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This Cummins powered Kenworth Cabover double-drive artic, CDT 443T, would appear to be a personalized number first registered in 1991. I'm not sure who her owners were, but she was hauling a trailer belonging to R & J Masters Distribution Ltd, from Barnsley. Perhaps some fellow Flickrite can enlighten us further on this motor?
Vehicle: Land Rover Defender 110.
Date of first registration: 23rd April 2013.
Registration region: Exeter.
Latest recorded mileage: 72,799 (MOT 1st April 2020).
Last V5 issued: 21st January 2020.
Vehicle: Isuzu D-Max.
Date of first registration: 24th March 2017.
Registration region: Bristol.
Latest recorded mileage: 32,393 (MOT 8th March 2021).
Last V5 issued: 21st March 2017.
Date taken: 29th March 2021.
Album: Carspotting
Organized, friendly and efficient. Yes it was difficult to get on the list, yes you need computer access and a car but on site it was well run. Unfortunately only one of us got on the list here.
This is the Heavy Recovery truck i bought off Paul Adams and is on Bison 2 Photo stream and its original Reg was SFX 550
EAE Warehouse, Loanhead
EAE is Scotland's largest and longest established leaflet and poster distribution specialist. EAE was originally set up in 1987 by nine arts and tourism organisations in Edinburgh. They wanted more cost effective ways of getting their promotional print into the hands of potential audiences and customers.
Over the past 25 years, EAE has grown into Scotland's largest print distribution and display specialist, operating from 12 regional storage and distribution centres that service 5,000 display sites and cover the whole country from the Northern Isles to the English border.
Canon EOS 5D
Nikon Ai Nikkor 300mm F4.5s ED (IF)
キショウブ
Iris pseudacorus L., 1753
This name is accepted.
Confirmation Date: 03/16, 2023.
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Family: Iridaceae (APG IV)
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Authors:
Carl von Linnaeus (1707-1778)
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Published In:
Species Plantarum
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Collation:
1: 38
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Date of Publication:
1 May 1753
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The native range of this species is Europe to Caucasus, Medit. to Iran. It is a rhizomatous geophyte or helophyte and grows primarily in the temperate biome.
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Distribution Native to:
Albania, Algeria, Austria, Baleares, Baltic States, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Central European Rus, Corse, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, East Aegean Is., East European Russia, Finland, France, Føroyar, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kriti, Krym, Madeira, Morocco, Netherlands, North Caucasus, North European Russi, Northwest European R, Norway, Palestine, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sardegna, Sicilia, South European Russi, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Transcaucasus, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkey-in-Europe, Ukraine, West Siberia, Yugoslavia
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Introduced into:
Alabama, Argentina Northeast, Arkansas, British Columbia, California, Colorado, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, India, Iowa, Japan, Kansas, Kentucky, Korea, Louisiana, Maine, Manitoba, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, New Brunswick, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, New Zealand North, Newfoundland, North Carolina, Nova Scotia, Ohio, Ontario, Pennsylvania, Prince Edward I., Québec, Rhode I., South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin
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Distribution:Europe to Caucasus, Medit. to Iran
10 DEN FIN FOR GRB IRE NOR SWE 11 AUT BGM CZE GER HUN NET POL SWI 12 BAL COR FRA POR SAR SPA 13 ALB BUL GRC ITA KRI ROM SIC TUE YUG 14 BLR BLT KRY RUC RUE RUN RUS RUW UKR 20 ALG MOR TUN 21 MDR 30 WSB 32 KAZ 33 NCS TCS 34 EAI IRN PAL TUR (38) jap kor (40) ind (51) nzn (71) brc man (72) nbr nfl nsc ont pei que (73) col was (74) ill iow kan min mso wis (75) mai mas nwh nwy ohi pen rho ver wva (76) cal (77) nwm (78) ala ark del fla geo kty lou nca sca ten vrg wdc (85) age
Lifeform:Rhizome geophyte or hel.
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Homotypic Synonyms:
Iris palustris Gaterau in Descr. Pl. Montauban: 31 (1789), nom. superfl.
Limnirion pseudacorus (L.) Opiz in Seznam: 59 (1852)
Limniris pseudacorus (L.) Fuss in Fl. Transsilv.: 636 (1866)
Pseudo-iris palustris Medik. in Hist. & Commentat. Acad. Elect. Sci. Theod.-Palat. 6: 417 (1790), nom. superfl.
