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Dotted along the North Downs Way on the hill side of Ranmore Common are these defences built in World War 2 and manned by the Home Guard.
Thy were designed as possibly the last line of defence for London against invading German troops.
Funnily enough, not mentioned on my OS map!
Israeli soldiers rest before an exercise in built up area on July 3, 2018 in Tzeelim, South Israel. The soldiers practiced fighting in the Gaza Strip against Hamas militants.
Source: Getty Images Europe
Staff Cadets from RMC-D land on the exercise area at Ingham airport by MRH-90 helicopter.
The Royal Military College (RMC) cadets from first class participated in the final battle block before their graduation in north Queensland from November 7-22, 2013. Around 128 cadets travelled up to Ingham, north of Townsville, for the two week battle block which saw them deploy in to the stability operations area of Masuria to meet the opposing (and fictitious) Kindamao Brotherhood militia group. Each cadet had the opportunity to act as a Platoon Commander to test their leadership skills prior to their upcoming graduation where they will become Lieutenants.
Members of the Irish Defence Force serving with the 118th Battalion, serving in the Lebanon with UNIFIL
Photos: Airman Gibney
18-19-20 October Napoli hosted a G7 Defence meeting in the Palazzo Reale di Napoli, which is in city centre. A whole lot of police and commandos with machine guns on the streets. Police trucks would come in and block all traffic from all sides. You couldn't go anywhere for an hour.
Botswana Defence Force Millitary Hardware on Parade at the 50th Independence Celebration.
All Images courtesy of Botswana Aviation Art
Staff Cadets from RMC-D land on the exercise area at Ingham airport by MRH-90 helicopter.
The Royal Military College (RMC) cadets from first class participated in the final battle block before their graduation in north Queensland from November 7-22, 2013. Around 128 cadets travelled up to Ingham, north of Townsville, for the two week battle block which saw them deploy in to the stability operations area of Masuria to meet the opposing (and fictitious) Kindamao Brotherhood militia group. Each cadet had the opportunity to act as a Platoon Commander to test their leadership skills prior to their upcoming graduation where they will become Lieutenants.
Botswana Defence Force Soldiers taking part in the SA Army 12th Annual Combat Rifle Shooting Competition held in de Brug, Bloemfontein over the period 25 June to 07 July 2019.
R4 Rehearsal, Army soldiers from the United States of America, Zambia, Lesotho and Botswana, 27June 2019.
Information and Photographs by Lance Corporal Phillimon Mafemo, SA Army Corporate Communication and Private Teboho Khoare 1 SAI, Corporate Communication
Members of the Irish Defence Force’s 95th Cadet Class completed their Military Operations in Urban Terrain Training in Fort Davis, Cork.
This demanding exercise marks an important milestone in Cadet Training, as we move towards Christmas, the New Year, and their completion of training. November 2019
Included in the 95th Cadet Class are members of the Armed Forces of Malta
Photo: Óglaigh na hÉireann / Irish Defence Forces
44 Infantry Group Mission Readiness Exercise
130 Defence Forces soldiers from the 44 Infantry Group are entering the final phase of intense training in preparation for the forthcoming deployment to the United Nations Disengagement Observation Forces, (UNDOF) in the Golan Heights region of Syria.
The training took place in the Glen Immal Co Wicklow. The personnel of the unit have a mix of experience, from first trip soldiers and officers, to highly experienced Senior NCO's and Commanders.
The 44 Infantry Group wil deploy to Syria in March, taking over from the 43 Infantry Group who have been serving with UNDOF since September 2013.
The Mission Readiness exercise put commanders and soldiers through a demanding series of scenarios based on the potential threats they may be encountered in the volatile mission area. The Troops face a series of scenarios involving simulated explosive strikes, air mobile helicopter drills,anti-ambush tactics, detailed operational planning and medical evacuation exercises.
River Dargle Flood Defence Scheme.
These images were taken during the last full week of September, 2016.
Constant traffic nowadays with hard material being trucked in and dumped in storage areas along The Slang/Rehills section of the river bank.
Further work is now being undertaken to upgrade the protection of the riverbank edge with the laying down of extra stone material.
Work has finished on the construction of the 'debris trap' in the river bed, opposite the Rivervale Apartments complex. This work was begun a few years ago, and halted with the creation of a pit, and the placement of (what I like to call) the 8 Dargle Dolmen stones (upright pillars) - 4 of which are immediately visible to the eye.
