The snow was deeper than expected, so we looked for excuses to take breaks during our hike.

Too deep for hiking, not deep enough consistently for snowshoes.

AAW Assignment- Backlighting

The wife is pretty consistent in getting her daily walk in no matter where we are. This cool and foggy climate is surely a pleasant break for her from the summer heat of Redding.

WIT:My thought for this assignment was to find a section of road that was totally enclosed by the tree canopy and photograph my wife's silhouette against the bright back light of a canopy-less section. Problem was that all my shots were under exposed and her shape was not at all that clear. In I-photo I changed the exposure and levels a bit so I could just see her. I thought of going for the dare but just could not bring myself to covert to black and white and loose all those soft greens that say "foggy" to me. However, I did force myself to reduce the saturation just a touch.

Consistently heavy rains have formed this temporary pond at Garden of the Gods, Colorado Springs, Colorado.

 

www.lifeilluminatedphotography.com

www.facebook.com/pages/Justin-Peterson-Photography/278931...

The New Chanel Boutique Opening and Charity Event, on Robertson Blvd , hosted by simply consistent management and award winning talent manager Kathleen Checki

 

www.simplyconsistent.com/

"-Chanel Boutique."

"-Kathleen Checki."

"-Checki."

"-Simply Consistent."

"-Simply Consistent Management."

   

Ford Madox Brown

This pursuit of ‘truth to nature’ was consistent with Pre-Raphaelite ideals, as was his careful workmanship. The picture’s subject, Geoffrey Chaucer, reflects the growing popularity with artists of English literature instead of more conventional classical myths and biblical tales. This oil, is a small version worked on in the 1850's , a larger more amitios piece is at Tate Britain.

  

Founded in 1683, The Ashmolean re-opened on Saturday 7th November 2009. Their new display approach is "crossing culture crossing time." It was my first glimpse today, the much loved older museum is still here, but now enormously extended and plenty more to enjoy.

Supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund, the Ashmolean is currently undergoing a £61 million redevelopment. Award-winning architect Rick Mather has designed a new building to replace all but the Grade I listed Cockerell building. His design will double the existing gallery space, allow environmental control, and create a dedicated Education Centre and conservation facilities.

 

I've tried to show something of the atmosphere and texture of the museum in many of the photos, I also wanted to convey the sense of movement and people's interaction with the art objects, therefore razor sharp clarity (were I to achieve that) was not my number one objective. This set will grow as I explore the new galleries, I hope you'll forgive me if I do not tag or describe everything right away as there is so much to take in!

The New Ashmolean

Martin Beek Oxford, November 2009

MADRID RIO

 

Madrid Río es un parque de la ciudad española de Madrid, consistente en una zona peatonal y de recreo construida entre los años 2006 a 2012 en los dos márgenes del río Manzanares, en buena parte sobre el trazado soterrado de la vía de circunvalación M-30,1​ desde el nudo Sur hasta el enlace con la A-5. En 2016, el proyecto se hizo con el galardón Veronica Rudge Green Prize in Urban Design de la Universidad de Harvard por su diseño e impacto social y cultural en la transformación del río

Entre 2003 y 2007 se llevó a cabo la obra de soterramiento del arco oeste de la M-30 en el ámbito del río, obra que hizo posible la eliminación del tráfico en superficie y la consiguiente liberación de más de cincuenta hectáreas de terreno ocupado anteriormente por las calzadas. A esta superficie se sumaron otras casi cien hectáreas correspondientes a los diferentes suelos infrautilizados adyacentes a la autopista.

 

Tras la construcción de los túneles afloró una herida vacía formada por un rosario de espacios desocupados, que atesoraban la potencia latente de convertirse en nexo de unión de un corredor ambiental de casi tres mil hectáreas dentro del término municipal, que se extiende desde El Pardo hasta Getafe y que enlaza importantísimas áreas verdes de la ciudad como la Casa de Campo, el Parque de la Arganzuela o el Parque del Manzanares Sur.

 

Por tanto, los beneficios obtenidos al enterrar la antigua autopista, obviamente, no han quedado reducidos a la mejora de ciertos aspectos de la movilidad urbana, ni siquiera a la rehabilitación local de los barrios, sino que pueden adquirir en un futuro próximo, una dimensión de gran escala que necesariamente deberá repercutir en las relaciones entre la ciudad y el territorio, entendidas en su mayor alcance. La enorme trascendencia para la ciudad de los espacios liberados como consecuencia del soterramiento de la M-30, llevó al Ayuntamiento de Madrid a convocar un Concurso Internacional de Ideas para concebir y proyectar los nuevos espacios libres en el entorno del río. El concurso lo ganó el equipo de arquitectos dirigido por Ginés Garrido y formado por Burgos & Garrido Arquitectos, Porras & La Casta y Rubio & Álvarez-Sala y West8, con la solución para la construcción de un parque urbano de más de ciento veinte hectáreas, que ocupa la superficie liberada por el soterramiento de la autopista. Los inicios del proyecto pasaron por el intento de comprender en su totalidad las cualidades geográficas de la cuenca fluvial. Las características del territorio y la diversidad de sus elementos naturales constituyen un conjunto de claves que han sustentado muchas de las ideas contenidas en el proyecto.

 

Sumariamente, la estrategia del éste se basa en la convicción de que, a través del río es posible conectar la ciudad, expresión máxima de la acción artificial, con los territorios del norte y el sur de Madrid, en los que aún perviven los elementos naturales propios de la cuenca fluvial. El río se convierte en puerta o enlace entre interior urbano y exterior territorial y, a través de sus márgenes, se establece la continuidad y la permeabilidad, hasta hoy aniquiladas por los sucesivos anillos concéntricos, hollados por los cinturones viarios, M-30, M-40, M-45, M-50 …, que fueron el resultado de aplicar a la red circulatoria los modelos de movilidad propios de mediados del siglo XX.

 

El proyecto se ha concebido en sucesivas aproximaciones o escalas a partir de las que se ha aplicado la reflexión sobre el campo de juego, obteniendo respuestas o soluciones diversas, desde el ámbito territorial o estratégico al local o específico.

 

En la escala territorial se han establecido los parámetros de partida para que, en el medio plazo, sea posible la regeneración de las márgenes del río en toda su longitud, como verdaderas áreas de integración entre el paisaje y la actividad humana, bajo un entendimiento contemporáneo capaz de superar el antagonismo implícito en el binomio urbano-rural.

 

En la escala metropolitana, a través del proyecto y de su concepción como gran infraestructura, se lleva a cabo la incorporación del corredor que se extiende sobre los bordes fluviales a su paso por la ciudad como parte del GR 124 (Gran Recorrido de la Red de Senderos Europeos) que ya, en 2011 se podrá transitar en toda su extensión, desde Manzanares el Real hasta Aranjuez.

 

En la escala urbana, el proyecto incorpora el río como doble línea de fachada inédita y configura un conjunto enlazado de espacios verdes que se infiltra en la ciudad; establece en la superficie un nuevo sistema de movilidad y accesibilidad; incrementa la integración y calidad urbana de los barrios limítrofes al río; protege y revaloriza el patrimonio histórico y detecta áreas de oportunidad que, sobre este ámbito de nueva centralidad, serán capaces de generar un cambio potencial del conjunto de la ciudad en el largo plazo.

 

En la escala local, la propuesta se ejecuta como una operación radicalmente artificial, materializada sin embargo con instrumentos eminentemente naturales. No se debe olvidar que se actúa mayoritariamente sobre una infraestructura bajo tierra. El proyecto se implanta sobre un túnel o, más bien, sobre la cubierta de un conjunto complejísimo de instalaciones al servicio del viario enterrado. Un edificio de hormigón de más de seis kilómetros de longitud, con enormes y determinantes servidumbres y con una topografía cuya lógica obedece exclusivamente a la construcción de la infraestructura, que emerge inopinadamente sobre el suelo y con la que ha sido necesario negociar. Sobre esta edificación subterránea, la solución adoptada se ha basado en el uso de la vegetación como principal material de construcción. El proyecto establece como estrategia general la idea de implantar una densa capa vegetal, de carácter casi forestal, allá donde sea posible, es decir, fabricar un paisaje con materia viva, sobre un sustrato subterráneo inerte, modificado y excavado para el automóvil, sobre una construcción que expresa por sí misma el artificio máximo.

 

Las familias, formas y asociaciones de especies vegetales seleccionadas provienen de la extrapolación del estudio de la cuenca del río y su adaptación, en cada caso, al medio urbano específico. La ordenación de los distintos entornos y su caracterización como lugares de uso público se ha producido teniendo en cuenta, por un lado, las funciones requeridas y las necesidades detectadas en cada distrito y por otro, la capacidad de conformar espacios habitables, inherente a los conjuntos organizados de vegetación de distinto porte.

La solución se concreta en tres unidades de paisaje principales. Primero, el Salón de Pinos, o corredor verde que discurre por la margen derecha del río. Es la estructura que permite la continuidad de los recorridos y reacciona en su encuentro con los puentes existentes dando lugar a distintos tipos de jardines de ribera (Jardines bajos de Puente de Segovia, Jardines del Puente de San Isidro, Jardines del Puente de Toledo y Jardines del Puente de Praga). Segundo, el enlace definitivo del centro histórico (representado por la imagen imponente del Palacio Real y la cornisa elevada de la ciudad), con la Casa de Campo, parque de más de mil setecientas hectáreas. En este entorno se incluyen la Avenida de Portugal, la Huerta de la Partida, la Explanada del Rey y los Jardines de la Virgen del Puerto. Tercero, la ancha franja sobre la ribera izquierda donde se sitúa el conjunto del Parque de la Arganzuela que incluye el centro de creación de arte contemporáneo de Matadero, y que representa la mayor superficie de espacio verde unitario de la propuesta.

 

Además de estas tres grandes operaciones paisajísticas coherentes entre sí, el proyecto propone ciento cincuenta intervenciones de diferente carácter, entre las que destaca el sistema puentes que dotan de un inédito grado de permeabilidad al cauce. Se han desarrollado soluciones sobre más de veinte puentes o pasarelas sobre el río, rehabilitando las siete presas, reciclando algunos puentes existentes y creando nuevos pasos, unas veces con un lenguaje silencioso y otras, intencionadamente expresivo. Como en una acción microquirúrgica el proyecto incorpora, eslabón por eslabón, una cadena de fórmulas de integración del río en la ciudad y de la ciudad en el río. Son elementos que garantizarán el contagio de los nuevos valores de las orillas regeneradas sobre los ámbitos y barrios cercanos. Con este efecto de resonancia, se prevé una sucesión de operaciones que aseguren una renovación de gran alcance. Desde ahora y de manera irreversible, se está fraguando una radical metamorfosis, sin precedentes para la ciudad de Madrid.

La superestructura lineal del Salón de Pinos es el elemento que organiza la continuidad de recorridos a lo largo de la ribera derecha del río. Está construida sobre los túneles en su práctica totalidad y tiene un ancho medio de treinta metros. Sobre la losa de hormigón que cubre el paso de los automóviles se han plantado más de 9.000 unidades de diferentes especies de pinos, de diversos tamaños, formas y agrupaciones con un marco de plantación forestal. Los ejemplares han sido seleccionados fundamentalmente en campos en los que hubiese posibilidad de extraer plantas con morfologías naturales (troncos no lineales, troncos dobles, troncos inclinados, etc.) De este modo se obtiene una prolongación controlada de los pinares de la sierra situada al norte de Madrid que parecen extenderse hasta el confín de la ciudad. Estos árboles han sido anclados a la losa de los túneles mediante cables de acero y bridas biodegradables, para potenciar su estabilidad y el crecimiento de sus raíces en horizontal sobre el paquete de tierras disponible. No obstante, este paseo se encuentra frecuentemente con estructuras de gran valor urbano o patrimonial.

 

Dos ejemplos simbólicos de esta intersección son los puentes históricos de Segovia (1582) y de Toledo (1732). En estos enclaves el salón reacciona como espacio de estancia, ampliando sus límites y ofreciendo un diseño específico, con árboles de ribera de hoja caduca y alineaciones de setos y bancos de piedra. Las actividades integradas en el salón se incorporan con un lenguaje coherente con su carácter forestal. Un claro ejemplo de este procedimiento lo forma el conjunto de áreas de juegos infantiles, diseñado específicamente como un sistema completo de formas naturales.

 

Jardines del Puente de Segovia

 

El puente de Segovia está declarado Bien de Interés Cultural. Fue construido a finales del siglo XVI por el arquitecto Juan de Herrera, por encargo de Felipe II. El proyecto de ajardinamiento de su entorno conforma una excepción en el ámbito del Salón de Pinos, constituyendo un ensanchamiento de éste y ofreciendo un modo diferente de aproximación al río. Los jardines se ordenan mediante una serie de líneas de traza orgánica que modelan sucesivas terrazas que descienden hacia el río. Estas líneas están construidas con unas piezas de granito de gran formato que sirven también de bancos. Entre ellos se extiende una superficie de hierba de bajo consumo hídrico arbolada con diferentes especies de árboles frondosos de ribera de la familia de los populus. En las inmediaciones de la fábrica almohadillada del puente se han construido dos estanques de agua limpia sobre los cuales, por un lado alza una fuente monumental de 16 chorros con forma de ciprés y por otro se extiende un pequeño jardín de lirios acuáticos. Los estanques son accesibles mediante unas gradas de piedra que se acercan a ellos hasta sumergirse.

 

Jardines del Puente de Toledo

 

Los jardines del Puente de Toledo constituyen una de las áreas más significativas del Proyecto Madrid Río, ya que se están situados en un enclave de excepcional importancia en el que el Salón de Pinos se encuentra con uno de los puentes monumentales de Madrid, el puente de Toledo, construido entre 1718 y 1732. El proyecto aprovecha dicho monumento en un doble sentido: Por un lado se compone un espacio concebido para ser visto desde lo alto del puente que se convierte así en un mirador privilegiado. De este modo los jardines ofrecen una nueva e inédita panorámica de Madrid ya que sus trazados dibujan un enorme tatuaje que se extiende como una alfombra sobre la superficie, reproduciendo un motivo figurativo vegetal. Por otro lado, los jardines incorporan el Puente de Toledo, que es una estructura barroca diseñada por el arquitecto Pedro de Ribera, como un objeto al que admirar, al que tocar y bajo el que pasar. La disposición de los setos está organizada de modo que conforma una serie de líneas que toman como referencia los jardines barrocos de la época borbónica, aunque están trazadas con un lenguaje contemporáneo. Asimismo en este punto se ha construido un graderío que permite la máxima aproximación a la lámina de agua del río, y la mejor contemplación de los arcos del antiguo puente.

 

Segunda unidad de paisaje: La Escena Monumental

 

La vinculación del centro histórico y el barrio de La Latina con la Casa de Campo ha estado vedada a los peatones de forma secular. El nuevo contacto, que ya es posible por la desaparición de los automóviles bajo tierra, ha sido resuelto con diversas intervenciones que asumen el carácter monumental y panorámico de esta zona, en la que el zócalo elevado del Palacio Real (germen primigenio del nacimiento de la ciudad) contacta con el río. Se han propuesto diferentes soluciones afrontando con extremada atención el contexto en el que se sitúan: La “Explanada del Rey”, explanada abierta pavimentada con un gran patrón figurativo y que sirve de gran atrio ante la Casa de Campo. La huerta de la partida, que es un recinto cerrado en el que se han plantado diferentes retículas de árboles frutales (perales, manzanos, moreras, granados, higueras, nogales, avellanos, etc) acoge un extraordinario mirador de la cornisa. La avenida de Portugal, convertida en un bulevar pavimentado por calceteiros portugueses y poblado por cuatro especies de cerezos (Prunus avium, P. avium ‘Plena’, P.yedoensis y P.padus ‘Watereii’ ) permite la contemplación de una espectacular floración que se alarga más de un mes en primavera. Por último, los jardines de La Virgen del Puerto, en la otra margen del río, estructurados mediante la disposición de parterres orientados según los ejes de los principales acontecimientos urbanos del área: el puente de Segovia, el puente del Rey, la avenida de Portugal y la puerta del Rey que ha sido restaurada y resituada según los datos disponibles en la cartografía histórica de Madrid.

 

Plataforma del Rey

 

En el acceso monumental que enlaza el centro histórico de Madrid con la Casa de Campo, antiguo cazadero real, destaca la Explanada o Plataforma del Rey, que es un espacio abierto de una superficie aproximada de 14.000 m2 y un frente paralelo al río de poco menos de 250 m. El destino de este espacio es el de formar un escenario capaz de acoger diferentes manifestaciones cívicas (conciertos, celebraciones oficiales, actividades culturales, etc.) en un entorno de extraordinaria calidad ambiental, que permite contemplar la Cornisa Histórica de la Ciudad. Este lugar está conectado con el Salón de Pinos y forma parte de él, aunque por exigencias de su uso, sea un área casi desprovista de arbolado. En ella el principal elemento organizador es el pavimento que, de forma muy suave, se adapta a una topografía que integra todas las emergencias de los túneles hasta hacerlas imperceptibles. En este pavimento las pequeñas piezas de granito y basalto forman un patrón que desciende desde la Avenida de Portugal y se esparce sobre la superficie del suelo a una escala en aumento progresivo. Dicho patrón vincula la plataforma con el pavimento proyectado en la avenida. De este modo la Plataforma es un elemento que liga de manera natural importantes piezas del escenario monumental que se produce en este punto, como son el Puente del Rey, la Casa de Campo, la Avenida de Portugal y el Salón de Pinos.

 

Huerta de la Partida

  

Se trata de un espacio recuperado que en las pasadas décadas se dedicó a albergar uno de los principales nudos de la autopista. La propuesta de regeneración de este lugar incluye varias operaciones: En primer lugar la construcción de una tapia, a veces opaca, a veces permeable que constituye un cierre que confiere al recinto el carácter de huerto cerrado. En segundo lugar, el modelado artificial del terreno, regularizando su superficie y tallando un único plano inclinado de suave pendiente que se desliza hacia el río. En tercer lugar la plantación de diferentes agrupaciones de árboles frutales (granados, moreras, manzanos, perales, avellanos, almendros, higueras, olivos y nogales) que se incorporan en el entorno describiendo cuadrantes reticulados con sutiles variaciones de orientación. Por último, se ha proyectado una ría húmeda que describe la trayectoria del Arroyo Meaques, actualmente entubado y oculto. Este proyecto ha sido fruto del estudio minucioso de la historia del lugar, ya que en el pasado, cuando Felipe II adquirió esta finca después de establecer la capitalidad de Madrid, en esta posición se plantaron algunas huertas que producían el alimento necesario para los trabajadores de la Casa de Campo.

 

Tercera unidad de paisaje: La Ribera del Agua. Arganzuela y Matadero

 

En la margen izquierda del cauce la ciudad se separa del río. El ejemplo más importante de la propuesta en esta orilla es el nuevo Parque de la Arganzuela, construido sobre antiguas dehesas de pasto de uso comunal. En este entorno se construyó el Matadero Municipal, notable ejemplo de arquitectura posindustrial de la segunda década del siglo XX. Con el soterramiento de la autopista, Madrid dispone ahora en este punto de 33 hectáreas de espacios libres que forman el mayor parque del proyecto. Éste se ha concebido como un gran espacio en el que el río se ha retirado dejando su huella ancestral. Está organizado con diferentes líneas que se entrecruzan, como surcos por los que pasó el agua, dejando entre sí espacios para distintos usos. Estas líneas, de carácter marcadamente longitudinal, son los caminos de distinta especie que recorren el espacio de norte a sur.

 

Paseo junto al matadero

 

Un camino más plano y ancho (el Camino Rápido), otro más sinuoso y de pendiente variable (el Camino Lento) y una franja empedrada de márgenes frondosos (el Arroyo Seco), que vertebra el centro del parque. La construcción del espacio se plantea como una gran arboleda que contiene varios paisajes, algunos más naturales y otros más construidos, configurados por una variación de especies, alturas, densidades y texturas. De este modo el parque, concebido como un retazo de la cuenca del río, incorpora tres áreas botánicas: bosque mediterráneo, bosque atlántico y fronda de ribera. El carácter de estos paisajes interiores está relacionado con los trazados longitudinales del parque, con árboles que siguen los caminos y las sendas, con sotos y bosques que emergen sobre la topografía. La textura boscosa se intercala con las superficies plantadas de aromáticas entre los caminos y el Arroyo Seco. Siguiendo la orilla izquierda del río, se dispone una franja húmeda y verde, con una pradera de césped que se inclina hacia el agua. Una constelación de fuentes ornamentales y un conjunto de tres láminas elípticas de agua pura introducen este elemento como materia narrativa que relaciona las distintas asociaciones de vegetación. Cada fuente presenta un distinto juego sonoro y visual y se rodea de pequeñas laderas plantadas de frutales que remiten a la imagen de los jardines de las leyendas o del Paraíso. Las líneas entrelazadas que estructuran el parque permiten la formación de recintos en los que se han situado importantes instalaciones para el recreo al servicio de los usuarios de todas las edades. En él se incluye un campo de fútbol , dos pistas de patinaje y tres importantes conjuntos de juegos infantiles. El parque así mismo incorpora el conjunto dedicado a la creación de arte contemporáneo de Matadero, como una gran dotación cultural que vive dentro de él. A través de los caminos se accede a las naves del antiguo complejo, cuya rehabilitación está a punto de finalizar. El diseño de los trazados permite entender la relación entre Matadero y el parque como un continuo entre el río y la ciudad.

 

El sistema de puentes sobre el río

 

La implantación de puentes sobre el Manzanares se lleva a cabo como una estrategia global, es decir, como un conjunto en que cada elemento resuelve problemas puntuales detectados en el entorno próximo, pero también forma parte a su vez de un sistema integral de conectividad transversal de acuerdo con la relación entre la ciudad y el río. Las unidades de este conjunto son de diferente carácter: puentes y presas rehabilitados o reciclados, puentes rodados existentes acondicionados al nuevo sistema de tráfico ciclista y peatonal, puentes singulares que constituyen hitos en el recorrido del río, pasarelas funcionales situadas en los nodos de máximo tránsito transversal y puentes de grandes luces que enlazan los recorridos del parque con los territorios exteriores a la ciudad al norte y al sur, haciendo realidad la principal aspiración territorial del proyecto.

 

Entre los puentes existentes destaca la operación llevada a cabo con las siete presas que han sido convertidas en pasarelas peatonales a través de su restauración integral y la incorporación de un tablero de madera accesible. En segundo lugar dentro de esta serie, se debe destacar el reciclaje del puente rodado de la M-30 que cruzaba el río al sur del Puente de Segovia, reconvertido en un puente peatonal y ciclista que incorpora un talud plantado con pinos. Entre los puentes singulares cabe mencionar el puente con forma de Y construido con cajones de perfiles metálicos, que evoca el lenguaje de los puentes ferroviarios del s. XIX colgados sobre los desfiladeros forestales y los puentes gemelos de hormigón que se dan acceso al complejo Matadero, proyectados como elementos de paso capaces también de configurar un espacio al que se ingresa, como pabellones que gravitan sobre el río, pero que verdaderamente pertenecen al parque.

 

Pasarela de Almuñécar

 

Fabricada de una sola pieza con fibra de carbono, para salvar una luz de algo más de 40 metros. Se sitúa sobre el único tramo del cauce que carece de cajero de hormigón. Su diseño final responde a las capacidades del material con que está fabricada, extremadamente ligero y resistente.

 

Restauración de Presas

 

Las siete presas que regulan el río a su paso de la ciudad han sido restauradas y puestas al servicio del nuevo sistema de pasos transversales. Sus mecanismos y exclusas han sido reparados y se les ha incorporado un tablero accesible de madera y una escala de peces para favorecer la continuidad de la fauna subacuática a lo largo del río.

 

Puente Oblicuo

 

Esta estructura viaria coetánea de la M-30 se ha reciclado para incorporarla al Salón de Pinos como un paso privilegiado a través del cual los peatones, los ciclistas y los árboles pasan de una a otra orilla. La losa aligerada que componía el tablero de hormigón postesado se cortó y apeó reforzándose para soportar las cargas debidas a su nuevo uso.

 

Puente del Principado de Andorra

 

Es uno de los nuevos puentes singulares del proyecto. Está construido por jaulas de perfiles abiertos, de expresividad algo arcaica, que toma como referencia las estructuras ferroviarias sobre los desfiladeros boscosos que se construyeron en Europa y Estados Unidos a finales de siglo XIX. Antes conocido como Puente Y, en julio de 2011 se le cambió de nombre al actual de Principado de Andorra, para agradecer al gobierno de Andorra la construcción del Puente de Madrid en Andorra la Vieja.​ Se escogió este puente para nombrarlo como Principado de Andorra porque representa también la geografía de Andorra: el país pirenaico está formado por dos valles, el del Valira del Norte y el del Valira de Oriente, los cuales confluyen en Escaldes-Engordany y se convierten en uno solo, de nombre Gran Valira. Esta disposición de los valles y sus ríos es similar a una Y.

 

Puentes Cáscara

 

Son dos puentes gemelos construidos con una lámina de 15 cm de hormigón autonivelante que forma una superficie con doble curvatura, de la que cuelga el tablero. Se conciben como dos pabellones a los que acceder para cruzar el río. Su bóveda se ha ornamentado con un mosaico creado por el artista Daniel Canogar.

 

Pasarela de la Princesa

 

El canto necesario para el funcionamiento de la pasarela se incorpora en las barandillas que en realidad conforman una pareja de vigas de alma llena y rigidizadores verticales. El lenguaje de la pasarela es intencionadamente sobrio.

 

Everglades National Park is an American national park that protects the southern twenty percent of the original Everglades in Florida. The park is the largest tropical wilderness in the United States and the largest wilderness of any kind east of the Mississippi River. An average of one million people visit the park each year. Everglades is the third-largest national park in the contiguous United States after Death Valley and Yellowstone. UNESCO declared the Everglades & Dry Tortugas Biosphere Reserve in 1976 and listed the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979, and the Ramsar Convention included the park on its list of Wetlands of International Importance in 1987. Everglades is one of only three locations in the world to appear on all three lists.

 

Most national parks preserve unique geographic features; Everglades National Park was the first created to protect a fragile ecosystem. The Everglades are a network of wetlands and forests fed by a river flowing 0.25 miles (0.40 km) per day out of Lake Okeechobee, southwest into Florida Bay. The park is the most significant breeding ground for tropical wading birds in North America and contains the largest mangrove ecosystem in the Western Hemisphere. Thirty-six threatened or protected species inhabit the park, including the Florida panther, the American crocodile, and the West Indian manatee, along with 350 species of birds, 300 species of fresh and saltwater fish, 40 species of mammals, and 50 species of reptiles. The majority of South Florida's fresh water, which is stored in the Biscayne Aquifer, is recharged in the park.

 

Humans have lived for thousands of years in or around the Everglades. Plans arose in 1882 to drain the wetlands and develop the land for agricultural and residential use. As the 20th century progressed, water flow from Lake Okeechobee was increasingly controlled and diverted to enable explosive growth of the Miami metropolitan area. The park was established in 1934, to protect the quickly vanishing Everglades, and dedicated in 1947, as major canal-building projects were initiated across South Florida. The ecosystems in Everglades National Park have suffered significantly from human activity, and restoration of the Everglades is a politically charged issue in South Florida.

 

Everglades National Park covers 1,508,976 acres (2,357.8 sq mi; 6,106.6 km2), throughout Dade, Monroe, and Collier counties in Florida, at the southern tip of the Atlantic coastal plain. The elevation typically ranges from 0 to 8 feet (2.4 m) above sea level, but a Calusa-built shell mound on the Gulf Coast rises 20 feet (6.1 m) above sea level.

 

The terrain of South Florida is relatively and consistently flat. The limestone that underlies the Everglades is integral to the diverse ecosystems within the park. Florida was once part of the African portion of the supercontinent Gondwana. After it separated, conditions allowed a shallow marine environment to deposit calcium carbonate in sand, shells, and coral to be converted into limestone. Tiny bits of shell, sand, and bryozoans compressed over multiple layers forming structures in the limestone called ooids, which created permeable conditions that hold water.

 

The Florida peninsula appeared above sea level between 100,000 and 150,000 years ago. As sea levels rose at the end of the Wisconsin ice age, the water table appeared closer to land. Lake Okeechobee began to flood, and convection thunderstorms were created. Vast peat deposits south of Lake Okeechobee indicate that regular flooding had occurred about 5,000 years ago. Plants began to migrate, subtropical ones from the northern part of Florida, and tropicals carried as seeds by birds from islands in the Caribbean. The limestone shelf appears to be flat, but there are slight rises—called pinnacles—and depressions caused by the erosion of limestone by the acidic properties of the water. The amount of time throughout the year that water is present in a location in the Everglades determines the type of soil, of which there only two in the Everglades: peat, created by many years of decomposing plant matter, and marl, the result of dried periphyton, or chunks of algae and microorganisms that create a grayish mud. Portions of the Everglades that remain flooded for more than nine months out of the year are usually covered by peat. Areas that are flooded for six months or less are covered by marl. Plant communities are determined by the type of soil and the amount of water present.

 

According to the Köppen climate classification system, Royal Palm at Everglades National Park has a tropical monsoon climate (Am). Summers are long, hot, and very wet and winters are warm and dry.

 

While they are common in the northern portion of Florida, no underground springs feed water into the Everglades system. An underground reservoir called the Floridan aquifer lies about 1,000 feet (300 m) below the surface of South Florida. The Everglades has an immense capacity for water storage, owing to the permeable limestone beneath the exposed land. Most of the water arrives in the form of rainfall, and a significant amount is stored in the limestone. Water evaporating from the Everglades becomes rain over metropolitan areas, providing the fresh water supply for the region. Water also flows into the park after falling as rain to the north onto the watersheds of the Kissimmee River and other sources of Lake Okeechobee, to appear in the Everglades days later. Water overflows Lake Okeechobee into a river 40 to 70 miles (64 to 113 km) wide, which moves almost imperceptibly.

 

At the turn of the 20th century, common concepts of what should be protected in national parks invariably included formidable geologic features like mountains, geysers, or canyons. As Florida's population began to grow significantly and urban areas near the Everglades were developed, proponents of the park's establishment faced difficulty in persuading the federal government and the people of Florida that the subtle and constantly shifting ecosystems in the Everglades were just as worthy of protection. When the park was established in 1947, it became the first area within the U.S. to protect flora and fauna native to a region as opposed to geologic scenery. The National Park Service recognizes nine distinct interdependent ecosystems within the park that constantly shift in size owing to the amount of water present and other environmental factors.

 

Freshwater sloughs are perhaps the most common ecosystem associated with Everglades National Park. These drainage channels are characterized by low-lying areas covered in fresh water, flowing at an almost imperceptible 100 feet (30 m) per day. Shark River Slough and Taylor Slough are significant features of the park. Sawgrass growing to a height of 6 feet (1.8 m) or more, and broad-leafed marsh plants, are so prominent in this region that they gave the Everglades its nickname "River of Grass", cemented in the public imagination in the title for Marjory Stoneman Douglas's book (1947), which culminated years of her advocacy for considering the Everglades ecosystem as more than a "swamp". Excellent feeding locations for birds, sloughs in the Everglades attract a great variety of waders such as herons, egrets, roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja), ibises and brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), as well as limpkins (Aramus guarauna) and snail kites that eat apple snails, which in turn feed on the sawgrass. The sloughs' availability of fish, amphibians, and young birds attract a variety of freshwater turtles, alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), water moccasin (Agkistrodon piscivorus conanti), and eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus).

 

Freshwater marl prairies are similar to sloughs but lack the slow movement of surface water; instead, water seeps through a calcitic mud called marl. Algae and other microscopic organisms form periphyton, which attaches to limestone. When it dries it turns into a gray mud. Sawgrass and other water plants grow shorter in freshwater marl than they do in peat, the other type of soil in the Everglades which is found where water remains present longer throughout the year. Marl prairies are usually under water from three to seven months of the year, whereas sloughs may remain submerged for longer than nine months and sometimes remain under water from one year to the next. Sawgrass may dominate sloughs, creating a monoculture. Other grasses, such as muhly grass (Muhlenbergia sericea) and broad-leafed water plants can be found in marl prairies. Animals living in the freshwater sloughs also inhabit marl prairies. Marl prairies may go dry in some parts of the year; alligators play a vital role in maintaining life in remote parts of the Everglades by burrowing in the mud during the dry season, creating pools of water where fish and amphibians survive from one year to the next. Alligator holes also attract other animals who congregate to feed on smaller prey. When the region floods again during the wet season, the fish and amphibians which were sustained in the alligator holes then repopulate freshwater marl prairies.

 

Hammocks are often the only dry land within the park. They rise several inches above the grass-covered river and are dominated by diverse plant life consisting of subtropical and tropical trees, such as large southern live oaks (Quercus virginiana). Trees often form canopies under which animals thrive amongst scrub bushes of wild coffee (Psychotria), white indigoberry (Randia aculeata), poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum) and saw palmetto (Serenoa repens). The park features thousands of these tree islands amid sloughs—which often form the shape of a teardrop when seen from above (see park map) because of the slowly moving water around them—but they can also be found in pineland and mangroves. Trees in the Everglades, including wild tamarind (Lysiloma latisiliquum) and gumbo-limbo (Bursera simaruba), rarely grow higher than 50 feet (15 m) because of wind, fire, and climate.

 

The plant growth around the hammock base is nearly impenetrable; beneath the canopy hammocks is an ideal habitat for animals. Reptiles (such as various species of snake and anole) and amphibians (such as the American green tree frog, Hyla cinerea), live in the hardwood hammocks. Birds such as barred owls (Strix varia), woodpeckers, northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis), and southern bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus) nest in hammock trees. Mammal species living in hardwood hammocks include Florida black bears (Ursus americanus floridanus), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), minks (Neogale vison), marsh rabbits (Sylvilagus palustris), gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and the rare, critically endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor couguar).