Xiphion pseudacorus (L.) Schrank in Fl. Monac. 1: t. 99 (1811)
Xyridion pseudacorus (L.) Klatt in Bot. Zeitung (Berlin) 30: 500 (1872)
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Heterotypic Synonyms:
Acorus adulterinus Ludw. in Herb. Blackwell.: t. 261 (1755-1757)
Iris acoriformis Boreau in Fl. Centre France, ed. 3, 2: 635 (1857)
Iris acoroides Spach in Hist. Nat. Vég. 13: 44 (1846)
Iris bastardii Boreau in Fl. Centre France, ed. 3, 2: 635 (1857)
Iris curtopetala Redouté in Liliac. 6: t. 340 (1811)
Iris flava Tornab. in Fl. Sicul.: 212 (1887)
Iris lutea Ludw. in Herb. Blackwell.: t. 261 (1755-1757)
Iris pallidior Hill in Brit. Herb.: 473 (1756)
Iris paludosa Pers. in Syn. Pl. 1: 52 (1805)
Iris palustris Moench in Methodus: 528 (1794), nom. illeg.
Iris palustris var. pallida Gray in Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 2: 196 (1821 publ. 1822)
Iris pseudacorus L. var. acoriformis (Boreau) Baker in J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 16: 190 (1877)
Iris pseudacorus L. subsp. acoriformis (Boreau) K.Richt. in Pl. Eur. 1: 257 (1890)
Iris pseudacorus L. var. acoriformis (Boreau) Nyman in Consp. Fl. Eur.: 702 (1882)
Iris pseudacorus L. var. acoroides (Spach) Baker in Handb. Irid.: 11 (1892)
Iris pseudacorus L. forma albescens Neuman in Sver. Fl.: 641 (1901)
Iris pseudacorus L. subvar. aurantiaca Druce in Rep. Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Isles 5: 53 (1917)
Iris pseudacorus L. var. bastardii (Boreau) Nyman in Consp. Fl. Eur.: 702 (1882)
Iris pseudacorus L. subsp. bastardii (Boreau) K.Richt. in Pl. Eur. 1: 257 (1890)
Iris pseudacorus L. var. citrina Hook. in Brit. Fl.: 18 (1830)
Iris pseudacorus L. forma longiacuminata Prodan in Bul. Grăd. Bot. Univ. Cluj 15: 67 (1935)
Iris pseudacorus L. var. longifolia DC. in J.B.A.M.de Lamarck & A.P.de Candolle, Fl. Franç., éd. 3, 3: 237 (1805)
Iris pseudacorus L. forma nyaradyana Prodan in T.Săvulescu, Fl. Republ. Socialist. România 11: 852 (1966)
Iris pseudacorus L. var. ochroleuca Peterm. in Flora 27: 344 (1844)
Iris pseudacorus L. var. parviflora Bastard in Essai Fl. Maine et Loire, Suppl.: 23 (1812)
Iris pseudacorus L. var. parviflorum Bastard in Essai Fl. Maine et Loire, Suppl.: 23 (1812)
Iris pseudacorus L. forma submersa Glück in Biol. Morphol. Untersuch. Wasser- Sumpfgewächse 3: 13 (1911)
Iris sativa Mill. in Gard. Dict. ed. 8.: n.° 15 (1768)
Moraea candolleana Spreng. in Syst. Veg., 1: 164 (1824)
Vieusseuxia iridioides Redouté in Liliac. 6: t. 340 (1811), pro syn.
Xiphion acoroides (Spach) Alef. in Bot. Zeitung (Berlin) 21: 297 (1863)
Xyridion acoroideum (Spach) Klatt in Bot. Zeitung (Berlin) 30: 500 (1872)
------------------------------------------
Publications:
POWO follows these authorities in accepting this name:
Alexeyeva, N. (2008). Genus Iris L. (Iridaceae) in the Russia. Turczaninowia 11(2): 5-68.
Allred, K.W. (2012). Flora Neomexicana, ed. 2, 1: 1-599. Range Science Herbarium, Las Cruces, New Mexico.
Chang, C.S., Kim, H. & Chang, K.S. (2014). Provisional checklist of vascular plants for the Korea peninsula flora (KPF): 1-660. DESIGNPOST.