The ‘Debris Trap’ consists of 12 concrete elliptical shaped columns approximately 1.6m (5ft) high spaced 0.5m apart across the river channel -- essential for trapping any trees or other objects which may flow down the river in flood conditions.
To create proper foundations for the columns, the guys had to drive steel piles deep into the bed of the river. Similar to work done elsewhere. Within that waterproof chamber, they set/poured concrete to build the columns.
That pile driving work here involved a sub-contractor using an excavator-mounted vibratory pile driver – possibly a ‘Movax’ model. That’s the combination they used in 2014 with the work opposite La Vallee.
The Panhard AML final range shoot that took place 29 - 30 Apr 2013 in the Glen of Imaal, Co Wicklow. The pictures show the AML 90 firing its main armament
These photos are of the last shoot of the Panhard AML 90 Armoured Vehicle and were taken on 30 April 2013 in the Glen of Imaal by Airman Jason Byrne.
Panhard armoured vehicles were first introduced into service with the Defence Forces in 1964 and soon after, AML 60s were deployed on overseas service to Cyprus (UNFICYP). Over a period of almost fifty years, the Panhard armoured fleet has seen extensive service both at home and abroad including firing in action in the Battle of At Tiri in Lebanon in 1980, as a Quick Reaction Force (QRF) to injured civilians during the Grapes of Wrath offensive in Lebanon in 1996 and were used in an armoured reconnaissance role during violence in Monrovia, Liberia when intensive rioting began in 2004.
Following an upgrade programme in the 1990s which included dieselisation and re-turreting, the operational life of the vehicles was extended. However the Panhard fleet of AML 90s and 20s has now reached the end of its operational life.
All Panhard AML 90 and AML 20 vehicles currently in service with the Defence Forces became non-operational on the 1st of May 2013 and have been withdrawn from service.
Botswana Defence Force Soldiers taking part in the SA Army 12th Annual Combat Rifle Shooting Competition held in de Brug, Bloemfontein over the period 25 June to 07 July 2019.
R4 Rehearsal, Army soldiers from the United States of America, Zambia, Lesotho and Botswana, 27June 2019.
Information and Photographs by Lance Corporal Phillimon Mafemo, SA Army Corporate Communication and Private Teboho Khoare 1 SAI, Corporate Communication
Israel - Yahalom Unit Exercise
Special unit of the Corps of Engineers, Yahalom, held a demonstration exercise at the urban warfare facility – 4th March 2012
Yahalom unit is the most elite unit of the Engineering Corps and one of the IDF's elite units. This is the professional body that provides a solution for operational purposes in sabotage, bomb disposal, dealing with the threat of tunnels and the like.
Photos: Ftian Ibrahim - IDF Spokesman Unit
River Dargle Flood Defence Scheme.
These images were taken during the fourth week of September, 2016.
Constant traffic nowadays with hard material being trucked in and dumped in storage areas along The Slang/Rehills section of the river bank.
Further work is now being undertaken to upgrade the protection of the riverbank edge with the laying down of extra stone material.
With the recent convoys of trucks bringing in vast quantities of stone, we now see that;
(a) some of the larger boulders are intended to be used as reinforcements along the base of certain bank edges (which have to be excavated again), and;
(b) some of the medium size stones look like they will be used to create secondary shelves along the riverside.
At the same time, the guys are working (or playing?) on changing the profile of the stepped terrace along the face of the Slang/Rehills section.
Seems like every time they do this, and we believe it is a 'finished' piece of work, they confound us later by ripping it up all over again.
I know there is value in maintaining this area as a smooth accessible strip. But the degree of attention they apply to this is then wasted by the randomness with which they undo all the previous work.
I call it the 'Biggest Sandpit/Playarea' in Wicklow, in Leinster, in Ireland.
Estonian Defence Force Soldiers from Estpla-26 during a patrol in Mali in support of the French-led Operation Barkhane – November 2018
Photo: Estonian Defence Force
River Dargle Flood Defence Scheme.
These images were taken during the first week of September, 2016.
Constant traffic nowadays with hard material being trucked in and dumped in storage areas along The Slang/Rehills section of the river bank.
Further work is now being undertaken to upgrade the protection of the riverbank edge with the laying down of extra stone material.
With the recent convoys of trucks bringing in vast quantities of stone, we now see that;
(a) some of the larger boulders are intended to be used as reinforcements along the base of certain bank edges (which have to be excavated again), and;
(b) some of the medium size stones look like they will be used to create secondary shelves along the riverside.