 

Miami-Dade County was once covered in 186,000 acres (290.6 sq mi; 752.7 km2) of pine rockland forests, but most of it was harvested by the lumber industry. Pineland ecosystems (or pine rocklands) are characterized by shallow, dry sandy loam over a limestone substrate covered almost exclusively by slash pines (Pinus elliottii var. densa). Trees in this ecosystem grow in solution holes, where the soft limestone has worn away and filled with soil, allowing plants to take hold. Pinelands require regular maintenance by fire to ensure their existence. South Florida slash pines are uniquely adapted to promote fire by dropping a large amount of dried pine needles and shedding dry bark. Pine cones require heat from fires to open, allowing seeds to disperse and take hold. The trunks and roots of slash pines are resistant to fire. Prescribed burns in these areas take place every three to seven years; without regular fires, hardwood trees begin to grow in this region, and pinelands become recategorized as mixed swamp forests. Most plants in the area bloom about 16 weeks after a fire. Nearly all pinelands have an understory of palm shrubs and a diverse ground covering of wild herbs.

 

Pine rocklands are considered one of the most threatened habitats in Florida; less than 4,000 acres (6.3 sq mi; 16.2 km2) of pineland exist outside the park. Within the park, 20,000 acres (31.3 sq mi; 80.9 km2) of pineland are protected. A variety of animal species meet their needs for food, shelter, nesting, and rooking in pine rocklands. Woodpeckers, eastern meadowlarks (Sturnella magna), loggerhead shrikes (Lanius ludovicianus), grackles, and northern mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottos) are commonly found in pinelands. Black bears and Florida panthers also live in this habitat.

 

Cypress trees are conifers that are adapted to live in standing fresh water. They grow in compact structures called cypress domes and in long strands over limestone. Water levels may fluctuate dramatically around cypress domes and strands, so cypresses develop "knees" that protrude from the water at high levels to provide oxygen for the root systems. Dwarf cypress trees grow in drier areas with poorer soil. Epiphytes, such as bromeliads, Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides), orchids and ferns grow on the branches and trunks of cypress trees. Everglades National Park features twenty-five species of orchids. Tall cypress trees provide excellent nesting areas for birds including wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), ibis, herons, egrets, anhingas (Anhinga anhinga), and belted kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon). Mammals in cypress regions include white-tailed deer, squirrels, raccoons, opossums, skunks, swamp rabbits, river otters (Lontra canadensis), and bobcats, as well as small rodents.

 

Mangrove trees cover the coastlines of South Florida, sometimes growing inland depending on the amount of salt water present within the Everglades ecosystems. During drier years when less fresh water flows to the coast, mangroves will appear among fresh water plants. When rain is abundant, sawgrass and other fresh water plants may be found closer to the coast. Three species of mangrove trees—red (Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicennia germinans), and white (Laguncularia racemosa)—can be found in the Everglades. With a high tolerance of salt water, winds, extreme tides, high temperatures, and muddy soils, mangrove trees are uniquely adapted to extreme conditions. They act as nurseries for many marine and bird species. They are also Florida's first defense against the destructive forces of hurricanes, absorbing flood waters and preventing coastal erosion. The mangrove system in Everglades National Park is the largest continuous system of mangroves in the world.

 

Within the Florida mangrove systems live 220 species of fish, and a variety of crabs, crayfish, shrimp, mollusks, and other invertebrates, which serve as the main source of food for many birds. Dozens of bird species use mangroves as nurseries and food stores, including pelicans, grebes, tricolored herons (Egretta tricolor), gulls, terns, hawks and kites, and arboreal birds like mangrove cuckoos (Coccyzus minor), yellow warblers (Dendroica petechia), and white-crowned pigeons (Patagioenas leucocephala). The mangroves also support 24 species of amphibians and reptiles, and 18 species of mammals, including the endangered green turtle (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), and West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus).

 

Coastal lowlands, or wet prairies, are salt water marshes that absorb marine water when it gets high or fresh water when rains are heavy. Floods occur during hurricane and tropical storm surges when ocean water can rise several feet over the land. Heavy wet seasons also cause floods when rain from the north flows into the Everglades. Few trees can survive in the conditions of this region, but plants—succulents like saltwort and glasswort—tolerate salt, brackish water, and desert conditions. Animal life in this zone is dependent upon the amount of water present, but commonly found animals include Cape Sable seaside sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis), Everglades snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis), wood stork (Mycteria americana), eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon couperi), and small mammals such as rats, mice, and rabbits.

 

The largest body of water within the park is Florida Bay, which extends from the mangrove swamps of the mainland's southern tip to the Florida Keys. Over 800 square miles (2,100 km2) of marine ecosystem lies in this range. Coral, sponges, and seagrasses serve as shelter and food for crustaceans and mollusks, which in turn are the primary food source for larger marine animals. Sharks, stingrays, and barracudas also live in this ecosystem. Pelicans, shorebirds, terns, and black skimmers (Rynchops niger) are among the birds frequenting park shorelines. The bay also has its own resident population of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).

 

The bay's many basins are broken up by sandbanks that serve as plentiful recreational fishing grounds for snook (Centropomus undecimalis), redfish (Sciaenops ocellatus), spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), tarpon (Megaflops atlanticus), bonefish (Albula vulpes), and permit (Trichinous falcatus),[48] as well as snapper (Lutjanus campechanus), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), and bass. Wading birds such as roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja), reddish egrets (Egretta rufescens), and great white herons (Ardea herodias occidentalis) have unique subpopulations that are largely restricted to Florida Bay. Other bird species include bald eagles, cormorants, and ospreys. Mammals along the shoreline include raccoons, opossums, bobcats, and fox squirrels.

 

Humans likely first inhabited the South Florida region 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. Two tribes of Native Americans developed on the peninsula's southern tip: the Tequesta lived on the eastern side and the Calusa, greater in numbers, on the western side. The Everglades served as a natural boundary between them. The Tequesta lived in a single large community near the mouth of the Miami River, while the Calusa lived in 30 villages. Both groups traveled through the Everglades but rarely lived within them, remaining mostly along the coast.

 

The diets of both groups consisted mostly of shellfish and fish, small mammals, game, and wild plants. Having access only to soft limestone, most of the tools fashioned by Native Americans in the region were made of shell, bone, wood, and animal teeth; shark teeth were used as cutting blades, and sharpened reeds became arrows and spears. Shell mounds still exist today within the park, giving archaeologists and anthropologists evidence of the raw materials available to the indigenous people for tool construction. Spanish explorers estimated the number of Tequesta at first contact to be around 800, and Calusa at 2,000; the National Park Service reports there were probably about 20,000 natives living in or near the Everglades when the Spanish established contact in the late 16th century. The Calusa lived in social strata and were able to create canals, earthworks, and shellworks. The Calusa were also able to resist Spanish attempts at conquest.

 

The Spanish had contact with these societies and established missions further north, near Lake Okeechobee. In the 18th century, invading Creeks incorporated the dwindling numbers of the Tequesta into their own. Neither the Tequesta nor Calusa tribe existed by 1800. Disease, warfare, and capture for slavery were the reasons for the eradication of both groups. The only evidence of their existence within the park boundaries is a series of shell mounds that were built by the Calusa.

 

In the early 19th century, Creeks, escaped African slaves, and other Indians from northern Florida displaced by the Creek War, formed the area's Seminole nation. After the end of the Seminole Wars in 1842, the Seminoles faced relocation to Indian territory near Oklahoma. A few hundred Seminole hunters and scouts settled within what is today Big Cypress National Preserve, to escape the forced emigration to the west. From 1859 to about 1930, the Seminoles and Miccosukee, a similar but linguistically unique tribe, lived in relative isolation, making their living by trading. In 1928, surveying and construction began on the Tamiami Trail, along the northern border of Everglades National Park. The road bisected the Everglades, introducing a steady, if small, traffic of white settlers into the Everglades.

 

Some members of the Miccosukee and Seminole tribes continue to live within park boundaries. Management of the park includes approval of new policies and procedures by tribal representatives "in such a manner that they do not conflict with the park purpose".

 

Following the end of the Seminole Wars, Americans began settling at isolated points along the coast in what is now the park, from the Ten Thousand Islands to Cape Sable. Communities developed on the two largest pieces of dry ground in the area, on Chokoloskee Island and at Flamingo on Cape Sable, both of which established post offices in the early 1890s. Chokoloskee Island is a shell mound, a midden built roughly 20 feet (6 m) high over thousands of years of occupation by the Calusa. The settlements in Chokoloskee and Flamingo served as trading centers for small populations of farmers, fishermen, and charcoal burners settled in the Ten Thousand Islands. Both settlements and the more isolated homesteads could only be reached by boat until well into the 20th century. Everglades City, on the mainland near Chokoloskee, enjoyed a brief period of prosperity when, beginning in 1920, it served as the headquarters for the construction of the Tamiami Trail. A dirt road from Florida City reached Flamingo in 1922, while a causeway finally connected Chokoloskee to the mainland's Everglades City in 1956.

 

After the park was established, private property in the Flamingo area was claimed by eminent domain, and the site was incorporated into the park as a visitor center.

 

Several attempts were made to drain and develop the Everglades in the 1880s. The first canals built in the Everglades did little harm to the ecosystem, as they were unable to drain much of it. Napoleon Bonaparte Broward based the majority of his 1904 campaign for governor on how drainage would create "The Empire of the Everglades". Broward ordered the drainage that took place between 1905 and 1910, and it was successful enough that land developers sold tracts for $30 per acre, settling the town of Davie, and developing regions in Lee and Dade counties. The canals also cleared water that made way for agricultural fields growing sugarcane.

 

In the 1920s, a population boom in South Florida created the Florida land boom, which was described by author Michael Grunwald as "insanity". Land was sold before any homes or structures were built on it and in some cases before any plans for construction were in place. New landowners, eager to make good on their investments, hastily constructed homes and small towns on recently drained land. Mangrove trees on the coasts were taken down for better views and replaced with shallow-rooted palm trees. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began construction on larger canals to control the rising waters in the Everglades. Nevertheless, Lake Okeechobee continued to rise and fall, the region was covered with rain, and city planners continued to battle the water. The 1926 Miami Hurricane caused Lake Okeechobee levees to fail; hundreds of people south of the lake drowned. Two years later, the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane claimed 2,500 lives when Lake Okeechobee once again surged over its levees. Politicians who declared the Everglades uninhabitable were silenced when a four-story wall, the Herbert Hoover Dike, was built around Lake Okeechobee. This wall effectively cut off the water source from the Everglades.

 

Following the wall's construction, South Florida endured a drought severe enough to cause serious wildfires in 1939. The influx of humans had a detrimental effect on the plants and animals of the region when melaleuca trees (Melaleuca quinquenervia) were introduced to help with drainage, along with Australian pines brought in by developers as windbreaks. The region's timber was devastated for lumber supplies. Alligators, birds, frogs, and fish were hunted on a large scale. Entire rookeries of wading birds were shot to collect their plumes, which were used in women's hats in the early 20th century. The largest impact people had on the region was the diversion of water away from the Everglades. Canals were deepened and widened, and water levels fell dramatically, causing chaos in food webs. Salt water replaced fresh water in the canals, and by 1997 scientists noticed that salt water was seeping into the Biscayne Aquifer, South Florida's water source.

 

In the 1940s, Marjory Stoneman Douglas, a freelance writer and former reporter for The Miami Herald, began to research the Everglades for an assignment about the Miami River. She studied the land and water for five years and published The Everglades: River of Grass in 1947, describing the area in great detail, including a chapter on its disappearance. She wrote: "What had been a river of grass and sweet water that had given meaning and life and uniqueness to this enormous geography through centuries in which man had no place here was made, in one chaotic gesture of greed and ignorance and folly, a river of fire." The book has sold 500,000 copies since its publication, and Douglas's continued dedication to ecology conservation earned her the nicknames "Grand Dame of the Everglades", "Grandmother of the Everglades" and "the anti-Christ" for her singular focus at the expense of some political interests. She founded and served as president for an organization called Friends of the Everglades, initially intended to protest the construction of a proposed Big Cypress jetport in 1968. Successful in that confrontation, the organization has grown to over 4,000 members, committed to the preservation of the Everglades. She wrote and spoke about the importance of the Everglades until her death at age 108 in 1998.

 

Floridians hoping to preserve at least part of the Everglades began to express their concern over diminishing resources in the early 20th century. Royal Palm State Park was created in 1916 and protected Paradise Key; it included several trails and a visitor center several miles from Homestead. Miami-based naturalists first proposed that the area become a national park in 1923. Five years later, the Florida state legislature established the Tropical Everglades National Park Commission to study the formation of a protected area. The commission was led by Ernest F. Coe, a land developer turned conservationist, who was eventually nicknamed Father of Everglades National Park. Coe's original plan for the park included more than 2,000,000 acres (3,125.0 sq mi; 8,093.7 km2) including Key Largo and Big Cypress, and his unwillingness to compromise almost prevented the park's creation. Various other interests, including land developers and sport hunters, demanded that the size of the park be decreased.

 

The commission was also tasked with proposing a method to raise the money to purchase the land. The search coincided with the arrival of the Great Depression in the United States, and money for land purchase was scarce. The U.S. House of Representatives authorized the creation of the new national park on May 30, 1934, but the Act (HR 2837), which permanently reserved lands donated by public or private donation as wilderness, passed only with a rider that ensured no money would be allotted to the project for at least five years. Coe's passion and U.S. Senator Spessard Holland's politicking helped to fully establish the park, after Holland was able to negotiate 1,300,000 acres (2,031.2 sq mi; 5,260.9 km2) of the park, leaving out Big Cypress, Key Largo, the Turner River area, and a 22,000-acre (34.4 sq mi; 89.0 km2) tract of land called "The Hole in the Donut" that was too highly valued for agriculture. Miami Herald editor John Pennekamp was instrumental in pushing the Florida Legislature to raise $2 million to purchase the private land inside the park boundaries. It was dedicated by President Harry Truman on December 6, 1947, one month after Marjory Stoneman Douglas's book The Everglades: River of Grass was released. The same year, several tropical storms struck South Florida, prompting the construction of 1,400 miles (2,300 km) of canals, sending water unwanted by farmers and residents to the ocean.

 

The Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project (C&SF) was authorized by Congress to construct more than one thousand miles of canals and flood control structures across South Florida. The C&SF, run by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, established an agricultural area directly south of Lake Okeechobee, and three water conservation areas, all bordered by canals that diverted excess water either to urban areas or into the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico or Florida Bay. South of these manmade regions was Everglades National Park, which had been effectively cut off from its water supply. By the 1960s, the park was visibly suffering. The C&SF was directed to provide enough water to sustain the park; it did not follow through. A proposed airport that would have dire environmental effects on Everglades National Park became the center of a battle that helped to initiate the environmental movement into local and national politics. The airport proposal was eventually abandoned, and in 1972 a bill was introduced to curb development in South Florida and ensure the national park would receive the amount of water it needed. Efforts turned to repairing the damage wrought by decades of mismanagement: the Army Corps of Engineers changed its focus in 1990 from constructing dams and canals to constructing "purely environmental projects".

 

Regions originally included in Ernest Coe's vision for a national park were slowly added over the years to the park or incorporated into other protected areas: Biscayne National Park, Big Cypress National Preserve, John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park on Key Largo, Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge, and Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary were all protected after the park's opening in 1947. Everglades National Park was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26, 1976. On November 10, 1978, 1,296,500 acres (2,025.8 sq mi; 5,246.7 km2), about 86% of the park, was declared a wilderness area. It was renamed the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness in 1997. It was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on October 24, 1979, and as a Wetland of International Importance on June 4, 1987. It was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 1993 until 2007 and then again in 2010. The park was added again due to the continued degradation of the set causing significant indications of eutrophication (for example algal blooms) negatively impacting the marine life causing the US government to request UNESCO and IUCN for assistance in development.

 

President George H. W. Bush signed the Everglades National Park Protection and Expansion Act on December 13, 1989, that added 109,506 acres (171.1 sq mi; 443.2 km2) to the eastern side of the park, closed the park to airboats, directed the Department of the Army to restore water to improve the ecosystems within Everglades National Park, and "Direct(ed) the Secretary of the Interior to manage the Park in order to maintain the natural abundance, diversity, and ecological integrity of native plants and animals, as well as the behavior of native animals, as part of their ecosystem." Bush remarked in his statement when signing the act, "Through this legislation that river of grass may now be restored to its natural flow of water".

 

In 2000, Congress approved the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP), a federal effort to restore the Everglades with the objectives of "restoration, preservation and protection of the south Florida ecosystem while providing for other water-related needs of the region", and claiming to be the largest environmental restoration in history. It was a controversial plan; detractors worried that it "relies on uncertain technologies, overlooks water quality, subsidizes damaging growth and delays its environmental benefits".[90] Supporters of the plan included the National Audubon Society, who were accused by Friends of the Everglades and the Biodiversity Legal Foundation of prioritizing agricultural and business interests.

 

The namesake of Anhinga Trail dries its feathers

CERP projects are designed to capture 1.7 billion US gallons (6,400,000 m3) of fresh water every day, store it in underground reservoirs, and release the water to areas within 16 counties in South Florida. Approximately 35,600 acres (55.6 sq mi; 144.1 km2) of man-made wetlands are to be constructed to confine contaminated water before it is released to the Everglades, and 240 miles (390 km) of canals that divert water away from the Everglades are to be destroyed. During the first five years of implementation, CERP was responsible for the purchase of 207,000 acres (323.4 sq mi; 837.7 km2) of land at a cost of $1 billion. The plan aims to spend $10.5 billion over 30 years, combining 50 different projects and giving them 5-year timelines.

 

Everglades National Park was directly hit by Hurricanes Katrina, Wilma, and Rita in 2005. Such storms are a natural part of the park's ecosystem; 1960's Hurricane Donna left nothing in the mangroves but "standing dead snags" several miles wide, but 30 years later the area had completely recovered. Predictably, what suffered the most in the park from the 2005 hurricanes were man-made structures. In 2009 the visitor center and lodge at Flamingo were irreparably damaged by 125 mph (201 km/h) winds and an 8 ft (2.4 m) storm surge; the lodge had been functioning for 50 years when it was torn down; nothing is slated to replace it.

 

Everglades National Park reported in 2005 a budget of over $28 million. Of that, $14.8 million was granted from the National Park Service and $13.5 million from various sources including CERP, donations, and other grants. The entry fee for private vehicles in 2021 is $30. Of the nearly one million visitors to Everglades National Park in 2006, more than 38,000 were overnight campers, paying $16 a night or $10 a night for backcountry permits. Visitors spent $2.6 million within the park and $48 million in local economies. More than 900 jobs were sustained or created within or by the park, and the park added value of $35 million to local economies.

 

Everglades National Park has had 19 superintendents since it was dedicated in 1947. The park's first superintendent, Daniel Beard (1947-1958), was also its longest-serving. After Superintendent Beard, Warren F. Hamilton served between 1958 and 1963, followed by Stanley C. Joseph (1963-1966), Roger W. Allin (1966-1968), John C. Raftery (1968-1970), Joseph Brown (1970-1971), Jack E. Stark (1971-1976), John M. Good (1976-1980), John M. Morehead (1980-1986), Marueen E. Finnerty (Acting Superintendent, 1986), Michael V. Finley (1986-1989), Robert L. Arnberger (Acting Superintendent, 1989), Robert S. Chandler (1989-1992), Dick Ring (1992-2000), Marueen E. Finnerty (2000-2003), Dan Kimball (2004-2014), Shawn Benge (Acting Superintendent, 2014), Bob Krumenaker (Acting Superintendent, 2014-2015), and finally Pedro Ramos, who was appointed in 2015 and continues to serve.

 

The park was placed into Administrative Region I in 1937, when the regions were first established. Region I was retitled the Southeast Region in 1962, which was restructured into the Southeast Area in 1995. The reorganized unified Interior regions put it in the new Region 2.

 

The busiest season for visitors is from December to March, when temperatures are lowest and mosquitoes are least active. The park features five visitor centers: on the Tamiami Trail (part of U.S. Route 41) directly west of Miami is the Shark Valley Visitor Center. A fifteen-mile (24 km) round trip path leads from this center to a two-story observation tower. Tram tours are available during the busy season. Closest to Homestead on State Road 9336 is the Ernest F. Coe Visitor Center, where a 38-mile (61 km) road begins, winding through pine rockland, cypress, freshwater marl prairie, coastal prairie, and mangrove ecosystems. Various hiking trails are accessible from the road, which runs to the Flamingo Visitor Center and marina, open and staffed during the busier time of the year. The Gulf Coast Visitor Center is closest to Everglades City on State Road 29 along the west coast. The Gulf Coast Visitor Center gives canoers access to the Wilderness Waterway, a 99-mile (160 km) canoe trail that extends to the Flamingo Visitor Center. The former Royal Palm State Park was the site of the first Everglades National Park visitor center and later became the Royal Palm Visitor Center within the park. The western coast of the park and the Ten Thousand Islands and the various key islands in Florida Bay are accessible only by boat.

 

Several walking trails in the park vary in hiking difficulty on Pine Island, where visitors can cross hardwood hammocks, pinelands, and freshwater sloughs. Starting at the Royal Palm Visitor Center, the Anhinga Trail is a half-mile self-guided tour through a sawgrass marsh where visitors can see alligators, marsh and wading birds, turtles, and bromeliads. Its proximity to Homestead and its accessibility make it one of the most visited sites in the park. The nearby Gumbo Limbo Trail is also self-guided, at half-mile long. It loops through a canopy of hardwood hammocks that include gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), royal palms (Roystonea), strangler figs (Ficus aurea), and a variety of epiphytes.

 

Twenty-eight miles (45 km) of trails start near the Long Pine Key campgrounds and wind through Long Pine Key, well-suited for offroad cycling through the pine rocklands in the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness Area. Two boardwalks allow visitors to walk through a cypress forest at Pa-Hay-O-Kee, which also features a two-story overlook, and another at Mahogany Hammock (referring to Swietenia mahagoni) that takes hikers through a dense forest in the middle of a freshwater marl prairie. Closer to Flamingo, more rugged trails take visitors through mangrove swamps, along Florida Bay. Christian Point Trail, Snake Bight Trail, Rowdy Bend Trail and Coastal Prairie Trail allow viewing of shorebirds and wading birds among the mangroves. Portions of the trails may be impassable depending on the time of year, because of mosquitoes and water levels. Ranger-led tours take place in the busier season only.

 

Camping is available year-round in Everglades National Park. Camping with some services is available at Long Pine Key, close to the Ernest F. Coe Visitor Center, where 108 sites are accessible by car. Near Flamingo, 234 campsites with some services are also available. Recreational vehicle camping is available at these sites, but not with all necessary services. Back-country permits are required for campsites along the Wilderness Waterway, Gulf Coast sites, and sites in the various keys. Several back-country sites are chickees; others are beach and ground sites.

 

Low-powered motorboats are allowed in the park; the majority of salt water areas are no-wake zones to protect manatees and other marine animals from harm. Jet skis, airboats, and other motorized personal watercraft are prohibited. Many trails allow kayaks and canoes. A state license is required for fishing. Fresh water licenses are not sold in the park, but a salt water license may be available. Swimming is not recommended within the park boundaries; water moccasins, snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina), alligators, and crocodiles thrive in fresh water. Sharks, barracuda, and sharp dangerous coral are plentiful in salt water. Visibility is low in both salt water and fresh water areas.

 

Everglades National Park is an important part of the Great Florida Birding Trail. It has great biodiversity and many species of birds for bird watching and bird photography also.

 

Portions of Everglades National Park are ideal for dark sky observations in South Florida. The best viewing locations are in the remote southern and western areas of the Everglades, such as Flamingo and the Ten Thousand Islands. The Milky Way appears brightest when looking south, toward the least light-polluted areas.

 

Less than 50 percent of the Everglades which existed prior to drainage attempts remains intact today. Populations of wading birds dwindled 90 percent from their original numbers between the 1940s and 2000s. The diversion of water to South Florida's still-growing metropolitan areas is the Everglades National Park's number one threat. In the 1950s and 1960s, 1,400 miles (2,300 km) of canals and levees, 150 gates and spillways, and 16 pumping stations were constructed to direct water toward cities and away from the Everglades. Low levels of water leave fish vulnerable to reptiles and birds, and as sawgrass dries it can burn or die off, which in turn kills apple snails and other animals that wading birds feed upon. Populations of birds fluctuate; in 2009, the South Florida Water Management District claimed wading birds across South Florida increased by 335 percent. Following three years of increasing numbers, The Miami Herald reported in 2009 that populations of wading birds within the park decreased by 29 percent.

 

Cities along the west coast of Florida rely on desalinization for fresh water; the quantity demanded is too great for the land to provide. Nitrates in the underground water system and high levels of mercury also impact the quality of fresh water the park receives. In 1998, a Florida panther was found dead in Shark Water Slough, with levels of mercury high enough to kill a human. Increased occurrences of algal blooms and red tide in Biscayne Bay and Florida Bay have been traced to the amounts of controlled water released from Lake Okeechobee. The brochure given to visitors at Everglades National Park includes a statement that reads, "Freshwater flowing into the park is engineered. With the help of pumps, floodgates, and retention ponds along the park's boundary, the Everglades is presently on life support, alive but diminished."

 

A series of levees on the park's eastern border marks the line between urban and protected areas, but development into these areas threatens the park system. Florida still attracts nearly a thousand new residents every day,[119] and building residential, commercial and industrial zones near Everglades National Park stresses the water balance and ecosystems within the park. On the park's western border, Fort Myers, Naples, and Cape Coral are expanding, but no system of levees exists to mark that border. National Geographic rated both Everglades National Park and Big Cypress National Preserve the lowest-scoring parks in North America, at 32 out of 100. Their scoring system rated 55 parks by their sustainable tourism, destination quality, and park management. The experts who compiled the results justified the score by stating: "Encroachment by housing and retail development has thrown the precious ecosystem into a tailspin, and if humankind doesn't back off, there will be nothing left of one of this country's most amazing treasures".

 

Thirty-six federally protected animals live in the park, some of which face grave threats to their survival.

 

In the United States, the American crocodile's only habitat is within South Florida. They were once overhunted for their hides. They are protected today from hunting but are still threatened by habitat destruction and injury from vehicle collisions when crossing roads to reach waterways. About 2,000 crocodiles live in Florida, and there are roughly 100 nests in the Everglades and Biscayne National Parks. Crocodiles populations in South Florida have increased as has the number of alligators. Crocodiles were reclassified from "endangered" to "threatened" in the United States in 2007.

 

The Florida panther is one of the most endangered mammals on earth. About 230 live in the wild, primarily in the Everglades and the Big Cypress Swamp. The biggest threats to the panther include habitat destruction from human development, vehicle collisions, inbreeding due to their limited gene pool, parasites, diseases, and mercury poisoning.

 

Four Everglade species of sea turtle including the Atlantic green sea turtle, the Atlantic hawksbill, the Atlantic loggerhead (Caretta caretta), and the Atlantic ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) are endangered. Also, the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) is threatened. Numbers are difficult to determine, since males and juveniles do not return to their birthplace; females lay eggs in the same location every year. Habitat loss, illegal poaching, and destructive fishing practices are the biggest threats to these animals.

 

The range of the Cape Sable seaside sparrow is restricted to Everglades National Park and the Big Cypress Swamp. In 1981 6,656 Cape Sable seaside sparrows were reported in park boundaries, but surveys over 10 years documented a decline to an estimated 2,624 birds by 2002. Attempts to return natural levels of water to the park have been controversial; Cape Sable seaside sparrows nest about a foot off the ground, and rising water levels may harm future populations, as well as threaten the locally endangered snail kite. The Everglades snail kite eats apple snails almost exclusively, and the Everglades is the only location in the United States where this bird of prey exists. There is some evidence that the population may be increasing, but the loss of habitat and food sources keep the estimated number of these birds at several hundred.

 

The West Indian manatee has been upgraded from endangered to threatened. Collisions with boats and habitat loss are still its biggest threats.

 

Fire naturally occurs after lightning storms but takes its heaviest toll when water levels are low. Hardwood hammock and cypress trees are susceptible to heavy damage from fire, and some may take decades to grow back. Peat built up over centuries in the marsh can cause fires to burn deep scars in the soil. In 2007, Fred Sklar of the South Florida Water Management District said: "An extreme drought can be viewed (as) almost as catastrophic as a volcano. It can reshape the entire landscape. It can take 1,000 years to produce two inches of peat, and you can lose those couple of inches in a week."

 

Rising sea levels caused by global warming are another threat to the future of the park. Since 1932, ocean levels at Key West have steadily risen over 0.7 feet (0.2 m), which could have disastrous consequences for land so close to the ocean. It is estimated that within 500 years freshwater habitats in the Everglades National Park will be obliterated by salt water, leaving only the northernmost portion of the Everglades. Cost estimates for raising or replacing the Tamiami Trail and Alligator Alley with bridges are in the hundreds of millions of dollars.

 

Through Trump Administration, The Florida Department of Transportation, and Everglades National Park, there are plans to execute and complete the Next Steps project to help fix these various water issues, along with other parts of the park. This completion plan was announced in September 2020, will begin November 2020, and should be done by the end of 2024.

 

The introduction of non-native species into South Florida is a considerable problem for the park. Many of the biological controls such as weather, disease, and consumers who naturally limit plants in their native environments do not exist in the Everglades, causing many to grow larger and multiply far beyond their average numbers in their native habitats. Approximately 26 percent of all fish, reptiles, birds, and mammal species in South Florida are exotic—more than in any other part of the U.S.—and the region hosts one of the highest numbers of exotic plant species in the world.

 

Species that adapt the most aggressively to conditions in the Everglades, by spreading quickly or competing with native species that sometimes are threatened or endangered, are called "invasive". Thousands of exotic plant species have been observed in South Florida, usually introduced as ornamental landscaping, but park staff must eradicate such invasive plants as melaleuca tree (Melaleuca quinquenervia), Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), and Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum). Similarly, animals often do not find the predators or natural barriers to reproduction in the Everglades as they do where they originate, thus they often reproduce more quickly and efficiently. Lobate lac scale insects (Paratachardina pseudolobata) kill shrubs and other plants in hardwood hammocks. Bromeliad beetles (Metamasius callizona) destroy bromeliads and the ecosystems they host.

 

Walking catfish (Clarias batrachus) can deplete aquaculture stocks and they carry enteric septicemia. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) listed eight "Reptiles of Concern", including the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus), focusing on them for their large sizes and aggressive natures, allowing licensed hunters to kill any listed animals in protected areas and sell their meat and hides. Burmese pythons, two subspecies of African rock pythons (Python sebae; northern and southern), and yellow anacondas (Eunectes notaeus) were banned from import into the U.S. in 2012. United States Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar announced the inclusion of these reptiles at Everglades National Park. Exotic species control falls under the management of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which has been compiling and disseminating information about invasive species since 1994. Control of invasive species costs $500 million per year, but 1,700,000 acres (2,656.2 sq mi; 6,879.7 km2) of land in South Florida remains infested.

I have not been able to keep up with Flickr consistently this year (perhaps residual burnout from my 365 project last year), so I have a big backlog of photos to process and post from the past few months, not to mention the archived shots from last year I never got to. Here are some from about a month ago

 

Last fall, my wife had the brilliant idea to plant some firs on my family's land in central New Hampshire to raise for Christmas trees. After doing some research (reading "Christmas Trees for Pleasure and Profit" - yes, real book), we ordered 20 fir seedlings from the New Hampshire State Forest Nursey. About a month ago, we picked them up and planted them. Hopefully, in 6-8 years, some of them will have survived and prospered and we can cut them for Christmas. Two more in comments.

  

Taken Apr 27, 2013 in Alexandria, New Hampshire, United States

¹⁄₂₅₀ sec at f/4.0, ISO200.

Lens: EF50mm f/1.4 USM @ 50 mm

via Instagram ift.tt/1NaiWB4

Singapore Zoo ranks consistently (after San Diego Zoo) as one of the best in the world.

 

Being primarily nocturnal creatures, sun bears (Helarctos Malayanus) look sweet and somnolent – but locals say they are the most dangerous animals in their forests, and that even tigers keep their distance. Looking at their sharp, sickle-shaped claws – which are more than ten centimetres (four inches) long – it is easy to see why.

 

For the story, please visit: www.ursulasweeklywanders.com/travel/teeth-claws-and-colou...

Singapore Zoo ranks consistently (after San Diego Zoo) as one of the best in the world.

 

The white Bengal tigers – this one originally from a zoo in Indonesia – are a popular attraction at the Singapore Zoo.

 

For the story, please visit: www.ursulasweeklywanders.com/travel/teeth-claws-and-colou...

Named the Greatest Briton of all time in a 2002 poll, Churchill is widely regarded as being among the most influential people in British history, consistently ranking well in opinion polls of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom

 

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, DL, FRS, RA (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the 20th century, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer (as Winston S. Churchill), and an artist. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an honorary citizen of the United States.

 

Churchill was born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the Spencer family. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer; his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young army officer, he saw action in British India, the Sudan, and the Second Boer War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns.

 

At the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, and First Lord of the Admiralty as part of Asquith's Liberal government. During the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active army service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, and Secretary of State for Air. In 1921–1922 Churchill served as Secretary of State for the Colonies, then Chancellor of the Exchequer in Baldwin's Conservative government of 1924–1929, controversially returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure on the UK economy. Also controversial were his opposition to increased home rule for India and his resistance to the 1936 abdication of Edward VIII.

 

Out of office and politically "in the wilderness" during the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in warning about Nazi Germany and in campaigning for rearmament. At the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister. His steadfast refusal to consider defeat, surrender, or a compromise peace helped inspire British resistance, especially during the difficult early days of the war when the British Commonwealth and Empire stood alone in its active opposition to Adolf Hitler. Churchill was particularly noted for his speeches and radio broadcasts, which helped inspire the British people. He led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured.

 

After the Conservative Party lost the 1945 election, he became Leader of the Opposition to the Labour Government. After winning the 1951 election, he again became Prime Minister, before retiring in 1955. Upon his death, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral, which saw one of the largest assemblies of world statesmen in history.

Is this consistent with your idea of automotive perfection? Robert’s gorgeous '69 Camaro was built by our friends at Detroit Speed! It's powered by a Mast Motorsports LS7 with a 6-speed Bowler Performance transmission and rides on DSE's Hydroformed Subframe, DSE minitubs, DSE QUADRALINK rear suspension, DSE/JRi double-adjustable coilovers, Baer brakes, 275/35ZR18 & 335/30ZR18 BFGoodrich Rival S tires, and 18x10/18x12 Forgeline CR3 wheels finished with Satin Gunmetal centers, Polished outers, & tall center caps! See more at: www.forgeline.com/customer_gallery_view.php?cvk=1807

The Renault Clio is a supermini car, produced by the French automobile manufacturer Renault. It was launched in 1990, and was in its fourth generation in 2012. The Clio has had substantial critical and commercial success, being consistently one of Europe's top-selling cars since its launch, and it is largely credited with restoring Renault's reputation and stature after a difficult second half of the 1980s. The Clio is one of only two cars, the other being the Volkswagen Golf, to have been voted European Car of the Year twice, in 1991 and 2006.