Colasante, M.A. (2014). Iridaceae presenti in Italia: 1-415. Sapienza, Università Editrice, Roma.
Czerepanov, S.K. (1995). Vascular Plants of Russia and Adjacent States (The Former USSR): 1-516. Cambridge University Press.
Danin, A. (2004). Distribution Atlas of Plants in the Flora Palaestina Area: 404-410. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.
Davis, P.H. (ed.) (1984). Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands 8: 381-450. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.
Denslow, M.W., Katz, G.L. & Jennings, W.F. (2011). First record of Iris pseudacorus (Iridaceae) from Colorado. Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas 5: 327-328.
Dobignard, D. & Chatelain, C. (2010). Index synonymique de la flore d'Afrique du nord 1: 1-455. Éditions des conservatoire et jardin botaniques, Genève.
Feinbrun-Dothan, N. (1986). Flora Palaestina 4: 112-137. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee (2002). Flora of North America North of Mexico 26: 1-723. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford.
Hansen, A. & Sunding, P. (1985). Flora of Macaronesia. Checklist of vascular plants. 3. revised edition. Sommerfeltia 1: 5-103.
Innes, C. (1985). The World of Iridaceae: 1-407. Holly Gare International Ltd., Ashington.
Iwatsuki, K., Boufford, D.E. & Ohba, H. (2016). Flora of Japan IVb: 1-335. Kodansha Ltd., Tokyo.
Knapp, W.M. & Naczi, R.F.C. (2021). Vascular plants of Maryland, USA. A comprehensive account of the state's botanical diversity. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany 113: 1-151.
Komarov, V.L. (ed.) (1935). Flora SSSR 4: 1-586. Izdatel'stov Akademii Nauk SSSR, Leningrad.
Lee, W.T. (1996). Lineamenta Florae Koreae: 1-1688. Soul T'ukpyolsi: Ak'ademi Sojok.
Maire, R. (1959 publ. 1960). Flore de l'Afrique du Nord 6: 1-397. Paul Lechevalier, Paris.
Malyschev L.I. & Peschkova , G.A. (eds.) (2001). Flora of Siberia 4: 1-238. Scientific Publishers, Inc., Enfield, Plymouth.
Mirek, Z., Piękoś-Mirkowa, H., Zając, A. & Zając, M (2020). Vascular plants of Poland an annotated checklist: 1-526. W. Szafer institute of botany, Polish academy of sciences, Krakow, Poland.
Muer, T., Sauerbier, H. & Cabrara Calixto, F. (2020). Die Farn- und Blütenpflanzen Madeiras: 1-792. Verlag und Versandbuchhandlung Andreas Kleinsteuber.
Múlgura, M.E. (1996). Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares de la República Argentina 1: 205-217. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.
Pavlov, N.V. (ed.) (1958). Flora Kazakhstana 2: 1-290. Alma-Ata, Izd-vo Akademii nauk Kazakhskoi SSR.
Post, G.E. (1933). Fl. Syria, Palestine & Sinai 2: 583-604. American Press, Beirut.
Takhtajan, A.L. (ed.) (2006). Konspekt Flora Kavkaza 2: 1-466. Editio Universitatis Petropolitanae.
Tutin, T.G. & al. (eds.) (1980). Flora Europaea 5: 1-452. Cambridge University Press.
Wendelbo, P. & Mathew, B (1975). Flora Iranica 112: 1-79. Naturhistorisches Museums Wien.
----------------------
Kew Backbone Distributions:
Allred, K.W. (2012). Flora Neomexicana, ed. 2, 1: 1-599. Range Science Herbarium, Las Cruces, New Mexico.
Chadde, S.W. (2019). Minnesota Flora. An illustrated guide to the vascular plants of Minnesota ed. 2: 1-776. Steve W. Chadde.
Chadde, S.W. (2019). Wisconsin Flora ed. 2: 1-818. Steve W. Chadde.
Danin, A. (2004). Distribution Atlas of Plants in the Flora Palaestina Area: 404-410. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.
Davis, P.H. (ed.) (1984). Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands 8: 381-450. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.
Denslow, M.W., Katz, G.L. & Jennings, W.F. (2011). First record of Iris pseudacorus (Iridaceae) from Colorado. Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas 5: 327-328.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee (2002). Flora of North America North of Mexico 26: 1-723. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford.
