now we gotta...clean up a bit before alerting the agency."

Harry: "Well, least to say I'm done killin' anyone for the night."

 

***2 days later, at Edens' Japanese penthouse:***

 

Ty: “Maybe I could take a look at the ancestry books, considering I’ve got my heritage here.”

Erin: “I’m sure you’ll love finding them here, Shiro.”

Ty: “Since when did you start calling me that again? Oh, and yeah, maybe I could bring gran and mom here one day...maybe even my sister.”

Erin: “Sure, family’s fun. I don’t know. Maybe since the first day? I had a big crush on you when we got to elementary. I think's it's cute.”

Ty: “That’s....makes sense. I knew I laid eyes on you since we met. I love you, Erinbug.”

Erin: “I love you, too, Ty.”

Connor: “Ahem, good chemistry, you two. I knew that’s why I aced every test in science class. Sensed it in the air around me. Couldn’t hold back before you wanna kiss, cuz I had to bring the gang back together like a glue.”

Erin: "I remember how you liked me for a while before it ended up a wingman for him."

Connor: "I was very helpful wasn't I? Crush turned into one of the best friendship. I helped you get notes for him. You know, just anything to impress. Ty, I helped both of you. Give me some credit."

Ty: “Very funny. You sound just like your brother.”

Jesse: “Well, Arden genes, hermano! Except for the fact when the other team’s gone around town. Gary and the ladies are going crazy at shopping, man.”

Edens: “Well, it seems like this is definitely elementary reunion after all. I got a question stuck in my head since then....have you actually considered it yet, Dusksmoke? On our offer?”

Connor: “Oh, on that? l’ve thought it through. Oddcrow’s a better leader than I am. Though for me, I could work solo even if there’s nowhere to go....and my friend’s still in hospital.”

Jesse: “We’ve got a spot up for you if you need it.”

Sam: “Could always lend a hand in Japanese weapon mastery and those herbs of yours, so I can work on medical stuff with Kurt and co.”

Connor: “Hmm, that’d be interesting.”

Ty: “You’ve proven yourself too, earned a worthy spot. Avalon deserves a sixth member just like Gamma....turns out it might be you now, Connor. Which makes you 11, sort of.”

Connor: “I’m game. This is might fight now, since guild stuff is gonna have to reform and change in time. Guess I do have a lot to catch up in what you guys do, eh? Wait, is that Agent Khattar?”

Khattar: “In the flesh, agents. I’m sorry if I’m interrupting a nice reunion, but I’m here to announce I’m officially in on the Paladin stuff.”

Edens: “Just before you all get surprised, Navin’s now a partner with Paladin. He might belong to Interpol, but we secretly had an agreement to benefit conditions on our terms. Again, I'm sh*t at keeping it secret.”

Harry: “Though the boards would never agree...I’ll still play it through. Cheers.”

Khattar: “Cheers to you too. I’m sure it is going to be fine, a promise is a promise—-it’ll be confidential. I trust all of you given your defense in Tokyo and the countries you hopped on fighting. But as I suspected, that there are bigger hands behind what we’re looking at. They might be planning something....and your business friend is in danger.”

Edens: “Mason? He’s doing fine....but he’s been strange as always.”

Khattar: “Then you’ll have to keep an eye on him. For now, I will leave you guys be. Have fun! And also, Dusksmoke, your friend is doing alive and well. Go check up on her when you have the time.”

 

***

 

Board member: “And he’s officiated? Wonderful. For this event, I will not hold regard or remorse, but you should have let us know, Remus."

Edens: “Yes. Dusksmoke was always one of ours. He’s been playing the mole this whole time.

Raze: “Pfft, fine. You have it off easy this time since it's the Paladin council deciding together. But I will not tolerate your secrets being kept from us, privately and personally as a high ranking official. There will be no next times. You know what the

consequences, don’t you Avalon?”

Ty: “Of course. I’m proud to lead this team, ma'am.”

Raze: “And the Interpol agent....he’s an ally too?”

Erin: “Precisely.”

Raze: “What about the sword?”

Harry: “In the care of the guild. We know who the White Ninja is....will send in the details later.”

Sam: “But yes, allow us to have this holiday first....the job can come in for a bit.”

Raze: “Approved. You are now dismissed. Raze and council out.”

 

Once we disconnected with the leaders, we were left to our own. What a relief. There’s so much questions to ask. So much answers to be sought—-which means there are deep mysteries yet are unsolved.

 

I know it isn’t over yet, but I’m glad that I’ve found my brother, who I deeply miss, a boyfriend who I truly love, and my friends getting together, at full circle. The experiences of saving lives have never been better.

 

But I can always assure to the world, that Paladin is needed, no matter what cost or conflict there is....

 

We’ll be there.

A half length portrait of one of the leaders of the 1916 Rising who was executed in Kilmainham Gaol.

 

From Wikipedia:

 

Seán Mac Diarmada (English: John MacDermott; 27 January 1883 – 12 May 1916), also known as Seán MacDermott, was an Irish political activist and revolutionary leader. He was one of the seven leaders of the Easter Rising of 1916, which he helped to organise as a member of the Military Committee of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) and was a signatory of the Proclamation of the Irish Republic. He was executed for his part in the Rising at the age of thirty-three.

 

Raised in rural County Leitrim, he was a member of many associations which promoted the cause of the Irish language, Gaelic revival and Irish nationalism in general, including the Gaelic League and (early in his career) the Irish Catholic fraternity the Ancient Order of Hibernians. He was national organiser for Sinn Féin, and later manager of the newspaper Irish Freedom, started in 1910 by Bulmer Hobson and others. Within the Irish Republican Brotherhood, he was a close colleague and friend of veteran republican Tom Clarke.

  

Photographer: Brendan Keogh

 

Collection: Keogh Photographic Collection

 

Date: between 1914-1923

 

NLI Ref: KE 54

 

You can also view this image, and many thousands of others, on the NLI’s catalogue at catalogue.nli.ie

 

Letter from soldier to his mother written before he was executed by a firing squad. - a poignant reminder of what used to happen and must never happen again !!!

 

During WW1 306 British and Commonwealth soldiers were shot for desertion, cowardice, striking a senior officer, casting away arms, and sleeping on post.

It is now recognised that several were under age when they volunteered and many were suffering from post traumatic stress disorder, which was not recognised as a medical condition until 1980.

The six trees facing the memorial represent where the firing squad stood.

In 2006, a posthumous pardon was granted for the men.....❤️

HIGHEST FLICKR EXPLORE RANKING: 164

 

The Early English Gothic cathedral of Saint Peter, Saint Paul and Saint Andrew in Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, England, during snow.

 

Construction of Peterborough Cathedral began in 1118 and was completed in 1237. With its three towering arches - each one of which is 82 feet high - the celebrated West Front is totally unique, without precedent or successor in Medieval architecture, and the cathedral is one of the most important 12th century buildings in Britain to have remained largely intact. Overall height, to the top of the towers, is 156 feet.

 

This is the third church to have stood on the site: the first, Medeshampstede Abbey, survived from 655 to 870, when the Vikings destroyed it. The second, a Benedictine establishment, lasted from 966 until 1116 before it then burnt down. Guess they got lucky with this one, which has withstood King Henry VIII's 16th century Dissolution of the Monasteries, vandalism during the English Civil War in 1643, and a deliberately-started fire in November 2001.

 

The cathedral contains the tomb of Henry VIII's first wife Katherine of Aragon (one of the ones he didn't execute or divorce), who died in 1536. In 1587, Mary, Queen of Scots, who had been executed nearby, was buried here, but later moved to Westminster Abbey on the orders of her son, King James I, who presumably felt that Peterborough wasn't a great place to spend all eternity.

 

Taken in Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, England on January 14, 2013.

ARM Cuauhtémoc is a sail training vessel of the Mexican Navy, named for the last Mexica Hueyi Tlatoani Cuauhtémoc who was captured and executed in 1525.