 

Clio Williams

 

In 1993, Renault launched the Clio Williams as a limited edition of 3,800 cars (1,300 more than they needed for homologation purposes) with each car bearing a numbered plaque on the dash. These sold out so quickly that Renault ended up building 1,600 more.

 

After the first series, due to the demand, Renault built the Williams 2 and 3. Altogether Renault made 12,100 Clio Williams. But because a lot of new road cars were directly converted to race cars and when damaged replaced with another converted road car, the actual number of road cars is significantly lower.

 

The car was named after the then Renault-powered Formula One team WilliamsF1, though Williams had nothing to do with the design or engineering of this Clio. The modifications to the Clio 16S on which it was based were the work of Renault Sport, Renault's motorsport division. Nevertheless, this car had a Formula One link by being the sport's Safety Car in 1996.

 

The 2.0 L 16-valve straight-4 engine rated at 147 PS (108 kW) and a top speed of 215 km/h (134 mph) with performance-tuned ride and handling. Renault later released the Williams 2 and Williams 3 special editions, much to the chagrin of those owners who had been assured of the exclusivity of the "original" Williams. One common mistake people can make is thinking that the 2.0 16V (F7R) used in the Williams is simply a bored out 1.8 16V (F7P), whereas, in reality the large engine had different size valves, cams, stroked crank and engine oil cooler. Other differences between the Williams and the Clio 16S it is based on include a wider front track with wishbones similar, but not the same as Renault 19, wider Speedline alloys, uprated (JC5) gearbox, bespoke four-to-one manifold, firmer suspension, and some cosmetic differences on the exterior and interior.[citation needed]

 

The differences between the three versions of the Williams were largely a reflection of phase changes across the Clio range, e.g. the gradual addition of enhanced safety features and cosmetic variations. Other than this, the Williams 1 and 2 had no sunroof and were painted in 449 Sports Blue. The final Williams 3 was painted in a slightly brighter shade of blue (432 Monaco Blue) and finally gained a sunroof which had long been standard on virtually all previous Clios. The original Williams was the lightest of the three, lacking the electrics necessary for the sunroof or the mirrors, and was the only one to sport a metal plaque stating the build number.

 

Respected motoring journalists consistently rate the Williams as one of the very best hot hatches ever made, regardless of era. One of its many accolades was 6th place in Evo's Car Of The Decade feature in 2004.

 

The Renault Clio Williams was and still is a very popular rally car. The basic racing version (Gr.N) had racing suspension, different engine management and a more free flowing exhaust. Power output was around 165 PS (121 kW). Roll cage was made by Matter France. Bucket seats were made by Sabelt.

 

The Next step up was the Gr.A car, which was fitted with 16″ Speedline 2012 rims (with optional extractors), further improvements on suspension and more tuned engine producing between 205-220 PS. Front brakes were also uprated with 323mm discs and 4 pot Alcon brake calipers.

 

The final evolution was the Renault Clio Williams Maxi kit-car with wider arches and 17″ Speedline 2012 rims and improved Proflex suspension. Sodemo engine was further tuned to 250-265 PS.

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_Clio#Clio_Williams

 

This miniland-scale Lego Renault Clio MkI Williams (1993) has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 92nd Build Challenge, - "Stuck in the 90's", - all about vehicles from the decade of the 1990s.

En vías de extinción, el encaje de bolillos es una técnica de encaje textil consistente en entretejer hilos que inicialmente están enrollados en bobinas, llamadas bolillos, para manejarlos mejor. A medida que progresa el trabajo, el tejido se sujeta mediante alfileres clavados en una almohadilla, que se llama "mundillo". El lugar de los alfileres normalmente viene determinado por un patrón de agujeritos en la almohadilla.

 

El encaje de bolillos se puede realizar con hilos finos o gruesos. Tradicionalmente, se hacía con lino, seda, lana y posteriormente con algodón. También con hilos de metales preciosos. Hoy en día también se realiza con una gran variedad de fibras sintéticas, con alambres u otros filamentos.

 

Entre los elementos de diseño que se pueden realizar hay tejidos (tela), redes , trenzas, puntillas, cuadros y rellenos, aunque no todos los tipos de encaje de bolillos incluyen todos esos elementos.

 

Muchos tipos de encaje se inventaron durante la época de apogeo del bordado (aproximadamente entre 1500 y 1700) antes de que las máquinas bordadoras automáticas estuvieran disponibles.

 

La aparición de la máquina bordadora diseñada por John Heathcoat en 1806 al principio sirvió de acicate a los artesanos para que inventaran diseños más complicados que las máquinas no podían realizar, aunque finalmente la mecanización dejó sin trabajo a los artesanos casi completamente. La reaparición del bordado es un fenómeno reciente y, en general, es considerado como un hobby, aunque sigue habiendo gremios de artesanos que se reunen periódicamente en lugares como Devonshire (Inglaterra y Orange County (California). En los pueblos europeos donde el encaje fue una vez una industria importante, en especial, Bélgica, Inglaterra y Francia, las encajeras todavía enseñan su arte y venden sus mercancías, aunque su clientela ya no es la misma, de la nobleza más rica se ha pasado al turista curioso.

  

Si quieres cualquier foto de las que ves, pidemela. Todas están a la venta desde sólo 5 Euros.

If you want any pictures of what you see, ask me. All are available from only 5 Euros.

 

Exif data auto added by theGOOD Uploadr

File Size : 0.4 mb

Camera Make : Canon

Camera Model : Canon EOS 60D

Software : Adobe Photoshop CS5 Windows

Exposure : 0.040 seconds

Aperture : f/7.1

ISO Speed : 250

Focal Length : 63 mm

Subject Distance : 0.4 meters

C&NW EMD. F-7 was the locomotive for the Thomas train 2014.

 

Beauty's Love is consistently our best selling brand at the moment and you can see why with styles and colours like this Floral Lace & Mesh Garter Dress Bodystocking.

Niagara Falls is a city in Niagara County, New York, United States. As of the 2020 census, the city had a total population of 48,671. It is adjacent to the Niagara River, across from the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario, and named after the famed Niagara Falls which they share. The city is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area and the Western New York region.

 

While the city was formerly inhabited by Native Americans, Europeans who migrated to the Niagara Falls in the mid-17th century began to open businesses and develop infrastructure. Later in the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists and businessmen began harnessing the power of the Niagara River for electricity and the city began to attract manufacturers and other businesses drawn by the promise of inexpensive hydroelectric power. After the 1960s, however, the city and region witnessed an economic decline, following an attempt at urban renewal under then Mayor Lackey. Consistent with the rest of the Rust Belt as industries left the city, old line affluent families relocated to nearby suburbs and out of town.

 

Despite the decline in heavy industry, Niagara Falls State Park and the downtown area closest to the falls continue to thrive as a result of tourism. The population, however, has continued to decline from a peak of 102,394 in the 1960s due to the loss of manufacturing jobs in the area.

 

Before Europeans entered the area, it was dominated by the Neutral Nation of Native Americans. European migration into the area began in the 17th century. The first recorded European to visit the area was Frenchman Robert de la Salle, who built Fort Conti at the mouth of the Niagara River early in 1679, with permission from the Iroquois, as a base for boatbuilding; his ship Le Griffon was built on the upper Niagara River at or near Cayuga Creek in the same year. He was accompanied by Belgian priest Louis Hennepin, who was the first known European to see the falls. The influx of newcomers may have been a catalyst for already hostile native tribes to turn to open warfare in competition for the fur trade.

 

The City of Niagara Falls was incorporated on March 17, 1892, from the villages of Manchester and Suspension Bridge, which were parts of the Town of Niagara. Thomas Vincent Welch, a member of the charter committee and a New York state assemblyman and a second-generation Irish American, persuaded Governor Roswell P. Flower to sign the bill on St. Patrick's Day. George W. Wright was elected the first mayor of Niagara Falls.

 

By the end of the 19th century, the city was heavily industrialized, due in part to the power potential offered by the Niagara River. Tourism was considered a secondary niche, while manufacturing of petrochemicals, abrasives, metallurgical products and other materials was the main producer of jobs and attracted a large number of workers, many of whom were immigrants.

 

Industry and tourism grew steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century due to a high demand for industrial products and the increased mobility of people to travel. Paper, rubber, plastics, petrochemicals, carbon insulators and abrasives were among the city's major industries. This prosperity would end by the late 1960s as aging industrial plants moved to less expensive locations. In addition, the falls were incompatible with modern shipping technology.[further explanation needed]

 

In 1956, the Schoellkopf Power Plant on the lower river just downstream of the American Falls was critically damaged by the collapse of the Niagara Gorge wall above it. This prompted the planning and construction of one of the largest hydroelectric plants to be built in North America to that time, generating a large influx of workers and families to the area. New York City urban planner Robert Moses built the new power plant in nearby Lewiston, New York. Much of the power generated there fueled growing demands for power in downstate New York and New York City.

 

The neighborhood of Love Canal gained national media attention in 1978 when toxic waste contamination from a chemical landfill beneath it forced United States President Jimmy Carter to declare a state of emergency, the first such presidential declaration made for a non-natural disaster. Hundreds of residents were evacuated from the area, many of whom were ill because of exposure to chemical waste.

 

After the Love Canal disaster, the city—which had already been declining in population for nearly two decades—experienced accelerated economic and political difficulties. The costs of manufacturing elsewhere had become less expensive, which led to the closure of several factories. The city's population eventually dropped by more than half of its peak, as workers fled the city in search of jobs elsewhere. Then, much like the nearby city of Buffalo, the city's economy plummeted when a failed urban renewal project destroyed Falls Street and the tourist district.

 

In 2001, the leadership of Laborers Local 91 was found guilty of extortion, racketeering and other crimes following an exposé by Mike Hudson of the Niagara Falls Reporter. Union boss Michael "Butch" Quarcini died before trial, while the rest of the union leadership was sentenced to prison.

 

In early 2010, former Niagara Falls Mayor Vincenzo Anello was indicted on federal charges of corruption, alleging the mayor accepted $40,000 in loans from a businessman who was later awarded a no-bid lease on city property. The charges were dropped as part of a plea deal after Anello pleaded guilty to unrelated charges of pension fraud, regarding a pension from the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, of which he is a member. He was sentenced to 10 to 16 months in prison.

 

The city's decline received national exposure from Bloomberg Businessweek in 2010.

 

On November 30, 2010, the New York State Attorney General entered into an agreement with the city and its police department to create new policies to govern police practices in response to claims of excessive force and police misconduct. The city committed to create policies and procedures to prevent and respond to allegations of excessive force, and to ensure police are properly trained and complaints are properly investigated. Prior claims filed by residents will be evaluated by an independent panel.

 

In 2020, a public square named Cataract Commons opened on Old Falls Street. It is a public space for outdoor events and activities.

 

The city has multiple properties on the National Register of Historic Places. It also has three national historic districts, including Chilton Avenue-Orchard Parkway Historic District, Deveaux School Historic District and the Park Place Historic District.

 

Niagara Falls is at the international boundary between the United States and Canada. The city is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area and is approximately 16 miles (26 km) from Buffalo, New York.

 

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 16.8 square miles (44 km2), of which 14.1 square miles (37 km2) is land and 2.8 square miles (7.3 km2) (16.37%) is water. The city is built along the Niagara Falls and the Niagara Gorge, which is next to the Niagara River.

 

Niagara Falls has a humid continental climate (Dfa). The city experiences cold, snowy winters and hot, humid summers. Precipitation is moderate and consistent in all seasons, falling equally or more as snow during the winter. The city has snowier than average winters compared to most cities in the US, however less than many other cities in Upstate New York including nearby Buffalo and Rochester. Thaw cycles with temperatures above 32 °F (0 °C) are a common occurrence. The hottest and coldest temperatures recorded in the decade through 2015 were 97 °F (36 °C) in 2005 and −13 °F (−25 °C) in 2003, respectively. 38% of warm season precipitation falls in the form of a thunderstorm.

 

Buffalo Avenue – runs along the south end along the Niagara River once home to a vast number of old families with architecturally significant mansions; further east (past John Daly Boulevard) the street is surrounded by a number of industrial sites to 56th Street before returning to a residential area and ending at the Love Canal area at 102nd Street.

Central District

Deveaux – Located in the northwestern corner (west of the North End) along the Niagara River is residential area built in the 1920s to 1940s. Named for Judge Samuel DeVeaux who left his estate to be established as the Deveaux College for Orphans and Destitute Children in 1853 (closed 1971), now the site of DeVeaux Woods State Park and DeVeaux School Historical District.

Downtown – Area around the Falls and home to hotels including Seneca Niagara Resort Casino, Niagara Falls State Park, Niagara Falls Culinary Institute (formerly Rainbow Centre Factory Outlet)

East Side – the area bounded by the gorge on the west, Niagara Street on the south, Ontario Avenue on the North and Main Street (NY Rt 104) on the east.

Hyde Park – Located near the namesake Hyde Park next to Little Italy as well as home to Hyde Park Municipal Golf Course.

LaSalle – Bounded by 80th Street, Niagara Falls Boulevard, Cayuga Drive and LaSalle Expressway was built up in the 1940s to 1960s. Cayuga Island is linked to neighborhood. The actual neighborhood where the Love Canal was to be built.

Little Italy – home to a once predominately Italian community that runs along Pine Avenue from Main Street to Hyde Park Boulevard

Love Canal – Established in the 1950s on land acquired from Hooker Chemical Company. Most of the neighborhood was evacuated in the 1980s after toxic waste was discovered underground. Resettlement began in 1990.[24]

Niagara Street – residential area east of Downtown along Niagara Street (distinct from Niagara Ave.) once home to a predominately German and Polish community.

North End – runs along Highland Avenue in the north end of the city before it merges with Hyde Park Boulevard.

 

As of the census of 2010, there were 50,193 people, 22,603 households, and 12,495 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,987.7 people per square mile (1,153.5 per square km). There were 26,220 housing units at an average density of 1,560.7 per square mile (602.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 70.5% White, 21.6% African American, 1.9% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0% Pacific Islander, 0.8% from other races, and 3.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.0% of the population.

 

There were 22,603 households, out of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.8% were married couples living together, 19.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.7% were non-families. 38.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 4.02.

 

In the city, 22% of the population was under the age of 18, 10.1% aged from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 28.2% from 45 to 64, and 15.5% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.4 males.

 

The median income for a household in the city was $26,800, and the median income for a family was $34,377. Males had a median income of $31,672 versus $22,124 for females. 23% of the population was below the poverty line.

 

Niagara Falls has a number of places of worship, including the Salvation Army, First Assembly of God Church, First Unitarian Universalist Church of Niagara, St. Peter's Episcopal Church, First Presbyterian Church, St. Theresa Roman Catholic Church in Deveaux, and the Reform Jewish Temple Beth El. The Conservative Jewish Temple Beth Israel closed in 2012.

 

Niagara Falls has struggled with high rates of violent and property crime; FBI crime data indicate that the city has among the highest crime rates in New York state. In response to gun violence, volunteer groups such as Operation SNUG mobilized to promote positive community involvement in the troubled areas of the city.

 

Comptroller reported that Niagara Falls has "struggled through decades of population losses, rising crime and repeated attempts to reinvent itself from a manufacturing town with some tourism to a major tourist destination." The city became a boomtown with the opening of the New York State Power Authority's hydroelectric Niagara Power Plant in the 1960s; the cheap electricity produced by the plant generated power for a burgeoning manufacturing industry. Along with the rest of Western New York, Niagara Falls suffered a significant economic decline from a decline in industry by the 1970s. Today, the city struggles to compete with Niagara Falls, Ontario; the Canadian side has a greater average annual income, a higher average home price, and lower levels of vacant buildings and blight, as well as a more vibrant economy and better tourism infrastructure. The population of Niagara Falls, New York fell by half from the 1960s to 2012. In contrast, the population of Niagara Falls, Ontario more than tripled. In 2000, the city's median household income was 36% below the national average. In 2012, the city's unemployment rate was significantly higher than the statewide unemployment rate.

 

Significant sources of economic activity in the region includes the Niagara Falls International Airport, which was renovated in 2009; the Seneca Gaming Corporation's Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel, which opened in the 2000s respectively; and the nearby Niagara Falls Air Reserve Station.

 

In late 2001, the State of New York established the USA Niagara Development Corporation, a subsidiary to the State's economic development agency, to focus specifically on facilitating development in the downtown area. However, the organization has been criticized for making little progress and doing little to improve the city's economy.

 

From 1973 to 2002, the city had a Convention and Civic Center on 4th street. In 2002 the venue was converted into the Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel. In 2004, a new Niagara Falls Convention Center (NFCC) opened on Old Falls Street. The Old Falls Street venue has 116,000 square feet for exhibitions and meetings, and a 32,200-square-foot event/exhibit hall.

 

The city is home to the Niagara Falls State Park. The park has several attractions, including Cave of the Winds behind the Bridal Veil Falls, Maid of the Mist, a popular boat tour which operates at the foot of the Rainbow Bridge, Prospect Point and its observation tower, Niagara Discovery Center, Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center, and the Aquarium of Niagara.

 

Several other attractions also near the river, including Whirlpool State Park, De Veaux Woods State Park, Earl W. Brydges Artpark State Park in nearby Lewiston (town), New York, and Fort Niagara State Park in Youngstown, New York.

 

Attractions in the downtown include the Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel and Pine Avenue which was historically home to a large Italian American population and is now known as Little Italy for its abundance of shops and quality restaurants.

 

The Niagara Power of the New York Collegiate Baseball League play at Sal Maglie Stadium. The team is owned by Niagara University. The Cataract City Wolverines of the Gridiron Developmental Football League are a minor league football team based in Niagara Falls. The team played their inaugural season in 2021.

 

In 2017, the Tier III junior North American 3 Hockey League team, the Lockport Express, relocated to Niagara Falls as the Niagara Falls PowerHawks.

 

Former sports teams based in Niagara Falls include the Class-A Niagara Falls Sox, the Class-A Niagara Falls Rapids, the Niagara Falls Lancers of the Midwest Football League, and the Western New York Thundersnow of the Premier Basketball League and American Basketball Association.

 

The City of Niagara Falls functions under a strong mayor-council form of government. The government consists of a mayor, a professional city administrator, and a city council. The current mayor is Robert Restaino.

 

The city council serves four-year, staggered terms, except in the case of a special election. It is headed by a chairperson, who votes in all items for council action.

 

On a state level, Niagara Falls is part of the 145th Assembly District of New York State, represented by Republican Angelo Morinello. Niagara Falls is also part of the 62nd Senate District of New York State, represented by Republican Robert Ortt.

 

On a national level, the city is part of New York's 26th congressional district and is represented by Congressman Brian Higgins. In the United States Senate, the city and the state are represented by senators Charles Schumer and Kirsten Gillibrand.

 

Founded in 1892 Niagara Falls Police Department provide local law enforcement in the city with 155 sworn officers. This force is not to be mistaken for the Town of Niagara, New York which has a smaller force founded in 1954.

 

Residents are zoned to the Niagara Falls City School District. Niagara University and Niagara County Community College are the two colleges in Niagara County.

 

Since Niagara Falls is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area, the city's media is predominantly served by the city of Buffalo.

 

The city has two local newspapers, the Niagara Gazette, which is published daily except Tuesday and The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY which is published quarterly. The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY, which is officially Niagara Falls, New York's, first black-owned and operated news publication, founded October 2018. The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY published its inaugural issue April 2019. The Buffalo News is the closest major newspaper in the area. The city also is the home to a weekly tabloid known as the Niagara Falls Reporter.

 

Three radio stations are licensed to the city of Niagara Falls, including WHLD AM 1270, WEBR AM 1440, and WTOR AM 770.

 

Niagara Falls is primarily served by the Buffalo Niagara International Airport for regional and domestic flights within the United States. The recently expanded Niagara Falls International Airport serves the city, and many cross border travellers with flights to Myrtle Beach, Fort Lauderdale, Orlando and Punta Gorda. Toronto's Pearson International Airport on the Canadian side is the closest airport offering long-haul international flights for the Niagara region.

 

The city is served by Amtrak's Maple Leaf and Empire train services, with regular stops at the Niagara Falls Station and Customhouse Interpretive Center at 825 Depot Ave West.

 

Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority is the public transit provider in the Buffalo metro area, with hubs at the Portage Road and Niagara Falls transportation centers.

 

Six New York State highways, one three-digit Interstate Highway, one expressway, one U.S. Highway, and one parkways pass through the city of Niagara Falls. New York State Route 31, New York State Route 104, and New York State Route 182 are east–west state roadways within the city, while New York State Route 61, New York State Route 265, and New York State Route 384 are north–south state roadways within the city. The LaSalle Expressway is an east–west highway which terminates near the eastern edge of Niagara Falls and begins in the nearby town of Wheatfield, New York. The Niagara Scenic Parkway is a north–south parkway that formerly ran through the city along the northern edge of the Niagara River. It remains in sections and terminates in Youngstown, New York.

 

Interstate 190, also referred to as the Niagara Expressway, is a north–south highway and a spur of Interstate 90 which borders the eastern end of the city. The highway enters the city from the town of Niagara and exits at the North Grand Island Bridge. U.S. Route 62, known as Niagara Falls Boulevard, Walnut Avenue, and Ferry Avenue, is signed as a north–south highway. U.S. Route 62 has an east–west orientation, and is partially split between two one-way streets within Niagara Falls. Walnut Avenue carries U.S. Route 62 west to its northern terminus at NY 104, and Ferry Avenue carries U.S. Route 62 east from downtown Niagara Falls. U.S. Route 62 Business, locally known as Pine Avenue, is an east–west route which parallels U.S. Route 62 to the south. Its western terminus is at NY 104, and its eastern terminus is at U.S. Route 62.

 

Two international bridges connect the city to Niagara Falls, Ontario. The Rainbow Bridge connects the two cities with passenger and pedestrian traffic and overlooks the Niagara Falls, while the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge, which formerly carried the Canadian National Railway, now serves local traffic and Amtrak's Maple Leaf service.

 

New York, sometimes called New York State, is a state in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It borders New Jersey and Pennsylvania to its south, New England and the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec to its north, and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. With almost 19.6 million residents, it is the fourth-most populous state in the United States and eighth-most densely populated as of 2023. New York is the 27th-largest U.S. state by area, with a total area of 54,556 square miles (141,300 km2).

 

New York has a varied geography. The southeastern part of the state, known as Downstate, encompasses New York City, the most populous city in the United States, Long Island, the most populous island in the United States, and the lower Hudson Valley. These areas are the center of the New York metropolitan area, a sprawling urban landmass, and account for approximately two-thirds of the state's population. The much larger Upstate area spreads from the Great Lakes to Lake Champlain, and includes the Adirondack Mountains and the Catskill Mountains (part of the wider Appalachian Mountains). The east–west Mohawk River Valley bisects the more mountainous regions of Upstate, and flows into the north–south Hudson River valley near the state capital of Albany. Western New York, home to the cities of Buffalo and Rochester, is part of the Great Lakes region and borders Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. Central New York is anchored by the city of Syracuse; between the central and western parts of the state, New York is dominated by the Finger Lakes, a popular tourist destination. To the south, along the state border with Pennsylvania, the Southern Tier sits atop the Allegheny Plateau, representing the northernmost reaches of Appalachia.

 

New York was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that went on to form the United States. The area of present-day New York had been inhabited by tribes of the Algonquians and the Iroquois Confederacy Native Americans for several thousand years by the time the earliest Europeans arrived. Stemming from Henry Hudson's expedition in 1609, the Dutch established the multiethnic colony of New Netherland in 1621. England seized the colony from the Dutch in 1664, renaming it the Province of New York. During the American Revolutionary War, a group of colonists eventually succeeded in establishing independence, and the former colony was officially admitted into the United States in 1788. From the early 19th century, New York's development of its interior, beginning with the construction of the Erie Canal, gave it incomparable advantages over other regions of the United States. The state built its political, cultural, and economic ascendancy over the next century, earning it the nickname of the "Empire State." Although deindustrialization eroded a significant portion of the state's economy in the second half of the 20th century, New York in the 21st century continues to be considered as a global node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance, and environmental sustainability.

 

The state attracts visitors from all over the globe, with the highest count of any U.S. state in 2022. Many of its landmarks are well known, including four of the world's ten most-visited tourist attractions in 2013: Times Square, Central Park, Niagara Falls and Grand Central Terminal. New York is home to approximately 200 colleges and universities, including two Ivy League universities, Columbia University and Cornell University, and the expansive State University of New York, which is among the largest university systems in the nation. New York City is home to the headquarters of the United Nations, and it is sometimes described as the world's most important city, the cultural, financial, and media epicenter, and the capital of the world.

 

The history of New York begins around 10,000 B.C. when the first people arrived. By 1100 A.D. two main cultures had become dominant as the Iroquoian and Algonquian developed. European discovery of New York was led by the Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 followed by the first land claim in 1609 by the Dutch. As part of New Netherland, the colony was important in the fur trade and eventually became an agricultural resource thanks to the patroon system. In 1626, the Dutch thought they had bought the island of Manhattan from Native Americans.[1] In 1664, England renamed the colony New York, after the Duke of York and Albany, brother of King Charles II. New York City gained prominence in the 18th century as a major trading port in the Thirteen Colonies.

 

New York played a pivotal role during the American Revolution and subsequent war. The Stamp Act Congress in 1765 brought together representatives from across the Thirteen Colonies to form a unified response to British policies. The Sons of Liberty were active in New York City to challenge British authority. After a major loss at the Battle of Long Island, the Continental Army suffered a series of additional defeats that forced a retreat from the New York City area, leaving the strategic port and harbor to the British army and navy as their North American base of operations for the rest of the war. The Battle of Saratoga was the turning point of the war in favor of the Americans, convincing France to formally ally with them. New York's constitution was adopted in 1777, and strongly influenced the United States Constitution. New York City was the national capital at various times between 1788 and 1790, where the Bill of Rights was drafted. Albany became the permanent state capital in 1797. In 1787, New York became the eleventh state to ratify the United States Constitution.

 

New York hosted significant transportation advancements in the 19th century, including the first steamboat line in 1807, the Erie Canal in 1825, and America's first regularly scheduled rail service in 1831. These advancements led to the expanded settlement of western New York and trade ties to the Midwest settlements around the Great Lakes.

 

Due to New York City's trade ties to the South, there were numerous southern sympathizers in the early days of the American Civil War and the mayor proposed secession. Far from any of the battles, New York ultimately sent the most soldiers and money to support the Union cause. Thereafter, the state helped create the industrial age and consequently was home to some of the first labor unions.

 

During the 19th century, New York City became the main entry point for European immigrants to the United States, beginning with a wave of Irish during their Great Famine. Millions came through Castle Clinton in Battery Park before Ellis Island opened in 1892 to welcome millions more, increasingly from eastern and southern Europe. The Statue of Liberty opened in 1886 and became a symbol of hope. New York boomed during the Roaring Twenties, before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and skyscrapers expressed the energy of the city. New York City was the site of successive tallest buildings in the world from 1913 to 1974.

 

The buildup of defense industries for World War II turned around the state's economy from the Great Depression, as hundreds of thousands worked to defeat the Axis powers. Following the war, the state experienced significant suburbanization around all the major cities, and most central cities shrank. The Thruway system opened in 1956, signaling another era of transportation advances.

 

Following a period of near-bankruptcy in the late 1970s, New York City renewed its stature as a cultural center, attracted more immigration, and hosted the development of new music styles. The city developed from publishing to become a media capital over the second half of the 20th century, hosting most national news channels and broadcasts. Some of its newspapers became nationally and globally renowned. The state's manufacturing base eroded with the restructuring of industry, and the state transitioned into service industries.

 

The first peoples of New York are estimated to have arrived around 10,000 BC. Around AD 800, Iroquois ancestors moved into the area from the Appalachian region. The people of the Point Peninsula complex were the predecessors of the Algonquian peoples of New York. By around 1100, the distinct Iroquoian-speaking and Algonquian-speaking cultures that would eventually be encountered by Europeans had developed. The five nations of the Iroquois League developed a powerful confederacy about the 15th century that controlled territory throughout present-day New York, into Pennsylvania around the Great Lakes. For centuries, the Mohawk cultivated maize fields in the lowlands of the Mohawk River, which were later taken over by Dutch settlers at Schenectady, New York when they bought this territory. The Iroquois nations to the west also had well-cultivated areas and orchards.

 

The Iroquois established dominance over the fur trade throughout their territory, bargaining with European colonists. Other New York tribes were more subject to either European destruction or assimilation within the Iroquoian confederacy. Situated at major Native trade routes in the Northeast and positioned between French and English zones of settlement, the Iroquois were intensely caught up with the onrush of Europeans, which is also to say that the settlers, whether Dutch, French or English, were caught up with the Iroquois as well. Algonquian tribes were less united among their tribes; they typically lived along rivers, streams, or the Atlantic Coast. But, both groups of natives were well-established peoples with highly sophisticated cultural systems; these were little understood or appreciated by the European colonists who encountered them. The natives had "a complex and elaborate native economy that included hunting, gathering, manufacturing, and farming...[and were] a mosaic of Native American tribes, nations, languages, and political associations." The Iroquois usually met at an Onondaga in Northern New York, which changed every century or so, where they would coordinate policies on how to deal with Europeans and strengthen the bond between the Five Nations.

 

Tribes who have managed to call New York home have been the Iroquois, Mohawk, Mohican, Susquehannock, Petun, Chonnonton, Ontario and Nanticoke.

 

In 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian explorer in the service of the French crown, explored the Atlantic coast of North America between the Carolinas and Newfoundland, including New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay. On April 17, 1524, Verrazzano entered New York Bay, by way of the Strait now called the Narrows. He described "a vast coastline with a deep delta in which every kind of ship could pass" and he adds: "that it extends inland for a league and opens up to form a beautiful lake. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats". He landed on the tip of Manhattan and perhaps on the furthest point of Long Island.

 

In 1535, Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, became the first European to describe and map the Saint Lawrence River from the Atlantic Ocean, sailing as far upriver as the site of Montreal.

 

On April 4, 1609, Henry Hudson, in the employ of the Dutch East India Company, departed Amsterdam in command of the ship Halve Maen (Half Moon). On September 3 he reached the estuary of the Hudson River. He sailed up the Hudson River to about Albany near the confluence of the Mohawk River and the Hudson. His voyage was used to establish Dutch claims to the region and to the fur trade that prospered there after a trading post was established at Albany in 1614.

 

In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Christiaensen, built Fort Nassau (now Albany) the first Dutch settlement in North America and the first European settlement in what would become New York. It was replaced by nearby Fort Orange in 1623. In 1625, Fort Amsterdam was built on the southern tip of Manhattan Island to defend the Hudson River. This settlement grew to become the city New Amsterdam.

 

The British conquered New Netherland in 1664; Lenient terms of surrender most likely kept local resistance to a minimum. The colony and New Amsterdam were both renamed New York (and "Beverwijck" was renamed Albany) after its new proprietor, James II later King of England, Ireland and Scotland, who was at the time Duke of York and Duke of Albany The population of New Netherland at the time of English takeover was 7,000–8,000.

 

Thousands of poor German farmers, chiefly from the Palatine region of Germany, migrated to upstate districts after 1700. They kept to themselves, married their own, spoke German, attended Lutheran churches, and retained their own customs and foods. They emphasized farm ownership. Some mastered English to become conversant with local legal and business opportunities. They ignored the Indians and tolerated slavery (although few were rich enough to own a slave).

 

Large manors were developed along the Hudson River by elite colonists during the 18th century, including Livingston, Cortlandt, Philipsburg, and Rensselaerswyck. The manors represented more than half of the colony's undeveloped land. The Province of New York thrived during this time, its economy strengthened by Long Island and Hudson Valley agriculture, in conjunction with trade and artisanal activity at the Port of New York; the colony was a breadbasket and lumberyard for the British sugar colonies in the Caribbean. New York's population grew substantially during this century: from the first colonial census (1698) to the last (1771), the province grew ninefold, from 18,067 to 168,007.

 

New York in the American Revolution

Further information: John Peter Zenger, Stamp Act Congress, Invasion of Canada (1775), New York and New Jersey campaign, Prisoners of war in the American Revolutionary War, and Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War

 

New York played a pivotal role in the Revolutionary War. The colony verged on revolt following the Stamp Act of 1765, advancing the New York City–based Sons of Liberty to the forefront of New York politics. The Act exacerbated the depression the province experienced after unsuccessfully invading Canada in 1760. Even though New York City merchants lost out on lucrative military contracts, the group sought common ground between the King and the people; however, compromise became impossible as of April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord. In that aftermath the New York Provincial Congress on June 9, 1775, for five pounds sterling for each hundredweight of gunpowder delivered to each county's committee.

 

Two powerful families had for decades assembled colony-wide coalitions of supporters. With few exceptions, members long associated with the DeLancey faction went along when its leadership decided to support the crown, while members of the Livingston faction became Patriots.

 

New York's strategic central location and port made it key to controlling the colonies. The British assembled the century's largest fleet: at one point 30,000 British sailors and soldiers anchored off Staten Island. General George Washington barely escaped New York City with his army in November 1776; General Sir William Howe was successful in driving Washington out, but erred by expanding into New Jersey. By January 1777, he retained only a few outposts near New York City. The British held the city for the duration, using it as a base for expeditions against other targets.

 

In October 1777, American General Horatio Gates won the Battle of Saratoga, later regarded as the war's turning point. Had Gates not held, the rebellion might well have broken down: losing Saratoga would have cost the entire Hudson–Champlain corridor, which would have separated New England from the rest of the colonies and split the future union.

 

Upon war's end, New York's borders became well–defined: the counties east of Lake Champlain became Vermont and the state's western borders were settled by 1786.

 

Many Iroquois supported the British (typically fearing future American ambitions). Many were killed during the war; others went into exile with the British. Those remaining lived on twelve reservations; by 1826 only eight reservations remained, all of which survived into the 21st century.