Gilman, A.V. (2015). New flora of Vermont. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 110: 1-614.
Iwatsuki, K., Boufford, D.E. & Ohba, H. (2016). Flora of Japan IVb: 1-335. Kodansha Ltd., Tokyo.
Knapp, W.M. & Naczi, R.F.C. (2021). Vascular plants of Maryland, USA. A comprehensive account of the state's botanical diversity. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany 113: 1-151.
Komarov, V.L. (ed.) (1935). Flora SSSR 4: 1-586. Izdatel'stov Akademii Nauk SSSR, Leningrad.
Lee, W.T. (1996). Lineamenta Florae Koreae: 1-1688. Soul T'ukpyolsi: Ak'ademi Sojok.
Maire, R. (1959 publ. 1960). Flore de l'Afrique du Nord 6: 1-397. Paul Lechevalier, Paris.
Meades, S.J. & Brouillet, L. (2019). Annotated Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Newfoundland and Labrador www.newfoundland-labradorflora.com/checklist.
Múlgura, M.E. (1996). Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares de la República Argentina 1: 205-217. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.
Pavlov, N.V. (ed.) (1958). Flora Kazakhstana 2: 1-290. Alma-Ata, Izd-vo Akademii nauk Kazakhskoi SSR.
Press, J.R. & Short, M.J. (eds.) (1994). Flora of Madeira: i-xviii, 1-574. HMSO.
Tutin, T.G. & al. (eds.) (1980). Flora Europaea 5: 1-452. Cambridge University Press.
Wendelbo, P. & Mathew, B (1975). Flora Iranica 112: 1-79. Naturhistorisches Museums Wien.
------------------------------------------
This name is Accepted by:
Post, G.E. (1933). Fl. Syria, Palestine & Sinai 2: 583-604. American Press, Beirut.
Komarov, V.L. (ed.) (1935). Flora SSSR 4: 1-586. Izdatel'stov Akademii Nauk SSSR, Leningrad.
Pavlov, N.V. (ed.) (1958). Flora Kazakhstana 2: 1-290. Alma-Ata, Izd-vo Akademii nauk Kazakhskoi SSR.
Maire, R. (1959 publ. 1960). Flore de l'Afrique du Nord 6: 1-397. Paul Lechevalier, Paris.
Wendelbo, P. & Mathew, B (1975). Flora Iranica 112: 1-79. Naturhistorisches Museums Wien.
Tutin, T.G. & al. (eds.) (1980). Flora Europaea 5: 1-452. Cambridge University Press.
Davis, P.H. (ed.) (1984). Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands 8: 381-450. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.
Innes, C. (1985). The World of Iridaceae: 1-407. Holly Gare International Ltd., Ashington.
Hansen, A. & Sunding, P. (1985). Flora of Macaronesia. Checklist of vascular plants. 3. revised edition. Sommerfeltia 1: 5-103.
Feinbrun-Dothan, N. (1986). Flora Palaestina 4: 112-137. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.
Czerepanov, S.K. (1995). Vascular Plants of Russia and Adjacent States (The Former USSR): 1-516. Cambridge University Press.
Múlgura, M.E. (1996). Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares de la República Argentina 1: 205-217. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.
Lee, W.T. (1996). Lineamenta Florae Koreae: 1-1688. Soul T'ukpyolsi: Ak'ademi Sojok.
Malyschev L.I. & Peschkova , G.A. (eds.) (2001). Flora of Siberia 4: 1-238. Scientific Publishers, Inc., Enfield, Plymouth.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee (2002). Flora of North America North of Mexico 26: 1-723. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford.
Danin, A. (2004). Distribution Atlas of Plants in the Flora Palaestina Area: 404-410. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.
Takhtajan, A.L. (ed.) (2006). Konspekt Flora Kavkaza 2: 1-466. Editio Universitatis Petropolitanae.
Alexeyeva, N. (2008). Genus Iris L. (Iridaceae) in the Russia. Turczaninowia 11(2): 5-68.
Dobignard, D. & Chatelain, C. (2010). Index synonymique de la flore d'Afrique du nord 1: 1-455. Éditions des conservatoire et jardin botaniques, Genève.