Österreich / Vorarlberg - Bregenzerwald

 

Alberschwende

 

The Bregenz Forest (German: Bregenzerwald, pronounced [ˈbʁeːɡɛnt͡sɐˌvalt]) is one of the main regions in the state of Vorarlberg (Austria). It overlaps, but is not coterminous with, the Bregenz Forest Mountains, which belong to a range of the Northern Limestone Alps, specifically the northern flysch zone. It is the drainage basin of the Bregenzer Ach river.

 

The regional inhabitants often divide the Bregenz Forest into two main areas, the Vorderwald ("anterior forest") and Hinterwald ("hinterforest"). The Vorderwald, with its hills and low mountains, is closest to the Rhine valley. The Hinterwald has the higher mountains, with altitudes of up to 2,000 metres. Each of the two regions has its own distinctive dialect variations.

 

Until 1814, parts of the Allgäu in the north and north-west belonged to Vorarlberg. Since the entire region was settled by the Alemanni, the Lake Constance Alemannic dialect became predominant beginning in the 5th and 6th centuries. Over the centuries there was a brisk trading of goods which, with the increased extension of marriages and family networks, led to a linguistic intermingling. Especially in the "Vorderwald" the influence of the Allgäu dialect is particularly noticeable. By contrast, in the Mittelwald and Hinterwald regions the predominant language forms show a stronger connection with the Hofsteig region and Dornbirn. Speakers outside of the Bregenzer Wald region perceive (Wälderisch) as an idiom of its own. It must be noted, however, that there is no uniform Vorarlbergisch dialect - there are considerable local and regional variations. The official language in Vorarlberg is, of course, High German (Hochdeutsch).

 

Traditional costumes ("Tracht") have a long history in Vorarlberg. Many valleys and villages have their own kind of garb, each with special characteristics from certain style periods. The Bregenzerwälder garb is the oldest of its kind. It originated in the 15/16th century. The Bregenzerwälder tracht for women is called "d'Juppô" (Bavarian: "Juppe"). One of the last places that still manufacture the Juppe in the traditional way is the Juppenwerkstatt Riefensberg.

 

In 2014, the project BUS:STOP Krumbach was completed. When the municipality of Krumbach decided to rebuild seven bus stops in 2010, they hired seven international architects to design bus shelters. Local craftsmen executed their designs. While each stop differs in design, the bus stops are all meant to uniquely integrate architecture into the natural surroundings.

 

The Werkraum Bregenzerwald is an association of craftsmen in the Bregenz Forest founded in 1999. It aims at networking and supporting craft, design and technology businesses in the area. The publicly accessible place is used to present the craftsmanship, to promote building culture in cooperation with architects and to increase design competence and quality of craftsmanship with the preferred involvement of young people.

 

Residents of the Bregenz Forest earn their living primarily from tourism, agriculture and especially the wood processing industry. Many locals also commute to work in the Rhine Valley, Vorarlberg's economic center.

 

Alpine transhumance denotes the three-tier agricultural structure of the Bregenz Forest. It is the seasonal movement of livestock between mountain and lowland pastures, usually under the care of herders. In spring 2011, it was declared as intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO. It was recognised that the Bregenz Forest is "an impressive landscape on the north side of the Alps" that has "largely maintained its traditional farming structure." This includes linear or nucleated villages, with farmsteads dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries. In addition, there are many small craft workshops within the farming communities. Singled out for particular mention were the villages of Thal, Schwarzenberg, and Schoppernau, with their outstanding examples of original Bregenz Forest houses ("Wälderhäuser").

 

The Bregenz Forest is known also as a skiing region, but other attractions include the "Käsestraße" and the "Schubertiade" festival of classical music, in Schwarzenberg. The Bregenz Forest is cherished for its unspoiled nature, old traditions, and genuine hospitality. It is also particularly well-known amongst gourmets for its "KäseStrasse Bregenzerwald", an association of farmers, restaurateurs, craftspeople and traders promoting the Bregenz Forest agriculture and its local products, especially cheese. In particular, Bregenz Forest Mountain Cheese ("Bregenzerwälder Bergkäse") and the Alpkäse are internationally renowned specialities.

 

The Bregenz Forest Railway ("Bregenzerwaldbahn" or, colloquially, "’s Wälderbähnle") is a favorite attraction of the region. It is a museum railway that operates on a surviving section of a narrow gauge railway. From 1902 to 1983, the "Wälderbähnle" worked a line stretching 35.5 kilometres (22 mi) from Bregenz to Bezau. In October 2004, a section of 5 km (3.1 mi) was opened up for tourists again.

 

In 2000, the Women's Museum opened in Hittisau, the only one of its kind in Austria. The museum is devoted to the display and documentation of the cultural works and (her) stories of women, which deal with a broad variety of topics, including questions of female identity and gender roles.

 

Another cultural attraction in the Bregenz Forest is the Angelika Kauffmann Museum in Schwarzenberg. The museum is dedicated to the Classicist artist Angelica Kauffman, and has an Austrian museum seal of quality.

 

The region is also popular because of its hiking and cycling trails.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Bregenzerwald ist die Bezeichnung für eine Region im österreichischen Bundesland Vorarlberg. Diese umfasst im Wesentlichen das Einzugsgebiet der Bregenzer Ach südöstlich von Bregenz, in der Nähe des Bodensees, bis an den Hochtannbergpass.

 

Der Bregenzerwald ist vor allem für seine Architektur, die Landschaftspflege durch die 3-Stufen Landwirtschaft (Maiensäss), die zugehörigen Sennereiprodukte sowie für den Wintersport bekannt.

 

„Bregenzerwald“ ist die in Vorarlberg und meistens auch im übrigen Österreich gängige Schreibweise. In Deutschland wird zum Teil auch die Schreibweise „Bregenzer Wald“ verwendet. Dieter Seibert, der Autor der Alpenvereinsführer der Region, weist darauf hin, dass die Gegend heute kein reines Waldgebiet mehr ist, sondern eine Kulturlandschaft mit Almen/Alpen, man daher nicht mehr von einem Bregenzer „Wald“ sprechen kann, sondern einen Regionsbegriff vorliegen hat, die getrennte Schreibweise also veraltet wäre.[2]

 

Der Name Bregenzerwaldgebirge wird dagegen im Zusammenhang mit der Einteilung der Alpen in Untergruppen verwendet. Beide Begriffe sind nicht deckungsgleich. Der Bregenzerwald umfasst auch Teile der Allgäuer Alpen und des Lechquellengebirges. Umgekehrt greift das Bregenzerwaldgebirge auch in die Landschaften des Rheintals, des Walgaus und des Großen Walsertals aus.

 

Der Bregenzerwald grenzt im Westen an die im Rheintal befindliche Bodenseeregion, im Norden an Deutschland bzw. Bayern (Landkreise Lindau und Oberallgäu), im Nordosten an das Kleinwalsertal, im Osten am Tannberg an das Arlberggebiet und im Süden an das Große Walsertal.

 

Um das Jahr 1000 wurde der damals noch ganz bewaldete Bregenzerwald von Bregenz aus besiedelt und kultiviert. Die höchstgelegenen Gebiete hingegen wurden im Spätmittelalter von Walsern besiedelt, die aus dem Graubünden beziehungsweise ursprünglich aus dem Wallis stammten.

 

Während die nördlichen Teile des Bregenzerwaldes (die Gerichte Alberschwende, Lingenau und Sulzberg) zur Herrschaft Bregenz gehörten, waren die Gerichte Damüls und Innerbregenzerwald Teil der Herrschaft Feldkirch. Diese 1338 vollzogene Teilung ist die Grundlage für die heute noch gängige Unterscheidung von vorderem und hinterem Bregenzerwald.

 

1390 fielen mit dem Verkauf der Grafschaft Feldkirch der Innerbregenzerwald und Damüls an Österreich, die Gerichte Lingenau und Alberschwende folgten 1451. Der Tannberg mit den Bregenzerwäldergemeinden Schröcken und Warth wurde 1453 österreichisch, und 1523 erwarben die Habsburger schließlich auch noch das Gericht Sulzberg.