At the same time, the guys are working (or playing?) on changing the profile of the stepped terrace along the face of the Slang/Rehills section.
Seems like every time they do this, and we believe it is a 'finished' piece of work, they confound us later by ripping it up all over again.
I know there is value in maintaining this area as a smooth accessible strip. But the degree of attention they apply to this is then wasted by the randomness with which they undo all the previous work.
I call it the 'Biggest Sandpit/Playarea' in Wicklow, in Leinster, in Ireland.
Late evening mini-convoy of earth-moving vehicles with the sun casting long shadows.
Members of the Irish Defence Force’s 95th Cadet Class completed their Military Operations in Urban Terrain Training in Fort Davis, Cork.
This demanding exercise marks an important milestone in Cadet Training, as we move towards Christmas, the New Year, and their completion of training. November 2019
Included in the 95th Cadet Class are members of the Armed Forces of Malta
Photo: Óglaigh na hÉireann / Irish Defence Forces
Early morning photo of two Kingston-class Coastal Defence vessels moored at CFB Esquimalt on the west coast and operated by the Royal Canadian Navy. There were 12 of these ships built and launched from the mid-to-late 1990's and are crewed entirely by members of the Naval Reserve, with the exception of two regular-force technicians per crew. The two ships are HMCS Whitehorse (705) on the left and HMCS Brandon (710). For more info: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston_class_coastal_defence_vessel
Members of the Irish Defence Force serving with the 118th Battalion, serving in the Lebanon with UNIFIL
Photos: Airman Gibney
Israeli Mostly Female Combat Unit "karakal" Perform Large Combat Exercise
Soldiers from the Karakal battalion participate in a graduation march near the Israeli-Egyptian border on September 03, 2014 near Azoz, Israel. The mixed-sex Karakal combat battalion was formed in 2004 and is based in the Negev desert on the border with Egypt and Jordan.
(September 2, 2014 - Source: Ilia Yefimovich/Getty Images Europe)
Members of the Irish Defence Force serving with the 118th Battalion, serving in the Lebanon with UNIFIL
Photos: Airman Gibney
Israeli Soldiers from the Caracal Battalion during their basic training – 2012
The Caracal Battalion is an infantry combat battalion of the Israel Defense Forces, composed of both male and female soldiers, of both Jewish and Arab descent.[It is named after the Caracal, a small cat whose sexes appear the same. As of 2009, approximately 70% of the battalion was female.It is part of the 512th "Sagi" Brigade of Israel's Southern territorial command.
Prior to Caracal's formation in 2000, women had been prevented from serving in direct combat positions with the IDF. The unit has since been tasked with patrolling the Israeli-Egyptian border. It took part in Israel's unilateral withdrawal from the Gaza Strip in the summer of 2005.
The unit badge, adopted in 2009, incorporates the Sagi Brigade badge, with the addition of the Caracal cat.
New recruits in the Caracal Battalion, are issued the Israeli-made Tavor assault rifle. Battalion members partake in a four-month basic training period that includes physical training at the Givati Brigade training base.
Soldiers specialize in various weapons including machine guns, advanced weaponry, grenades, and mortars.
All female soldiers who join the battalion are required to sign up for a third year of military service, the same as their male counterparts. The men are drawn from Nahal garinim, or have volunteered.
Estonian Defence Force Soldiers live-fire training while serving in Mali with BKN-10 as part of the French led Operation Barkhane.
Photos: n-ltn Liis Vaksmann
An old moat, now filled with grass, adds another layer of defence to the walled, medieval village of Carcassone - a UNESCO site in Aude, France.
Jon & Tina Reid | Travel Portfolio | Photography Blog | Travel Flickr Group
Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.
All rights reserved, no use without license
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Hong kong)
Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south to Mainland China and east to Macao in East Asia. With around 7.2 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities[note 2] in a territory of 1,104 km2, Hong Kong is the world's fourth most densely populated country or territory.
Hong Kong used to be a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from the Qing Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and acquired a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945. The Sino-British Joint Declaration signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy.[15]
Under the principle of "one country, two systems",[16][17] Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative and judiciary powers.[18] In addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of "appropriate fields".[19] Hong Kong involves in international organizations, such as the WTO[20] and the APEC [21], actively and independently.