Denslow, M.W., Katz, G.L. & Jennings, W.F. (2011). First record of Iris pseudacorus (Iridaceae) from Colorado. Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas 5: 327-328.
Allred, K.W. (2012). Flora Neomexicana , ed. 2, 1: 1-599. Range Science Herbarium, Las Cruces, New Mexico.
Colasante, M.A. (2014). Iridaceae presenti in Italia: 1-415. Sapienza, Università Editrice, Roma.
Chang, C.S., Kim, H. & Chang, K.S. (2014). Provisional checklist of vascular plants for the Korea peninsula flora (KPF): 1-660. DESIGNPOST.
Iwatsuki, K., Boufford, D.E. & Ohba, H. (2016). Flora of Japan IVb: 1-335. Kodansha Ltd., Tokyo.
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The Art Gallery of Knoxville
January 1-27, 2007
"Distribution Religion" was developed in 1973 by Chicago artists Dan Sandin and Phil Morton as a text to describe the schematic plans for Sandin's Image Processor, an analog computer optimized for video processing. The "Distribution Religion" expressed a determined belief in the idea of free and open copying, which is a central aspect of the Chicago School and a notion that has begun to become important to many contemporary artists.
From January 1 – 27, The Art Gallery of Knoxville will examine situations of sharing and exchange provided by three contemporary Chicago groups: criticalartware, People Powered , and Temporary Services. Each of these artists have developed interests in distribution and it's role as an important social / cultural concern.
criticalartware is a contemporary group led by artists jonCates, jon.satrom and bensyverson. A central part of their work involves the public distribution / presentation of interviews, video and text featuring the key players of early code or concept based Art. They are particularly interested in enabling "shared cultural resources connecting these conversations." In Knoxville, criticalartware will coordinate an electronic system for the sharing and exchange of this information – primarily through a custom computer interface.
People Powered is a Chicago group run by artist Kevin Kaempf. His work integrates itself socially, becoming a means for the distribution of physical tools. People Powered "adopts consumer culture's aesthetic forms to distribute information about sustainable living practices such as community composting, recycling, and free public transportation." A recent People Powered exhibit at the Chicago Museum of Contemporary Art highlighted prototypes for "Chicago Blue Bikes," in which junked bicycles are salvaged and rebuilt into a fleet of public bicycles. The Knoxville exhibition will become part of the project "Loop Limited: Recycled Paints" where unfinished cans of used paint are recycled/mixed together and redistributed into the community. Cans of paint will be available for free in the Gallery space.
The artists of Temporary Services are founders of the Chicago space "Mess Hall" and widely known for their public and social works. Often the group aims to "provide a network for the collection and distribution of artistic work going on looking at the line between art and ethics, power and art, and the role of the public." In Knoxville, the group's Booklets, a large collection of self published material on a wide range of subjects, will be freely available. Alongside this substantial library, an example set of works given away at the Temporary Services event "Free For All" will be shown. "Free For All" was a public art project where multiples of many small objects were collected by the public within a cardboard box that acted as a portable, distributed exhibition.
Temporary Services: Free For All by Marc Fischer "Over 10,000 objects were given away! Over 50 artists, individuals and organizations contributed work that was distributed for free at this one-day-only event. Artists' work was integrated with a wide range of material submerging the work in a broader context than it normally enjoys. Religious tracts, booklets, flyers, stickers, matchbooks, posters, audio tapes, and postcards were among the items given away. … 100 boxes (like the one pictured above) were provided for free. Visitors were invited to take anything they wanted making their own portable exhibitions to take with them."
"Free For All" is a self-replicating exhibit, one which is shared and exchanged in both the collecting and the viewing of it. Through "make-shift methods of distribution and display that are commonly found in flea markets, garage sales and craft shows" Temporary Services created an alternative, distributed exhibition that enabled a public to engage with cultural information on a level of personal ownership. The exhibition dealt not only with the free use of Art – but the creation of free and open systems as Art.
On the night of Friday, January 5, 2007 members of criticalartware will be involved in creating a free computer art and cultural event, (A) r4WB1t5 micro.Fest at the Pilot Light on January 5th. "(A) r4WB1t5 micro.Fest in Knoxville parallel processes The Art Gallery of Knoxville and the Pilot Light nightclub with intersections of New Media Art, realtime audio video processing, computer art geekery, digital punk rock, noise music, the Blues and freak folktronics!" Please join us to celebrate the Distribution Religion opening at both The Art Gallery of Knoxville and The Pilot Light.