 

Nach 1380 bildete sich insbesondere im Innerbregenzerwald eine Selbstverwaltung der Bauernschaft des Waldes heraus (sogenannte Bauernrepublik), mit eigener freier Landgemeinde, eigener Verfassung (Landsbrauch) und Hoch- und Blutgerichtsbarkeit. Als Vorsteher wurde ein Landammann gewählt, meist aus den angesehensten Familien des Bregenzerwaldes. Auf der noch erhaltenen Landammännertafel finden sich viele der bekannten Namen, die ursprünglich aus dem Bregenzerwald stammen, z. B. Feurstein, Meusburger, Metzler, mit ihren Wappen abgebildet.

 

Der Landammann wurde in freier Wahl bestellt, sein Rathaus stand auf der Bezegg zwischen Bezau und Andelsbuch. Heute erinnert dort die Bezegg-Sul, eine steinerne Säule an das frühere Rathaus.

 

Bestätigt wird die Existenz der Bauernrepublik in der Überlieferung zum Kapuzinerpater Stanislaus Saurbeck (1595–1647): Der Bregenzer Wald sei noch zu Beginn des 17. Jahrhunderts „eine lange unerschlossene Wildnis“ gewesen, die „bereits in den Chroniken des 16. Jahrhunderts einen schlechten Ruf“ besessen habe.

 

Die Chronisten erklären die „(tiefe) Stufe des sittlich-religiösen Lebens“ der Bewohner, „obgleich sie von katholischen Eltern abstammten“ mit Gebräuchen und Sitten von „heidnischen Voreltern“, die sie wie einen „krassen Aberglauben beibehalten hatten. So roh, wild und sittenlos sie in ihrem Betragen waren, ebenso schamlos und ärgerlich sollen vorzüglich die Weibsbilder gekleidet gewesen sein.“

 

„Eine gründliche Erneuerung und sittliche Umgestaltung im ganzen Bregenzerwalde“ erfolgte erst auf Initiative von Pater Stanislaus: Die Kapuziner „eilten in ihrem unersättlichen Durste nach Seelen von Hütte zu Hütte, von Dorf zu Dorf, belehrten das Volk durch Gespräche, Christenlehren und Predigten, ruhten und rasteten nicht eher, bevor die Eisdecke einbrach und die rauhen und kalten Gemüter warm wurden.“

 

In der weiteren Folge der Missionisierung kam es in der Talschaft „zur Gründung eines kleinen Kapuzinerklosters. Am 12. Juli 1655 legte der Abt von Mehrerau, Heinrich Amberg, den Grundstein zum Klosterbau [in Bezau], am 22. Oktober 1656 wurde die Klosterkirche vom Fürstbischof Johann von Praßberg konsekrisiert.“

 

Bereits 1658 wurde die letzte Untertänigkeit, die zum Kloster Mehrerau, aufgelöst – also 190 Jahre vor der Bauernbefreiung von 1848.

 

So war es den Bregenzerwäldern, im Gegensatz zu den meisten Bauern der damaligen Zeit, möglich, sich als Freie überall niederzulassen. Man findet vor allem im Schwäbischen zahlreiche Namen, die auf den Bregenzerwald zurückgehen.

 

Die bäuerliche Verfassung wurde während der Franzosenkriege abgeschafft und danach nicht mehr eingeführt.

 

Noch zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts gab es unzählige Alpen und Höfe, auf denen die Land- und Viehwirtschaft sowie die Herstellung von Käse betrieben wurden. Auch heute sind noch zahlreiche Alpen bewirtschaftet, doch wird dies zunehmend von weniger Bauern betrieben.

 

Bis etwa zum Jahr 1900 mussten viele Bregenzerwälder Kinder von Mai bis Oktober ins baden-württembergische Schwaben (Deutschland) gehen, um dort auf Bauernhöfen zu arbeiten. So gab es in der Sommerzeit für ihre Eltern ein Kind weniger zu füttern. Diese Kinder wurden unter dem Namen Schwabenkinder bekannt.

 

Ein Bregenzerwaldhaus ist auf der Rückseite der 100-Schilling-Banknote von 1970 zu sehen.

 

Im Bregenzerwald herrscht das Bodenseealemannische vor. Vor allem im nordwestlichen Teil des Bregenzerwaldes (= Vorderwald) ist der Einfluss des Allgäuerischen hörbar, dabei ähnelt die Mundart stark dem westallgäuerischen Dialekt. Dagegen dominieren im Mittel- und Hinterwald Sprachformen, die eine stärkere Verbindung mit der Region Hofsteig und Dornbirn belegen. Von außen wird aber der Wälderdialekt trotz dieser Mehrschichtigkeit und beachtlicher lokaler bis kleinregionaler Eigenheiten als ein Idiom („Wälderisch“) wahrgenommen, das sich von den anderen Vorarlberger Dialekten (ein einheitliches Vorarlbergisch gibt es nicht) deutlich hörbar abhebt.

 

Während alle bisher genannten Mundarten mittelalemannisch sind, wird in den hoch gelegenen Dörfern Damüls, Schröcken und Warth ein höchstalemannischer Dialekt gesprochen. Dies rührt daher, dass diese Orte im Hochmittelalter von Walsern besiedelt wurden, die aus dem Kanton Graubünden in das Gebiet des heutigen Vorarlbergs eingewandert sind.

 

Dokumentiert werden die Mundarten des Bregenzerwalds unter anderem im fünfbändigen Vorarlberger Sprachatlas mit Einschluss des Fürstentums Liechtenstein, Westtirols und des Allgäus (VALTS).

 

Die Bregenzerwaldbahn („’s Wälderbähnle“) ist eine weitere Attraktion des Bregenzerwaldes. Dabei handelt es sich um eine Museumsbahn, die auf einem noch erhaltenen Reststück der Schmalspurbahn verkehrt. Von 1902 bis 1983 befuhr das „Wälderbähnle“ die 35,5 km lange Strecke von Bregenz nach Bezau. Bis Oktober 2004 konnte man 6,1 km Strecke befahren, jedoch musste ein Teilstück dem Straßenausbau weichen, womit nur mehr eine Strecke von 5 km zur Verfügung steht.

 

Seit 2000 befindet sich in Hittisau im Bregenzerwald das bisher einzige Frauenmuseum Österreichs. Es widmet sich dem Kulturschaffen und dem Lebensumfeld von Frauen.

 

Ein weiteres Museum im Bregenzerwald ist das Angelika Kauffmann Museum in Schwarzenberg. Es widmet sich der Malerin Angelika Kauffmann und ist mit dem Österreichischen Museumsgütesiegel ausgezeichnet.

 

Ein beliebtes Ausflugsziel ist der Bregenzerwald auch wegen seiner Wander- und Radwege und der zahlreichen Skigebiete.

 

Die angeschlossenen Gemeindeämter geben von Mai bis Oktober eine für Gäste kostenlose Bregenzerwaldcard aus, um den öffentlichen Verkehr zu stärken und gleichzeitig den Individual- und Freizeitverkehr zu reduzieren.

 

(Wikipedia)

The Corvette C3 was patterned after the Mako Shark II designed by Larry Shinoda. Executed under Bill Mitchell's direction, the Mako II had been initiated in early 1964. Once the mid-engined format was abandoned, the Shinoda/Mitchell car was sent to Chevrolet Styling under David Holls, where Harry Haga's studio adapted it for production on the existing Stingray chassis. The resulting lower half of the car was much like the Mako II, except for the softer contours. The concept car's name was later changed to Manta Ray. The C3 also adopted the "sugar scoop" roof treatment with vertical back window from the mid-engined concept models designed by the Duntov group. It was intended from the beginning that the rear window and that portion of the roof above the seats to be removable.

 

For 1968, both the Corvette body and interior were completely redesigned. As before, the car was available in either coupe or convertible models, but coupe was now a notchback fitted with a near-vertical removable rear window and removable roof panels (T-tops). A soft folding top was included with convertibles, while an auxiliary hardtop with a glass rear window was offered at additional cost. Included with coupes were hold down straps and a pair of vinyl bags to store the roof panels, and above the luggage area was a rear window stowage tray.