Hong Kong is one of the world's most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world's most competitive and freest economic entity.[22][23] As the world's 8th largest trading entity,[24] its legal tender, the Hong Kong dollar, is the world's 13th most traded currency.[25] As the world's most visited city,[26][27] Hong Kong's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system.[28] Even with one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality.[29]
Nicknamed "Pearl of the Orient", Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour, which boasts the world's fifth busiest port with ready access by cargo ships, and its impressive skyline, with the most skyscrapers in the world.[30][31] It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world's longest life expectancy.[32][33] Over 90% of the population makes use of well-developed public transportation.[34][35] Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter.[36][37][38]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Imperial China
2.3 British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
2.4 Japanese occupation: 1941–45
2.5 Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
2.6 Handover and Special Administrative Region status
3 Governance
3.1 Structure of government
3.2 Electoral and political reforms
3.3 Legal system and judiciary
3.4 Foreign relations
3.5 Human rights
3.6 Regions and districts
3.7 Military
4 Geography and climate
5 Economy
5.1 Financial centre
5.2 International trading
5.3 Tourism and expatriation
5.4 Policy
5.5 Infrastructure
6 Demographics
6.1 Languages
6.2 Religion
6.3 Personal income
6.4 Education
6.5 Health
7 Culture
7.1 Sports
7.2 Architecture
7.3 Cityscape
7.4 Symbols
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology
Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island.[39]
The source of the romanised name "Hong Kong" is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation in spoken Cantonese 香港 (Cantonese Yale: Hēung Góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour" or "Incense Harbour".[13][14][40] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour (Chinese: 香港仔; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng jái), literally means "Little Hong Kong"—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[41]
Another theory is that the name would have been taken from Hong Kong's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上人); it is equally probable that romanisation was done with a faithful execution of their speeches, i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese.[42] Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time.[43]
Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour.[40]
The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926.[44] Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.
As of 1997, its official name is the "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government's website;[45] however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted.
Hong Kong has carried many nicknames. The most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive nightscape of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia's World City".
History
Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China
Prehistory
Main article: Prehistoric Hong Kong
Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.[46][47][48]
Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong.[49][50] Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1066 BC) in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.[51]
Imperial China
Main article: History of Hong Kong under Imperial China
In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a centralised China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern-day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into his imperial China for the first time. Hong Kong proper was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern-day Nanhai District), near the commandery's capital city Panyu.[52][53][54]
After a brief period of centralisation and collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC.[55] When Nanyue lost the Han-Nanyue War in 111 BC, Hong Kong came under the Jiaozhi commandery of the Han dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and flourish of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty.[56]
From the Han dynasty to the early Tang dynasty, Hong Kong was a part of Bao'an County. In the Tang dynasty, modern-day Guangzhou (Canton) flourished as an international trading centre. In 736, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area.[57] The nearby Lantau Island was a salt production centre and salt smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. In c. 1075, The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in modern-day New Territories by the Northern Song dynasty.[58] During their war against the Mongols, the imperial court of Southern Song was briefly stationed at modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat by the Mongols at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.[59] The Mongols then established their dynastic court and governed Hong Kong for 97 years.
From the mid-Tang dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Hong Kong was a part of Dongguan County. During the Ming dynasty, the area was transferred to Xin'an County. The indigenous inhabitants at that time consisted of several ethnicities such as Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo.
European discovery
The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513.[60][61] Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão" in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China.
Since the 14th century, the Ming court had enforced the maritime prohibition laws that strictly forbade all private maritime activities in order to prevent contact with foreigners by sea.[62] When the Manchu Qing dynasty took over China, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance decree of the Kangxi Emperor, who ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County including those in Hong Kong were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated subsequently returned.[63][64]
British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
A painter at work. John Thomson. Hong Kong, 1871. The Wellcome Collection, London
Main articles: British Hong Kong and History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)
In 1839, threats by the imperial court of Qing to sanction opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. The Qing admitted defeat when British forces captured Hong Kong Island on 20 January 1841. The island was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. A dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries, however, led to the failure of the treaty's ratification. On 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking.[65] The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.[66]
The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.[67][68]
Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.
In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands.[69][70][71]
Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population.
File:1937 Hong Kong VP8.webmPlay media
Hong Kong filmed in 1937
In 1904, the United Kingdom established the world's first border and immigration control; all residents of Hong Kong were given citizenship as Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC).
Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.[72]
In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under Clementi's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone.