16-5-92 Hartford CLC Jct
47291 swings round from the WCML on 6M27 Larbert - Oakleigh empty ICI tanks having taken over the train at Warrington Bank Quay
Kodachrome 200
Sunset @ Bangui Wind Mills
Summer of 2011
April 21, 2011
Pentax K5 + Pentax smc DA 18-135mm F3.5-5.6ED AL IF DC WR
All photos are owned and copyrighted by © Jeward "jay" N. Delgado a.k.a. blue merlin ™.
All Rights Reserved. Unauthorized use, copy, editing, reproduction, publication, duplication and distribution of the digital photos, without his explicit permission, is punishable by law ®
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(If anyone can add to, or correct any of the information below, please post such addition or correction as a comment and I will update this article. -- Thanks)
These links might be interesting. They are a two part Television program called Success Story that show Westinghouse transformers being manufactured at the Westinghouse Sunnyvale Plant in Sunnyvale, CA, in the 1950's:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=3eD_i94WFsk
www.youtube.com/watch?v=UOE0DMNfbog
I have studiedd the history of electrification, as I find it very interesting.
After Edison's DC system proved to not be practical, and once the plan for electrifying the country was worked out by engineers (probably working at General Electric and Westinghouse), it was decided the distribution voltage was to be standardized at 2400 or 4800 volts, phase to phase, although there were many early grids operating at oddball voltages in the early days. It was to be a three phase 3-wire (delta) system, with the transformers connected phase to phase. A single phase distribution line was simply any two wires taped from the three phase system.
Previously, Edison had electrified parts of New York City with his DC system, and William Stanley, Jr., the inventor of the practical transformer had electrified (for lighting only) Great Barrington, MA, in 1886. Using transformers that he designed and built, he stepped up the generator's output of 500 volts to a distribution voltage of 3000 volts, with his transformers at the point of use stepping this voltage down to 100 volts.
Lots of interesting information about this can be found at:
edisontechcenter.org/GreatBarrington.html
Part of the problem of adopting AC was that early on there was no practical AC electric motor. DC motors were much simpler and until an AC motor was developed AC would not be accepted. And Edison's system in NYC provided power for both lighting and motors. In fact, ConEd continued to supply DC power to older buildings that had DC motors -- mostly for elevators -- until recently. After the ConEd DC generators were gone, they still used rotary converters, and later rectifiers, to provide DC power to some customers who needed it up to just a few years ago.
But by the late 1890's AC electric motors became available and household electrification using AC in the US with distribution systems operating at 2400 volts (delta connected primaries) began around 1905 in urban areas.
Actually, back at that time, the voltage was 2200 volts, which resulted in service to the customer side of the transformer of 110/220 volts in the United States. Over the years, this has been gradually increased, and is now a nominal 120/240 volts for residential and small commercial/industrial customers. For all voltages in this article, I use the modern voltage. In the original system, using these voltages allowed for a very convenient ratio of 10:1 (20:1 for 4800 volt transformers) for the windings of the transformers.
Most early three phase distribution systems were connected in delta on the primaries of the distribution transformers. This is where the three windings are connected together with three connections, and if you draw a schematic it looks like the Greek letter "delta". Later, as systems were upgraded, many if not most systems were connected so that a schematic looks like the Roman letter "Y", with the common point of the three windings usually grounded. This is usually spelled out as "wye".
Also it is helpful to understand the mathematical relationship between transformers connected delta or wye. In a wye connected three phase AC system, due to the 120 degree difference in phase between phases, the phase to phase voltage is 1.73 times the phase to neutral voltage, and the phase to neutral voltage is the phase to phase voltage divided by 1.73. 1.73 is the square root of three. It requires a bit of trigonometry to figure out why the factor is 1.73.
At any rate, 2400 volts was high enough to be able to use small size conductors on the distribution lines, and originally, electrification was just in the urban areas of cities and towns where the primary distribution lines were not that long, and loads were just lighting and very few appliances.