 

The chassis was carried over from the second generation models, retaining the fully independent suspension (with minor revisions) and the four-wheel disc brake system. The engine line-up and horsepower ratings were also carried over from the previous year.

 

The engine line-up included the L79, a 350 hp (261 kW) high performance version of the 327 cu in (5.4 L) small-block. Also available were several variants of the big-block 427 cu in (7.0 L) V8 engine, that taken together made up nearly half the cars. There was the L36, a 390 hp (291 kW) version with a Rochester 4-barrel carburetor; The L68, a 400 hp (298 kW) motor with a Holley triple 2-barrel carb set up (3 X 2 tri-power); The L71, generating 435 bhp (441 PS; 324 kW) at 5,800 rpm and 460 lb⋅ft (624 N⋅m) at 4,000 rpm of torque also with a tri-power; The L89 option was the L71 engine but with much lighter aluminum cylinder heads rather than the standard cast iron. Then there was the L88 engine that Chevrolet designed strictly for off-road use (racing), with a published rating of 430 hp (321 kW), but featured a high-capacity 4-barrel carb, aluminum heads, a unique air induction system, and an ultra-high compression ratio (12.5:1). All small block cars had low-profile hoods. All big block cars had domed hoods for additional engine clearance with twin simulated vents and “427” emblems on either side of the dome.

en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gutzon_Borglum. This scale model of Mt. Rushmore was created at 1:12 or 1” to one foot sits in a pavilion at the base of the mountain sculpture. I found it fascinating that both the model and the mountain can be captured in a single photo. Kudos to the architects who executed this juxtaposition.

This time - "Making an Entrance!" www.maryannroy.wordpress.com

LILLOOET, formerly Cayoosh Flat, is a community on the Fraser River in British Columbia, Canada, about 240 km (150 mi) up the British Columbia Railway line from Vancouver. Situated at an intersection of deep gorges in the lee of the Coast Mountains, it has a dry climate with an average of 329.5 mm (12.97 in) of precipitation being recorded annually. Lillooet has a long growing season, and once had prolific market gardens and orchard produce. It often vies with Lytton and Osoyoos for the title of "Canada's Hot Spot" on a daily basis in summer.

 

The traditional name of the the site of today's Lillooet was Pap-shil-KWA-KA-meen, translated as "place where the three rivers meet". Originally called Cayoosh Flat because the body of a dead cayuse (Indian Pony) was found in the river here. In 1862 Lillooet became "Mile Zero" for the numbering of the mile houses along the Cariboo Wagon Road." Lillooet is a First Nations word which may be translated as "wild onion". It appears on Anderson's map of 1849.

 

The LILLOOET Post Office was established - 1 July 1872 / (1859).

 

LINK to a list of the Postmasters who served at the LILLOOET Post Office - recherche-collection-search.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/home/record...

 

- sent from - / LILLOOET / DE 18 / 00 / B.C. / - split ring cancel - the split ring hammer (A1-3 / left and right arcs about 9.0 mm with oval O's) was not listed in the Proof Book - it was most likely proofed c. 1895 - (RF A).

 

via - / LYTTON / DE 19 / 00 / B.C. / - cds transit backstamp.

 

- sent by - In ten days return to

JAS. B. UREN,

General Blacksmith.

HORSESHOEING, REPAIR-

ING AND ALL KINDS OF

WORK PROMPTLY

EXECUTED

LILLOOET, - - B. C. (illustrated corner card)

 

James Bottrell Uren

(b. 4 May 1862 in Hope, British Columbia - d. 15 August in Savona, British Columbia)

 

His wife - Mary Adams (nee Kelly) Uren

(b. 27 November 1867 in Barkerville, Cariboo, British Columbia – d. 20 March 1945 at age 77 in Kimberley, British Columbia) - they were married - 20 February 1889 in Barkerville District, B.C., Canada. They had 2 sons and one daughter.

 

(June 11th 1900) - Dissolution Notice. Notice is hereby given that the partnership heretofore existing between JAMES B. UREN and JOHN G. MITCHELL, carrying on a general blacksmith business, at Clinton and Lillooet, has this day been dissolved by mutual consent. All accounts against and all debts due said firm will be settled by Stuart Henderson, Ashcroft, B.C.

 

(clipped from the Nicola Valley News paper - 16 September 1910) - James B. Uren spent a few days in Savona last week after a lengthy absence. Mr. Uren is in charge of the steel work on the new Lillooet bridge on which, he says, satisfactory progress is being made.

 

Addressed to: Mr. J. Jane / Savona, B.C.

 

John Jane

(b. 3 March 1833 at Lanbyrock, Cornwall, England - d. 8 July 1907 at age 74 at Savona, British Columbia)

 

His wife - Harriet (nee McNeill) Jane

(b. 7 November 1850 in Victoria, B.C. - d. 21 February 1934 at age 83 in Oak Bay, British Columbia) - they were married - 9 October 1889 in the Kamloops District, British Columbia. After the death of her husband John Jane she married - John David Jones on - 20 December 1910 in Kamlopps, B.C.

 

Clipped from - The Victoria Daily Times newspaper - Victoria, British Columbia, Canada - 12 July 1907 - PIONEER DEAD. John Jane, Who Resided In Province for Half a Century, Died at Savona. John Jane, a merchant at Savona, died at that place on Monday last at the age of 74 years and four months. Mr. Jane was born at Lanbyrock, Cornwall, England, March 3rd, 1833, and in 1857 came to British Columbia with the Royal Engineers. He was engaged on the boundary survey and ran a number of roads and survey lines in the lower Fraser district. Later he was with the Moberly survey, locating the line cf the C. P. R. through the Selkirk and Rocky mountains, and afterwards was through Creek and Boundary country. About 26 years ago he moved to Savona and went Into business there as a general merchant and succeeded In building up an extensive trade. About 18 years ago he married Miss McNeill, of Victoria, who survives him.

 

The Influence of the Royal Engineers on the Development of British Columbia - by FRANCES M. WOODWARD - JOHN JANE, (1833 - 1907), Corporal: received Crown Grant, March 24, 1874, for Lot 118, Group 2, New Westminster District, 154 acres (150-acre military grant). Surveyor with Boundary Commission. Worked under Walter Moberley in the Selkirks; surveyed roads, ranches, mining properties throughout the Interior. 1865, constable at Derby; May 1865, constable Fort Shepherd; 1866-1867 chief constable and Postmaster at Fort Shepherd. 1880, opened General Store Savona; 1893, appointed Justice of the Peace. Married Miss H. McNeill, daughter of Capt. William McNeill, H.B.C. of Victoria; died Kamloops, 1907.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Corporal John Jane, R.E., British Columbia Land Surveyor.

 

John Jane was born in Lanbyrock, Cornwall, England on March 3, 1833 and he came to British Columbia in 1857 as one of the Royal Engineers working on the Boundary Commission surveying the international boundary. Later he surveyed various roads and boundary lines in the Fraser Valley. In 1865, after his discharge from the Royal Engineers, he worked as a police constable in Derby (old Fort Langley) after which he then moved to Fort Shepherd where he was the police constable and postmaster for several years. Still later he worked with Walter Moberly surveying the CPR through the Rocky and Selkirk Mountains and then afterwards surveying mineral claims and roads in the Rock Creek area.

 

In 1874, while working with Edward Stephens, LS, he was involved in the first surveys of the Nicola Valley and in 1877, he was the surveyor in charge for the Government surveys in the Savona area. In 1880, when the construction of the CPR started in Yale, numerous people thought that Savona's Ferry would be the main city in the interior. John Jane was one of those and in 1881 he decided to give up his surveying career, became a general merchant, and eventually built up an extensive trade. In the early years of his store, he received payment from the Indians with furs and from the miners with gold dust. When the railway did come through, the rails were laid on the south side of Kamloops Lake, on the opposite side from the village. This proved to be an inconvenience and so Corporal Jane closed his store in 1891 and moved with the rest of the population of Savona's Ferry to a new community near the CPR station known briefly as Van Horne, after the President of the CPR. They also took the old name of Savona with them.