Japanese occupation: 1941–45
Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in the First World War and the Second World War.[73]
As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong in on 8 December 1941.[74] Crossing the border at Shenzhen River on 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 18 days when British and Canadian forces held onto Hong Kong Island. Unable to defend against intensifying Japanese air and land bombardments, they eventually surrendered control of Hong Kong on 25 December 1941. The Governor of Hong Kong was captured and taken as a prisoner of war. This day is regarded by the locals as "Black Christmas".[75]
During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony on 2 September 1945.[76]
Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
Main articles: British Hong Kong, 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong
Flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997
Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China moved in to seek refuge from the Chinese Civil War. When the Communist Party eventually took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution.[69] Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.[69] The establishment of a socialist state in China (People's Republic of China) on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory.
Stamp with portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, 1953
In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.[77] The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants.
Under Sir Murray MacLehose, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (1971–82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong's longest-serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s.
A sky view of Hong Kong Island
An aerial view of the northern shore of Hong Kong Island in 1986
To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, a rapid transit railway system (metro), the MTR, was planned from the 1970s onwards. The Island Line (Hong Kong Island), Kwun Tong Line (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and Tsuen Wan Line (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s.[78]
In 1983, the Hong Kong dollar left its 16:1 peg with the Pound sterling and switched to the current US-HK Dollar peg. Hong Kong's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York City, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia and the world's exemplar of Laissez-faire market policy.[79]
The Hong Kong question
In 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s permanent seat on the United Nations was transferred to the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong's status as a recognised colony became terminated in 1972 under the request of PRC. Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong and expiry of land lease of New Territories beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s.
The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified Hong Kong into a British Dependent Territory amid the reorganisation of global territories of the British Empire. All residents of Hong Kong became British Dependent Territory Citizens (BDTC). Diplomatic negotiations began with China and eventually concluded with the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong's sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a special administrative region and be able to retain its free-market economy, British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law, independent representation in international organisations (e.g. WTO and WHO), treaty arrangements and policy-making except foreign diplomacy and military defence.
It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on English law, would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990.[69] The expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors.
Handover and Special Administrative Region status
Main articles: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong and 2000s in Hong Kong
Transfer of sovereignty
Golden Bauhinia Square
On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This transfer of sovereignty made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Tung Chee-Hwa, a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised programme.
Structure of government
Hong Kong's current structure of governance inherits from the British model of colonial administration set up in the 1850s. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration states that "Hong Kong should enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs" with reference to the underlying principle of one country, two systems.[note 3] This Declaration stipulates that Hong Kong maintains her capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of her people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover. [note 4] Such guarantees are enshrined in the Hong Kong's Basic Law, the territory's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance after 1997, albeit subject to interpretation by China's Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).[95][96]
Hong Kong's most senior leader, Chief Executive, is elected by a committee of 1,200 selected members (600 in 1997) and nominally appointed by the Government of China. The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, Legislative Council, civil service and Judiciary.
Policy-making is initially discussed in the Executive Council, presided by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, before passing to the Legislative Council for bill adoption. The Executive Council consists of 30 official/unofficial members appointed by the Chief Executive and one member among them acts as the convenor.[97][98]
The Legislative Council, set up in 1843, debates policies and motions before voting to adopt or rejecting bills. It has 70 members (originally 60) and 40 (originally 30) among them are directly elected by universal suffrage; the other 30 members are "functional constituencies" (indirectly) elected by a smaller electorate of corporate bodies or representatives of stipulated economic sectors as defined by the government. The Legislative Council is chaired by a president who acts as the speaker.[99][100]
In 1997, seating of the Legislative Council (also public services and election franchises) of Hong Kong modelled on the British system: Urban Council (Hong Kong and Kowloon) and District Council (New Territories and Outlying Islands). In 1999, this system has been reformed into 18 directly elected District Offices across 5 Legislative Council constituencies: Hong Kong Island (East/West), Kowloon and New Territories (East/West); the remaining outlying islands are divided across the aforementioned regions.
Hong Kong's Civil Service, created by the British colonial government, is a politically neutral body that implements government policies and provides public services. Senior civil servants are appointed based on meritocracy. The territory's police, firefighting and customs forces, as well as clerical officers across various government departments, make up the civil service.[101][102]
Estonian Soldiers during their final mission readiness exercise in the vicinity of ̃ before deploying to Iraq as part of ESTGUARD-4, which is part of the NATO Iraq Mission.
Photos: Estonian Defence Force
As part of Defence Expo 2018 Exhibition at Thiruvidanthai, an Airshow took place on 14042018. Photos taken are presented here