Later, as loads increased, most of these systems were upgraded to 4160 volts phase to phase (wye connected primaries), which made the phase to neutral voltage 2400 volts. A 4th wire was added, the neutral, and the 2400 volt transformers were reconnected phase to neutral. Almost all 2400 volt delta systems have been upgraded to 2400/4160Y (a few remain 2400 volt delta), and many old sections of urban areas that were originally electrified still use systems operating at these voltages. This is where you will see a lot of really old transformers, some dating back to the early days, and some really old ones with cast iron tanks.
Interestingly, while the distribution voltage in Manhattan is 100% 7960/13,800Y, many areas of Queens, Brooklyn, The Bronx, Westchester County, etc., still use 2400/4160Y according to Con Ed's web site.
But as electrification spread into the suburbs and rural areas, distribution voltages became necessarily higher. These increases in voltage allowed the currents on the distribution lines to remain low enough that small conductors could be used on the distribution lines and losses were not too high as the amount of power required increased.
Here is the upgrade path that was taken, as upgrades were required, from the original 2400 volt delta wired system:
Original system -- 2400 volt delta only using 2400 volt transformers connected phase to phase
Upgraded to 2400/4160Y using old 2400 volt transformers connected phase to neutral and new 4160 transformers connected phase to phase -- a lot of urban areas still operate at this voltage, including areas around NYC as mentioned above.
[Correction: 4160 volt transformers were never used, as pointed out in the comments below by NDLineGeek. Rather, all transformers on this system are 2400 volt connected phase to neutral.]
In some urban/suburban/moderately populated close-in rural areas that were electrified (for the first time--not upgraded) a bit later, say beginning in the 1910's, other voltages were sometimes chosen, because they did not have existing transformers to re-deploy.
A very common original distribution voltage for systems serving these types of areas was 4800 volts delta. This voltage was chosen for its own merits, not to allow for older transformers to continue to be used. Since these systems were built some years after the original 2,400 volt delta systems, the technology to use higher voltages had evolved, and this was a better choice for systems that covered towns that were a bit more spread out, or had more thickly populated near-by rural areas.
Areas like this were electrified much sooner than the spread-out rural areas of the mid-west, south, and far west. And since this was all original build, there were no old transformers to have to re-use. Originally, the 4800 volt systems were delta, and the transformers were connected phase to phase. The upgrade path for these systems was to upgrade to 4-wire wye, and the phase to phase voltage was 1.73 times 4800, or about 8320, which allowed the old 4800 volt transformers on these systems to be connected phase to neutral when they were upgraded. Indeed, most of these systems have been upgraded to 4800/8320Y, but I have read that a few remain operating at 4800 volts delta, including quite a few systems in CT that remain 4800 volt delta systems. Other areas of Connecticut operate with 4800/8320Y, with most transformers connected phase to neutral at 4800 volts. In these areas you will see some very old Westinghouse transformers, most of which are from the 10's, 20's, and 30's. Some have cast iron tanks; these are the oldest transformers still in use. This voltage works well in places like Connecticut because the towns, and their surrounding close-in rural areas, are not spread out too much for this voltage.
Another voltage used for first-time build for truly rural electrification was 7200 volts, wired delta, using 7200 volt transformers connected phase to phase. In the early days, this voltage was 6600 volts, which was stepped down to 110/220 with transformers that used a winding ratio of 30:1. Today, these same 30:1 transformers deliver 120/240 volts with 7200 volts on their primaries. These systems were originally built at this voltage beginning in the mid 1930's in delta configuration as a result of Roosevelt's enactment of the Rural Electrification Administration in 1935. Since these were all new systems there was no concern for using old transformers, but 6600 (now 7200) volts was chosen.
Over time, most of these systems have been upgraded to 7200/12470Y which has allowed for the continued use of 7200 volt transformers, but allowed for a less expensive transformer to be built once the systems were upgraded. The original 7200 volt transformers for the delta system had to have two high voltage connections going into the primary of the transformer, whereas the wye connection only required one high voltage bushing, as the other connection is to the neutral, which is grounded. On these systems, you will see a mixture of transformers, some with two HV bushings, and some with just one bushing. Most of these systems continue to operate at 7200/12470Y, and is a very common standard.
Note that for some of the upgrades, the original phase to phase voltage was multiplied by 1.73 so the phase to neutral voltage for the upgrade remained the same as the original phase to phase voltage.