 

In September 1889, at the age of 56, he married Miss Harriet McNeill of Victoria and took his new bride back to Savona. He was well acquainted with the country and highly respected by everyone and it was undoubtedly because of this excellent reputation that he was appointed Justice of the Peace in 1893. In 1905, just two years prior to his death, he brought into the area one of the newest inventions, the cash register. Early in 1907, John Jane became ill and spent some months at the Royal Inland Hospital in Kamloops. Later he returned home to Savona, going home for the last time, as he and his family and friends knew that the end was not too far away. Corporal John Jane, of the Royal Engineers passed away in his 74th year on Monday, July 8, 1907 and was laid to rest two days later in the small Savona cemetery overlooking Kamloops Lake.

 

John Jane was a quiet efficient pioneer who helped lay the foundations of prosperity for the young British Columbia. His obituary, in part, in the Kamloops Sentinel of July 9, 1907 probably best summarized his character: "John Jane was a man of kindly disposition, somewhat self-contained, and possessing a fund of information about the Province; knowledge gained during his journeying through it in years gone by. While taking a keen interest in public matters he took no active part in public movements, but attended strictly to his own business. He had many warm friends, but no enemies."

This is the stone suspension where Portuguese and Dutch had publicly hanged and executed the prisoners in Jaffna Fort.

 

Jaffna Fort (Sinhalese: යාපනය බලකොටුව; Tamil: யாழ்ப்பாணக் கோட்டை) is a fort built by the Portuguese at Jaffna, Sri Lanka in 1618 under Philip De Olivera following the Portuguese invasion of Jaffna. Due to numerous miracles attributed to the statue of Virgin Mary in the church inside the fort, Jaffna Fort was named as Fortress of Our Lady of Miracles of Jafanapatão (Fortaleza de Nossa Senhora dos Milagres de Jafanapatão). It was captured by the Dutch under Raiclop Van Goins in 1658 who expanded it. In 1795, it was taken over by the British, and remained under the control of a British garrison till 1948. - Wiki

I was feeling like I would prefer it to be summer solstice instead of winter solstice this coming Friday.... so I thought I would change pace a bit and upload a shot taken closer to summer solstice this past July 1. This is a shot of Mount Edith Cavell in Jasper National Park.

 

The mountain was named in 1916 for Edith Cavell who was an English nurse that was executed by the Germans in World War I for having helped persons held captive to escape. It is one of the most known peaks in Jasper National Park and perhaps the most photographed along with Pyramid mountain.

 

The landscape at Mt. Edith Cavell is typical of the subalpine life zone complete with recent glaciations and subalpine to alpine meadows.

 

At the outlet of Cavell lake which sits directly below the peak, the river flows through a large boulder bed on a steep incline and seems to disappear amongst them with outlets spread throughout the river bed.

 

View it Large

 

See more photos of this, and the Wikipedia article.

 

Details, quoting from Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum | Lockheed P-38J-10-LO Lightning

 

In the P-38 Lockheed engineer Clarence "Kelly" Johnson and his team of designers created one of the most successful twin-engine fighters ever flown by any nation. From 1942 to 1945, U. S. Army Air Forces pilots flew P-38s over Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Pacific, and from the frozen Aleutian Islands to the sun-baked deserts of North Africa. Lightning pilots in the Pacific theater downed more Japanese aircraft than pilots flying any other Allied warplane.

 

Maj. Richard I. Bong, America's leading fighter ace, flew this P-38J-10-LO on April 16, 1945, at Wright Field, Ohio, to evaluate an experimental method of interconnecting the movement of the throttle and propeller control levers. However, his right engine exploded in flight before he could conduct the experiment.

 

Transferred from the United States Air Force.

 

Manufacturer:

Lockheed Aircraft Company

 

Date:

1943

 

Country of Origin:

United States of America

 

Dimensions:

Overall: 390 x 1170cm, 6345kg, 1580cm (12ft 9 9/16in. x 38ft 4 5/8in., 13988.2lb., 51ft 10 1/16in.)

 

Materials:

All-metal

 

Physical Description:

Twin-tail boom and twin-engine fighter; tricycle landing gear.

 

Long Description:

From 1942 to 1945, the thunder of P-38 Lightnings was heard around the world. U. S. Army pilots flew the P-38 over Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Pacific; from the frozen Aleutian Islands to the sun-baked deserts of North Africa. Measured by success in combat, Lockheed engineer Clarence "Kelly" Johnson and a team of designers created the most successful twin-engine fighter ever flown by any nation. In the Pacific Theater, Lightning pilots downed more Japanese aircraft than pilots flying any other Army Air Forces warplane.

 

Johnson and his team conceived this twin-engine, single-pilot fighter airplane in 1936 and the Army Air Corps authorized the firm to build it in June 1937. Lockheed finished constructing the prototype XP-38 and delivered it to the Air Corps on New Year's Day, 1939. Air Corps test pilot and P-38 project officer, Lt. Benjamin S. Kelsey, first flew the aircraft on January 27. Losing this prototype in a crash at Mitchel Field, New York, with Kelsey at the controls, did not deter the Air Corps from ordering 13 YP-38s for service testing on April 27. Kelsey survived the crash and remained an important part of the Lightning program. Before the airplane could be declared ready for combat, Lockheed had to block the effects of high-speed aerodynamic compressibility and tail buffeting, and solve other problems discovered during the service tests.

 

The most vexing difficulty was the loss of control in a dive caused by aerodynamic compressibility. During late spring 1941, Air Corps Major Signa A. Gilke encountered serious trouble while diving his Lightning at high-speed from an altitude of 9,120 m (30,000 ft). When he reached an indicated airspeed of about 515 kph (320 mph), the airplane's tail began to shake violently and the nose dropped until the dive was almost vertical. Signa recovered and landed safely and the tail buffet problem was soon resolved after Lockheed installed new fillets to improve airflow where the cockpit gondola joined the wing center section. Seventeen months passed before engineers began to determine what caused the Lightning's nose to drop. They tested a scale model P-38 in the Ames Laboratory wind tunnel operated by the NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) and found that shock waves formed when airflow over the wing leading edges reached transonic speeds. The nose drop and loss of control was never fully remedied but Lockheed installed dive recovery flaps under each wing in 1944. These devices slowed the P-38 enough to allow the pilot to maintain control when diving at high-speed.

 

Just as the development of the North American P-51 Mustang, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, and the Vought F4U Corsair (see NASM collection for these aircraft) pushed the limits of aircraft performance into unexplored territory, so too did P-38 development. The type of aircraft envisioned by the Lockheed design team and Air Corps strategists in 1937 did not appear until June 1944. This protracted shakedown period mirrors the tribulations suffered by Vought in sorting out the many technical problems that kept F4U Corsairs off U. S. Navy carrier decks until the end of 1944.

 

Lockheed's efforts to trouble-shoot various problems with the design also delayed high-rate, mass production. When Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the company had delivered only 69 Lightnings to the Army. Production steadily increased and at its peak in 1944, 22 sub-contractors built various Lightning components and shipped them to Burbank, California, for final assembly. Consolidated-Vultee (Convair) subcontracted to build the wing center section and the firm later became prime manufacturer for 2,000 P-38Ls but that company's Nashville plant completed only 113 examples of this Lightning model before war's end. Lockheed and Convair finished 10,038 P-38 aircraft including 500 photo-reconnaissance models. They built more L models, 3,923, than any other version.