 

The state adopted its constitution in April 1777, creating a strong executive and strict separation of powers. It strongly influenced the federal constitution a decade later. Debate over the federal constitution in 1787 led to formation of the groups known as Federalists—mainly "downstaters" (those who lived in or near New York City) who supported a strong national government—and Antifederalists—mainly upstaters (those who lived to the city's north and west) who opposed large national institutions. In 1787, Alexander Hamilton, a leading Federalist from New York and signatory to the Constitution, wrote the first essay of the Federalist Papers. He published and wrote most of the series in New York City newspapers in support of the proposed United States Constitution. Antifederalists were not swayed by the arguments, but the state ratified it in 1788.

 

In 1785, New York City became the national capital and continued as such on and off until 1790; George Washington was inaugurated as the first President of the United States in front of Federal Hall in 1789. The United States Bill of Rights was drafted there, and the United States Supreme Court sat for the first time. From statehood to 1797, the Legislature frequently moved the state capital between Albany, Kingston, Poughkeepsie, and New York City. Thereafter, Albany retained that role.

 

In the early 19th century, New York became a center for advancement in transportation. In 1807, Robert Fulton initiated a steamboat line from New York to Albany, the first successful enterprise of its kind. By 1815, Albany was the state's turnpike center, which established the city as the hub for pioneers migrating west to Buffalo and the Michigan Territory.

 

In 1825 the Erie Canal opened, securing the state's economic dominance. Its impact was enormous: one source stated, "Linking the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes, the canal was an act of political will that joined the regions of the state, created a vast economic hinterland for New York City, and established a ready market for agricultural products from the state's interior." In that year western New York transitioned from "frontier" to settled area. By this time, all counties and most municipalities had incorporated, approximately matching the state's is organized today. In 1831, the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad started the country's first successful regularly–scheduled steam railroad service.

 

Advancing transportation quickly led to settlement of the fertile Mohawk and Gennessee valleys and the Niagara Frontier. Buffalo and Rochester became boomtowns. Significant migration of New England "Yankees" (mainly of English descent) to the central and western parts of the state led to minor conflicts with the more settled "Yorkers" (mainly of German, Dutch, and Scottish descent). More than 15% of the state's 1850 population had been born in New England[citation needed]. The western part of the state grew fastest at this time. By 1840, New York was home to seven of the nation's thirty largest cities.

 

During this period, towns established academies for education, including for girls. The western area of the state was a center of progressive causes, including support of abolitionism, temperance, and women's rights. Religious enthusiasms flourished and the Latter Day Saint movement was founded in the area by Joseph Smith and his vision. Some supporters of abolition participated in the Underground Railroad, helping fugitive slaves reach freedom in Canada or in New York.

 

In addition, in the early 1840s the state legislature and Governor William H. Seward expanded rights for free blacks and fugitive slaves in New York: in 1840 the legislature passed laws protecting the rights of African Americans against Southern slave-catchers. One guaranteed alleged fugitive slaves the right of a jury trial in New York to establish whether they were slaves, and another pledged the aid of the state to recover free blacks kidnapped into slavery, (as happened to Solomon Northup of Saratoga Springs in 1841, who did not regain freedom until 1853.) In 1841 Seward signed legislation to repeal a "nine-month law" that allowed slaveholders to bring their slaves into the state for a period of nine months before they were considered free. After this, slaves brought to the state were immediately considered freed, as was the case in some other free states. Seward also signed legislation to establish public education for all children, leaving it up to local jurisdictions as to how that would be supplied (some had segregated schools).

 

New York culture bloomed in the first half of the 19th century: in 1809 Washington Irving wrote the satirical A History of New York under the pen name Diedrich Knickerbocker, and in 1819 he based Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow in Hudson Valley towns. Thomas Cole's Hudson River School was established in the 1830s by showcasing dramatic landscapes of the Hudson Valley. The first baseball teams formed in New York City in the 1840s, including the New York Knickerbockers. Professional baseball later located its Hall of Fame in Cooperstown. Saratoga Race Course, an annual summer attraction in Saratoga Springs, opened in 1847.

 

A civil war was not in the best interest of business, because New York had strong ties to the Deep South, both through the port of New York and manufacture of cotton goods in upstate textile mills. Half of New York City's exports were related to cotton before the war. Southern businessmen so frequently traveled to the city that they established favorite hotels and restaurants. Trade was based on moving Southern goods. The city's large Democrat community feared the impact of Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860 and the mayor urged secession of New York.

 

By the time of the 1861 Battle of Fort Sumter, such political differences decreased and the state quickly met Lincoln's request for soldiers and supplies. More soldiers fought from New York than any other Northern state. While no battles were waged in New York, the state was not immune to Confederate conspiracies, including one to burn various New York cities and another to invade the state via Canada.

 

In January 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed the slaves in states that were still in rebellion against the union. In March 1863, the federal draft law was changed so that male citizens between 20 and 35 and unmarried citizens to age 45 were subject to conscription. Those who could afford to hire a substitute or pay $300 were exempt. Antiwar newspaper editors attacked the law, and many immigrants and their descendants resented being drafted in place of people who could buy their way out. Democratic Party leaders raised the specter of a deluge of freed southern blacks competing with the white working class, then dominated by ethnic Irish and immigrants. On the lottery's first day, July 11, 1863, the first lottery draw was held. On Monday, July 13, 1863, five days of large-scale riots began, which were dominated by ethnic Irish, who targeted blacks in the city, their neighborhoods, and known abolitionist sympathizers. As a result, many blacks left Manhattan permanently, moving to Brooklyn or other areas.

 

In the following decades, New York strengthened its dominance of the financial and banking industries. Manufacturing continued to rise: Eastman Kodak founded in 1888 in Rochester, General Electric in Schenectady, and Endicott-Johnson Shoe Company in the Triple Cities are some of the well-known companies founded during this period. Buffalo and Niagara Falls attracted numerous factories following the advent of hydroelectric power in the area. With industry blooming, workers began to unite in New York as early as the 1820s. By 1882, the Knights of Labor in New York City had 60,000 members. Trade unions used political influence to limit working hours as early as 1867. At the same time, New York's agricultural output peaked. Focus changed from crop-based to dairy-based agriculture. The cheese industry became established in the Mohawk Valley. By 1881, the state had more than 241,000 farms. In the same period, the area around New York harbor became the world's oyster capital, retaining that title into the early twentieth century.

 

Immigration increased throughout the latter half of the 19th century. Starting with refugees from the Great Famine of Ireland in the 1840s, New York became a prominent entry point for those seeking a new life in the United States. Between 1855 and 1890, an estimated 8 million immigrants passed through Castle Clinton at Battery Park in Manhattan. Early in this period, most immigrants came from Ireland and Germany. Ellis Island opened in 1892, and between 1880 and 1920, most immigrants were German and Eastern European Jews, Poles, and other Eastern and Southern Europeans, including many Italians. By 1925, New York City's population outnumbered that of London, making it the most populous city in the world. Arguably New York's most identifiable symbol, Liberty Enlightening the World (the Statue of Liberty), a gift from France for the American centennial, was completed in 1886. By the early 20th century, the statue was regarded as the "Mother of Exiles"—a symbol of hope to immigrants.

 

New York's political pattern changed little after the mid–19th century. New York City and its metropolitan area was already heavily Democrat; Upstate was aligned with the Republican Party and was a center of abolitionist activists. In the 1850s, Democratic Tammany Hall became one of the most powerful and durable political machines in United States history. Boss William Tweed brought the organization to the forefront of city and then state politics in the 1860s. Based on its command of a large population, Tammany maintained influence until at least the 1930s. Outside the city, Republicans were able to influence the redistricting process enough to constrain New York City and capture control of the Legislature in 1894. Both parties have seen national political success: in the 39 presidential elections between 1856 and 2010, Republicans won 19 times and Democrats 20 times.

 

By 1901, New York was the richest and most populous state. Two years prior, the five boroughs of New York City became one city. Within decades, the city's emblem had become the skyscraper: the Woolworth Building was the tallest building in the world from 1913, surpassed by 40 Wall Street in April 1930, the Chrysler Building in 1930, the Empire State Building in 1931, and the World Trade Center in 1972 before losing the title in 1974.

 

The state was serviced by over a dozen major railroads and at the start of the 20th century and electric Interurban rail networks began to spring up around Syracuse, Rochester and other cities in New York during this period.

 

In the late 1890s governor Theodore Roosevelt and fellow Republicans such as Charles Evans Hughes worked with many Democrats such as Al Smith to promote Progressivism. They battled trusts and monopolies (especially in the insurance industry), promoted efficiency, fought waste, and called for more democracy in politics. Democrats focused more on the benefits of progressivism for their own ethnic working class base and for labor unions.

 

Democratic political machines, especially Tammany Hall in Manhattan, opposed woman suffrage because they feared that the addition of female voters would dilute the control they had established over groups of male voters. By the time of the New York State referendum on women's suffrage in 1917, however, some wives and daughters of Tammany Hall leaders were working for suffrage, leading it to take a neutral position that was crucial to the referendum's passage.

 

Following a sharp but short-lived Depression at the beginning of the decade, New York enjoyed a booming economy during the Roaring Twenties. New York suffered during the Great Depression, which began with the Wall Street crash on Black Tuesday in 1929. The Securities and Exchange Commission opened in 1934 to regulate the stock market. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected governor in 1928, and the state faced upwards of 25% unemployment. His Temporary Emergency Relief Agency, established in 1931, was the first work relief program in the nation and influenced the national Federal Emergency Relief Administration. Roosevelt was elected President in 1932 in part because of his promises to extend New York–style relief programs across the country via his New Deal. In 1932, Lake Placid was host to the III Olympic Winter Games.

 

As the largest state, New York again supplied the most resources during World War II. New York manufactured 11 percent of total United States military armaments produced during the war and suffered 31,215 casualties. The war affected the state both socially and economically. For example, to overcome discriminatory labor practices, Governor Herbert H. Lehman created the Committee on Discrimination in Employment in 1941 and Governor Thomas E. Dewey signed the Ives-Quinn Act in 1945, banning employment discrimination. The G.I. Bill of 1944, which offered returning soldiers the opportunity of affordable higher education, forced New York to create a public university system since its private universities could not handle the influx; the State University of New York was created by Governor Dewey in 1948.

 

World War II constituted New York's last great industrial era. At its conclusion, the defense industry shrank and the economy shifted towards producing services rather than goods. Returning soldiers disproportionately displaced female and minority workers who had entered the industrial workforce only when the war left employers no other choice. Companies moved to the south and west, seeking lower taxes and a less costly, non–union workforce. Many workers followed the jobs. The middle class expanded and created suburbs such as the one on Long Island. The automobile accelerated this decentralization; planned communities like Levittown offered affordable middle-class housing.

 

Larger cities stopped growing around 1950. Growth resumed only in New York City, in the 1980s. Buffalo's population fell by half between 1950 and 2000. Reduced immigration and worker migration led New York State's population to decline for the first time between 1970 and 1980. California and Texas both surpassed it in population.

 

New York entered its third era of massive transportation projects by building highways, notably the New York State Thruway. The project was unpopular with New York City Democrats, who referred to it as "Dewey's ditch" and the "enemy of schools", because the Thruway disproportionately benefited upstate. The highway was based on the German Autobahn and was unlike anything seen at that point in the United States. It was within 30 miles (50 km) of 90% of the population at its conception. Costing $600 million, the full 427-mile (687 km) project opened in 1956.

 

Nelson Rockefeller was governor from 1959 to 1973 and changed New York politics. He began as a liberal, but grew more conservative: he limited SUNY's growth, responded aggressively to the Attica Prison riot, and promulgated the uniquely severe Rockefeller Drug Laws. The World Trade Center and other profligate projects nearly drove New York City into bankruptcy in 1975. The state took substantial budgetary control, which eventually led to improved fiscal prudence.

 

The Executive Mansion was retaken by Democrats in 1974 and remained under Democratic control for 20 years under Hugh Carey and Mario Cuomo. Late–century Democrats became more centrist, including US Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan (1977–2001) and New York City Mayor Ed Koch (1978–1989), while state Republicans began to align themselves with the more conservative national party. They gained power through the elections of Senator Alfonse D'Amato in 1980, Mayor Rudolph Giuliani in 1993, and Governor George Pataki in 1994. New York remained one of the most liberal states. In 1984, Ronald Reagan was the last Republican to carry the state, although Republican Michael Bloomberg served as New York City mayor in the early 21st century.

 

In the late 20th century, telecommunication and high technology industries employed many New Yorkers. New York City was especially successful at this transition. Entrepreneurs created many small companies, as industrial firms such as Polaroid withered. This success drew many young professionals into the still–dwindling cities. New York City was the exception and has continued to draw new residents. The energy of the city created attractions and new businesses. Some people believe that changes in policing created a less threatening environment; crime rates dropped, and urban development reduced urban decay.

 

This in turn led to a surge in culture. New York City became, once again, "the center for all things chic and trendy". Hip-hop and rap music, led by New York City, became the most popular pop genre. Immigration to both the city and state rose. New York City, with a large gay and lesbian community, suffered many deaths from AIDS beginning in the 1980s.

 

New York City increased its already large share of television programming, home to the network news broadcasts, as well as two of the three major cable news networks. The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times became two of the three "national" newspapers, read throughout the country. New York also increased its dominance of the financial services industry centered on Wall Street, led by banking expansion, a rising stock market, innovations in investment banking, including junk bond trading and accelerated by the savings and loan crisis that decimated competitors elsewhere in New York.

 

Upstate did not fare as well as downstate; the major industries that began to reinvigorate New York City did not typically spread to other regions. The number of farms in the state had fallen to 30,000 by 1997. City populations continued to decline while suburbs grew in area, but did not increase proportionately in population. High-tech industry grew in cities such as Corning and Rochester. Overall New York entered the new millennium "in a position of economic strength and optimism".

 

In 2001, New York entered a new era following the 9/11 attacks, the worst terrorist attack ever to take place on American soil. Two of the four hijacked passenger jets crashed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, destroying them, and killing almost 3,000 people. One flew into the Pentagon demolishing the walls. The final one was almost taken back over by the passengers aboard and crashed into an open grassland with 296 out of the 500 people dead. Thousands of New Yorkers volunteered their time to search the ruin for survivors and remains in the following weeks.

 

Following the attacks, plans were announced to rebuild the World Trade Center site. 7 World Trade Center became the first World Trade Center skyscraper to be rebuilt in five years after the attacks. One World Trade Center, four more office towers, and a memorial to the casualties of the September 11 attacks are under construction as of 2011. One World Trade Center opened on November 3, 2014.

 

On October 29 and 30, 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction of the state's shorelines, ravaging portions of New York City, Long Island, and southern Westchester with record-high storm surge, with severe flooding and high winds causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of New Yorkers, and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems. The storm and its profound effects have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of New York City and Long Island to minimize the risk from another such future event. Such risk is considered highly probable due to global warming and rising sea levels.

Consistently the best Pho in Vancouver

Lamborghini Veneno

 

In the year of its 50th anniversary Automobili Lamborghini is presenting an extremely exclusive model at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show. Only three unique units of the Lamborghini Veneno will be built and sold. Its design is consistently focused on optimum aerodynamics and cornering stability, giving the Veneno the real dynamic experience of a racing prototype, yet it is fully homologated for the road. With a maximum output of 552 kW / 750 hp, the Lamborghini Veneno accelerates from 0-100 km/h in just 2.8 seconds and the top speed for this street-legal racing car stands at 355 km/h. It is priced at three million Euros plus tax - and all three units have already been sold to customers.

 

The Lamborghini Veneno features a twelve-cylinder power unit with a displacement of 6.5 liters, an extremely fast-shifting 7-speed ISR transmission with 5 driving modes and permanent all-wheel drive, as well as a racing chassis with pushrod suspension and horizontal spring/damper units. Above all, however, the Veneno benefits from the very special expertise that Automobili Lamborghini possesses in the development and execution of carbon-fiber materials - the complete chassis is produced as a CFRP monocoque, as is the outer skin of this extreme sports car. The inside, too, features innovative, Lamborghini-patented materials such as Forged Composite and CarbonSkin.

 

Fully in keeping with the tradition of the brand, the name of the Veneno originates from a legendary fighting bull. Veneno is the name of one of the strongest and most aggressive fighting bulls ever. He is also famous for being one of the fastest bulls in the history of bullfighting. His name became popular in 1914, when he fatally wounded the famous torero José Sánchez Rodríguez during the bullfight in the arena Sanlúcar de Barrameda's, Andalusia, Spain.

 

Lamborghini Veneno (2013)

2013 Lamborghini Veneno

  

The Design

 

The Lamborghini Veneno brings the aerodynamic efficiency of a racing prototype to the road. Every detail of its form pursues a clear function - exceptional dynamics, optimum downforce with minimal drag and perfect cooling of the high-performance engine. Yet the Veneno is unmistakably a Lamborghini; it sticks firmly to the consistent design philosophy of all the super sports cars from Sant'Agata Bolognese. That includes the extreme proportions, as well as the powerfully arrow-shaped front end and the interplay between razor-sharp lines and precise surfaces.

 

The entire front end of the Lamborghini Veneno has been laid out for perfect airflow and downforce. The front end works as a large aerodynamic wing. Large channels guide the air to the outlets in the front hood and in front of the windshield, as well as to the front wheels. Characteristic for Lamborghini is the Y shape of the angular headlamps that reach well into the fenders as well as the scissor doors.

 

The division of the fenders from the car body is a reference to the world of sport prototypes and optimizes at the same time the aerodynamic flow. The side line of the Veneno is therefore dominated by enormous sills and the mighty wheel arches front and rear. Here, too, sophisticated aerodynamics ensure perfect airflow to the large openings for engine cooling and intake air.

 

Just like the front end, the rear of the Lamborghini Veneno has also been optimized for underbody aerodynamics and high speed cornering stability. The smooth underbody transitions into a substantial diffuser framing the four sizable exhaust pipes divided by a splitter to increase the level of downforce peak. Large openings serve to ventilate the engine bay and manage the airflow to the rear wing, with the only sealed area at the rear being reserved for the license plate. The rear lights, including brake lights, indicator lights and fog lights, pick up the Y theme as well. The engine cover sports six wedge-shaped openings, with the focus here, too, on optimum dissipation of heat from the engine. The engine cover extends into a large central "shark" fin, which improves efficiency during braking and rear-end stability, by delivering additional downforce at high yaw angles and thus increasing the high-speed cornering performance.

 

The adjustable rear wing's design is the product of Motorsport experience and extensive aerodynamic simulation to ensure the best performance of rear wing interaction with rear diffuser air flow.

 

The exclusive alloy wheels measure 20 inches at the front and 21 inches at the rear and are equipped with center mountings. Their design is also determined by aerodynamic functionality - a carbon-fiber ring around the wheel rim works like a turbine to deliver additional cooling air to the carbon-ceramic brake discs.

 

The Lamborghini Veneno is painted in an all-new, grey metallic-look color with individual parts gleaming in the black of the visible carbon-fiber structure. The only car to display all three colors of the Italian flag as an accent is the car shown at Geneva, the unit which will remain property of Lamborghini. The three cars sold to customers each feature a single color of the Italian national flag, together a triology in green, white and red accents and thus representing each a unique piece.

 

The Technology

 

The Veneno is further proof of Automobili Lamborghini's unique competence in CFRP-based lightweight design. A monocoque made from carbon-fiber reinforced polymer forms the basis of the Veneno. It is largely similar to the Aventador monocoque - as are the aluminum sub-frames front and rear - although its form has been adapted to the new design. All exterior parts are made from CFRP. The Lamborghini Veneno meets all safety and registration requirements worldwide, and naturally also incorporates a full complement of safety systems from airbags through to the adapted ESP handling system.

 

Carbon fiber dominates the interior of the Lamborghini Veneno, too. The carbon fiber monocoque becomes visible inside the car in the area of the central tunnel and the sills. The two lightweight bucket seats are made from Lamborghini's patented Forged Composite. The woven carbon-fiber CarbonSkin® is used to clad the entire cockpit, part of the seats and the headliner. This unique material is soaked in a very special kind of resin that stabilizes the fiber structure, while allowing the material to remain supple. Like a hi-tech fabric, this extremely fine-looking carbon-fiber matting fits perfectly to any form, and it reduces weight.

 

The racing personality has been transferred also to the instrument panel. It has been completely redesigned and now, thanks to an aggressive graphics and to the introduction of some additional features like the G-meter, provides all necessary information to the driver for control of the car.

 

The systematic, carbon-fiber, lightweight design of the Lamborghini Veneno is not only visible, it is also evident on the scales: With a dry weight of just 1,450 kilograms (3,190 pounds), the Veneno is even 125 kilos (275 pounds) lighter than the already extremely lean Aventador. The highly beneficial power-to-weight ratio of 1.93 kg/hp (4,25 lbs/hp) guarantees a performance that is nothing short of mind-blowing. Even the stunning acceleration figure of 2,8 seconds cannot adequately describe it. Despite an aerodynamic setup configured for extreme downforce, the Veneno possesses exceptionally low wind resistance which allows it to reach a top speed of 355 km/h (221 mph).

 

The twelve-cylinder with a displacement of 6.5 liters is a thrilling combination of absolute high-revving frenzy and phenomenal pulling power. Its output has been raised to 552 kW / 750 hp, facilitated through enlarged intake paths, optimized thermodynamics, a slightly higher rated rpm and an exhaust system with even lower back pressure. The ISR manual gearbox, permanent all-wheel drive and pushrod suspension have all been specifically adjusted to meet the demands of the Lamborghini Veneno.

 

The Lamborghini Veneno celebrates its first public appearance at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show. The vehicle on show is the number 0, the Lamborghini test vehicle. Its future has not been determined yet, but it will allow Lamborghini to continue its activity of testing and innovation, both on the road and on the race track. The trilogy made of three unique vehicles will be produced in the course of the year 2013 and handed over to their future owners.

 

Inspired by the consistently sold-out Writing for Film & Television Summer Intensive Program, the Two-Weekend Intensive was designed for aspiring film and television writers with busy weekday schedules. Over the course of two weekends, participants learn a variety of screenwriting tools, techniques, and exercises that closely represent what students learn in the one-year Writing for Film & Television program.

 

Find out more about VFS’s one-year Writing for Film & Television program at vfs.com/writing.

The white dove peace symbol is consistent through Christianity, Judaism, and Islam as a peace symbol.

 

The reason for its use as a symbol of peace is the story of Noah and the release of the white dove to find land after the Great Flood. When the dove returned with an olive branch, which is another peace symbol, it was clear that the world was ready to welcome back man. The dove peace symbol is one that is clearly recognized all over the world.

 

There are many symbolisms of peace such as the dove peace symbol and the peace symbol, but where did they come from and what do they actually mean? If you look at these symbols of peace, you will instantly recognize what they mean and understand the context that they are used in. When you see the dove peace symbol together with the olive branch, it is an obvious piece of symbolism that describes a noble goal. The peace symbol that is used is largely chosen for very specific reasons.

 

In Christian Iconography, a dove also symbolizes the Holy Spirit, where the Holy Spirit is compared to a dove at the Baptism of Jesus. The early Christians in Rome incorporated into their funerary art the image of a dove carrying an olive branch, often accompanied by the word "Peace". It seems that they derived this image from the simile in the Gospels, combining it with the symbol of the olive branch, which had been used to represent peace by the Greeks and Romans. The dove and olive branch also appeared in Christian images of Noah's ark.

Autumn is consistently a great time to visit, with the foliage adding so much in spectacular, rich colors. And even during the latter part of the season, there is something so special about the bareness of many trees and vegetation. The nice thing as an observer of nature’s critters is that the birds are so much more visible. Even if they are at a fair distance, at least, one can appreciate their features. Also, many fall berries and other fruits and nuts, often with bright colors and interesting shapes, accentuate the landscape as seen only at this time of year.

Art is also an integral part of Duke Farms (as you can see from our DUKE FARMS SET), and the Sphinx Guardian of the Orchid Range at Sunset is something special. This angle was chosen, for I wanted to capture a sense of what she’s taking in as she sits as sentinel.

The late, Doris Duke, had left a wonderful legacy in converting her magnificent estate into a Natural Wildlife Preserve for the public’s education and enjoyment. The paths throughout the estate offer such splendid scenery. One is forever exploring, always seeing something subtly beautiful. There are always pleasant surprises, from the general scenery to the world of the wildlife, even tiny insects and flowers are enjoyable to observe. The bucolic nature of the preserve is so relaxing—akin to meditating while experiencing the landscape. The beauty of visiting Duke Farms is that so many incredible views are there simply by observing all of the surroundings. Spotting new and fascinating wildlife—both animals and plants—always adds to the experience.

 

Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.

All rights reserved, no use without license

 

++++ FROM WIKIPEDIA ++++

 

The International Finance Centre (abbr. IFC, branded as "ifc") is a skyscraper and an integrated commercial development on the waterfront of Hong Kong's Central District.

 

A prominent landmark on Hong Kong Island, IFC consists of two skyscrapers, the IFC Mall, and the 55-storey Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong. Tower 2 is the second tallest building in Hong Kong (415 m), behind the International Commerce Centre in West Kowloon. It is the fourth-tallest building in the Greater China region and the eighth-tallest office building in the world, based on structural heights; by roof height, only the Taipei 101, Shanghai World Financial Center, Willis Tower, International Commerce Centre and Burj Khalifa exceed it. It is of similar height to the former World Trade Center. The Airport Express Hong Kong Station is directly beneath it.

 

IFC was constructed and is owned by IFC Development, a consortium of Sun Hung Kai Properties, Henderson Land and Towngas.[6]

 

In 2003, Financial Times, HSBC, and Cathay Pacific put up an advertisement on the facade that stretched more than 50 storeys, covering an area of 19,000 m2 (0.2 million square ft) and a length of 230 m, making it the world's largest advertisement ever put on a skyscraper.[7]

 

Contents

 

1 History

2 One International Finance Centre

3 Two International Finance Centre

4 Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong

5 IFC Mall

6 Gallery

6.1 2 International Finance Centre

6.2 International Finance Centre Mall

7 See also

8 References

9 External links

 

History

 

Tower 1 is also known as 1IFC and branded in lowercase letters, as "One ifc". Likewise, Tower 2 is also known as 2IFC and branded as "Two ifc".[8]

 

1IFC opened in December 1998, towards the end of the Asian financial crisis. Tenants included ING Bank, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corp, Fidelity International, the Mandatory Provident Fund Schemes Authority[9] and the Financial Times.[10]

 

The Hong Kong Monetary Authority purchased 14 floors in 2IFC;[10] the Hong Kong Mortgage Corporation signed a 12-year lease on 24,000-square-foot (2,200 m2);[11] Nomura Group agreed to take 60,000 sq ft (5,600 m2) at 2 IFC; the Financial Times, an existing tenant at One IFC, took 10,000 sq ft (900 m2).[10] Ernst & Young took six floors (from the 11th to 18th floors), or about 180,000 square feet (16,700 m2), in 2IFC, to become the biggest tenant.[12]

 

2IFC, which was completed at the height of the SARS epidemic,[9] was initially available to rent at HK$25-HK$35 per square foot.[13] In 2007, as the economy has improved, high quality ("Grade A") office space is highly sought after; rents for current leases are $150 per square foot as of March 2007.[14]

 

The IFC's towers have featured in several Hollywood films, including Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life, where Lara Croft leaps off the then-under-construction 2 International Finance Centre, landing on a ship out in the Kowloon Bay, and The Dark Knight, where Batman leapt from 2 IFC to 1 IFC, where an action scene then takes place.[15]

 

The 88th floor of 2IFC is the backdrop of core scenes of the German Thriller "Im Schatten der Lombardis" [1] by Berit Paton Reid, a German writer based in Dubai, UAE.

One International Finance Centre

One International Finance Centre

IFC mall Phase 1 shopping arcade

 

One International Finance Centre was constructed in 1998 and opened in 1999. It is 688 feet (210 m) tall,[16] has 39 storeys and four trading floors, 18 high speed passenger lifts in 4 zones, and comprises 784,000 square feet (72,800 m2). It is similar in design and appearance to 30 Hudson Street in Jersey City, New Jersey. The building currently accommodates approximately 5,000 people.

Two International Finance Centre

 

Two International Finance Centre, completed in 2003, is attached to the second phase of the ifc mall. This 415-metre-tall (1,362 ft) building, currently Hong Kong's second tallest, is quoted as having 88 storeys and 22 high-ceiling trading floors to qualify as being extremely auspicious in Chinese culture. It is, however, short of the magic number, because "taboo floors" like 14th and 24th are omitted as being inauspicious – because 4 sounds like 'die' in Cantonese.

 

The highrise is designed to accommodate financial institutions. For example, the Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA) is located at the 55th floor. It is equipped with advanced telecommunications, raised floors for flexible cabling management, and nearly column-free floor plans. The building expects to accommodate up to 15,000 people. It is one of relatively few buildings in the world equipped with double-deck elevators.

 

The 55th, 56th and the 77th to 88th floors were bought by the HKMA for US$480 million in 2001.[11] An exhibition area, currently containing an exhibit of Hong Kong's monetary history, and a library of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority Information Centre occupy the 55th floor, and are open to the public during office hours.[17]

 

Despite common practice for owners to allow naming buildings after its important tenants, the owners decided not to allow renaming of the building.[18]

Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong

Main article: Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong

 

The Four Seasons Hotel is a luxury hotel that was built near the IFC One and Two. It was completed and opened in October 2005. The 206 m (674 ft), 60-storey oceanfront hotel is the only Four Seasons Hotel in Hong Kong. The hotel has 399 guest suites, and 519 serviced apartments. Amenities include a French restaurant Caprice and spa.[19]

IFC Mall

It is an 800,000 sq ft, 4-storey shopping mall, with many luxury retail brands and wide variety of restaurants. The first official Apple Store was also located in this mall (a 3-storey flagship store in Hong Kong).

 

Hong Kong (Chinese: 香港; pronunciation in Hong Kong Cantonese: [hœ́ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ]), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the eastern side of the Pearl River estuary in East Asia, south of the mainland Chinese province of Guangdong, and east of the former Portuguese colony and fellow special administrative region of Macau. With around 7.3 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities[note 1] in a territory of 1,104 km2, Hong Kong is the fourth-most densely populated region in the world.

 

Hong Kong was formerly a colony of the British Empire, after the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from Qing China at the conclusion of the First Opium War in 1842. The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860, and acquired a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War, until British control resumed in 1945. The territory was returned to China under the framework of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 and marked by the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China.[13]

 

Under the principle of "one country, two systems",[14][15] Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system apart from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong retains independent executive, legislative, and judiciary powers.[16] Nevertheless, Hong Kong does directly develop relations with foreign states and international organizations in a broad range of "appropriate fields",[17] being actively and independently involved in institutions such as the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum[18] and the World Trade Organization.[19]

 

Hong Kong is one of the world's most significant financial centres, holding the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranking as the world's most competitive and freest economic entity.[20][21] As the world's eighth-largest trading entity,[22] its legal tender, Hong Kong dollar, is the world's 13th most traded currency.[23] Hong Kong's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system.[24] Although the city boasts one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality.[25]

 

Hong Kong features the most skyscrapers in the world, surrounding Victoria Harbour, which lies in the centre of the city's dense urban region.[26][27] It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world's longest life expectancy.[28][29] Over 90% of its population makes use of well-developed public transportation.[30] Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter.[31][32][33]

Contents

 

1 Etymology

2 History

2.1 Prehistory

2.2 Imperial China

2.3 British colony

2.4 Japanese military occupation

2.5 Post-war industrialisation

2.6 Transfer of sovereignty

2.7 Special administrative region

3 Government and politics

3.1 Legal system and judiciary

3.2 Foreign relations

3.3 Regional and administrative divisions

3.4 Electoral and political reforms

3.5 Sociopolitical issues and human rights

3.6 Military

4 Geography

4.1 Climate

4.2 Architecture

4.3 Cityscape

5 Demographics

5.1 Languages

5.2 Religion

5.3 Personal income

6 Economy

6.1 Financial centre

6.2 International trading

6.3 Tourism and expatriation

6.4 Policy

7 Infrastructure

7.1 Energy

7.2 Water and sanitation

7.3 Health

8 Transport

8.1 Rail

8.2 Roads and taxis

8.3 Aviation

8.4 Ferries

8.5 Buses and trams

9 Education

10 Culture

10.1 Sport

11 Media

12 Notable people

13 See also

14 Notes

15 References

15.1 Citations

15.2 Sources

16 Further reading

17 External links

 

Etymology

Hong Kong

Hong Kong in Chinese 2.svg

"Hong Kong" in Chinese characters

Chinese 香港

Cantonese Yale Hēunggóng or Hèunggóng

Literal meaning Fragrant Harbour,

Incense Harbour[34][35]

[show]Transcriptions

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

Traditional Chinese 香港特別行政區

(香港特區)

Simplified Chinese 香港特别行政区

(香港特区)

Cantonese Yale Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui

(Hēunggóng Dahkkēui)

or

Hèunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui

(Hèunggóng Dahkkēui)

[show]Transcriptions

 

The name Hong Kong originally referred to a small inlet between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. The town of Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[36] The source of the romanised name is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the spoken Cantonese pronunciation of 香港 (Cantonese Yale: hēung góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour" or "Incense Harbour".[34][35][37] Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water influx from the Pearl River estuary or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Victoria Harbour was developed.[37] Another theory is that the name originates from the Tanka, early inhabitants of the region; it is equally probable that a romanisation of the name in their dialect was used (i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese).[38] Regardless of origin, the name was recorded in the Treaty of Nanking to encompass all of Hong Kong Island, and has been used to refer to the territory in its entirety ever since.[39]

 

The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926.[40] Nevertheless, a number of institutions founded during the early colonial era still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric, and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.

History

Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric Hong Kong

 

Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.[41][42][43] Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong.[44][45] Eight petroglyphs dated to the Shang Dynasty were discovered on the surrounding islands.[46]

Imperial China

Main article: History of Hong Kong under Imperial China

 

In 214 BC, the Qin dynasty conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern-day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into China for the first time.[47] After a brief period of centralisation and subsequent collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Nanyue kingdom, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC.[48] After the Han conquered Nanyue in 111 BC, Hong Kong was assigned to the Jiaozhi commandery. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and expansion of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty.[49]

Sung Wong Toi, believed to be a memorial to the last two boy emperors of the Southern Song dynasty, as it appeared before the Second Sino-Japanese War.