Besides the standards discussed above, some other distribution voltages you will see used to-day are:
12000 (delta)
7620/13200Y
7960/13800Y
13200/23000Y
13800/24000Y
14400/24900Y
19920/34500Y
The history of why these voltages were chosen is a bit murky, at least to me. Here are some thoughts:
12000 volts delta is an old transmission standard from long ago, and while distribution systems using 12000 volt delta systems are not very common some were built for systems that operate over wide spread rural areas out west. Of course, since these were built using a three wire delta configuration, this required 12000 volt transformers.
7620/13200Y volts is a distribution voltage that is in common use. This is the voltage that is used in both Greenwich, CT, where I used to live, and Boca Raton, FL, where I now live. Also, since 23000 volt wye systems have 13,200 volts phase to natural, perhaps 7620/13200Y volts became convenient to use as a sort of downgrade when old 23000 volt transmission lines were no longer adequate for transmission and some were downgraded to distribution and converted to wye service. Just a thought, I don't know for sure.
7960/13800Y may have evolved from the fact that 13800 (delta) was an old transmission specification which was changed to wye and then used for distribution. While this article is primarily about distribution voltages and transformers, another interesting tidbit is that 27600 volt delta sub transmission is twice the old 13800 volt delta transmission voltage. As loads increased, it probably made sense to double the voltage, which would allow twice the power using the same size conductors, and this may be why 27600 delta is a standard sub transmission voltage to-day.
13200/23000Y, 13800/24000Y, 14400/24900Y, and 19920/34500 became distribution voltages for the same reason: old delta distribution voltages (the higher voltage) were changed over to wye and adapted for distribution. However, these higher voltages are not as common as the lower voltages for distribution.
For all these various distribution voltages, transformers are rated as follows:
HIGH VOLTAGE CONNECTIONS:
Phase to Phase Only:
These transformers HV bushings and coil can only withstand a limited voltage from the system ground, and must be connected phase to phase. Their rating will show only the coil voltage, as in 2400. 4800, 7200, etc.
Phase to Phase, or Phase to Neutral:
These transformers use fully insulated coils, and two HV bushings. Their rating will look like 7200/12470Y, where the coil voltage is 7200. Such a transformer could be connected phase to phase on a 7200 volt delta system, or phase to neutral on a 12470 wye system.
Phase to Neutral only (usually only have one HV bushing):
These use “graded” insulation, where there is less insulation at the end of the winding closest to ground. It will have a rating such as 4160GrdY/2400, or 13200GrdY/7620. This transformer will have a 2400 or 7620 volt coil, but one end of the coil must be connected to the neutral of a wye system as the insulation on the end of the coil is not capable of supporting a voltage that is the rated coil's voltage to ground.
LOW VOLTAGE CONNECTIONS:
120/240 V means the secondary can supply a load at either 120 or 240 volts as long as neither 120 volt coil section is overloaded
Transformers that can be internally reconnected from two wire to three wire service are designated 120/240 or 240/480 V (the smaller value first)
Transformers that cannot be reconnected are designated 240/120 or 480/240 V
It is interesting to me that many of the common voltages used to-day, and the voltages of early systems, used multiples of 10 for the distribution transformer ratio. Here are the ratios showing the present day primary voltages:
10:1 -- 2400 volts
20:1 -- 4800 volts
30:1 -- 7200 volts
50:1 -- 12000 volts
60:1 -- 14400 volts
Transformers with these ratios will deliver 240 volts on their secondaries (and 120 volts on either side of the secondary center tap) and can be connected phase to phase on delta systems operating at these voltages, or phase to neutral on wye systems operating at these voltages.
The ratios (for 240/120 volts on secondary) for other primary voltages are:
31.75:1 -- 7620
33.167:1 -- 7960
55:1 -- 13200
57.5:1 -- 13800
83:1 -- 19920 volts
Please add your thoughts, corrections, etc., to comments.
Thanks,
Rick
A small Semi with a city trailer for distribution in narrow city centre's. I designed it a while back at live at Lego World 2012 (In Zwolle, the Netherlands) but forgot to upload it. I wanted to show the public how LDD works.
Coal Distribution branded Class 37/0 37223 waits to depart with Speedlink Coal Network [SCN] Train 6B07, the 09:00 Gwaun Cae Gurwen [GCG] to East Usk Yard.
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