 

To ease control and improve stability, particularly at low speeds, Lockheed equipped all Lightnings, except a batch ordered by Britain, with propellers that counter-rotated. The propeller to the pilot's left turned counter-clockwise and the propeller to his right turned clockwise, so that one propeller countered the torque and airflow effects generated by the other. The airplane also performed well at high speeds and the definitive P-38L model could make better than 676 kph (420 mph) between 7,600 and 9,120 m (25,000 and 30,000 ft). The design was versatile enough to carry various combinations of bombs, air-to-ground rockets, and external fuel tanks. The multi-engine configuration reduced the Lightning loss-rate to anti-aircraft gunfire during ground attack missions. Single-engine airplanes equipped with power plants cooled by pressurized liquid, such as the North American P-51 Mustang (see NASM collection), were particularly vulnerable. Even a small nick in one coolant line could cause the engine to seize in a matter of minutes.

 

The first P-38s to reach the Pacific combat theater arrived on April 4, 1942, when a version of the Lightning that carried reconnaissance cameras (designated the F-4), joined the 8th Photographic Squadron based in Australia. This unit launched the first P-38 combat missions over New Guinea and New Britain during April. By May 29, the first 25 P-38s had arrived in Anchorage, Alaska. On August 9, pilots of the 343rd Fighter Group, Eleventh Air Force, flying the P-38E, shot down a pair of Japanese flying boats.

 

Back in the United States, Army Air Forces leaders tried to control a rumor that Lightnings killed their own pilots. On August 10, 1942, Col. Arthur I. Ennis, Chief of U. S. Army Air Forces Public Relations in Washington, told a fellow officer "… Here's what the 4th Fighter [training] Command is up against… common rumor out there that the whole West Coast was filled with headless bodies of men who jumped out of P-38s and had their heads cut off by the propellers." Novice Lightning pilots unfamiliar with the correct bailout procedures actually had more to fear from the twin-boom tail, if an emergency dictated taking to the parachute but properly executed, Lightning bailouts were as safe as parachuting from any other high-performance fighter of the day. Misinformation and wild speculation about many new aircraft was rampant during the early War period.

 

Along with U. S. Navy Grumman F4F Wildcats (see NASM collection) and Curtiss P-40 Warhawks (see NASM collection), Lightnings were the first American fighter airplanes capable of consistently defeating Japanese fighter aircraft. On November 18, men of the 339th Fighter Squadron became the first Lightning pilots to attack Japanese fighters. Flying from Henderson Field on Guadalcanal, they claimed three during a mission to escort Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers (see NASM collection).

 

On April 18, 1943, fourteen P-38 pilots from the 70th and the 339th Fighter Squadrons, 347th Fighter Group, accomplished one of the most important Lightning missions of the war. American ULTRA cryptanalysts had decoded Japanese messages that revealed the timetable for a visit to the front by the commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. This charismatic leader had crafted the plan to attack Pearl Harbor and Allied strategists believed his loss would severely cripple Japanese morale. The P-38 pilots flew 700 km (435 miles) at heights from 3-15 m (10-50 feet) above the ocean to avoid detection. Over the coast of Bougainville, they intercepted a formation of two Mitsubishi G4M BETTY bombers (see NASM collection) carrying the Admiral and his staff, and six Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters (see NASM collection) providing escort. The Lightning pilots downed both bombers but lost Lt. Ray Hine to a Zero.

 

In Europe, the first Americans to down a Luftwaffe aircraft were Lt. Elza E. Shahan flying a 27th Fighter Squadron P-38E, and Lt. J. K. Shaffer flying a Curtiss P-40 (see NASM collection) in the 33rd Fighter Squadron. The two flyers shared the destruction of a Focke-Wulf Fw 200C-3 Condor maritime strike aircraft over Iceland on August 14, 1942. Later that month, the 1st fighter group accepted Lightnings and began combat operations from bases in England but this unit soon moved to fight in North Africa. More than a year passed before the P-38 reappeared over Western Europe. While the Lightning was absent, U. S. Army Air Forces strategists had relearned a painful lesson: unescorted bombers cannot operate successfully in the face of determined opposition from enemy fighters. When P-38s returned to England, the primary mission had become long-range bomber escort at ranges of about 805 kms (500 miles) and at altitudes above 6,080 m (20,000 ft).

 

On October 15, 1943, P-38H pilots in the 55th Fighter Group flew their first combat mission over Europe at a time when the need for long-range escorts was acute. Just the day before, German fighter pilots had destroyed 60 of 291 Eighth Air Force B-17 Flying Fortresses (see NASM collection) during a mission to bomb five ball-bearing plants at Schweinfurt, Germany. No air force could sustain a loss-rate of nearly 20 percent for more than a few missions but these targets lay well beyond the range of available escort fighters (Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, see NASM collection). American war planners hoped the long-range capabilities of the P-38 Lightning could halt this deadly trend, but the very high and very cold environment peculiar to the European air war caused severe power plant and cockpit heating difficulties for the Lightning pilots. The long-range escort problem was not completely solved until the North American P-51 Mustang (see NASM collection) began to arrive in large numbers early in 1944.

 

Poor cockpit heating in the H and J model Lightnings made flying and fighting at altitudes that frequently approached 12,320 m (40,000 ft) nearly impossible. This was a fundamental design flaw that Kelly Johnson and his team never anticipated when they designed the airplane six years earlier. In his seminal work on the Allison V-1710 engine, Daniel Whitney analyzed in detail other factors that made the P-38 a disappointing airplane in combat over Western Europe.

 

• Many new and inexperienced pilots arrived in England during December 1943, along with the new J model P-38 Lightning.

 

• J model rated at 1,600 horsepower vs. 1,425 for earlier H model Lightnings. This power setting required better maintenance between flights. It appears this work was not done in many cases.

 

• During stateside training, Lightning pilots were taught to fly at high rpm settings and low engine manifold pressure during cruise flight. This was very hard on the engines, and not in keeping with technical directives issued by Allison and Lockheed.

 

• The quality of fuel in England may have been poor, TEL (tetraethyl lead) fuel additive appeared to condense inside engine induction manifolds, causing detonation (destructive explosion of fuel mixture rather than controlled burning).

 

• Improved turbo supercharger intercoolers appeared on the J model P-38. These devices greatly reduced manifold temperatures but this encouraged TEL condensation in manifolds during cruise flight and increased spark plug fouling.

 

Using water injection to minimize detonation might have reduced these engine problems. Both the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and the North American P-51 Mustang (see NASM collection) were fitted with water injection systems but not the P-38. Lightning pilots continued to fly, despite these handicaps.

 

During November 1942, two all-Lightning fighter groups, the 1st and the 14th, began operating in North Africa. In the Mediterranean Theater, P-38 pilots flew more sorties than Allied pilots flying any other type of fighter. They claimed 608 enemy a/c destroyed in the air, 123 probably destroyed and 343 damaged, against the loss of 131 Lightnings.

 

In the war against Japan, the P-38 truly excelled. Combat rarely occurred above 6,080 m (20,000 ft) and the engine and cockpit comfort problems common in Europe never plagued pilots in the Pacific Theater. The Lightning's excellent range was used to full advantage above the vast expanses of water. In early 1945, Lightning pilots of the 12th Fighter Squadron, 18th Fighter Group, flew a mission that lasted 10 ½ hours and covered more than 3,220 km (2,000 miles). In August, P-38 pilots established the world's long-distance record for a World War II combat fighter when they flew from the Philippines to the Netherlands East Indies, a distance of 3,703 km (2,300 miles). During early 1944, Lightning pilots in the 475th Fighter Group began the 'race of aces.' By March, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas J. Lynch had scored 21 victories before he fell to antiaircraft gunfire while strafing enemy ships. Major Thomas B. McGuire downed 38 Japanese aircraft before he was killed when his P-38 crashed at low altitude in early January 1945. Major Richard I. Bong became America's highest scoring fighter ace (40 victories) but died in the crash of a Lockheed P-80 (see NASM collection) on August 6, 1945.

 

Museum records show that Lockheed assigned the construction number 422-2273 to the National Air and Space Museum's P-38. The Army Air Forces accepted this Lightning as a P-38J-l0-LO on November 6, 1943, and the service identified the airplane with the serial number 42-67762. Recent investigations conducted by a team of specialists at the Paul E. Garber Facility, and Herb Brownstein, a volunteer in the Aeronautics Division at the National Air and Space Museum, have revealed many hitherto unknown aspects to the history of this aircraft.