 

During the Tang dynasty, the Guangdong region flourished as an international trading center. A military stronghold was established in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area.[50] Lantau Island was a salt production centre and smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 in the modern-day New Territories by the Song dynasty.[51] During their war against the Mongols, the Southern Song court was briefly stationed at modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.[52]

 

The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513.[53][54] Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão" in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China.[55] After the Qing conquest, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance, an imperial decree that ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669 as part of his efforts against Ming loyalist rebels in southern China. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County, which included Hong Kong, were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated returned in subsequent years.[56] With frequent pirate attacks and ever increasing incursions by European explorers, forts were constructed at Tung Chung and the Kowloon Walled City.[57]

 

Though maritime trade had previously been banned, after repopulation of the coast and final defeat of all rebels with Ming sympathies, the Kangxi Emperor lifted the trade prohibition in 1684 and allowed foreigners to enter Chinese ports.[58] Trade with Europeans was more strictly regulated and became concentrated in the Pearl River Delta after establishment of the Canton System in 1757, which forbade non-Russian ships from northern Chinese ports and forced all commerce to be conducted solely in the port of Canton, just north of Hong Kong.[59] While European demand for Chinese commodities like tea, silk, and porcelain was high, Chinese interest in European manufactured goods was comparatively negligible, creating a large trade imbalance between Qing China and Great Britain. To counter this deficit, the British began to sell increasingly large volumes of Indian opium to China.[60] Faced with a drug addiction crisis,[61] Chinese officials pursued ever more aggressive actions in an attempt to halt the opium trade.[60]

British colony

Main articles: British Hong Kong and History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)

City of Victoria, 1860s

 

In 1839, threats by the Qing imperial court to place sanctions on opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. After British victory in the Second Battle of Chuenpi, the Qing initially admitted defeat. As part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Qishan, Viceroy of Liangguang, Hong Kong Island was declared to be ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi. British forces took formal possession of the island on 26 January 1841. However, disputes between high-ranking officials of both countries led to the failure of the treaty's ratification.[62] After more than another year of further hostilities, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom under the terms of the Treaty of Nanking on 29 August 1842.[63] The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.[64]

 

The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Jack raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese refugees crossed the open border fleeing from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons, and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.[65][66] Further conflicts over the opium trade between the British and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860. The colony was expanded further in 1898, when Britain obtained a 99-year lease of additional territory from the Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory; Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to the Sham Chun River, and over 200 other outlying islands were given over to British control.[67][68][69]

Queen's Road Central at the junction of Duddell Street, c. 1900

 

Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants from both China and Europe. However, the population remained racially divided and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, racial discrimination laws, such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance, prevented ethnic Chinese from acquiring property in reserved areas, such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population.

File:1937 Hong Kong VP8.webmPlay media

Hong Kong filmed in 1937

 

The colony continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.[70]

 

In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translators, Clementi appointed Shouson Chow to the Executive Council as its first ethnic Chinese member. Under Clementi's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. At the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, when the Empire of Japan invaded China from its protectorate in Manchuria, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the colony a neutral zone to safeguard Hong Kong's status as a free port.

Japanese military occupation

Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

Liberation of Hong Kong in 1945. Picture taken at the Cenotaph in Central.

 

On 8 December 1941, the same morning as the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Imperial Japanese Army moved south from Guangzhou and crossed the Sham Chun River to attack Hong Kong as part of a coordinated military offensive against the Allied Powers.[71] The Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 17 days, through which British, Canadian, Indian, and local colonial units defended Hong Kong. By the fifth day, Commonwealth troops, under heavy artillery and aerial bombardment, had been forced to abandon their positions in Kowloon and retreated to Hong Kong Island.[72] With the remaining troops unable to further mount an effective defence, Governor Young surrendered the colony on Christmas Day. This day is remembered by locals as "Black Christmas".[73]

 

During the occupation, the garrisoned Japanese soldiers committed many atrocities against both civilians and prisoners of war, including the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents suffered widespread food shortages, strict rationing, and hyperinflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military yen. Widespread starvation and forced deportation of residents for use as slave labour to mainland China drastically reduced the population of Hong Kong from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when control of the colony returned to the British.[74]

Post-war industrialisation

Main articles: British Hong Kong, 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong

Flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997

 

Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China sought refuge from the Chinese Civil War in a territory neutral to the conflict. When the Communist Party took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more refugees fled across the open border in fear of persecution.[67] Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.[67] The establishment of the People's Republic of China caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory.

Hong Kong in 1965

 

In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies that was undergoing rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries, and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.[75] The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme, which provided shelter for the less privileged and helped cope with the continuing influx of immigrants.

 

Under Governor Murray MacLehose, the government began a series of reforms to improve the quality of infrastructure and public services through the 1970s. Systemic corruption in the uniformed services had crippled trust in the government; MacLehose established the ICAC, an independent security service under the direct authority of the Governor, to restore the integrity of the civil service.[76] Chinese was recognised as an official language during his tenure, accelerating the process of localisation in the government, slowly handing key official posts long held only by British members of the government over to local ethnic Chinese people.[77][78] To alleviate road traffic congestion and provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, the Mass Transit Railway was constructed and began operations of its first line in 1979. The Island Line, Kwun Tong Line, and Tsuen Wan Line all opened in the early 1980s, connecting Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and parts of the New Territories to a single transport system.[79] MacLehose was the longest-serving colonial governor and, by the end of his governorship, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the territory. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s.

A sky view of Hong Kong Island

An aerial view of the northern shore of Hong Kong Island in 1986

 

Since 1983, the value of the Hong Kong dollar has been pegged to that of the United States dollar. The territory's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new industrial capacity developed in southern China under the Open Door Policy, which was introduced in 1978. Nevertheless, by the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia, and the world's exemplar of laissez-faire market policy.[80]

The Hong Kong issue

 

In 1971, China's permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council was transferred from the Republic of China, which had evacuated to Taiwan at the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War, to the People's Republic of China. Hong Kong was soon after removed from the organization's list of non-self-governing territories, at the request of the PRC. Facing an uncertain future for the colony and the expiration of the New Territories lease beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question of Hong Kong's status with Deng Xiaoping in 1979.

 

Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the Sino-British Joint Declaration in 1984. The United Kingdom agreed to transfer to China the entirety of the colony, including the perpetually ceded areas of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula, at the conclusion of the 99-year New Territories lease in 1997, when Hong Kong would become a special administrative region governed separately from the mainland, retaining its free-market economy, common law judicial system, independent representation in international organizations, treaty arrangements, and self-governance in all areas except foreign diplomacy and military defence. The treaty further stipulated that the territory would be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer, with the Basic Law of Hong Kong serving as its constitutional document.[67]

A street at the edge of the Kowloon Walled City at night.

 

Under the terms of the Second Convention of Peking, the colony was expanded out to the New Territories, but the treaty did not include a small military outpost over which the Kowloon Walled City would later be built. After the end of Japanese occupation, thousands of refugees fleeing from the mainland during the Chinese Civil War made their way to the Walled City and became squatters occupying this parcel of land where China was technically still the sovereign power. Over the following decades, the population of this 2.6-hectare (6.4-acre) area dramatically increased, reaching 33,000 by 1987, making the Walled City the most densely populated area in the world at its peak.[81][82] Despite widespread illegal activity and unsanitary living conditions, the British largely took a 'hands-off' approach with regard to the Walled City due to the area's muddled territorial status and to avoid confrontation with the mainland authority.[83] The Sino-British Joint Declaration laid the groundwork for cooperation between the British and Chinese governments concerning any Hong Kong-related issues, including the fate of the former military fort. The Chinese government acquiesced to the demolition of the settlement in 1987.[84] The structure was cleared away in 1994 and the area converted into the Kowloon Walled City Park.[85]

Transfer of sovereignty

Main article: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong

The Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre, where the handover ceremony took place in 1997

 

On 1 July 1997, sovereignty over Hong Kong was officially transferred from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China, marking the end of 156 years of British colonial rule. As Britain's last major and most populous remaining colony, the handover effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This event made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Exactly at midnight, all government organisations with royal patronage simultaneously dropped the Royal prefix from their titles and any regalia with references to the Crown were replaced with insignia bearing the Bauhinia.[86] After the handover ceremony, Chris Patten, the last Governor of Hong Kong, together with Prince Charles, departed the city on board the Royal Yacht Britannia.[87]

Special administrative region

Main articles: 2000s in Hong Kong and Hong Kong–Mainland conflict

 

Almost immediately after the transfer of sovereignty, Hong Kong's economy was severely affected by the Asian financial crisis and further depressed by the outbreak of the H5N1 strain of avian flu. Financial Secretary Donald Tsang used the substantial territorial foreign currency reserves to maintain the Hong Kong dollar's currency peg and spent over HK$120 billion on significant holdings of major Hong Kong companies to prevent a general market collapse.[67] While complete disaster was averted, Chief Executive Tung's housing policy of building 85,000 subsidised flats a year triggered a housing market crisis in 1998, depressing property prices and causing some homeowners to become bankrupt.[88] Hong Kong was again gravely affected by the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003.[89][90] In total, 1,755 people were infected, with 299 fatalities.[91] Economic activities slowed and schools were closed for weeks at the height of the epidemic. An estimated HK$380 million (US$48.9 million) in contracts were lost as a result of the epidemic.[92] While Hong Kong was also severely affected by the global recession of the late 2000s, the Tsang government introduced a series of economic stimulus measures prevented a prolonged recession.[93]

 

Infrastructure post-handover has been rapidly developed, with major transport links continuing to be planned and constructed. The Rose Garden Project, which began under British administration, to construct a new international airport was completed in 1998 and operations began at the new site during the same year. The Ngong Ping Cable Car, West Kowloon Cultural District, multiple new railway lines, and additional cross-harbour tunnels were all completed in the first 20 years of territorial self-governance. Direct infrastructure links with mainland China are also being actively developed, with both the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge and Hong Kong section of the national high-speed railway currently under construction. Construction of the rail link generated a high level of controversy surrounding the demolition of key landmarks and displacement of residents along the planned route.[94]

Hong Kong Island north coast, overlooking Victoria Harbour and Central and East Kowloon from middle section of Lugard Road at daytime

 

Political debates have centred themselves predominately on issues surrounding electoral reform and Hong Kong's jurisdictional independence from the central government. Following the handover, democratic reform of the Legislative Council was immediately terminated and the government attempted to legislate sweeping national security legislation pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law. Coupled with years of economic hardships and discontent of Chief Executive Tung's pro-Beijing stance, over 500,000 people demonstrated against the government, which eventually led to Tung's resignation in 2005.[95] Further proposals by the government to introduce a national education curriculum and nominee pre-screening before allowing Chief Executive elections triggered a number of mass protests in 2014, collectively known as the Umbrella Revolution.[96] Violent attacks on journalists, an increasing level of press self-censorship, alleged extraterritorial abduction of anti-China publishers,[97] and covert intervention into Hong Kong's educational, political, and independent institutions have posed challenges to the policy of one country, two systems. In the 2016 legislative election, there were reports of discrepancies in the electorate registry, which contained ghost registrations across constituencies, as well as political intervention to strip pro-independence individuals of their right to stand in elections[98] and alleged death threats to election candidates.[99] Social tension heightened during Leung's term, with many residents believing that China increased their efforts to exert influence on everyday life in Hong Kong. A survey in 2016 showed that only 17.8% of residents considered themselves as "Chinese citizens", whereas 41.9% considered themselves purely as "citizens of Hong Kong".[100]

Government and politics

香港候任特首林鄭月娥13.jpg 政務司司長張建宗15.jpg

Carrie Lam

Chief Executive Matthew Cheung

Chief Secretary

Main articles: Government of Hong Kong, Politics of Hong Kong, and Elections in Hong Kong

 

Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China, maintaining a separate legislature, executive, and judiciary from the rest of the country. It has a parliamentary government modelled after the Westminster system, inheriting this from British colonial administration. The Sino-British Joint Declaration guarantees the territory's capitalist economic system and autonomous system of government for 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty.[note 2] Under this framework, the Basic Law of Hong Kong is the regional constitutional document, establishing the structure and responsibility of the government.[101][102] The head of government is the Chief Executive, who is selected by the Election Committee for a five-year term that is renewable once. The central government provides oversight for the regional government; final interpretative power of the Basic Law rests with the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress and the Chief Executive is formally appointed by the State Council after nomination by the aforementioned Election Committee.[101] Responsibility for foreign and military affairs is also assumed by the central authority.[note 3]

Government House, official residence of the Chief Executive.

A chamber within the Legislative Council Complex.

The grey dome and front gable of a granite neo-classical building, with a skyscraper in the background against a clear blue sky.

Court of Final Appeal Building in Central. Formerly housed the Supreme Court and the Legislative Council before its current function.

 

The Legislative Council is a unicameral legislature with 70 members, consisting of 35 directly elected members apportioned to geographical constituencies, 30 members representing professional or special interest groups formed as functional constituencies, and 5 members nominated by members of the District Councils and elected in territory-wide elections.[14][103] Legislators are elected using multiple different voting systems, determined by whichever constituency a particular seat is representing. All directly elected seats are filled using a proportional representative system, while functional constituencies other than the all-territory District Council constituency choose their councillors using first-past-the-post or instant-runoff voting.[104]

 

Government policy is determined by the Executive Council, a body of advisors appointed by the Chief Executive with the authority to issue delegated legislation and proposes new bills to the legislature for debate and promulgation. Direct administration is managed by the Civil Service, an apolitical bureaucracy that ensures positive implementation of policy.[14][105] Hong Kong is nationally represented in the National People's Congress by 36 delegates chosen through an electoral college.[16][106]

 

22 political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the 2016 election.[107] These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups: the pro-Beijing camp who form the current government, the pro-democracy camp, and localist groups.[108] The Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong and its members do not run in local elections.[109]

 

The Monetary Authority is the currency board and de facto central bank of the territory.[110] It is responsible for regulation of the Hong Kong dollar and, along with HSBC, Standard Chartered Hong Kong, and the Bank of China, issues currency in the form of banknotes. Coinage is solely minted by the Monetary Authority.[111]

Legal system and judiciary

Main articles: Law of Hong Kong and Judiciary of Hong Kong

 

The judicial system of Hong Kong is derived from the common law system of English law, and was created at the establishment of the territory as a British colony. Chinese national law does not generally apply in the region, and Hong Kong is treated as an independent jurisdiction.[112] The Court of Final Appeal is the territory's highest court, exercising final adjudication over interpretation of laws and has the power to strike down statutes and legislation inconsistent with the Basic Law.[113][114] It is led by the Chief Justice and consists of three additional permanent judges and one non-permanent seat filled by judges from overseas common law jurisdictions on a rotating basis.[14][115] However, final interpretation of the Basic Law itself is a power vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. Judges on all courts are appointed by the Chief Executive on the recommendation of an independent commission.[14][116] As a common law system, judicial courts in Hong Kong may refer to precedents set in English law and Commonwealth jurisdictions.[14][115][14]

 

The Department of Justice is responsible for handling legal matters for the government. Its responsibilities include providing legal advice, criminal prosecution, civil representation, legal and policy drafting and reform and international legal co-operation between different jurisdictions.[112] Apart from prosecuting criminal cases, lawyers of the Department of Justice act on behalf of the government in all civil and administrative lawsuits against the government.[112] The department may call for judicial review of government action or legislation and may intervene in any cases involving the greater public interest.[117] The Basic Law protects the Department of Justice from any interference by the government when exercising its control over criminal prosecution.[14][118] Law enforcement is a responsibility of the Security Bureau and the Hong Kong Police, with agencies like the Customs and Excise Department and Immigration Department handling more specialised tasks.

  

Datos extraidos de wikipedia :

La perdiz roja2 (Alectoris rufa) es una especie de ave galliforme de la familia Phasianidae. No se la debe confundir con la perdiz pardilla (Perdix perdix).

La perdiz roja vive naturalmente en el sudoeste de Europa, Francia y la península ibérica. Se ha naturalizado en el sur de Inglaterra, donde fue introducida como especie cinegética. Ha sido reemplazada en el sudeste de Europa por la muy similar perdiz griega (Alectoris graeca).

La perdiz roja es una especie principalmente terrestre, no migratoria, que forma bandos fuera de la temporada de reproducción.3 Se reproduce en tierras bajas secas, como las de agricultura de secano y áreas abiertas pedregosas, poniendo sus huevos en un nido en tierra.

En general se alimenta de semillas, pero los jóvenes en particular gustan de insectos como un suplemento proteico esencial.

Su reclamo es trisilábico (ka-chu-chu)

 

Descripción:

Oscila entre los 35 y 40 cm de longitud, con una cola que supera los 10 cm de largo.

La cabeza se caracteriza por la forma maciza de su base, con un pico de fuerte consistencia y de coloración roja bri­llante. Los ojos están ligeramente rasgados hacia atrás y presentan un color pardo claro. La nuca posee un tono gris vináceo muy subido, con el píleo castaño y el resto de la cabeza gris. Desde el ojo hasta la base del pico existe una franja negra, que contacta con las aberturas na­sales y que se prolonga hacia atrás y por debajo, trazando una línea curva más gruesa y evidente con el punto de in­flexión simétrico de la punta del pico, bajando hasta llegar al límite de la garganta.

El pecho y la zona superior del abdomen son grises cenizos con tonalidad parda. El extremo inferior del abdomen y la porción inferior de la cola muestran una tona­lidad amarillenta anaranjada.

En la zona de los flancos tiene una tonalidad gris clara, que se ve interrumpida por una serie de franjas transversales, donde se alternan los colores blanco, rojo y castaño, ribeteados por una sutil línea de color negro.

Es en las patas donde se presenta una situación caracte­rística de dimorfismo sexual, ya que los machos poseen en la parte posterior de los tarsos una excrecencia de natura­leza córnea, llamada espolón. Las hembras, por su parte, carecen de este elemento o lo tienen de menor tamaño. En ambos casos, las huellas de la perdiz son bastante características, debido a que el dedo frontal medio posee una longitud casi doble que la de los dos laterales, separados por un ángulo muy semejante, en tanto que el dedo posterior se sitúa en la misma línea que el frontal medio.4

Muda :

La muda postnupcial es completa, y suele finalizar entre octubre y noviembre. La muda postjuvenil es parcial, incluyendo todas las plumas del ave excepto las dos primarias más externas, y suele terminar entre agosto y los primeros días de noviembre.

Dimorformismo sexual:

Macho:

Tiene manchas negras amplias y brillantes en la base del pico y collar. Posee espolones en ambas patas, de aspecto compacto y con anchura, en la base, superior a cuatro escamas; la anchura del tarso a nivel del espolón es mayor a 8,6 mm. La longitud del ala es mayor a 15,8 cm.

Hembra:

Tiene manchas negras más reducidas y de tono negro mate en la base del pico y collar. No posee espolones, o los tiene en una pata o en las dos, pero de aspecto puntiagudo y con anchura, en la base, inferior a cuatro escamas; la anchura del tarso a nivel del espolón es menor a 8,4 mm. La longitud del ala es menor a 15,4 cm.

Los juveniles pueden sexarse a partir de los tres meses de edad, cuando comienza a desarrollarse el espolón en los machos.

Edad:

Pueden reconocerse 3 tipos de edad:

Juveniles: con plumaje pardo en las partes superiores. Partes inferiores de color ocre. Sin franjas en los flancos. Garganta blanca sin borde negro. Pico pardo. Patas de color rojo pálido.

1.º año otoño/2.º año primavera: con plumaje de adulto, pero conservando las dos primarias más externas sin cambiar, las cuales tienen una mancha blanca en la punta: en postjuveniles la mancha blanca de las primarias externas puede ser pequeña o estar ausente por desgaste; hay que comprobar la diferencia de tonalidad entre las plumas juveniles retenidas, más claras y desgastadas, así como las mudadas.

Adultos: con todas las plumas del ala de la misma generación, con las dos primarias más externas de punta redondeada y sin la mancha blanca.

Alimentación :

La perdiz roja es una especie que come prácticamente todo tipo de alimen­tos, y predominan entre estos los cereales cultivados por el hombre, las hojas, las hierbas verdes de los prados y las frutas silvestres. Por otra parte, la perdiz roja suele en­contrarse con cierta regularidad en las cercanías de las fuentes de agua, charcas y arroyos, debido a que este ele­mento resulta necesario para su organismo en mayor me­dida que lo que ocurre con otras variedades o especies de aves.

Reproducción:

Huevos de Alectoris rufa rufa.

El inicio del proceso reproductivo de la perdiz roja comienza en los meses de enero y febrero, cuando en las ban­dadas de esta especie, los machos comienzan a cortejar a las hembras. En esta época del año se producen numerosos y violentos combates entre los machos, que buscan la posesión de las hembras. El apareamiento comienza en los meses de marzo o abril. La lucha entre los machos tiene su causa en el hecho de que cada macho cubre a más de una hembra, es decir, no se trata de animales monógamos. Por el contra­rio, una vez que la primera hembra ha sido cubierta, el macho se aleja de ella en busca de nuevas compañeras. Una vez fecundadas, las hembras comienzan la búsqueda de un refugio en el suelo, normalmente depresiones ocultas, setos, surcos de los sembrados, raíces de árboles, matorrales, etc., donde depositarán sus huevos.

Por lo general, la nidada está formada por una cantidad de huevos que oscila entre doce y dieciocho. Los huevos son de un tamaño que se puede considerar como grande si se tiene en cuenta las dimensiones comunes de una hembra de perdiz roja. La forma de los huevos es ovoidea, redon­deada en los dos casquetes, con color de fondo amarillento rojizo salpicado de pequeñas manchas marrones oscuras. Estos huevos son de una notable consistencia, hecho que probablemente se encuentre vinculado con la escasa protección que les brinda el tosco nido en el que son incubados.

Incubación y nacimiento:

La incubación de los huevos de la perdiz roja es llevado a cabo por la hembra y, a veces, por el macho, y tiene una duración aproximada de veintitrés días, al cabo de los cuales nacen los polluelos que, a poco de abandonar el huevo, se encuentran en condiciones de buscar el alimento por sí mismos, aunque bajo la atenta vigilancia de su madre.

Polluelo de perdiz roja de unos días de vida.

Las pequeñas perdices rojas no tardan demasiado en iniciarse en la práctica de correr y volar, encontrándose en condiciones de llevar a cabo estas actividades con perfec­ción en un período inferior a un mes.

Alimentación de los perdigones:

A diferencia de los ejemplares adultos, los polluelos de la perdiz roja se alimentan principalmente de larvas de in­sectos, pequeños moluscos de agua dulce, gusani­llos terrestres y pequeños granos, que pueden triturar con su pico. A medida que crecen y se desarrollan, las perdices rojas pasan a ser cada vez más granívoras.

Estas características alimentarias de la perdiz roja facili­tan su cría y mantenimiento en cautiverio, un género de vida en el que pueden resistir muchos años

Although the consistent lake-effect driven snow reduced the resulting resolution, while also at the time making the determination of a proper exposure difficult, I managed to capture an image of totality during this week's total lunar eclipse. The varying intensity of the snowfall caused the moon to continuously change in brightness and hue. Although challenging from a photographic perspective, it made for a spectacular display visually that was simply awe-inspiring!

 

Image Details: Taken by Jay Edwards on January 21, 2019 at 05:23 UT (00:23 EST) using an 80mm f/6 Celestron 'short-tube' refractor in eye-piece projection mode with a 16mm e.p. on a Canon 700D (t5i) DSLR. This was driven by a Star Adventurer mount on a Quickset Hercules tripod. Given the below zero temperatures and -30 deg. F (-35 C) windchils, as well as the fact that our observatory was locked in a block of ice & snow from the foot of new powder we had just received that day, this potable imaging rig was placed on my front deck while I controlled it remotely from my living room via CamRanger. The attached is a 8 second exposure at ISO 3200. As presented here the bit depth has been lowered to 8 bits per channel and the entire file has been resized down to HD resolution. I hope other were fortunate to have witnessed this wonderful event.

An image of a partial phase can be found here:

www.flickr.com/photos/homcavobservatory/39856965413/

and an shot of the portable imaging rig used can be found here: www.flickr.com/photos/homcavobservatory/46778020412/

 

Prompt: Photorealistic full-length image, Wide-angle shot, pulled back shot of a well-lit young woman with stunning and sparkling and captivating blue eyes in an ornate and short show girl jade-colored mini-dress crossed legs sitting in a Las Vegas lounge, with appropriate depth of field with Rembrant Lighting and sun coming in through the window during the golden hour, Canon EOS-5D Mark IV, Canon 24mm f1.4 II L lens at f/2.8, --ar 3:2 --s 100 --c 0 --v 5.2

 

Used a reference image to approximate the look of the model, Kitty.

 

Then used face swap app with Kitty.

  

Went through several enlargements and enhancements in both Adobe Raw and PhotoShop and Portrait Professional.

 

Detailed in Adobe Camera Raw and Photoshop and Portrait Professional.

 

Blended in eyes and lips with the original model’s.

 

I highly appreciate your viewing and commenting on my work.

 

bauhaus building, dessau, germany, 1925-1926, architect: walter gropius

 

Gropius consistently separated the parts of the Bauhaus building according to their functions and designed each differently. He thereby arranged the different wings asymmetrically – in relation to what is today the Bauhausstraße and the Gropiusallee respectively. In order to appreciate the overall design of the complex, the observer must therefore move around the whole building. There is no central viewpoint.

 

The glazed, three-storey workshop wing, the block for the vocational school (also three storeys high) with its unostentatious rows of windows, and the five-storey studio building with its conspicuous, projecting balconies are the main elements of the complex. A two-storey bridge which housed, e.g., the administration department and, until 1928, Gropius’s architectural practice, connects the workshop wing with the vocational school. A single-storey building with a hall, stage and refectory, the so-called Festive Area, connects the workshop wing to the studio building. The latter originally featured 28 studio flats for students and junior masters, each measuring 20 m². The ingenious design of the portals between the foyer and the hall and a folding partition between the stage and the refectory, along with the ceiling design and colour design, impart a grandiose spatial coalescence to the sequence of foyer-hall-stage-refectory, shaping the so-called Festive Area. The façade of the students’ dormitory is distinguished in the east by individual balconies and in the south by long balconies that continue around the corner of the building.

 

The entire complex is rendered and painted mainly in light tones, creating an attractive contrast to the window frames, which are dark. For the interior, the junior master of the mural workshop, Hinnerk Scheper, designed a detailed colour plan that, by differentiating between supporting and masking elements through the use of colour, aimed to accentuate the construction of the building.

 

Mangosuthu Buthelezi - Prince Mangosuthu Gatsha Buthelezi (27 August 1928 – 9 September 2023) was a South African politician and Zulu prince who served as the traditional prime minister to the Zulu royal family from 1954 until his death in 2023. He was appointed to this post by King Bhekuzulu, the son of King Solomon kaDinuzulu (a brother to Buthelezi's mother Princess Magogo kaDinuzulu).

 

Buthelezi was chief minister of the KwaZulu bantustan during apartheid and founded the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) in 1975, leading it until 2019, and became its president emeritus soon after that. He was a political leader during Nelson Mandela's incarceration (1964–1990) and continued to be so in the post-apartheid era, when he was appointed by Mandela as Minister of Home Affairs, serving from 1994 to 2004.

 

Buthelezi was one of the most prominent black politicians of the apartheid era. He was the sole political leader of the KwaZulu government, entering when it was still the native reserve of Zululand in 1970 and remaining in office until it was abolished in 1994. Critics described his administration as a de facto one-party state, intolerant of political opposition and dominated by Inkatha (now the IFP), Buthelezi's political movement.

 

In parallel to his mainstream political career, Buthelezi held the Inkosiship of the Buthelezi clan, being the son of Inkosi Mathole Buthelezi, and was traditional prime minister to three successive Zulu kings, beginning with King Cyprian Bhekuzulu in 1954. He was himself born into the Zulu royal family; his maternal grandfather was King Dinuzulu who was a son of King Cetshwayo and whom Buthelezi played in the 1964 film called Zulu. While leader of KwaZulu, Buthelezi both strengthened and appropriated the public profile of the monarchy, reviving it as a symbol of Zulu nationalism. Bolstered by royal support, state resources, and Buthelezi's personal popularity, Inkatha became one of the largest political organizations in the country.

 

During the same period, Buthelezi publicly opposed apartheid and often took a patently obstructive stance toward the apartheid government. He lobbied consistently for the release of Nelson Mandela and staunchly refused to accept the nominal independence which the government offered to KwaZulu, correctly judging that it was a superficial independence. However, Buthelezi was derided in some quarters for participating in the bantustan system, a central pillar of apartheid, and for his moderate stance on such issues as free markets, armed struggle, and international sanctions. He became a bête noire of young activists in the Black Consciousness Movement and was repudiated by many in the African National Congress (ANC). A former ANC Youth League member, Buthelezi had aligned himself and Inkatha with the ANC in the 1970s, but in the 1980s their relationship became increasingly acrimonious. It emerged in the 1990s that Buthelezi had accepted money and military assistance from the apartheid regime for Inkatha, which stoked the political violence in KwaZulu and Natal in the 1980s and 1990s.

 

Buthelezi also played a complicated role during the negotiations to end apartheid, for which he helped set the framework as early as 1974 with the Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith. During the Congress for a Democratic South Africa, the IFP under Buthelezi lobbied for a federal system in South Africa with strong guarantees for regional autonomy and the status of Zulu traditional leaders. This proposal did not take hold and Buthelezi became aggrieved by what he perceived as the growing marginalisation both of the IFP and of himself personally, as negotiations were increasingly dominated by the ANC, and the white National Party government. He established the Concerned South Africans Group with other conservatives, withdrew from the negotiations, and launched a boycott of the 1994 general election, South Africa's first under universal suffrage. However, despite fears that Buthelezi would upend the peaceful transition entirely, Buthelezi and the IFP relented soon before the election, and not only participated, but also joined the Government of National Unity formed afterwards by newly elected President Mandela. Buthelezi served as Minister of Home Affairs under Mandela and under his successor, Thabo Mbeki, despite near-continuous tensions between the IFP and the governing ANC.

 

In subsequent years, the IFP struggled to expand its popular base beyond the new province of KwaZulu-Natal, which had absorbed KwaZulu in 1994. As the party's electoral fortunes declined, Buthelezi survived attempts by rivals within the party to unseat him. He remained the IFP's president until the party's 35th National General Conference in August 2019, when he declined to seek re-election and was succeeded by Velenkosini Hlabisa. In the 2019 general election, he was elected to a sixth consecutive term as a Member of Parliament (MP) for the IFP. He was the oldest MP in his country at the time of his death in 2023.

 

Buthelezi's role during the final decades of apartheid is controversial, and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that the IFP under Buthelezi's leadership "was the primary non-state perpetrator" of violence during the apartheid era and named him as "a major perpetrator of violence and human rights abuses"

 

LINK to video - Watch | Documentary | Remembering Mangosuthu Buthelezi 1/3 - www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z9DTNL7l9PA

 

LINK to video - Watch | Documentary | Remembering Mangosuthu Buthelezi 2/3 - www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDXv76-av5I

 

LINIK to video - Watch | Documentary | Remembering Mangosuthu Buthelezi 3/3 - www.youtube.com/watch?v=qXWUt9mDZSs&t=24s

"To every ω-consistent recursive class κ of formulae there correspond recursive class signs r, such that neither v Gen r nor Neg (v Gen r) belongs to Flg (κ) (where v is the free variable of r)."

– Kurt Gödel, Proposition VI, "On Formally Undecidable Propositions in Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I" (1931).

 

"Like all music, the figured bass should have no other end and aim than the glory of God and the recreation of the soul; where this is not kept in mind there is no true music, but only an infernal clamour and ranting."

– Johann Sebastian Bach

 

"Now, I should like to say something else to you about the connection with music, primarily that of Bach, i.e. the Fugue or, put more simply, the canon....It has a great deal in common with my own motifs, which I make turn on various axes too. Nowadays I have such a powerful sense of relationship, of affinity, that when I am listening to Bach I frequently get inspired and feel an overwhelming instinct for his insistent rhythm, a cadence seeking something of the infinite. In the Fugue everything is based on a single motif, often consisting of just a few notes. In my work, too, everything revolves around a single closed contour."

– M. C. Escher, letter of 1940.

 

"That swarm of ants that I observed, each one following the one ahead, have every one been Indra in the world of the gods by virtue of their own past action. And now, by virtue of their deeds done in the past, they have gradually fallen to the state of ants."

– Krsna, "Indra and the Ants".

© yohanes.budiyanto, 2014

 

PRELUDE

The 1st of August, 2014 was such an historic day as the world finally welcomed the birth of the first in line to the Parisian throne after a painstaking and extraordinary "labor" process that took four years in creation, and almost a decade in the making. I was not talking about a French rival to baby George, but instead a newborn that has sent shivers down the spines of Paris' oldest and current Kings and Grand Dames from the day it was conceived. Yes, I was referring to The Peninsula Paris, the youngest sister to the legendary Peninsula Hong Kong (circa 1928).

 

Ever since the project was announced to the public four years ago, it has been on my top list of the most eagerly awaited hotel openings of the decade. So when the hotel announced 1st of August as an opening date back in March, I immediately issued my First Class return tickets to the City of Light, risking the usual opening delay. A man of his word, Peninsula Paris finally opened as scheduled.

 

HISTORY

The Peninsula brand needs no introduction, as it is synonymous with quality, technology, innovation, craftsmanship and sophistication, -much like a slogan for French top brands and their savoir faire. Despite having only 10 current properties worldwide in its portfolio (Paris is its tenth), each Peninsula hotel is a market leader in each respective cities, and consistently tops the chart in many bonafide travel publications and reigns supreme as the world's best, especially elder sisters in Hong Kong and Bangkok. The Peninsula model is different from other rival hotel groups, which usually expand aggressively through both franchise and managed models worldwide. Instead, the Peninsula focuses on acquiring majority to sole ownership on all its properties to ensure control on quality (Hong Kong, New York, Chicago and Tokyo are 100% owned; Bangkok, Beijing and Manila are over 75%; Shanghai is 50%, while Beverly Hills and Paris are the only two with only 20% ownership).