 

Brownstein examined NASM files and documents at the National Archives. He discovered that a few days after the Army Air Forces (AAF) accepted this airplane, the Engineering Division at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio, granted Lockheed permission to convert this P-38 into a two-seat trainer. The firm added a seat behind the pilot to accommodate an instructor who would train civilian pilots in instrument flying techniques. Once trained, these test pilots evaluated new Lightnings fresh off the assembly line.

 

In a teletype sent by the Engineering Division on March 2, 1944, Brownstein also discovered that this P-38 was released to Colonel Benjamin S. Kelsey from March 3 to April 10, 1944, to conduct special tests. This action was confirmed the following day in a cable from the War Department. This same pilot, then a Lieutenant, flew the XP-38 across the United States in 1939 and survived the crash that destroyed this Lightning at Mitchel Field, New York. In early 1944, Kelsey was assigned to the Eighth Air Force in England and he apparently traveled to the Lockheed factory at Burbank to pick up the P-38. Further information about these tests and Kelsey's involvement remain an intriguing question.

 

One of Brownstein's most important discoveries was a small file rich with information about the NASM Lightning. This file contained a cryptic reference to a "Major Bong" who flew the NASM P-38 on April 16, 1945, at Wright Field. Bong had planned to fly for an hour to evaluate an experimental method of interconnecting the movement of the throttle and propeller control levers. His flight ended after twenty-minutes when "the right engine blew up before I had a chance [to conduct the test]." The curator at the Richard I. Bong Heritage Center confirmed that America's highest scoring ace made this flight in the NASM P-38 Lightning.

 

Working in Building 10 at the Paul E. Garber Facility, Rob Mawhinney, Dave Wilson, Wil Lee, Bob Weihrauch, Jim Purton, and Heather Hutton spent several months during the spring and summer of 2001 carefully disassembling, inspecting, and cleaning the NASM Lightning. They found every hardware modification consistent with a model J-25 airplane, not the model J-10 painted in the data block beneath the artifact's left nose. This fact dovetails perfectly with knowledge uncovered by Brownstein. On April 10, the Engineering Division again cabled Lockheed asking the company to prepare 42-67762 for transfer to Wright Field "in standard configuration." The standard P-38 configuration at that time was the P-38J-25. The work took several weeks and the fighter does not appear on Wright Field records until May 15, 1944. On June 9, the Flight Test Section at Wright Field released the fighter for flight trials aimed at collecting pilot comments on how the airplane handled.

 

Wright Field's Aeromedical Laboratory was the next organization involved with this P-38. That unit installed a kit on July 26 that probably measured the force required to move the control wheel left and right to actuate the power-boosted ailerons installed in all Lightnings beginning with version J-25. From August 12-16, the Power Plant Laboratory carried out tests to measure the hydraulic pump temperatures on this Lightning. Then beginning September 16 and lasting about ten days, the Bombing Branch, Armament Laboratory, tested type R-3 fragmentation bomb racks. The work appears to have ended early in December. On June 20, 1945, the AAF Aircraft Distribution Office asked that the Air Technical Service Command transfer the Lightning from Wright Field to Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma, a temporary holding area for Air Force museum aircraft. The P-38 arrived at the Oklahoma City Air Depot on June 27, 1945, and mechanics prepared the fighter for flyable storage.

 

Airplane Flight Reports for this Lightning also describe the following activities and movements:

 

6-21-45 Wright Field, Ohio, 5.15 hours of flying.

6-22-45Wright Field, Ohio, .35 minutes of flying by Lt. Col. Wendel [?] J. Kelley and P. Shannon.

6-25-45Altus, Oklahoma, .55 hours flown, pilot P. Shannon.

6-27-45Altus, Oklahoma, #2 engine changed, 1.05 hours flown by Air Corps F/O Ralph F. Coady.

10-5-45 OCATSC-GCAAF (Garden City Army Air Field, Garden City, Kansas), guns removed and ballast added.

10-8-45Adams Field, Little Rock, Arkansas.

10-9-45Nashville, Tennessee,

5-28-46Freeman Field, Indiana, maintenance check by Air Corps Capt. H. M. Chadhowere [sp]?

7-24-46Freeman Field, Indiana, 1 hour local flight by 1st Lt. Charles C. Heckel.

7-31-46 Freeman Field, Indiana, 4120th AAF Base Unit, ferry flight to Orchard Place [Illinois] by 1st Lt. Charles C. Heckel.

 

On August 5, 1946, the AAF moved the aircraft to another storage site at the former Consolidated B-24 bomber assembly plant at Park Ridge, Illinois. A short time later, the AAF transferred custody of the Lightning and more than sixty other World War II-era airplanes to the Smithsonian National Air Museum. During the early 1950s, the Air Force moved these airplanes from Park Ridge to the Smithsonian storage site at Suitland, Maryland.

 

• • •

 

Quoting from Wikipedia | Lockheed P-38 Lightning:

 

The Lockheed P-38 Lightning was a World War II American fighter aircraft built by Lockheed. Developed to a United States Army Air Corps requirement, the P-38 had distinctive twin booms and a single, central nacelle containing the cockpit and armament. Named "fork-tailed devil" by the Luftwaffe and "two planes, one pilot" by the Japanese, the P-38 was used in a number of roles, including dive bombing, level bombing, ground-attack, photo reconnaissance missions, and extensively as a long-range escort fighter when equipped with drop tanks under its wings.

 

The P-38 was used most successfully in the Pacific Theater of Operations and the China-Burma-India Theater of Operations as the mount of America's top aces, Richard Bong (40 victories) and Thomas McGuire (38 victories). In the South West Pacific theater, the P-38 was the primary long-range fighter of United States Army Air Forces until the appearance of large numbers of P-51D Mustangs toward the end of the war. The P-38 was unusually quiet for a fighter, the exhaust muffled by the turbo-superchargers. It was extremely forgiving, and could be mishandled in many ways, but the rate of roll was too slow for it to excel as a dogfighter. The P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to Victory over Japan Day.

 

Variants: Lightning in maturity: P-38J

 

The P-38J was introduced in August 1943. The turbo-supercharger intercooler system on previous variants had been housed in the leading edges of the wings and had proven vulnerable to combat damage and could burst if the wrong series of controls were mistakenly activated. In the P-38J model, the streamlined engine nacelles of previous Lightnings were changed to fit the intercooler radiator between the oil coolers, forming a "chin" that visually distinguished the J model from its predecessors. While the P-38J used the same V-1710-89/91 engines as the H model, the new core-type intercooler more efficiently lowered intake manifold temperatures and permitted a substantial increase in rated power. The leading edge of the outer wing was fitted with 55 gal (208 l) fuel tanks, filling the space formerly occupied by intercooler tunnels, but these were omitted on early P-38J blocks due to limited availability.

 

The final 210 J models, designated P-38J-25-LO, alleviated the compressibility problem through the addition of a set of electrically-actuated dive recovery flaps just outboard of the engines on the bottom centerline of the wings. With these improvements, a USAAF pilot reported a dive speed of almost 600 mph (970 km/h), although the indicated air speed was later corrected for compressibility error, and the actual dive speed was lower. Lockheed manufactured over 200 retrofit modification kits to be installed on P-38J-10-LO and J-20-LO already in Europe, but the USAAF C-54 carrying them was shot down by an RAF pilot who mistook the Douglas transport for a German Focke-Wulf Condor. Unfortunately the loss of the kits came during Lockheed test pilot Tony LeVier's four-month morale-boosting tour of P-38 bases. Flying a new Lightning named "Snafuperman" modified to full P-38J-25-LO specs at Lockheed's modification center near Belfast, LeVier captured the pilots' full attention by routinely performing maneuvers during March 1944 that common Eighth Air Force wisdom held to be suicidal. It proved too little too late because the decision had already been made to re-equip with Mustangs.