 

The history of the Peninsula Paris could be traced back to a modest villa aptly called Hotel Basilevski on the plot of land at 19 Avenue Kleber back in 1864, -named after its Russian diplomat owner, Alexander Petrovich Basilevski, which caught the attention of hotelier Leonard Tauber for his prospective hotel project. The Versailles-styled property was partly a museum housing Basilevski's vast and impressive collection of 19th century medieval and Renaissance art, which eventually was acquired by Alexander III, -a Russian Tsar, at the sums of six millions francs. These collections were later transported to the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, and formed the base collection for the newly established Department of Medieval and Renaissance Art. After Basilevski sold the villa and moved to a more palatial residence at Avenue du Trocadero, the property was then acquired and rebranded the Palais de Castille as the residence of the exiled Queen Isabella II of Spain in 1868, who seeked refuge and continued to live there until 1904. Upon her death, the property was later demolished in 1906 to make way for the Majestic hotel, which finally opened in 1908 with much satisfaction of Leonard Tauber, who has eyed the premise from the very beginning.

 

The Majestic Hotel was exquisitely designed in the Beaux-Art style as a grand hotel by prominent architect of that time, Armand Sibien. Together with The Ritz (circa 1898), the two became the most preferred places to stay and entertain in Paris of the time. The Majestic has attracted the well-heeled crowd, and hosted many high profile events, most notably for a particular dinner hosted by rich British couple Sydney and Violet Schiff on 18 May 1922 as the after party of Igor Stravinsky's 'Le Renard' ballet premiere, and the hotel becomes an instant legend. The guests list were impressive: Igor Stravinsky himself, Pablo Picasso, Sergei Diaghilev, and two of the 20th century most legendary writers: James Joyce and Marcel Proust, who met for the first and only time before Proust's death six months later. Since then, the Majestic continued to draw high profile guests, including George Gershwin on 25 March 1928, where he composed "An American in Paris" during the stay.

 

If the walls could talk, the Majestic has plenty of stories to tell. It was once converted into a hospital during the infamy in 1914, and the British took residency at the hotel during the Paris Peace Conference back in 1919. The hotel was then acquired by the French State in 1936 as the offices of the Ministry of Defence; and later had a stint as the German Military High Command in France between October 1940 to July 1944 during the World War II. Post war, it then became the temporary home for UNESCO from 16 September 1946 until 1958. More than a decade after, the Paris Peace talks was opened by Henry Kissinger in one of its spectacular Ballrooms in 1969 with the Northern Vietnamese. Four years later, the Paris Peace Accord was finally signed at the oak paneled-room next to the Ballroom on 27 January 1973, which ended the Vietnam War. This triumphant event has also led to another victorious event when Henry Kissinger won the Nobel Peace Prize that same year.

 

The hotel continued to serve as the International Conference Center of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs until it was up for sale by the government in 2008 as part of the cost cutting program to the Qatari Diar, -which later transferred its ownership to Katara Hospitality, for a staggering USD 460 million. An excess of USD 600 million was further spent on the massive rebuilding and refurbishment not only to restore the hotel to its former glory, but also to transform it into a Peninsula with the highest standard.

 

The epic restoration work was led by prominent French architect, Richard Martinet, who has also previously work with the restoration of Prince Roland Bonaparte's former mansion into the Shangri-La Paris and also the Four Seasons George V; and involved teams of France's leading craftsmen; heritage designers and organisations; stonemasons from historic monument specialist; master glass crafters; crystal manufacturer; wood, moulding and gilder restoration experts, -many of whom are third generation, and have carried out high profile projects such as the Palace of Versailles, Louvre Museum, the dome of Les Invalides, the Grand and Petit Palais, and even the flame of the Statue of Liberty in New York. The result is truly breathtaking, and it was certainly money well spent to revive and recreate one of the nation's most treasured landmark. One of my favorite places within the hotel is the Main Lobby at Avenue des Portugais where the grand hall is adorned with a spectacular chandelier installation comprising 800 pieces of glass leaves inspired by the plane trees along Avenue Kleber. The work of Spain's most influential artist since Gaudi, Xavier Corbero, could also be found nearby in the form of a beautiful sculpture called Moon River.

 

Katara Hospitality owns 80% of The Peninsula Paris, and already has a spectacular portfolio ownership consisting some of the world's finest hotels, including The Raffles Singapore, Le Royal Monceau-Raffles Paris, Ritz-Carlton Doha, Schweizerhof Bern, and most recently, 5 of the InterContinental Hotel's European flagships, including Amstel in Amsterdam, Carlton in Cannes, De la Ville in Rome, Madrid and Frankfurt. It is interesting to note that Adrian Zecha, founder of the extraordinary Amanresorts chain is a member of the Board of Directors at Katara since September 2011, lending his immense hospitality expertise to the group.

 

At over USD 1 billion cost, the Pen Paris project is easily the most expensive to ever being built, considering it has only 200 rooms over 6 storeys. As a comparison, the cost of building the 101 storey, 494m high Shanghai World Financial Center (where the Park Hyatt Shanghai resides) is USD 1.2 billion; whereas Burj Khalifa, the current tallest building on earth at 163 storey and 828m, costed a 'modest' USD 1.5 billion to build. The numbers are truly mind boggling, and The Peninsula Paris is truly an extraordinary project. It might took the Majestic Hotel two years to build; but it took four years just to restore and reincarnate it into a Peninsula.

 

HOTEL OPENING

On a pleasant afternoon of 1 August 2014, the hotel finally opened its door to a crowd of distinguished guests, international journalists, first hotel guests and local crowds who partake to witness the inauguration and rebirth of a Parisian legend and grande dame (Many A-list celebrities and even Head of State flocked to the hotel to witness its sheer beauty). It was an historic day not just for Paris, but also for the Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels Group as it marks their arrival in Europe with its first ever Peninsula, while the second is already on the pipeline with the future opening of The Peninsula London, located just behind The Lanesborough at Knightsbridge.

 

The eagerly-awaited opening ceremony was attended by the Chairman of Katara Hospitality, His Excellency Sheikh Nawaf Bin Jassim Bin Jabor Al-Thani; CEO of Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels Limited (HSH), Clement Kwok; Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Development, Laurent Fabius; General Manager of the Peninsula Paris, Nicolas Béliard; and the event kicked off with an opening speech by the famous French Secretary of State for Foreign Trade, the Promotion of Tourism and French Nationals Abroad, Madame Fleur Pellerin, who clearly stole the show with her public persona. A ribbon cutting and spectacular lion dance show concluded the event, which drew quite a spectacle on Avenue des Portugais as it brought a unique display of Asian heritage to the heart of cosmopolitan Paris.

 

LOCATION

The Peninsula Paris stands majestically at the tree-lined Avenue Kléber, just off the Arc de Triomphe. Personally, this is an ideal location in Paris as it is a stone's throw away from all the happenings at the Champs-Élysées, but is set away from its hustle and bustle, which is constantly a tourist trap day and night. Once you walk pass the leafy Avenue Kléber, the atmosphere is very different: peaceful and safe. The Kléber Metro station is just a few steps away from the hotel, providing guests a convenient access to further parts of town.

 

Champs-Élysées is the center of Parisian universe, and it is just a short and pleasant stroll away from the hotel, where some of the city's most legendary commercial and cultural institutions reside. For a start, Drugstore Publicis at the corner by the roundabout has been a legendary hang-out since the 1960s, and is my ultimate favourite place in town. The Post Modern edifice by architect Michele Saee (renovated in 2004) houses almost everything: a Cinema; side walk Brasserie & Steak House; Newsagency; Bookshop (you can find Travel publications and even the Michelin Guide); upscale Gift shop and Beauty corner (even Acqua di Parma is on sale here); Pharmacy (whose pharmacist thankfully speaks English and gladly advises you on your symptoms); upscale deli (stocking pretty much everything from Foie gras burger on the counter, to fine wines & cigar cellar; to Pierre Herme & Pierre Marcolini chocolates; Dalloyau bakery; Marriage Freres tea; and even the Petrossian Caviar!). Best of all, it features a 2 Michelin star L'atelier de Joel Robuchon Etoile on its basement; and the store is even opened on Sunday until 2am. It is a one stop shopping, eating and entertainment, showcasing the best of France.

 

Further down the road, Maison Louis Vuitton stands majestically on its own entire 7 storey building, which was opened in 2005 as one of the biggest flagship stores in the world, covering a total area of 1,800m2. Designed by Eric Carlson and Peter Marino, the entire store is an architectural marvel and the temple of luxury, elegance and sophistication. This is one of the very few stores to open in Sunday as the French Labour Unions prohibits commercial stores to open on Sunday, unless if it involves cultural, recreational and sporting aspect. Initially, Maison LV was ordered by the court to close on Sunday, but LVMH finally wins an appeal in 2007 on the grounds of cultural experience; and the store has continued to draw endless queue on Sunday.

 

A block away from Maison LV is the legendary Parisian Tea Room of Ladurée, which was founded in 1862 by Louis Ernest Ladurée on its original store at 16 Rue Royal as a bakery. The Champs-Élysées store was opened in 1997 and has since attracted an endless queue of tourists and locals who wish to savour its legendary Macarons and pastries. The Ladurée phenomenon and popularity could only be rivaled by fellow Frenchmen Pierre Hermé, who has also attracted a cult of loyal fans worldwide. It may not have a flagship store at Champs-Élysées, but one could easily stop by Drugstore Publicis for a quick purchase to ease the craving.

 

For those looking for upscale boutiques, Avenue Montaigne located just nearby on a perpendicular, and features the flagship presence of the world's finest luxury fashion labels: Armani, Bottega Veneta, Valention, Prada, Dior, Versace, Chanel, Dolce & Gabbana, Gucci, Saint Laurent, Fendi and Salvatore Ferragamo to name a few. For the ultimate in shopping extravaganza, head down to Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré where all money will (hopefully) be well spent.

 

Champs-Élysées is the most famous and expensive boulevard in the world, yet it has everything for everyone; and myriad of crowds flocking its grand boulevards for a pleasant stroll. It has no shortage of luxury stores, but it also offers mainstream stores for the general public, from Levi's to Zara and Lacoste; to McDonalds and Starbucks; and FNAC store (French answer to HMV).

 

In terms of fine dining experience, the areas around Champs-Élysées has plenty to offer. I have mentioned about the 2 Michelin L'atelier de Joel Robuchon Etoile at the Drugstore Publicis, which was excellent. Robuchon never disappoints as it consistently serves amazing French cuisine amidst its signature red and black interior everywhere I visited, including Tokyo (3 Michelin), Hong Kong (3 Michelin), Paris (2 Michelin) and Taipei.

 

During my stay, I also managed to sample the finest cuisine from the kitchens of two, 3-Michelin Paris institutions: Pierre Gagnaire at Rue Balzac, just off Champs-Élysées; and Epicure at Le Bristol by Chef Eric Frechon on Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré, which was undoubtedly the best and most memorable dining experiences I have ever had in Paris to date. It is certainly the gastronomic highlight of this trip.

 

Other 3 Michelin establishment, such as Ledoyen is also located nearby at an 18th century pavilion by the Gardens of Champs-Élysées by newly appointed famous French Chef Yannick Alléno, who previously also resided at the Le Meurice with 3 Michelin, until Alain Ducasse took over last year during the Plaza Athénée closure for expansion.

 

August is a time of misery for international visitors to Paris as most fine dining restaurants are closed for the summer holiday. When choices are limited, foodies could rely on Epicure and Robuchon, which are opened all year round; and also the 2 Michelin star Le Cinq at the Four Seasons George V. Although its food could not compete with Robuchon, Epicure and Gagnaire, guests could still enjoy the beautiful surroundings.

 

ROOMS:

On my visit to Paris last year, I was not too impressed with my stay at the Four Seasons George V, as everything seemed to be pretty basic: the room design; the in-room tech and amenities; and even the much lauded service. It simply does not justify the hefty price tag. The only thing stood out there were the ostentatious designer floral display at the lobby, which reportedly absorbed a six digit figure budget annually. When I saw them at the first time, this was what came to mind: guests are paying for these excessive flowers, whether you like it or not.

 

Fortunately, the Peninsula Paris skips all this expensive gimmick, and instead spends a fortune for guests to enjoy: advance room technology; a host of complimentary essential amenities, including internet access, non-alcoholic minibar, and even long distance phone calls. In fact, every single items inside the room has been well thought and designed for guest's ultimate comfort.

 

Ever since The Peninsula Bangkok opened in 1998 to much success, the group has used it as a template for its signature rooms for future sister hotels, which consists of an open plan, ultra-wide spacious room equivalent to a 2 bays suite, with 5-fixtures bathroom, and a separate Dressing Room, which soon becomes a Peninsula signature.

 

The Peninsula Tokyo followed this template when it opened in 2007 to rave reviews; and it was soon adopted as a model for Peninsula Shanghai, which later opened in 2009 as the flagship property in Mainland China. This layout is also being applied at The Peninsula Paris, albeit for its Suites categories, i.e. Junior Suite, which measure at an astonishing 50 - 60m2. The entry level Superior and Deluxe Rooms lack the signature layout with smaller size at 35 - 45m2, but they are already spacious for a Parisian standard; and each is equipped with Peninsula's signature technology.

 

Technology is indeed at the core of the Peninsula DNA, and no expense is spared in creating the world's most advance in-room technology. When other hotels try to cut costs and budgets on in-room technology with lame excuses, the Peninsula actually spends a fortune to innovate and set a new benchmark. In fact, it is probably the only hotel group to have its own Technology laboratory at a secret location deep inside Aberdeen, Hong Kong, where in-room tech is being developed and tested. It was here where innovative devices, such as the outside temperature indicator; my favourite Spa Button by the bathtub; or even the portable nail dryer for the ladies are invented. The Peninsula took the world by storm when it introduced the Samsung Galaxy tablet device at the Peninsula Hong Kong in 2012, which is programmed in 11 languages and virtually controls the entire room, including the lights, temperature, curtains, TV, radio, valet calls and Do Not Disturb sign. It even features touch screen Room Service Menu, hotel information, city guide, and a function to request room service and housekeeping items, thus creating an entirely paperless environment.

 

All these technological marvel are also being replicated at the Peninsula Paris, together with other 'standard' features, such as Nespresso Coffee Machine; flat-screen 3D LED television; LED touch screen wall panels; an iPod/iPad docking station; memory card reader; 4-in1 fax/scanner/printer/photocopier machine; DVD player; complimentary in-house HD movies; complimentary internet access and long distance calls through the VOIP platform. Even the room's exterior Parisian-styled canopy is electronically operated. All these technological offerings is so extremely complex, that it resulted in 2.5 km worth of cabling in each room alone.

 

Bathroom at the Junior Suite also features Peninsula's signature layout: a stand alone bathtub as the focal point, flanked by twin vanities and separate shower and WC compartments amidst acres of white marble. Probably the first in Paris, it features a Japanese Toilet complete with basic control panel, and a manual handheld bidet sprayer.

 

When all these add up to the stay, it actually brings a very good value to the otherwise high room rates. Better yet, the non-alcoholic Minibar is also complimentary, which is a first for a Peninsula hotel. The Four Seasons George V may choose to keep looking back to its antiquity past and annihilate most technological offerings to its most basic form, but the Pen always looks forward to the future and brings the utter convenience, all at your finger tip. The Peninsula rooms are undoubtedly the best designed, best equipped and most high-tech in the entire universe.

 

ROOM TO BOOK:

The 50 - 60m2 Junior Suite facing leafy Avenue Kléber is the best room type to book as it is an open-plan suite with Peninsula's signature bathroom and dressing room; and the ones located on the Premiere étage (first floor) have high ceilings and small balcony overlooking Kleber Terrace's iconic glass canopy. Personally, rooms facing the back street at Rue La Pérouse are the least preferred, but its top level rooms inside the Mansart Roof on level 5 have juliet windows that allow glimpse of the tip of Eiffel Tower despite being smaller in size due to its attic configuration. Superior Rooms also lack the signature Peninsula 5 fixtures bathroom configuration, so for the ultimate bathing experience, make sure to book at least from the Deluxe category.

 

If money is no object, book one of the five piece-de-resistance suites with their own private rooftop terrace and gardens on the top floor, which allow 360 degree panoramic views of Paris. Otherwise, the mid-tier Deluxe Suite is already a great choice with corner location, multiple windows and 85m2 of pure luxury.

 

DINING:

Looking back at the hotel's illustrious past, the Peninsula offers some of the most unique and memorable dining experiences in Paris, steep in history.

 

The area that once housed Igor Stravinksy's after party where James Joyce met Marcel Proust for the first time is now the hotel's Cantonese Restaurant, aptly called LiLi; and is led by Chef Chi Keung Tang, formerly of Peninsula Tokyo's One Michelin starred Hei Fung Terrace. Lili was actually modeled after Peninsula Shanghai's Yi Long Court, but the design here blends Chinese elements with Art Nouveau style that flourished in the late 1920s. It also boasts a world first: a spectacular 3x3.3m fiber optic installation at the entrance of the restaurant, depicting the imaginary portrait of LiLi herself. The Cantonese menu was surprisingly rather simple and basic, and features a selection of popular dim sum dishes. The best and most memorable Chinese restaurants I have ever experienced are actually those who masterfully fuse Chinese tradition with French ingredients: Jin Sha at the Four Seasons Hangzhou at Westlake; 2 Michelin Tin Lung Heen at Level 102 of the Ritz-Carlton Hong Kong; Jiang at Mandarin Oriental Guangzhou by Chef Fei; and Ya Ge at Mandarin Oriental Taipei. Ironically, the world's only 3 Michelin star Chinese restaurant, Lung King Heen at the Four Seasons Hong Kong failed to impress me.

 

The former Ballroom area where Henry Kissinger started the Paris Peace talks with the Vietnamese has now been transformed as The Lobby, which is a signature of every Peninsula hotels where the afternoon tea ritual takes place daily. The spectacular room with intricate details and crystal chandeliers has been meticulously restored, and is an ideal place to meet, see and be seen. Breakfast is served daily here, and guests could choose to have it either inside or outside at the adjoining al fresco La Terrasse Kléber, which connects all the F&B outlets on the ground floor, including Lili. Guests could choose from a Chinese set breakfast, which includes dim sum, fried vermicelli, and porridge with beef slices; or the Parisian set, which includes gourmet items such as Egg Benedict with generous slices of Jamon Iberico on top. The afternoon tea ritual is expected to be very popular as renowned Chef Pattissier Julien Alvarez, -who claimed the World Pastry Champion in 2009; and also the Spanish World Chocolate Master in 2007 at the tender age of 23, is at the helm; and the venue quickly booked out from the opening day.

 

Next to the Lobby is a small, intimate bar covered in exquisite oak panelling where Henry Kissinger signed the Paris Peace Accord back in 1973 that ended the Vietnam War. Kissinger politely declined the offer to have the Bar named after him, and instead it is simply called Le Bar Kléber.

 

On the top floor of the hotel lies the signature restaurant L'Oiseau Blanc, which is named after the French biplane that disappeared in 1927 in an attempt to make the first non-stop transatlantic flight between Paris and New York. A 75% replica of the plane has even been installed outside the main entrance of the restaurant with the Eiffel Tower on its background. The restaurant is divided into 3 distinct areas: a spectacular glass enclosed main dining room; a large outdoor terrace that runs the entire length of the hotel's roof; and an adjoining lively bar, all with breathtaking uninterrupted views of Paris' most identifiable landmarks, including the Eiffel Tower and the Sacré-Cœur at the highest point of the city at Montmartre.

 

L'Oiseau Blanc is led by Chef Sidney Redel, a former protégé of Pierre Gagnaire, and serves contemporary French cuisine focussing on 'terroir' menu of locally sourced seasonal ingredients from the region. During my stay, tomato was the seasonal ingredients, and Chef Redel created four courses incorporating tomato, even on dessert. While the food was of high quality, personally the menu still needs fine tuning, considering the sort of clientele the Pen is aiming for: the ultra rich (Chinese), who usually seek top establishments with luxury ingredients, such as caviar, black truffle, foie gras, blue lobster, Jamon Iberico, Wagyu beef, Kurobuta pork and Challans chicken.

 

LEISURE:

The Peninsula Paris features one of the best health and recreational facilities in the city, housed within the basement of the hotel, and covers an expansive area of 1,800m2. For a comparison, rival Mandarin Oriental Spa covers a total area of only 900m2 over two floors. The Peninsula Spa is undoubtedly one of the nicest urban spa that I have been to, it easily beats the Spa at the Four Seasons George V. The pool is also one of the city's largest at 22m long, -compared to both the Shangri-La and Mandarin Oriental at 15m; the George V at only 9m, which is more like a bigger jacuzzi. The only two other pools better than the Peninsula is the one designed by Phillippe Starck at the Le Royal Monceau at 28m; and the spectacular grand pool at the Ritz.

 

There is the usual 24 hours gym within two fitness spaces equipped with Technogym machines and free weights; and the locker rooms features steam, sauna, and experience shower room. There is a total of 8 treatment rooms within the Spa area, and the highlight is certainly the Relaxation Room, which is equipped with amazing day beds with specially placed deep cushions. The best part? the beds are electronically operated, much like a first class seat on a plane.

 

X-FACTOR:

The Peninsula signature technology; The Spa Button in the bathroom; VOIP technology for complimentary long distance calls; The top suites (Historic, Katara and Peninsula Suites); Xavier Corbero's Moon River sculpture at the Lobby; Lili; The Lobby and Bar where Henry Kissinger signed Paris Peace Accord; L'Oiseau Blanc Restaurant; The 1,800m2 Peninsula Spa; and the 1934 Rolls Royce Phantom II.

 

SERVICE:

There are a total of 600 staffs for just 200 rooms, so the service level is expected to be high; but it is perhaps unfair to judge the service during the opening weeks when all staffs were not at their best due to the intense preparation leading to the opening event. Furthermore, teething problems are expected for a newly opened hotel as great hotels are not born overnight, but takes a good few years of refinement.

 

Nonetheless, I was actually quite impressed with the level of service during the whole stay, as the majority of the staffs showed great attitude and much enthusiasm, which is a testament of great intense training. As one of the first guests arriving on the opening day, check-in was truly delightful and memorable as a battalion of staffs of different ranks welcomed and wished the most pleasant stay. The mood could not have been more festive as moments later, the hotel was finally inaugurated.

 

I was also particularly impressed with the service at both LiLi and The Lobby where staffs performed at an exceptional level like a veteran. There are two distinct qualities that made a lot of difference during the stay: humility and friendliness, which is quite a challenge to find, not only in Paris and the entire Europe, but even in Asian cities, such as Hong Kong. It is like finding needles in a haystack. A genuine smile seems to be a rare commodity these days, so I was happy to see plenty of smiles at the Peninsula Paris during the stay, from the signature Peninsula Pageboys to waiters, Maître d, receptionists and even to Managers and Directors. In fact, there were more smiles in Paris than Hong Kong.

 

When I woken up too early for breakfast one day, the restaurant was just about to open; and there were hardly anyone. I realized that even the birds were probably still asleep, but I was extremely delighted to see how fresh looking and energetic the staffs were at the dining room. There was a lot of genuine smile that warmed the rather chilly morning; and it was a great start to the day. One of the staffs I met during the stay even candidly explained how they were happy just to be at work, and it does not feel like working at all, which was clearly shown in their passion and enthusiasm.

 

That said, the Shangri-La Paris by far is still my top pick for best service as it is more personalized and refined due to its more intimate scale. The Shangri-La Paris experience is also unique as guests are welcomed to a sit down registration by the historic lounge off the Lobby upon arrival, and choice of drinks are offered, before being escorted to the room for in-room check-in. Guests also receive a Pre-Arrival Form in advance, so the hotel could anticipate and best accommodate their needs. During the stay, I was also addressed by my last name everywhere within the hotel, so it was highly personalized. I did receive similar treatment at The Peninsula Paris, -albeit in a lesser extent due to its size; and even the housekeeping greeted me by my last name. Every requests, from room service to mineral water were all handled efficiently at a timely manner. At times, service could be rather slow at the restaurants (well, it happens almost everywhere in Paris), but this is part of the Parisian lifestyle where nothing is hurried; and bringing bills/checks upfront is considered rude. I did request the food servings to be expedited during a lunch at LiLi on the last day due to the time constraint; and the staffs managed to succeed the task not only ahead of the time limit, but also it never felt hurried all along. Everything ran as smooth as silk.

 

VERDICT:

It was a personal satisfaction to witness the history in the making during the opening day on 1 August 2014, as the Peninsula Paris is my most eagerly awaited hotel opening of the decade. It was also historic, as it was a first in my travel to dedicate a trip solely for a particular hotel in a particular city (in this case Paris, some 11,578km away from home), without staying at other fine hotels. It was money well spent, and a trip worth taking as it was an amazing stay; and certainly a lifetime experience.

 

The Peninsula Paris could not have arrived at a better time, as two of the most established Parisian grande dames (Ritz and de Crillon) are still closed for a complete renovation, and will only be revealed in 2015; so there is plenty of time to adapt, grow and hone its skills. But with such pedigree, quality and illustrious history, the Pen really has nothing to be worried about. The Four Seasons George V seems to have a cult of highly obsessed fans (esp. travel agents) worldwide, but personally (and objectively), it is no match to the Peninsula. Based on physical product alone, the Pen wins in every aspect as everything has been meticulously designed with the focus on guest comfort and convenience. In terms of technology, the Pen literally has no rival anywhere on the planet, except from the obvious sibling rivalry.

 

The only thing that the Pen still needs to work on is its signature restaurants as all its rival hotels have at least 2 Michelin star restaurants (L'abeille at the Shangri-La; Sur Mesure at the Mandarin Oriental; and 3 Michelin at Epicure, Le Bristol; Le Cinq at the Four Seasons George V and Alain Ducasse at Le Meurice). L'Oiseau Blanc design is truly breathtaking and would certainly be the most popular gastronomic destination in Paris, but at the moment, the food still needs some works.

 

There were the expected teething problems and some inconsistencies with the service; but with years of refinement, The Peninsula Paris will no doubt ascend the throne. Personally, the Shangri-La Paris is currently the real competitor, together with the upcoming Ritz and de Crillon when they open next year, especially when Rosewood has taken over Crillon management and Karl Lagerfeld is working on its top suites. The two, however, may still need to revisit the drawing boards and put more effort on the guestrooms if they ever want to compete; because at the moment, The Peninsula Paris is simply unrivaled.

 

UPDATE 2016:

*I have always been very spot-on with my predictions. After only two years since its opening, The Peninsula Paris has been awarded the much coveted Palace status. In fact, it is the only hotel in Paris to receive such distinction in 2016. Congratulations, it is very much deserving*

 

PERSONAL RATING:

1. Room: 100

2. Bathroom: 100

3. Bed: 100

4. Service: 90

5. In-room Tech: 100

6. In-room Amenities: 100

7. Architecture & Design: 100

8. Food: 80

9. View: 80

10. Pool: 95

11. Wellness: 95

12. Location: 95

13. Value: 100

 

Overall: 95.00

 

Compare with other Parisian hotels (all with Palace status) that I have stayed previously:

SHANGRI-LA HOTEL, PARIS: 95.00

PARK HYATT PARIS-VENDOME: 90.00

FOUR SEASONS GEORGE V: 85.38

 

My #1 ALL TIME FAVORITE HOTEL

LANDMARK MANDARIN ORIENTAL, HONG KONG: 95.38

 

THE PENINSULA, PARIS

19, Avenue Kléber, Paris

Awarded Palace Status in 2016

 

General Manager: Nicolas Béliard

Hotel Manager: Vincent Pimont

Executive Chef: Jean-Edern Hurstel

Head Chef (Lili): Chi Keung Tang

Head Chef (L'oiseau Blanc): Sidney Redel

Head Chef (The Lobby): Laurent Poitevin

Chef Patissier: Julien Alvarez

 

Architect (original Majestic Hotel, circa 1908): Armand Sibien

Architect (renovation & restoration, 2010-2014): Richard Martinet

Interior Designer: Henry Leung of Chhada Siembieda & Associates

Landscape Designer: D. Paysage

 

Art Curator: Sabrina Fung

Art Restorer: Cinzia Pasquali

Artist (Courtyard installation): Ben Jakober & Yannick Vu

Crystal work: Baccarat

Designer (Lili fiber optic installation): Clementine Chambon & Francoise Mamert

Designer (Chinaware): Catherine Bergen

Gilder Specialist & Restorer: Ateliers Gohard

Glass Crafter (Lobby Installation): Lasvit Glass Studio

Master Glass Crafters: Duchemin

Master Sculptor (Lobby): Xavier Corbero

Metalwork: Remy Garnier

Plaster & Moulding Expert: Stuc et Staff

Silverware: Christofle

Silk & Trimmings: Declercq Passementiers

Wood Restoration Expert: Atelier Fancelli

  

Hotel Opening Date: 01 August 2014

Notable owners: Katara Hospitality; Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels Group (HSH)

Total Rooms & Suites: 200 (including 35m2 Superior, 45m2 Deluxe, 50m2 Grand Deluxe, 55m2 Premier and 60m2 Grand Premier Rooms)

Total Suites: 34 Suites (including 70m2 Superior, 85m2 Deluxe and 100m2 Premier

Top Suites: Historic Suite, Katara Suite, and The Peninsula Suite

Bathroom Amenities: Oscar de la Renta

 

Restaurants: The Lobby (All day dining & Afternoon tea), LiLi (Cantonese), L'Oiseau Blanc (French), La Terrasse Kléber

Bars and Lounges: Le Bar Kléber; Kléber Lounge; Cigar Lounge; and L'Oiseau Blanc Bar

Meeting & Banquets: Salon de l'Étoile for up to 100 guests, and 3 smaller Function Rooms

Health & Leisure: 24 hours gym & 1,800m2 Peninsula Spa with 22m indoor swimming pool and jacuzzis; Steam & Sauna, Relaxation Room, and 8 treatment rooms

Transport: chauffeur-driven Rolls Royce Extended Wheel Base Phantom; a 1934 Rolls Royce Phantom II; 2 MINI Cooper S Clubman; and a fleet of 10 BMW 7 Series

 

Complimentary facilities: Non-alcoholic Minibar; Wired and Wireless Internet; VOIP long distance calls; HD Movies; Daily fruit Basket; International Newspaper; Chauffeured MINI Cooper S Clubman for Suites guests; and Chauffeured Rolls Royce for top Suites

 

paris.peninsula.com

for the second time in 3 days I got home less than 20 steps away from 10,000.

Popular culture depictions of zombies have evolved into a relatively consistent archetype generally consistent with the Romero zombie and characterized by the following traits:

 

• A body comprised of a deceased human body that has subsequently reanimated, usually because of a viral infection incurred in the brain while the body was still living.

• Reduced speed of movement relative to normal humans (however, some recent theatrical depictions of zombies portray them as moving as fast as a healthy human, or even faster). This is possibly due to their decaying muscles (leading to slow movement) or adrenaline (leading to quick movements).

• Increased endurance relative to normal humans; some sources attribute this to removal of normal neurological limits to muscle endurance (e.g., Golgi tendon reflex). This could also mean their inability to feel pain at times, as they are not affected by nerves.

• Profoundly reduced or absent cognitive function - Zombies may have impaired eyesight, hearing or smelling. However, they are known to be attracted by bright lights or loud noises, possibly meaning that they may instead be highly sensitive to them. Some even believe that zombies are attracted to the anything that make noise which is widely supported and seen in films and media like the Walking Dead and even in Night of the Living Dead.

• An insatiable and endless desire to consume living animal flesh, usually human, sometimes favoring brains. Some depicts zombies simply possessing the desire to kill.

• Lack of normal human biological functions such as sleep, digestion,

• Lack of normal human biological requirements such as conventional food, sleep, or even oxygen.

• Supernatural resistance or immunity to traumatic injury of any part of the body except for the brain. This is mainly due to the death of their nerves which makes them unable to experience pain or irritation.

• Vulnerable only to attacks that remove the head or destroy the brain. Some zombies are depicted to also be vulnerable to powerful attacks (crushing of the body, high-caliber shot) which also kills them outright, but the simplest way, still, is to remove the brain.

• Has high aggression and little intelligence and has the some of the traits of a rabid person.

• Ignores or is oblivious of fellow zombies.

• In some depictions zombies can be seen eating each other if there is a lack of humans, as was the case in the video game "Resident Evil Operation Racoon City", however it seems they favor humans as they will stop eating each other should a human get too close.

[zombipedia]

  

zombie.wikia.com/wiki/Zombie_Wiki

As shown in the photo, the backlight used in Apple's 24" iMac is not consistent across the display. (Photo is of the 3.06GHz model with 130 graphics, pure white background created in Photoshop full screen mode, brightness set to 100%.) More specifically, the left/right edges are slightly darker, especially the corners. From what my eyes see, this backlight problem appears as a subtle gradient extending out about 1.5 inches from each edge of the display. And from what I have read in online forums, this backlight inconsistency is nothing new to 2009 iMac, but different flavors of it have been seen in 2007 and 2008 models as well. Some have reported having Apple swap out their iMac more than 3 times, only to find the same backlighting inconsistency each time. Some have even visited Apple stores to compare iMac screens, and they have confirmed the problem exists on iMacs there as well. This is the main reason I've not yet contacted Apple to swap out my iMac, because the replacement might have the same or worse backlighting problem (and possibly dead pixels too, which this iMac does not have).

 

The left/right edge darkness is subtle, and is most noticeable on a white background (or when dragging a white window to the edges of the display). Please click the "ALL SIZES" icon above the photo too view a larger version of this photo, which makes the edge darkness even easier to see. It is subtle but it is there. It is especially problematic when trying to color-correct photos at the screen edges in Photoshop.

 

Here is an Apple Discussion Thread that mentions the matter. And here is a report and photo from an iMac owner who has seen the same problem. Also, here is my post (and the posts of others) about this on the Macintouch iMac Aluminum Reader Report.

 

I long used an Apple 20" ADC Cinema Display at home with a G4 Cube. The backlight on that 20" display shows 100% consistency from edge to edge. So it cannot be argued that this is something inherent to all LCD panels from Apple.

 

NOV.'09 UPDATE Folks it's been long in coming, but I purchased a new iMac for home use: the 2.8GHz quadcore i7. I am happy to confirm that the new 27" screen, with LED technology, does not exhibit any uneven backlighting at all. However, there are some 27" models that either flicker or have the bottom 1/3 of the screen slightly more yellow. I have posted a photo here.

 

For the first time on Feb.27 2010 I used these test bars and determined that the upper bar is every so slightly "cooler" than the lower bar. My eyes would deem the lower bar "warm" rather than yellow. But the fact is that, now that I scrutinize it, I do see a very slight color difference between the upper and lower part of my iMac 27" screen. I would say this may not be an issue for most people, but for those of us doing color-correction work in Photoshop, it is definitely an issue.

72. At this time there were two plans to attack Freetown, one made by Bockarie

with the Accused, and one made by breakaway AFRC commander Solomon Anthony

Joseph Musa (a.k.a. SAJ Musa), whose troops had started an advance towards Freetown

at the end of June/beginning of July 1998. Consistent with his discussions with the

Accused, Bockarie invited SAJ Musa after the Waterworks meeting to join his efforts to

attack Freetown but Musa refused. However, with SAJ Musa’s death in or around 23

December 1998, when Gullit took over the leadership of the troops at Benguema and

resumed contact with Bockarie, Bockarie and Gullit coordinated in their efforts to capture

Freetown. From that point onwards, SAJ Musa’s original plan was abandoned, and Gullit

followed the Bockarie/Taylor plan, as had been contemplated by Bockarie and the

Accused. During the operation, Bockarie exercised effective command and control over

Gullit, issuing a number of instructions to Gullit, including the order to use terror tactics

against the civilian population on the retreat from Freetown. The Trial Chamber did not

make a finding as to how SAJ Musa was killed, but noted that the possibility of his death

had been mentioned by Bockarie at the time of the Waterworks meeting.

73. The Accused gave advice to Bockarie and received updates in relation to the

progress of the operations in Kono and Freetown in the implementation of their plan.

Bockarie was in frequent contact via radio or satellite phone with the Accused in

December 1998 and January 1999, either directly or through Benjamin Yeaten. Yeaten

also travelled to Sierra Leone to meet with Bockarie in Buedu during this period.

However, it is not clear that the Accused had any level of control over the conduct of

these operations. Of the instructions allegedly given to Bockarie by the Accused during

this period, only one was proved beyond reasonable doubt, that being that the Accused

instructed Bockarie to transfer some of the Pademba Road prisoners to Buedu. This

finding is insufficient to establish, as the Prosecution has alleged, that the Accused

directed or had control over the Kono and Freetown operations in December 1998 and

January 1999.

74. In addition to planning and advising on the Kono-Freetown operation, the

Accused also provided military and other support. He facilitated the purchase and

transport of a large shipment of arms and ammunition from Burkina Faso in around

17

November 1998 which was used in the attacks on Kono and Kenema in December 1998,

where further arms and ammunition were captured. These arms and ammunition were in

turn sent to the troops in Freetown in January 1999 and also used by the RUF and AFRC

in joint attacks on the outskirts of Freetown. The Accused also sent personnel in the form

of at least four former Sierra Leone Army (SLA) fighters who participated in the attack

on Kono, as well as 20 former NPFL fighters who were part of the forces under the

command of Gullit that entered Freetown, and a group of 150 fighters with Abu Keita (a

former ULIMO member), known as the Scorpion Unit, who participated in the attack on

Kenema.

75. During the Freetown operation, the Accused’s subordinates in Liberia also

transmitted “448 messages” to RUF forces to warn them of impending ECOMOG jet

attacks. These messages originated in both Sierra Leone and Liberia.

Operational Support

76. In addition to support for specific military operations, the Accused provided to the

RUF, and the RUF/AFRC alliance, communications support, financial support, military

training, technical support and other operational support. Of these, communications

support, facilitation and transport of materiel and personnel and the provision of a

guesthouse to the RUF were sustained and significant.

77. Concerning communications assistance, following the invasion of Sierra Leone in

1991, the NPFL provided radio operators and equipment to the RUF with the knowledge

of the Accused. NPFL radio operators were sent to Sierra Leone and trained RUF fighters

in radio communication. Some of these radio operators stayed in Sierra Leone following

the break with the NPFL in Operation Top Final, and the RUF continued to benefit from

the training and equipment provided by the NPFL throughout the conflict in Sierra Leone

and during the Indictment period.

78. The Accused gave Sam Bockarie a satellite phone in October 1998. Bockarie also

received “top up cards” for phone credit from Benjamin Yeaten. The Accused also gave a

satellite phone to Issa Sesay in 2000, albeit with full knowledge of the ECOWAS leaders.

The supply of such satellite phones enhanced the communications capability of both

18

Bockarie and Sesay, which they used in furtherance of RUF and RUF/AFRC military

activities. Sesay, for example, used a satellite phone to report to Bockarie that Kono was

under RUF control. While Foday Sankoh was also given a satellite phone, the

Prosecution failed to prove that the phone came from the Accused.

79. In addition to providing communications training and equipment to the RUF, the

Accused and his subordinates facilitated communications for the RUF through their own

communications network. The RUF/AFRC was provided access to radio communications

equipment in Liberia by the Accused or his subordinates. This equipment was used by

RUF radio operators to communicate with the RUF, in one instance concerning supplies

of military equipment, and in another to update Bockarie on events in Sierra Leone when

he was in Liberia. A radio was provided by the Accused to Johnny Paul Koroma.

However, this radio was used specifically for the purpose of enabling Koroma to

communicate with the West Side Boys about the UN peacekeepers that they had taken

hostage. The evidence did not establish that the Accused and Yeaten received updates

during the Freetown invasion from an RUF operator stationed in Liberia.

80. Although the establishment of the infrastructure and the training of RUF radio

operators occurred prior to the Indictment period, the ongoing support from the Accused

and his subordinates through the provision of satellite phones, the use of the NPFL

communications infrastructure, and the transmission of “448” messages alerting the RUF

to imminent ECOMOG attack, collectively enhanced the communications capacity of the

RUF/AFRC during the Indictment period, and its capacity to carry out military operations

in which crimes were committed.

81. In relation to the guesthouse, the Trial Chamber finds that from 1998 to 2001 the

Accused provided a base for the RUF in Monrovia, equipped with a long-range radio and

telephone, RUF radio operators, SSS security supervised by Benjamin Yeaten, cooks and

a caretaker. Although the guesthouse was used by RUF members partly for matters

relevant to the peace process or for diplomatic purposes, it was also used to facilitate the

transfer of arms, ammunition and funds directly from the Accused to the RUF, and the

delivery of diamonds from the RUF directly to the Accused, belying his testimony that he

19

was entirely unaware of what occurred at the guesthouse. The RUF guesthouse provided

a base for the RUF in Monrovia, which facilitated the regular transfers of arms and

ammunition from the Accused to the RUF, as well as diamonds from the RUF to the

Accused, transactions which played a vital role in the military operations of the RUF in

which crimes were committed.

82. The Trial Chamber further finds that during the Indictment period, the Accused

provided much needed road and air transportation to the RUF of arms and ammunition

into RUF territory. Materiel was also escorted across military checkpoints by security

personnel working for the Accused, including Daniel Tamba (a.k.a. Jungle), Joseph

Marzah (a.k.a. Zigzag), and Sampson Weah. This facilitation of road and air

transportation of materiel, as well as security escorts, played a vital role in the operations

of the RUF/AFRC during a period when an international arms embargo was in force.

83. The Accused also provided financial support, military training, technical support

and other operational support to the RUF, including medical support. In most instances in

which the Accused provided financial support, the funds given by the Accused to various

individuals were for unspecified or personal use. The evidence failed to establish that the

10 million CFA francs given by the Accused to the RUF in Côte d’Ivoire, or the $USD

15,000 given by him to Sesay to support the RUF, were used to facilitate arms and

diamond deals. However, the Accused did give funds to Bockarie, in the tens of

thousands of dollars, to buy arms and ammunition from ULIMO. The RUF received

financial support for arms and ammunition from sources other than the Accused as well.

84. Similarly, while the Accused provided other forms of support to the RUF,

including medical support, and he acknowledged that he permitted injured RUF fighters

to get treatment in Liberia, it is not clear how continuous or substantial the provision of

medical care was throughout the Indictment period. In preparation for the Fitti-Fatta

mission in mid-1998, the Accused sent ‘herbalists’ who marked fighters in Buedu and in

Kono in order to bolster their confidence for the mission to recapture Kono. Other

support included the provision of goods such as food, clothing, cigarettes, alcohol and

other supplies to the RUF by the Accused. The evidence is insufficient to enable the Trial

20

Chamber to judge the quantity of supplies provided. Other supplies for the RUF came

from Liberia through other channels unrelated to the Accused.

85. With regard to military training and technical support, the Accused instructed

Bockarie in 1998 to open a training base in Bunumbu, Kailahun District, and told him

also in 1998 that the RUF should construct or re-prepare an airfield in Buedu. However,

the Prosecution failed to prove that the Accused sent Martina Johnson, a former NPFL

artillery commander, to Buedu to train RUF fighters to use a 40-barrel missile gun.

86. The Accused provided safe haven to RUF fighters, including Mike Lamin, when

they crossed into Liberia after the retreat from Zogoda in 1996, but the Accused was not

found to have ordered the RUF combatants to cross into Liberia. He had not yet taken

office as President at that time, however, and the Prosecution failed to prove that he

facilitated documentation to enable Lamin to travel to Côte d’Ivoire.

Arms and Ammunition

87. Turning to the allegations of the Prosecution relating to the role of the Accused in

providing military support to the RUF/AFRC, the Trial Chamber first considered two

preliminary issues raised by the Defence, one relating to the status of the border between

Sierra Leone and Liberia, and the other relating to disarmament in Liberia. The Trial

Chamber finds that at no relevant time in the Indictment period was the ECOMOG

presence on the Liberia/Sierra Leone border, or the official closure of the border by the

Liberian government, sufficient to prevent the cross-border movement of arms and

ammunition. With regard to the claim that as a result of disarmament and the destruction

of arms, as well as the arms embargo, Liberia had insufficient arms and ammunition to

supply Sierra Leone, the Trial Chamber finds that despite these measures, the Accused

was able to obtain arms and had the capacity to supply arms and ammunitions from

Liberia to the rebel groups in Sierra Leone. Moreover, he had the capacity to facilitate

larger arms shipments through third countries. Of the arms shipments to the RUF and

AFRC linked to the Accused during the Indictment period, the largest arrived not from

Liberia, but through Liberia from third party states, primarily Burkina Faso.

21

88. The Accused directly supplied arms and ammunition to the RUF/AFRC, as well

as facilitating the supply of arms and ammunition to the RUF/AFRC from outside

Liberia. During the Junta period, the Accused sent ammunition to Bockarie via Daniel

Tamba (a.k.a. Jungle) in 1997. The Accused was the source of the materiel delivered by

Tamba, Joseph (a.k.a Zizgag) Marzah and Sampson Weah, among others, to Sierra Leone

throughout 1998 and 1999, such supplies consisting of both arms and ammunition.

Bockarie himself made trips to Liberia in 1998 and 1999 during which he obtained arms

and ammunition from the Accused. During Issa Sesay’s leadership of the RUF, the

Accused continued to deliver arms and ammunition to the RUF in 2000 and 2001 via

Tamba, Marzah, Weah and others. Sesay himself made trips to Liberia, including a trip in

May 2000 and at least two trips in the second half of 2000 and early 2001, during which

he obtained arms and ammunition from the Accused.

89. Although the materiel delivered through, inter alia, Tamba, Weah and Marzah

was limited in quantity, certain shipments provided by the Accused on Bockarie’s trips to

Liberia in 1998 and 1999 did contain sizeable amounts of materiel.

90. After 14 February 1998, the Accused sent Varmuyan Sherif to open a corridor

between Lofa County and RUF-held territories to facilitate the trade of arms and

ammunition between the RUF/AFRC and ULIMO. As a result, members of ULIMO who

were supposed to disarm and surrender their arms to the UN, instead sold or bartered

them to the RUF. The Accused also provided financial support to the RUF/AFRC in

order to facilitate their purchases of arms and ammunition from ex-ULIMO combatants.

However, the evidence was insufficient to establish that the Accused attempted to help

the RUF purchase arms and ammunition from ECOMOG and ULIMO prior to the Junta

period.

91. The Accused facilitated two large shipments of ammunition. The first occurred in

late 1997. In around September 1997, the Accused sent Ibrahim Bah to Freetown to meet

with Sam Bockarie and Johnny Paul Koroma to make arrangements for the procurement

of arms and ammunition. Bah was given 90 carats of diamonds and $USD 90,000 to pay

for the shipment. This shipment of arms and ammunition was delivered by plane to

22

Magburaka in Sierra Leone sometime between September and December 1997 and was

distributed amongst members of the AFRC/RUF Junta. Materiel from this shipment was

used by the AFRC/RUF forces in fighting ECOMOG and SLPP forces in Freetown

before, during and after the Intervention, in the Junta mining operations at Tongo Fields

prior to the ECOMOG Intervention, in “Operation Pay Yourself” and subsequent

offensives on Kono, as well as in the commission of crimes during those operations.

92. The Accused also facilitated a shipment of materiel around November 1998 from

Burkina Faso. Ibrahim Bah and Musa Cissé, Charles Taylor’s Chief of Protocol,

accompanied a delegation led by Bockarie to Burkina Faso where a shipment of arms and

ammunition was arranged and brought back by plane to Liberia, and then transported by

trucks provided by the Accused to Sierra Leone. The Trial Chamber finds that the

Accused was instrumental in procuring and transporting this large quantity of arms and

ammunition for the RUF, that he was paid for it with diamonds, and that he kept some of

the shipment for his own purposes. The shipment from Burkina Faso was unprecedented

in volume and, as noted previously, was critical in the December 1998 and January 1999

offensives.

93. The Trial Chamber considered the Defence submission that other sources of

military equipment for the RUF and AFRC far outweighed supplies allegedly provided

by the Accused. In addition to receiving arms and ammunition from the Accused, the

RUF and the AFRC also obtained supplies from the existing stockpiles of the former

government when they took over power in May 1997, by capturing them from ECOMOG

and UN peacekeepers, and through trade with ULIMO, AFL and ECOMOG

commanders. However, these sources of materiel were of minor importance in

comparison to those supplied or facilitated by the Accused. Significantly, the RUF/AFRC

in fact heavily and frequently relied on the materiel supplied and facilitated by the

Accused; the Accused’s support often satisfied a need or request for materiel at a

particular time; and shipments of materiel supplied by or facilitated by the Accused often

contributed to and were causally linked to the capture of further supplies by the RUF and

AFRC. Although there were instances in which the materiel that the Accused gave to the

RUF/AFRC was more limited in quantity, on a number of occasions the arms and

23

ammunition which he supplied or facilitated were indispensable for the RUF/AFRC

military offensives. The materiel provided or facilitated by the Accused was critical in

enabling the operational strategy of the RUF and the AFRC during the Indictment period.

94. On the basis of its findings, more detailed in the written Judgement, the Trial

Chamber rejects the Defence argument that Benjamin Yeaten, the Director of the

Accused’s Special Security Service, to whom the arms couriers reported, was engaged in

the trade of arms and ammunition for the RUF independently and without the knowledge

of the Accused.

Military Personnel

95. As previously noted, approximately 20 former NPFL fighters who had been

integrated into the Armed Forces of Liberia formed part of a group of approximately 200

fighters led by O-Five who attacked and committed crimes in Karina and Kamalo in

Bombali District on or about August/September 1998. Subsequently, this group of 20

fighters was incorporated into the Red Lion Battalion, which was comprised of 200

fighters and was part of a larger group of up to approximately 1,000 fighters who

attacked and committed crimes in Waterloo, Fisher Lane, Hastings, Freetown Eastern

Police, Pademba Road Prison, Kingtom, Fourah Bay and Upgun in Freetown and the

Western Area, on or about December1998/January 1999. These 20 fighters were sent by

the Accused from Liberia to Sierra Leone where they joined the RUF/AFRC forces in

Sierra Leone and participated in attacks in which crimes were committed.

96. The Trial Chamber finds that Abu Keita and the reinforcements known as the

Scorpion Unit were sent by the Accused to Sierra Leone and participated in the attack on

Kenema, in which Abu Keita committed crimes. The Kenema attack was part of the

attack on Kono and Freetown. Although the evidence did not establish beyond reasonable

doubt that the Scorpion Unit was sent for the purpose of fighting in the Kono and

Freetown military operations, which included Kenema, Daniel Tamba, on behalf of the

Accused, approved Bockarie’s decision to integrate the Scorpion Unit under his

command.

24

97. The Accused sent former SLA soldiers to the Bunumbu training camp soon after

the Intervention, although their subsequent deployment was not established. The Accused

later sent a group of former SLA soldiers from Liberia back to Sierra Leone to support

the attack on Freetown. These men arrived in Kailahun in or around late November

1998, and they participated in the attack on Kono in December 1998, although they were

unable to reach Freetown and did not participate in the Freetown attack.

98. Liberian government authorities and RUF/AFRC members recruited and forced

Sierra Leonean refugees residing in Liberia to return to Sierra Leone to fight. However,

the evidence did not establish that these civilian refugees participated in attacks in Sierra

Leone.

99. The Trial Chamber considered the allegation by the Prosecution that the Accused

assisted the AFRC/RUF by capturing and returning AFRC/RUF deserters to Sierra

Leone. The Trial Chamber finds that the Liberian police authorities detained two

RUF/AFRC members Fonti Kanu, and Dauda Aruna Fornie, and handed them over to

RUF personnel in late 1998 and late 1999, respectively. In evidence about his own arrest

and torture in Sierra Leone, Mohammed Kabbah described as common knowledge the

cooperation of Liberian authorities and the RUF on the return of wanted Sierra Leoneans

who escaped to Liberia.

Diamonds

100. The Trial Chamber finds that there was a continuous supply by the AFRC/RUF of

diamonds mined from areas in Sierra Leone to the Accused, often in exchange for arms

and ammunition.

101. During the period May 1997 to February 1998 diamonds mined in Kono and

Tongo Fields were delivered from the AFRC/RUF to the Accused by Daniel Tamba

(a.k.a. Jungle) in exchange for arms and ammunition.

102. Following the ECOMOG Intervention, from February 1998 to July 1999, the

diamonds delivered to the Accused by Sam Bockarie directly, as well as indirectly

through intermediaries such as Eddie Kanneh and Daniel Tamba, were given to him in

25

order to get arms and ammunition from him, or sometimes for “safekeeping” on behalf of

the RUF.

103. From February 1998 to July 1999, diamonds were delivered to the Accused by

Sam Bockarie directly. These diamonds were delivered to the Accused for the purpose of

obtaining arms and ammunitions from him. During this period, diamonds were also

delivered through intermediaries such as Eddie Kanneh and Daniel Tamba.

104. The RUF also traded diamonds with entities and individuals other than the

Accused or his government. Testimonial evidence of specific involvement of the Accused

in the trade of diamonds supported the findings of a United Nations report of a panel of

experts that diamond smuggling from Sierra Leone to Liberia was “the bulk of the RUF

trade in diamonds” and while difficult to quantify was nevertheless the “primary source

of income to the RUF”. This report concluded that the trade of diamonds between Liberia

and Sierra Leone could not be conducted in Liberia “without the permission and the

involvement of government officials at the highest level.”

105. From July 1999 to May 2000, Foday Sankoh delivered diamonds to the Accused,

and diamonds were delivered to the Accused on his behalf in or before 1999 while he was

in detention. In March 2000, Foday Sankoh visited South Africa and travelled through

Monrovia on his way back to Sierra Leone, meeting with the Accused in Monrovia.

According to one witness, among the diamonds delivered to the Accused during this

meeting were a 45 carat diamond and two 25 carat diamonds.

106. From June 2000 until the end of hostilities in 2002, Issa Sesay delivered diamonds

to the Accused, including on one occasion a 36 carat diamond. Eddie Kanneh also

delivered diamonds to the Accused on Sesay’s behalf. Sometimes the diamonds were

delivered to the Accused supposedly for “safekeeping” until Sankoh’s release from

detention and, at other times, in exchange for supplies and/or arms and ammunition.

During this period, diamond trading between the RUF and persons other than the

Accused also took place.

26

107. As detailed in documentary evidence before the Trial Chamber, Liberian

diamonds are generally known to be of a significantly lower quality than diamonds from

Sierra Leone, refuting the claim made by the Accused that he would have had no reason

to trade in diamonds from Sierra Leone because Liberia had its own diamonds.

Moreover, the documentary evidence indicates that export of diamonds from Liberia was

far greater than Liberian diamond production, attributing the difference to diamonds from

Sierra Leone smuggled through Liberia.

108. The Trial Chamber finds that the Accused also facilitated a relationship between

the RUF and a Belgian known as Alpha Bravo for the purpose of diamond transactions.

However, there was insufficient evidence to establish that the Accused facilitated a

relationship between the RUF and other diamond dealers.

109. The Accused also provided diesel fuel for the Caterpillars at the diamond mining

sites in Sierra Leone, and equipment for use in mining diamonds to the RUF on at least

one occasion between 1998 and 2002. While there may have been multiple sources of

mining equipment and fuel entering Sierra Leone during the Indictment period, the

Accused was among them. The Trial Chamber has also found that men sent by the

Accused visited at least one mining site and assessed mining operations.

110. While there was evidence of occasional inquiries from Benjamin Yeaten and

reports to him about the activity at the mining sites in Sierra Leone, the evidence did not

establish that regular updates were sent to the Accused about mining activity.

The Peace Process

111. The Trial Chamber will now summarize its findings relating to the role of the

Accused in the peace process and the Defence contention that his involvement with the

RUF/AFRC was solely for the purpose of promoting peace.

112. During a radio conversation with Foday Sankoh, following the attack on Sierra

Rutile in 1994, the Accused advised the RUF leader to send an External Delegation to

Côte d’Ivoire. In Côte d’Ivoire, the delegates met Musa Cissé, an NPFL representative,

who allowed them to use his radio for communications with Sankoh. The Accused,

27

through contact with Musa Cissé, invited members of the External Delegation to Liberia,

where he met them twice in 1995. In December 1995 the Accused met members of the

External Delegation in Cote d’Ivoire on the occasion of the publication of “Footpaths to

Democracy”, at which time he gave them CFA 10 million francs for their maintenance.

113. The Accused instructed Foday Sankoh to participate in the Abidjan peace talks

from March to November 1996 in order to obtain ammunition and materiel for the RUF.

The evidence established that while in Abidjan, Sankoh obtained arms and ammunition

for the RUF using funds from Libya. However, the evidence was insufficient to establish

that Sankoh used contacts of the Accused to obtain arms and ammunition in Abidjan.

114. The Accused played an active role in the Lomé peace negotiations, which role the

Prosecution alleged to be subversive, suggesting that the Accused improperly assisted

and advised the RUF delegation before and during the negotiations so as to procure the

most favourable outcome for RUF/AFRC and himself. The Trial Chamber did not find

this to be the case, in the absence of evidence that the Accused controlled the RUF

delegation or dictated the outcome of the negotiations. However, the evidence established

that the Accused was engaged in arms transactions at the same time that he was involved

in the peace negotiations in Lomé, publicly promoting peace at the Lomé negotiations

while privately providing arms and ammunition to the RUF.

115. Following the Lomé Peace Accord, the so-called West Side Boys, discontent with

the apparent exclusion of the AFRC from the peace process, kidnapped UN peacekeepers

and others in Sierra Leone and demanded to talk to, and then see, Johnny Paul Koroma,

their leader. The Accused officially and publicly made arrangements to bring Koroma to

Monrovia, including negotiating a waiver of the UN travel ban, and facilitating several

meetings, thereby playing a central role in bringing Koroma and Sankoh together and

achieving a reduction in the tension between the RUF and the AFRC. The evidence

establishes, as the Accused contends, that the UN and ECOWAS Heads of State knew

about his public role in the negotiations. Taylor’s influence with both Koroma and

Sankoh evidently made him a significant actor in the process and helped to facilitate the

28

release of the UN peacekeepers and others who had been taken captive by the West Side

Boys.

116. The Trial Chamber accepts that as President of Liberia, as a member of the

ECOWAS Committee of Five (later Committee of Six), the Accused wielded

considerable influence over the warring factions in Sierra Leone and that the ECOWAS

heads of state played a substantial role in the Sierra Leone peace process. However, there

is strong evidence showing that while publicly participating in regional efforts to broker

peace in Sierra Leone, the Accused was secretly fuelling hostilities between the

AFRC/RUF and the democratically elected authorities in Sierra Leone. This clandestine

undermining of the peace process by the Accused occurred even when he knew that an

arms embargo by the UN and ECOWAS was in force in the region.

117. In late April or early May 2000, the RUF forcibly disarmed and detained a group

of approximately 500 UNAMSIL peacekeepers in Sierra Leone. The Accused was asked

by ECOWAS to become involved in negotiations for the release of these hostages, and

his mandate was endorsed by the United Nations. Thereafter, the Accused invited Issa

Sesay, RUF interim leader, to Monrovia to discuss the matter of their release. After this

meeting, from about the middle to the end of May 2000, the RUF released the captured

UNAMSIL peacekeepers into Liberian territory in stages. The Trial Chamber found that

the Accused had significant influence over the RUF decision to release the UN

peacekeepers, and that in his meeting with Issa Sesay, Taylor promised him assistance

“in the struggle”. While the Trial Chamber found that Issa Sesay made a trip to Liberia in

May 2000 in which he obtained arms and ammunition from the Accused, the evidence

was insufficient to establish that this materiel was provided in exchange for Issa Sesay

agreeing to release the UNAMSIL peacekeepers.

118. In July 2000, a meeting was convened in Monrovia to discuss the selection of new

leadership for the RUF following Sankoh’s imprisonment. The meeting was attended by

all of the ECOWAS heads of state and an RUF delegation led by Issa Sesay where it was

proposed that Sesay take over as Interim Leader of the RUF. In another meeting late that

night, the Accused privately advised Issa Sesay to say that he would disarm but “not do it

29

in reality”. At that time, the Accused was supplying Sesay with arms and ammunition,

and also calling on the RUF to send forces to help him fight his own enemies together

with the AFL in Liberia and in Guinea.

119. The Trial Chamber accordingly finds that while the Accused publicly played a

substantial role in the Sierra Leone peace process, including as a member of the

ECOWAS Committee of Five (later Committee of Six), secretly he was fuelling

hostilities between the AFRC/RUF and the democratically elected authorities in Sierra

Leone, by urging the former not to disarm and actively providing them with arms and

ammunition, acting, as the Prosecution described, as “a two-headed Janus”.

Leadership and Command Structure

120. The Trial Chamber has considered the leadership and command structure of the

RUF, and the role of the Accused, if any, in relation to that structure. The Trial Chamber

has found that Foday Sankoh and the Accused met in Libya in the early 1990s and

pursued parallel goals and aspirations, but not in a chain of command. Following

Operation Top Final in 1992 and the withdrawal of NPFL troops from Sierra Leone,

contacts and cooperation between the Accused and Sankoh continued, but to a lesser

extent. The Accused asked Sankoh to send troops in 1993 to help him fight ULIMO. He

advised Sankoh prior to and following the RUF attack on Sierra Rutile, and he advised

Sankoh to send an External Delegation to Cote d’Ivoire.

121. When Foday Sankoh was arrested in Nigeria in March 1997, he instructed Sam

Bockarie to take orders from the Accused. While much evidence was adduced relating to

the trade of arms and diamonds between Sam Bockarie and the Accused, the evidence did

not establish that Bockarie took orders from the Accused. The instructions given to

Bockarie by the Accused were given with the inherent authority the Accused had by

virtue of his position. Bockarie was deferential to the Accused and generally followed his

instruction. However, the Trial Chamber considers that the role Sankoh envisioned for

the Accused while he was in detention was that he would guide Bockarie, and that

Bockarie should look to his guidance, not that the Accused should take over Sankoh’s

role as the leader of the RUF with effective control over its actions.

30

122. Sometime around March 1998, Sam Bockarie was promoted. The Prosecution

alleged that this promotion was made by the Accused directly, or through a joint decision

between himself and Johnny Paul Koroma. Bockarie had just returned from Monrovia.

The Trial Chamber finds that the Accused may well have been consulted by Koroma, or

talked directly with Bockarie about the promotion while he was in Monrovia, but not that

Bockarie was promoted by the Accused. Like Sankoh, Koroma turned to the Accused for

advice and support, and the Trial Chamber accepts that he would have consulted the

Accused. Nevertheless, the Accused was not part of the command structure.

123. In December 1999, Sam Bockarie left Sierra Leone and went to Liberia, amidst

violent clashes between RUF fighters loyal to Foday Sankoh and RUF fighters loyal to

him. He was told to leave Sierra Leone by the Accused, but the Trial Chamber finds that

in summoning Bockarie to Liberia, the Accused relied on the authority of ECOWAS and

sought the help of President Obasanjo, organizing a meeting at Roberts International

Airport between Foday Sankoh, Sam Bockarie, President Obasanjo and himself, as a

result of which a decision was made that Bockarie would not return to Sierra Leone until

the disarmament process had been completed.

124. On 26 July 2000 a meeting took place at the Executive Mansion in Monrovia

between the heads of state of ECOWAS and an RUF delegation led by Issa Sesay, where

the suggestion was made that Issa Sesay should become the Interim Leader of the RUF.

Sesay would not accept the appointment without it first being approved by the RUF and

Foday Sankoh. A meeting of RUF commanders was held, and a letter was also delivered

to Foday Sankoh by President Obasanjo seeking Sankoh’s consent to the appointment.

At a follow up meeting in August 2000, Sesay was confirmed as the RUF Interim Leader.

Presidents Obasanjo and Konare both met with Sankoh in Freetown, without the Accused

present, and the Trial Chamber finds that this process was undertaken by ECOWAS

heads of state collectively, rather than the Accused unilaterally.

125. The Accused called on the AFRC/RUF to assist him in fighting outside Sierra

Leone. In 1999, the Accused ordered Bockarie to send AFRC/RUF forces to assist him in

his fight against Mosquito Spray and the LURD forces that had attacked his forces. In

31

2000 and 2001 the Accused instructed Issa Sesay to send RUF forces. The RUF forces

sent in response to these requests fought alongside AFL forces in Liberia and Guinea

under the command of the Accused’s subordinates. The evidence was insufficient to

establish that in 2001, Bockarie left Liberia to fight for Taylor’s allies in Cote d’Ivoire, as

alleged by the Prosecution.

Singapore Zoo ranks consistently (after San Diego Zoo) as one of the best in the world.

 

The white Bengal tigers – this one originally from a zoo in Indonesia – are a popular attraction at the Singapore Zoo.

 

For the story, please visit: www.ursulasweeklywanders.com/travel/teeth-claws-and-colou...

Niagara Falls is a city in Niagara County, New York, United States. As of the 2020 census, the city had a total population of 48,671. It is adjacent to the Niagara River, across from the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario, and named after the famed Niagara Falls which they share. The city is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area and the Western New York region.

 

While the city was formerly inhabited by Native Americans, Europeans who migrated to the Niagara Falls in the mid-17th century began to open businesses and develop infrastructure. Later in the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists and businessmen began harnessing the power of the Niagara River for electricity and the city began to attract manufacturers and other businesses drawn by the promise of inexpensive hydroelectric power. After the 1960s, however, the city and region witnessed an economic decline, following an attempt at urban renewal under then Mayor Lackey. Consistent with the rest of the Rust Belt as industries left the city, old line affluent families relocated to nearby suburbs and out of town.

 

Despite the decline in heavy industry, Niagara Falls State Park and the downtown area closest to the falls continue to thrive as a result of tourism. The population, however, has continued to decline from a peak of 102,394 in the 1960s due to the loss of manufacturing jobs in the area.

 

Before Europeans entered the area, it was dominated by the Neutral Nation of Native Americans. European migration into the area began in the 17th century. The first recorded European to visit the area was Frenchman Robert de la Salle, who built Fort Conti at the mouth of the Niagara River early in 1679, with permission from the Iroquois, as a base for boatbuilding; his ship Le Griffon was built on the upper Niagara River at or near Cayuga Creek in the same year. He was accompanied by Belgian priest Louis Hennepin, who was the first known European to see the falls. The influx of newcomers may have been a catalyst for already hostile native tribes to turn to open warfare in competition for the fur trade.

 

The City of Niagara Falls was incorporated on March 17, 1892, from the villages of Manchester and Suspension Bridge, which were parts of the Town of Niagara. Thomas Vincent Welch, a member of the charter committee and a New York state assemblyman and a second-generation Irish American, persuaded Governor Roswell P. Flower to sign the bill on St. Patrick's Day. George W. Wright was elected the first mayor of Niagara Falls.

 

By the end of the 19th century, the city was heavily industrialized, due in part to the power potential offered by the Niagara River. Tourism was considered a secondary niche, while manufacturing of petrochemicals, abrasives, metallurgical products and other materials was the main producer of jobs and attracted a large number of workers, many of whom were immigrants.

 

Industry and tourism grew steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century due to a high demand for industrial products and the increased mobility of people to travel. Paper, rubber, plastics, petrochemicals, carbon insulators and abrasives were among the city's major industries. This prosperity would end by the late 1960s as aging industrial plants moved to less expensive locations. In addition, the falls were incompatible with modern shipping technology.[further explanation needed]

 

In 1956, the Schoellkopf Power Plant on the lower river just downstream of the American Falls was critically damaged by the collapse of the Niagara Gorge wall above it. This prompted the planning and construction of one of the largest hydroelectric plants to be built in North America to that time, generating a large influx of workers and families to the area. New York City urban planner Robert Moses built the new power plant in nearby Lewiston, New York. Much of the power generated there fueled growing demands for power in downstate New York and New York City.

 

The neighborhood of Love Canal gained national media attention in 1978 when toxic waste contamination from a chemical landfill beneath it forced United States President Jimmy Carter to declare a state of emergency, the first such presidential declaration made for a non-natural disaster. Hundreds of residents were evacuated from the area, many of whom were ill because of exposure to chemical waste.

 

After the Love Canal disaster, the city—which had already been declining in population for nearly two decades—experienced accelerated economic and political difficulties. The costs of manufacturing elsewhere had become less expensive, which led to the closure of several factories. The city's population eventually dropped by more than half of its peak, as workers fled the city in search of jobs elsewhere. Then, much like the nearby city of Buffalo, the city's economy plummeted when a failed urban renewal project destroyed Falls Street and the tourist district.