 

The P-38J-25-LO production block also introduced hydraulically-boosted ailerons, one of the first times such a system was fitted to a fighter. This significantly improved the Lightning's rate of roll and reduced control forces for the pilot. This production block and the following P-38L model are considered the definitive Lightnings, and Lockheed ramped up production, working with subcontractors across the country to produce hundreds of Lightnings each month.

 

Noted P-38 pilots

 

Richard Bong and Thomas McGuire

 

The American ace of aces and his closest competitor both flew Lightnings as they tallied 40 and 38 victories respectively. Majors Richard I. "Dick" Bong and Thomas J. "Tommy" McGuire of the USAAF competed for the top position. Both men were awarded the Medal of Honor.

 

McGuire was killed in air combat in January 1945 over the Philippines, after racking up 38 confirmed kills, making him the second-ranking American ace. Bong was rotated back to the United States as America's ace of aces, after making 40 kills, becoming a test pilot. He was killed on 6 August 1945, the day the atomic bomb was dropped on Japan, when his P-80 Shooting Star jet fighter flamed out on takeoff.

 

Charles Lindbergh

 

The famed aviator Charles Lindbergh toured the South Pacific as a civilian contractor for United Aircraft Corporation, comparing and evaluating performance of single- and twin-engined fighters for Vought. He worked to improve range and load limits of the F4U Corsair, flying both routine and combat strafing missions in Corsairs alongside Marine pilots. In Hollandia, he attached himself to the 475th FG flying P-38s so that he could investigate the twin-engine fighter. Though new to the machine, he was instrumental in extending the range of the P-38 through improved throttle settings, or engine-leaning techniques, notably by reducing engine speed to 1,600 rpm, setting the carburetors for auto-lean and flying at 185 mph (298 km/h) indicated airspeed which reduced fuel consumption to 70 gal/h, about 2.6 mpg. This combination of settings had been considered dangerous; it was thought it would upset the fuel mixture and cause an explosion. Everywhere Lindbergh went in the South Pacific, he was accorded the normal preferential treatment of a visiting colonel, though he had resigned his Air Corps Reserve colonel's commission three years before. While with the 475th, he held training classes and took part in a number of Army Air Corps combat missions. On 28 July 1944, Lindbergh shot down a Mitsubishi Ki-51 "Sonia" flown expertly by the veteran commander of 73rd Independent Flying Chutai, Imperial Japanese Army Captain Saburo Shimada. In an extended, twisting dogfight in which many of the participants ran out of ammunition, Shimada turned his aircraft directly toward Lindbergh who was just approaching the combat area. Lindbergh fired in a defensive reaction brought on by Shimada's apparent head-on ramming attack. Hit by cannon and machine gun fire, the "Sonia's" propeller visibly slowed, but Shimada held his course. Lindbergh pulled up at the last moment to avoid collision as the damaged "Sonia" went into a steep dive, hit the ocean and sank. Lindbergh's wingman, ace Joseph E. "Fishkiller" Miller, Jr., had also scored hits on the "Sonia" after it had begun its fatal dive, but Miller was certain the kill credit was Lindbergh's. The unofficial kill was not entered in the 475th's war record. On 12 August 1944 Lindbergh left Hollandia to return to the United States.

 

Charles MacDonald

 

The seventh-ranking American ace, Charles H. MacDonald, flew a Lightning against the Japanese, scoring 27 kills in his famous aircraft, the Putt Putt Maru.

 

Robin Olds

 

Main article: Robin Olds

 

Robin Olds was the last P-38 ace in the Eighth Air Force and the last in the ETO. Flying a P-38J, he downed five German fighters on two separate missions over France and Germany. He subsequently transitioned to P-51s to make seven more kills. After World War II, he flew F-4 Phantom IIs in Vietnam, ending his career as brigadier general with 16 kills.

 

Clay Tice

 

A P-38 piloted by Clay Tice was the first American aircraft to land in Japan after VJ-Day, when he and his wingman set down on Nitagahara because his wingman was low on fuel.

 

Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

 

Noted aviation pioneer and writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry vanished in a F-5B-1-LO, 42-68223, c/n 2734, of Groupe de Chasse II/33, out of Borgo-Porreta, Bastia, Corsica, a reconnaissance variant of the P-38, while on a flight over the Mediterranean, from Corsica to mainland France, on 31 July 1944. His health, both physical and mental (he was said to be intermittently subject to depression), had been deteriorating and there had been talk of taking him off flight status. There have been suggestions (although no proof to date) that this was a suicide rather than an aircraft failure or combat loss. In 2000, a French scuba diver found the wreckage of a Lightning in the Mediterranean off the coast of Marseille, and it was confirmed in April 2004 as Saint-Exupéry's F-5B. No evidence of air combat was found. In March 2008, a former Luftwaffe pilot, Horst Rippert from Jagdgruppe 200, claimed to have shot down Saint-Exupéry.

 

Adrian Warburton

 

The RAF's legendary photo-recon "ace", Wing Commander Adrian Warburton DSO DFC, was the pilot of a Lockheed P-38 borrowed from the USAAF that took off on 12 April 1944 to photograph targets in Germany. W/C Warburton failed to arrive at the rendezvous point and was never seen again. In 2003, his remains were recovered in Germany from his wrecked USAAF P-38 Lightning.

 

• • • • •

 

Quoting Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum | Boeing B-29 Superfortress "Enola Gay":

 

Boeing's B-29 Superfortress was the most sophisticated propeller-driven bomber of World War II and the first bomber to house its crew in pressurized compartments. Although designed to fight in the European theater, the B-29 found its niche on the other side of the globe. In the Pacific, B-29s delivered a variety of aerial weapons: conventional bombs, incendiary bombs, mines, and two nuclear weapons.

 

On August 6, 1945, this Martin-built B-29-45-MO dropped the first atomic weapon used in combat on Hiroshima, Japan. Three days later, Bockscar (on display at the U.S. Air Force Museum near Dayton, Ohio) dropped a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki, Japan. Enola Gay flew as the advance weather reconnaissance aircraft that day. A third B-29, The Great Artiste, flew as an observation aircraft on both missions.

 

Transferred from the United States Air Force.

 

Manufacturer:

Boeing Aircraft Co.

Martin Co., Omaha, Nebr.

 

Date:

1945

 

Country of Origin:

United States of America

 

Dimensions:

Overall: 900 x 3020cm, 32580kg, 4300cm (29ft 6 5/16in. x 99ft 1in., 71825.9lb., 141ft 15/16in.)

 

Materials:

Polished overall aluminum finish

 

Physical Description:

Four-engine heavy bomber with semi-monoqoque fuselage and high-aspect ratio wings. Polished aluminum finish overall, standard late-World War II Army Air Forces insignia on wings and aft fuselage and serial number on vertical fin; 509th Composite Group markings painted in black; "Enola Gay" in black, block letters on lower left nose.

Best when viewed in the light box. Thanks to a low tide on Friday night I started on the beach below Marquam Bridge where I met Robert / Ancient_Alien_Theorist and Scott Tice / FarmerTed1971 . While we were there the lighting went thru a a full spectrum of colors. This rare all white light view will likely not be seen when the lighting is configured to reflect the state (height, temperature, and flow rate of the river). Another change will be from the still to be installed street lighting which is also designed to illuminate the deck-line of the bridge underneath the cable lighting shown here. See more photos from this location. The aesthetic lighting for the bridge was conceived by artist team Douglas Hollis and Anna Valentina Murch, and is being executed by digital artist / designer Morgan Barnard. NB28179

shot executed by pinhole Auloma Superpanorama 6x17, Filter auloma ND4, negative scanned by Canon EOS 1100D, 120 film Kodak ektar 100

And more portraits from the Sky Portrait of the Year competitions over the years. These self-portraits are a beautifully executed take on the sort of passport photos you have done in a photo booth. Called Lost Identity, it's by Rosso Emerald Crimson (also known as Rosso). Interestingly, since these work so well, they're in a completely different style from her usual flamboyant portraits (see www.rossoart.net/).