 

In 2001, the leadership of Laborers Local 91 was found guilty of extortion, racketeering and other crimes following an exposé by Mike Hudson of the Niagara Falls Reporter. Union boss Michael "Butch" Quarcini died before trial, while the rest of the union leadership was sentenced to prison.

 

In early 2010, former Niagara Falls Mayor Vincenzo Anello was indicted on federal charges of corruption, alleging the mayor accepted $40,000 in loans from a businessman who was later awarded a no-bid lease on city property. The charges were dropped as part of a plea deal after Anello pleaded guilty to unrelated charges of pension fraud, regarding a pension from the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, of which he is a member. He was sentenced to 10 to 16 months in prison.

 

The city's decline received national exposure from Bloomberg Businessweek in 2010.

 

On November 30, 2010, the New York State Attorney General entered into an agreement with the city and its police department to create new policies to govern police practices in response to claims of excessive force and police misconduct. The city committed to create policies and procedures to prevent and respond to allegations of excessive force, and to ensure police are properly trained and complaints are properly investigated. Prior claims filed by residents will be evaluated by an independent panel.

 

In 2020, a public square named Cataract Commons opened on Old Falls Street. It is a public space for outdoor events and activities.

 

The city has multiple properties on the National Register of Historic Places. It also has three national historic districts, including Chilton Avenue-Orchard Parkway Historic District, Deveaux School Historic District and the Park Place Historic District.

 

Niagara Falls is at the international boundary between the United States and Canada. The city is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area and is approximately 16 miles (26 km) from Buffalo, New York.

 

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 16.8 square miles (44 km2), of which 14.1 square miles (37 km2) is land and 2.8 square miles (7.3 km2) (16.37%) is water. The city is built along the Niagara Falls and the Niagara Gorge, which is next to the Niagara River.

 

Niagara Falls has a humid continental climate (Dfa). The city experiences cold, snowy winters and hot, humid summers. Precipitation is moderate and consistent in all seasons, falling equally or more as snow during the winter. The city has snowier than average winters compared to most cities in the US, however less than many other cities in Upstate New York including nearby Buffalo and Rochester. Thaw cycles with temperatures above 32 °F (0 °C) are a common occurrence. The hottest and coldest temperatures recorded in the decade through 2015 were 97 °F (36 °C) in 2005 and −13 °F (−25 °C) in 2003, respectively. 38% of warm season precipitation falls in the form of a thunderstorm.

 

Buffalo Avenue – runs along the south end along the Niagara River once home to a vast number of old families with architecturally significant mansions; further east (past John Daly Boulevard) the street is surrounded by a number of industrial sites to 56th Street before returning to a residential area and ending at the Love Canal area at 102nd Street.

Central District

Deveaux – Located in the northwestern corner (west of the North End) along the Niagara River is residential area built in the 1920s to 1940s. Named for Judge Samuel DeVeaux who left his estate to be established as the Deveaux College for Orphans and Destitute Children in 1853 (closed 1971), now the site of DeVeaux Woods State Park and DeVeaux School Historical District.

Downtown – Area around the Falls and home to hotels including Seneca Niagara Resort Casino, Niagara Falls State Park, Niagara Falls Culinary Institute (formerly Rainbow Centre Factory Outlet)

East Side – the area bounded by the gorge on the west, Niagara Street on the south, Ontario Avenue on the North and Main Street (NY Rt 104) on the east.

Hyde Park – Located near the namesake Hyde Park next to Little Italy as well as home to Hyde Park Municipal Golf Course.

LaSalle – Bounded by 80th Street, Niagara Falls Boulevard, Cayuga Drive and LaSalle Expressway was built up in the 1940s to 1960s. Cayuga Island is linked to neighborhood. The actual neighborhood where the Love Canal was to be built.

Little Italy – home to a once predominately Italian community that runs along Pine Avenue from Main Street to Hyde Park Boulevard

Love Canal – Established in the 1950s on land acquired from Hooker Chemical Company. Most of the neighborhood was evacuated in the 1980s after toxic waste was discovered underground. Resettlement began in 1990.[24]

Niagara Street – residential area east of Downtown along Niagara Street (distinct from Niagara Ave.) once home to a predominately German and Polish community.

North End – runs along Highland Avenue in the north end of the city before it merges with Hyde Park Boulevard.

 

As of the census of 2010, there were 50,193 people, 22,603 households, and 12,495 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,987.7 people per square mile (1,153.5 per square km). There were 26,220 housing units at an average density of 1,560.7 per square mile (602.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 70.5% White, 21.6% African American, 1.9% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0% Pacific Islander, 0.8% from other races, and 3.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.0% of the population.

 

There were 22,603 households, out of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.8% were married couples living together, 19.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.7% were non-families. 38.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 4.02.

 

In the city, 22% of the population was under the age of 18, 10.1% aged from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 28.2% from 45 to 64, and 15.5% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.4 males.

 

The median income for a household in the city was $26,800, and the median income for a family was $34,377. Males had a median income of $31,672 versus $22,124 for females. 23% of the population was below the poverty line.

 

Niagara Falls has a number of places of worship, including the Salvation Army, First Assembly of God Church, First Unitarian Universalist Church of Niagara, St. Peter's Episcopal Church, First Presbyterian Church, St. Theresa Roman Catholic Church in Deveaux, and the Reform Jewish Temple Beth El. The Conservative Jewish Temple Beth Israel closed in 2012.

 

Niagara Falls has struggled with high rates of violent and property crime; FBI crime data indicate that the city has among the highest crime rates in New York state. In response to gun violence, volunteer groups such as Operation SNUG mobilized to promote positive community involvement in the troubled areas of the city.

 

Comptroller reported that Niagara Falls has "struggled through decades of population losses, rising crime and repeated attempts to reinvent itself from a manufacturing town with some tourism to a major tourist destination." The city became a boomtown with the opening of the New York State Power Authority's hydroelectric Niagara Power Plant in the 1960s; the cheap electricity produced by the plant generated power for a burgeoning manufacturing industry. Along with the rest of Western New York, Niagara Falls suffered a significant economic decline from a decline in industry by the 1970s. Today, the city struggles to compete with Niagara Falls, Ontario; the Canadian side has a greater average annual income, a higher average home price, and lower levels of vacant buildings and blight, as well as a more vibrant economy and better tourism infrastructure. The population of Niagara Falls, New York fell by half from the 1960s to 2012. In contrast, the population of Niagara Falls, Ontario more than tripled. In 2000, the city's median household income was 36% below the national average. In 2012, the city's unemployment rate was significantly higher than the statewide unemployment rate.

 

Significant sources of economic activity in the region includes the Niagara Falls International Airport, which was renovated in 2009; the Seneca Gaming Corporation's Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel, which opened in the 2000s respectively; and the nearby Niagara Falls Air Reserve Station.

 

In late 2001, the State of New York established the USA Niagara Development Corporation, a subsidiary to the State's economic development agency, to focus specifically on facilitating development in the downtown area. However, the organization has been criticized for making little progress and doing little to improve the city's economy.

 

From 1973 to 2002, the city had a Convention and Civic Center on 4th street. In 2002 the venue was converted into the Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel. In 2004, a new Niagara Falls Convention Center (NFCC) opened on Old Falls Street. The Old Falls Street venue has 116,000 square feet for exhibitions and meetings, and a 32,200-square-foot event/exhibit hall.

 

The city is home to the Niagara Falls State Park. The park has several attractions, including Cave of the Winds behind the Bridal Veil Falls, Maid of the Mist, a popular boat tour which operates at the foot of the Rainbow Bridge, Prospect Point and its observation tower, Niagara Discovery Center, Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center, and the Aquarium of Niagara.

 

Several other attractions also near the river, including Whirlpool State Park, De Veaux Woods State Park, Earl W. Brydges Artpark State Park in nearby Lewiston (town), New York, and Fort Niagara State Park in Youngstown, New York.

 

Attractions in the downtown include the Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel and Pine Avenue which was historically home to a large Italian American population and is now known as Little Italy for its abundance of shops and quality restaurants.

 

The Niagara Power of the New York Collegiate Baseball League play at Sal Maglie Stadium. The team is owned by Niagara University. The Cataract City Wolverines of the Gridiron Developmental Football League are a minor league football team based in Niagara Falls. The team played their inaugural season in 2021.

 

In 2017, the Tier III junior North American 3 Hockey League team, the Lockport Express, relocated to Niagara Falls as the Niagara Falls PowerHawks.

 

Former sports teams based in Niagara Falls include the Class-A Niagara Falls Sox, the Class-A Niagara Falls Rapids, the Niagara Falls Lancers of the Midwest Football League, and the Western New York Thundersnow of the Premier Basketball League and American Basketball Association.

 

The City of Niagara Falls functions under a strong mayor-council form of government. The government consists of a mayor, a professional city administrator, and a city council. The current mayor is Robert Restaino.

 

The city council serves four-year, staggered terms, except in the case of a special election. It is headed by a chairperson, who votes in all items for council action.

 

On a state level, Niagara Falls is part of the 145th Assembly District of New York State, represented by Republican Angelo Morinello. Niagara Falls is also part of the 62nd Senate District of New York State, represented by Republican Robert Ortt.

 

On a national level, the city is part of New York's 26th congressional district and is represented by Congressman Brian Higgins. In the United States Senate, the city and the state are represented by senators Charles Schumer and Kirsten Gillibrand.

 

Founded in 1892 Niagara Falls Police Department provide local law enforcement in the city with 155 sworn officers. This force is not to be mistaken for the Town of Niagara, New York which has a smaller force founded in 1954.

 

Residents are zoned to the Niagara Falls City School District. Niagara University and Niagara County Community College are the two colleges in Niagara County.

 

Since Niagara Falls is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area, the city's media is predominantly served by the city of Buffalo.

 

The city has two local newspapers, the Niagara Gazette, which is published daily except Tuesday and The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY which is published quarterly. The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY, which is officially Niagara Falls, New York's, first black-owned and operated news publication, founded October 2018. The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY published its inaugural issue April 2019. The Buffalo News is the closest major newspaper in the area. The city also is the home to a weekly tabloid known as the Niagara Falls Reporter.

 

Three radio stations are licensed to the city of Niagara Falls, including WHLD AM 1270, WEBR AM 1440, and WTOR AM 770.

 

Niagara Falls is primarily served by the Buffalo Niagara International Airport for regional and domestic flights within the United States. The recently expanded Niagara Falls International Airport serves the city, and many cross border travellers with flights to Myrtle Beach, Fort Lauderdale, Orlando and Punta Gorda. Toronto's Pearson International Airport on the Canadian side is the closest airport offering long-haul international flights for the Niagara region.

 

The city is served by Amtrak's Maple Leaf and Empire train services, with regular stops at the Niagara Falls Station and Customhouse Interpretive Center at 825 Depot Ave West.

 

Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority is the public transit provider in the Buffalo metro area, with hubs at the Portage Road and Niagara Falls transportation centers.

 

Six New York State highways, one three-digit Interstate Highway, one expressway, one U.S. Highway, and one parkways pass through the city of Niagara Falls. New York State Route 31, New York State Route 104, and New York State Route 182 are east–west state roadways within the city, while New York State Route 61, New York State Route 265, and New York State Route 384 are north–south state roadways within the city. The LaSalle Expressway is an east–west highway which terminates near the eastern edge of Niagara Falls and begins in the nearby town of Wheatfield, New York. The Niagara Scenic Parkway is a north–south parkway that formerly ran through the city along the northern edge of the Niagara River. It remains in sections and terminates in Youngstown, New York.

 

Interstate 190, also referred to as the Niagara Expressway, is a north–south highway and a spur of Interstate 90 which borders the eastern end of the city. The highway enters the city from the town of Niagara and exits at the North Grand Island Bridge. U.S. Route 62, known as Niagara Falls Boulevard, Walnut Avenue, and Ferry Avenue, is signed as a north–south highway. U.S. Route 62 has an east–west orientation, and is partially split between two one-way streets within Niagara Falls. Walnut Avenue carries U.S. Route 62 west to its northern terminus at NY 104, and Ferry Avenue carries U.S. Route 62 east from downtown Niagara Falls. U.S. Route 62 Business, locally known as Pine Avenue, is an east–west route which parallels U.S. Route 62 to the south. Its western terminus is at NY 104, and its eastern terminus is at U.S. Route 62.

 

Two international bridges connect the city to Niagara Falls, Ontario. The Rainbow Bridge connects the two cities with passenger and pedestrian traffic and overlooks the Niagara Falls, while the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge, which formerly carried the Canadian National Railway, now serves local traffic and Amtrak's Maple Leaf service.

 

New York, sometimes called New York State, is a state in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It borders New Jersey and Pennsylvania to its south, New England and the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec to its north, and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. With almost 19.6 million residents, it is the fourth-most populous state in the United States and eighth-most densely populated as of 2023. New York is the 27th-largest U.S. state by area, with a total area of 54,556 square miles (141,300 km2).

 

New York has a varied geography. The southeastern part of the state, known as Downstate, encompasses New York City, the most populous city in the United States, Long Island, the most populous island in the United States, and the lower Hudson Valley. These areas are the center of the New York metropolitan area, a sprawling urban landmass, and account for approximately two-thirds of the state's population. The much larger Upstate area spreads from the Great Lakes to Lake Champlain, and includes the Adirondack Mountains and the Catskill Mountains (part of the wider Appalachian Mountains). The east–west Mohawk River Valley bisects the more mountainous regions of Upstate, and flows into the north–south Hudson River valley near the state capital of Albany. Western New York, home to the cities of Buffalo and Rochester, is part of the Great Lakes region and borders Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. Central New York is anchored by the city of Syracuse; between the central and western parts of the state, New York is dominated by the Finger Lakes, a popular tourist destination. To the south, along the state border with Pennsylvania, the Southern Tier sits atop the Allegheny Plateau, representing the northernmost reaches of Appalachia.

 

New York was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that went on to form the United States. The area of present-day New York had been inhabited by tribes of the Algonquians and the Iroquois Confederacy Native Americans for several thousand years by the time the earliest Europeans arrived. Stemming from Henry Hudson's expedition in 1609, the Dutch established the multiethnic colony of New Netherland in 1621. England seized the colony from the Dutch in 1664, renaming it the Province of New York. During the American Revolutionary War, a group of colonists eventually succeeded in establishing independence, and the former colony was officially admitted into the United States in 1788. From the early 19th century, New York's development of its interior, beginning with the construction of the Erie Canal, gave it incomparable advantages over other regions of the United States. The state built its political, cultural, and economic ascendancy over the next century, earning it the nickname of the "Empire State." Although deindustrialization eroded a significant portion of the state's economy in the second half of the 20th century, New York in the 21st century continues to be considered as a global node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance, and environmental sustainability.

 

The state attracts visitors from all over the globe, with the highest count of any U.S. state in 2022. Many of its landmarks are well known, including four of the world's ten most-visited tourist attractions in 2013: Times Square, Central Park, Niagara Falls and Grand Central Terminal. New York is home to approximately 200 colleges and universities, including two Ivy League universities, Columbia University and Cornell University, and the expansive State University of New York, which is among the largest university systems in the nation. New York City is home to the headquarters of the United Nations, and it is sometimes described as the world's most important city, the cultural, financial, and media epicenter, and the capital of the world.

 

The history of New York begins around 10,000 B.C. when the first people arrived. By 1100 A.D. two main cultures had become dominant as the Iroquoian and Algonquian developed. European discovery of New York was led by the Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 followed by the first land claim in 1609 by the Dutch. As part of New Netherland, the colony was important in the fur trade and eventually became an agricultural resource thanks to the patroon system. In 1626, the Dutch thought they had bought the island of Manhattan from Native Americans.[1] In 1664, England renamed the colony New York, after the Duke of York and Albany, brother of King Charles II. New York City gained prominence in the 18th century as a major trading port in the Thirteen Colonies.

 

New York played a pivotal role during the American Revolution and subsequent war. The Stamp Act Congress in 1765 brought together representatives from across the Thirteen Colonies to form a unified response to British policies. The Sons of Liberty were active in New York City to challenge British authority. After a major loss at the Battle of Long Island, the Continental Army suffered a series of additional defeats that forced a retreat from the New York City area, leaving the strategic port and harbor to the British army and navy as their North American base of operations for the rest of the war. The Battle of Saratoga was the turning point of the war in favor of the Americans, convincing France to formally ally with them. New York's constitution was adopted in 1777, and strongly influenced the United States Constitution. New York City was the national capital at various times between 1788 and 1790, where the Bill of Rights was drafted. Albany became the permanent state capital in 1797. In 1787, New York became the eleventh state to ratify the United States Constitution.

 

New York hosted significant transportation advancements in the 19th century, including the first steamboat line in 1807, the Erie Canal in 1825, and America's first regularly scheduled rail service in 1831. These advancements led to the expanded settlement of western New York and trade ties to the Midwest settlements around the Great Lakes.

 

Due to New York City's trade ties to the South, there were numerous southern sympathizers in the early days of the American Civil War and the mayor proposed secession. Far from any of the battles, New York ultimately sent the most soldiers and money to support the Union cause. Thereafter, the state helped create the industrial age and consequently was home to some of the first labor unions.

 

During the 19th century, New York City became the main entry point for European immigrants to the United States, beginning with a wave of Irish during their Great Famine. Millions came through Castle Clinton in Battery Park before Ellis Island opened in 1892 to welcome millions more, increasingly from eastern and southern Europe. The Statue of Liberty opened in 1886 and became a symbol of hope. New York boomed during the Roaring Twenties, before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and skyscrapers expressed the energy of the city. New York City was the site of successive tallest buildings in the world from 1913 to 1974.

 

The buildup of defense industries for World War II turned around the state's economy from the Great Depression, as hundreds of thousands worked to defeat the Axis powers. Following the war, the state experienced significant suburbanization around all the major cities, and most central cities shrank. The Thruway system opened in 1956, signaling another era of transportation advances.

 

Following a period of near-bankruptcy in the late 1970s, New York City renewed its stature as a cultural center, attracted more immigration, and hosted the development of new music styles. The city developed from publishing to become a media capital over the second half of the 20th century, hosting most national news channels and broadcasts. Some of its newspapers became nationally and globally renowned. The state's manufacturing base eroded with the restructuring of industry, and the state transitioned into service industries.

 

The first peoples of New York are estimated to have arrived around 10,000 BC. Around AD 800, Iroquois ancestors moved into the area from the Appalachian region. The people of the Point Peninsula complex were the predecessors of the Algonquian peoples of New York. By around 1100, the distinct Iroquoian-speaking and Algonquian-speaking cultures that would eventually be encountered by Europeans had developed. The five nations of the Iroquois League developed a powerful confederacy about the 15th century that controlled territory throughout present-day New York, into Pennsylvania around the Great Lakes. For centuries, the Mohawk cultivated maize fields in the lowlands of the Mohawk River, which were later taken over by Dutch settlers at Schenectady, New York when they bought this territory. The Iroquois nations to the west also had well-cultivated areas and orchards.

 

The Iroquois established dominance over the fur trade throughout their territory, bargaining with European colonists. Other New York tribes were more subject to either European destruction or assimilation within the Iroquoian confederacy. Situated at major Native trade routes in the Northeast and positioned between French and English zones of settlement, the Iroquois were intensely caught up with the onrush of Europeans, which is also to say that the settlers, whether Dutch, French or English, were caught up with the Iroquois as well. Algonquian tribes were less united among their tribes; they typically lived along rivers, streams, or the Atlantic Coast. But, both groups of natives were well-established peoples with highly sophisticated cultural systems; these were little understood or appreciated by the European colonists who encountered them. The natives had "a complex and elaborate native economy that included hunting, gathering, manufacturing, and farming...[and were] a mosaic of Native American tribes, nations, languages, and political associations." The Iroquois usually met at an Onondaga in Northern New York, which changed every century or so, where they would coordinate policies on how to deal with Europeans and strengthen the bond between the Five Nations.

 

Tribes who have managed to call New York home have been the Iroquois, Mohawk, Mohican, Susquehannock, Petun, Chonnonton, Ontario and Nanticoke.

 

In 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian explorer in the service of the French crown, explored the Atlantic coast of North America between the Carolinas and Newfoundland, including New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay. On April 17, 1524, Verrazzano entered New York Bay, by way of the Strait now called the Narrows. He described "a vast coastline with a deep delta in which every kind of ship could pass" and he adds: "that it extends inland for a league and opens up to form a beautiful lake. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats". He landed on the tip of Manhattan and perhaps on the furthest point of Long Island.

 

In 1535, Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, became the first European to describe and map the Saint Lawrence River from the Atlantic Ocean, sailing as far upriver as the site of Montreal.

 

On April 4, 1609, Henry Hudson, in the employ of the Dutch East India Company, departed Amsterdam in command of the ship Halve Maen (Half Moon). On September 3 he reached the estuary of the Hudson River. He sailed up the Hudson River to about Albany near the confluence of the Mohawk River and the Hudson. His voyage was used to establish Dutch claims to the region and to the fur trade that prospered there after a trading post was established at Albany in 1614.

 

In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Christiaensen, built Fort Nassau (now Albany) the first Dutch settlement in North America and the first European settlement in what would become New York. It was replaced by nearby Fort Orange in 1623. In 1625, Fort Amsterdam was built on the southern tip of Manhattan Island to defend the Hudson River. This settlement grew to become the city New Amsterdam.

 

The British conquered New Netherland in 1664; Lenient terms of surrender most likely kept local resistance to a minimum. The colony and New Amsterdam were both renamed New York (and "Beverwijck" was renamed Albany) after its new proprietor, James II later King of England, Ireland and Scotland, who was at the time Duke of York and Duke of Albany The population of New Netherland at the time of English takeover was 7,000–8,000.

 

Thousands of poor German farmers, chiefly from the Palatine region of Germany, migrated to upstate districts after 1700. They kept to themselves, married their own, spoke German, attended Lutheran churches, and retained their own customs and foods. They emphasized farm ownership. Some mastered English to become conversant with local legal and business opportunities. They ignored the Indians and tolerated slavery (although few were rich enough to own a slave).

 

Large manors were developed along the Hudson River by elite colonists during the 18th century, including Livingston, Cortlandt, Philipsburg, and Rensselaerswyck. The manors represented more than half of the colony's undeveloped land. The Province of New York thrived during this time, its economy strengthened by Long Island and Hudson Valley agriculture, in conjunction with trade and artisanal activity at the Port of New York; the colony was a breadbasket and lumberyard for the British sugar colonies in the Caribbean. New York's population grew substantially during this century: from the first colonial census (1698) to the last (1771), the province grew ninefold, from 18,067 to 168,007.

 

New York in the American Revolution

Further information: John Peter Zenger, Stamp Act Congress, Invasion of Canada (1775), New York and New Jersey campaign, Prisoners of war in the American Revolutionary War, and Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War

 

New York played a pivotal role in the Revolutionary War. The colony verged on revolt following the Stamp Act of 1765, advancing the New York City–based Sons of Liberty to the forefront of New York politics. The Act exacerbated the depression the province experienced after unsuccessfully invading Canada in 1760. Even though New York City merchants lost out on lucrative military contracts, the group sought common ground between the King and the people; however, compromise became impossible as of April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord. In that aftermath the New York Provincial Congress on June 9, 1775, for five pounds sterling for each hundredweight of gunpowder delivered to each county's committee.

 

Two powerful families had for decades assembled colony-wide coalitions of supporters. With few exceptions, members long associated with the DeLancey faction went along when its leadership decided to support the crown, while members of the Livingston faction became Patriots.

 

New York's strategic central location and port made it key to controlling the colonies. The British assembled the century's largest fleet: at one point 30,000 British sailors and soldiers anchored off Staten Island. General George Washington barely escaped New York City with his army in November 1776; General Sir William Howe was successful in driving Washington out, but erred by expanding into New Jersey. By January 1777, he retained only a few outposts near New York City. The British held the city for the duration, using it as a base for expeditions against other targets.

 

In October 1777, American General Horatio Gates won the Battle of Saratoga, later regarded as the war's turning point. Had Gates not held, the rebellion might well have broken down: losing Saratoga would have cost the entire Hudson–Champlain corridor, which would have separated New England from the rest of the colonies and split the future union.

 

Upon war's end, New York's borders became well–defined: the counties east of Lake Champlain became Vermont and the state's western borders were settled by 1786.

 

Many Iroquois supported the British (typically fearing future American ambitions). Many were killed during the war; others went into exile with the British. Those remaining lived on twelve reservations; by 1826 only eight reservations remained, all of which survived into the 21st century.

 

The state adopted its constitution in April 1777, creating a strong executive and strict separation of powers. It strongly influenced the federal constitution a decade later. Debate over the federal constitution in 1787 led to formation of the groups known as Federalists—mainly "downstaters" (those who lived in or near New York City) who supported a strong national government—and Antifederalists—mainly upstaters (those who lived to the city's north and west) who opposed large national institutions. In 1787, Alexander Hamilton, a leading Federalist from New York and signatory to the Constitution, wrote the first essay of the Federalist Papers. He published and wrote most of the series in New York City newspapers in support of the proposed United States Constitution. Antifederalists were not swayed by the arguments, but the state ratified it in 1788.

 

In 1785, New York City became the national capital and continued as such on and off until 1790; George Washington was inaugurated as the first President of the United States in front of Federal Hall in 1789. The United States Bill of Rights was drafted there, and the United States Supreme Court sat for the first time. From statehood to 1797, the Legislature frequently moved the state capital between Albany, Kingston, Poughkeepsie, and New York City. Thereafter, Albany retained that role.

 

In the early 19th century, New York became a center for advancement in transportation. In 1807, Robert Fulton initiated a steamboat line from New York to Albany, the first successful enterprise of its kind. By 1815, Albany was the state's turnpike center, which established the city as the hub for pioneers migrating west to Buffalo and the Michigan Territory.

 

In 1825 the Erie Canal opened, securing the state's economic dominance. Its impact was enormous: one source stated, "Linking the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes, the canal was an act of political will that joined the regions of the state, created a vast economic hinterland for New York City, and established a ready market for agricultural products from the state's interior." In that year western New York transitioned from "frontier" to settled area. By this time, all counties and most municipalities had incorporated, approximately matching the state's is organized today. In 1831, the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad started the country's first successful regularly–scheduled steam railroad service.

 

Advancing transportation quickly led to settlement of the fertile Mohawk and Gennessee valleys and the Niagara Frontier. Buffalo and Rochester became boomtowns. Significant migration of New England "Yankees" (mainly of English descent) to the central and western parts of the state led to minor conflicts with the more settled "Yorkers" (mainly of German, Dutch, and Scottish descent). More than 15% of the state's 1850 population had been born in New England[citation needed]. The western part of the state grew fastest at this time. By 1840, New York was home to seven of the nation's thirty largest cities.

 

During this period, towns established academies for education, including for girls. The western area of the state was a center of progressive causes, including support of abolitionism, temperance, and women's rights. Religious enthusiasms flourished and the Latter Day Saint movement was founded in the area by Joseph Smith and his vision. Some supporters of abolition participated in the Underground Railroad, helping fugitive slaves reach freedom in Canada or in New York.

 

In addition, in the early 1840s the state legislature and Governor William H. Seward expanded rights for free blacks and fugitive slaves in New York: in 1840 the legislature passed laws protecting the rights of African Americans against Southern slave-catchers. One guaranteed alleged fugitive slaves the right of a jury trial in New York to establish whether they were slaves, and another pledged the aid of the state to recover free blacks kidnapped into slavery, (as happened to Solomon Northup of Saratoga Springs in 1841, who did not regain freedom until 1853.) In 1841 Seward signed legislation to repeal a "nine-month law" that allowed slaveholders to bring their slaves into the state for a period of nine months before they were considered free. After this, slaves brought to the state were immediately considered freed, as was the case in some other free states. Seward also signed legislation to establish public education for all children, leaving it up to local jurisdictions as to how that would be supplied (some had segregated schools).

 

New York culture bloomed in the first half of the 19th century: in 1809 Washington Irving wrote the satirical A History of New York under the pen name Diedrich Knickerbocker, and in 1819 he based Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow in Hudson Valley towns. Thomas Cole's Hudson River School was established in the 1830s by showcasing dramatic landscapes of the Hudson Valley. The first baseball teams formed in New York City in the 1840s, including the New York Knickerbockers. Professional baseball later located its Hall of Fame in Cooperstown. Saratoga Race Course, an annual summer attraction in Saratoga Springs, opened in 1847.

 

A civil war was not in the best interest of business, because New York had strong ties to the Deep South, both through the port of New York and manufacture of cotton goods in upstate textile mills. Half of New York City's exports were related to cotton before the war. Southern businessmen so frequently traveled to the city that they established favorite hotels and restaurants. Trade was based on moving Southern goods. The city's large Democrat community feared the impact of Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860 and the mayor urged secession of New York.

 

By the time of the 1861 Battle of Fort Sumter, such political differences decreased and the state quickly met Lincoln's request for soldiers and supplies. More soldiers fought from New York than any other Northern state. While no battles were waged in New York, the state was not immune to Confederate conspiracies, including one to burn various New York cities and another to invade the state via Canada.

 

In January 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed the slaves in states that were still in rebellion against the union. In March 1863, the federal draft law was changed so that male citizens between 20 and 35 and unmarried citizens to age 45 were subject to conscription. Those who could afford to hire a substitute or pay $300 were exempt. Antiwar newspaper editors attacked the law, and many immigrants and their descendants resented being drafted in place of people who could buy their way out. Democratic Party leaders raised the specter of a deluge of freed southern blacks competing with the white working class, then dominated by ethnic Irish and immigrants. On the lottery's first day, July 11, 1863, the first lottery draw was held. On Monday, July 13, 1863, five days of large-scale riots began, which were dominated by ethnic Irish, who targeted blacks in the city, their neighborhoods, and known abolitionist sympathizers. As a result, many blacks left Manhattan permanently, moving to Brooklyn or other areas.

 

In the following decades, New York strengthened its dominance of the financial and banking industries. Manufacturing continued to rise: Eastman Kodak founded in 1888 in Rochester, General Electric in Schenectady, and Endicott-Johnson Shoe Company in the Triple Cities are some of the well-known companies founded during this period. Buffalo and Niagara Falls attracted numerous factories following the advent of hydroelectric power in the area. With industry blooming, workers began to unite in New York as early as the 1820s. By 1882, the Knights of Labor in New York City had 60,000 members. Trade unions used political influence to limit working hours as early as 1867. At the same time, New York's agricultural output peaked. Focus changed from crop-based to dairy-based agriculture. The cheese industry became established in the Mohawk Valley. By 1881, the state had more than 241,000 farms. In the same period, the area around New York harbor became the world's oyster capital, retaining that title into the early twentieth century.

 

Immigration increased throughout the latter half of the 19th century. Starting with refugees from the Great Famine of Ireland in the 1840s, New York became a prominent entry point for those seeking a new life in the United States. Between 1855 and 1890, an estimated 8 million immigrants passed through Castle Clinton at Battery Park in Manhattan. Early in this period, most immigrants came from Ireland and Germany. Ellis Island opened in 1892, and between 1880 and 1920, most immigrants were German and Eastern European Jews, Poles, and other Eastern and Southern Europeans, including many Italians. By 1925, New York City's population outnumbered that of London, making it the most populous city in the world. Arguably New York's most identifiable symbol, Liberty Enlightening the World (the Statue of Liberty), a gift from France for the American centennial, was completed in 1886. By the early 20th century, the statue was regarded as the "Mother of Exiles"—a symbol of hope to immigrants.

 

New York's political pattern changed little after the mid–19th century. New York City and its metropolitan area was already heavily Democrat; Upstate was aligned with the Republican Party and was a center of abolitionist activists. In the 1850s, Democratic Tammany Hall became one of the most powerful and durable political machines in United States history. Boss William Tweed brought the organization to the forefront of city and then state politics in the 1860s. Based on its command of a large population, Tammany maintained influence until at least the 1930s. Outside the city, Republicans were able to influence the redistricting process enough to constrain New York City and capture control of the Legislature in 1894. Both parties have seen national political success: in the 39 presidential elections between 1856 and 2010, Republicans won 19 times and Democrats 20 times.

 

By 1901, New York was the richest and most populous state. Two years prior, the five boroughs of New York City became one city. Within decades, the city's emblem had become the skyscraper: the Woolworth Building was the tallest building in the world from 1913, surpassed by 40 Wall Street in April 1930, the Chrysler Building in 1930, the Empire State Building in 1931, and the World Trade Center in 1972 before losing the title in 1974.

 

The state was serviced by over a dozen major railroads and at the start of the 20th century and electric Interurban rail networks began to spring up around Syracuse, Rochester and other cities in New York during this period.

 

In the late 1890s governor Theodore Roosevelt and fellow Republicans such as Charles Evans Hughes worked with many Democrats such as Al Smith to promote Progressivism. They battled trusts and monopolies (especially in the insurance industry), promoted efficiency, fought waste, and called for more democracy in politics. Democrats focused more on the benefits of progressivism for their own ethnic working class base and for labor unions.

 

Democratic political machines, especially Tammany Hall in Manhattan, opposed woman suffrage because they feared that the addition of female voters would dilute the control they had established over groups of male voters. By the time of the New York State referendum on women's suffrage in 1917, however, some wives and daughters of Tammany Hall leaders were working for suffrage, leading it to take a neutral position that was crucial to the referendum's passage.

 

Following a sharp but short-lived Depression at the beginning of the decade, New York enjoyed a booming economy during the Roaring Twenties. New York suffered during the Great Depression, which began with the Wall Street crash on Black Tuesday in 1929. The Securities and Exchange Commission opened in 1934 to regulate the stock market. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected governor in 1928, and the state faced upwards of 25% unemployment. His Temporary Emergency Relief Agency, established in 1931, was the first work relief program in the nation and influenced the national Federal Emergency Relief Administration. Roosevelt was elected President in 1932 in part because of his promises to extend New York–style relief programs across the country via his New Deal. In 1932, Lake Placid was host to the III Olympic Winter Games.

 

As the largest state, New York again supplied the most resources during World War II. New York manufactured 11 percent of total United States military armaments produced during the war and suffered 31,215 casualties. The war affected the state both socially and economically. For example, to overcome discriminatory labor practices, Governor Herbert H. Lehman created the Committee on Discrimination in Employment in 1941 and Governor Thomas E. Dewey signed the Ives-Quinn Act in 1945, banning employment discrimination. The G.I. Bill of 1944, which offered returning soldiers the opportunity of affordable higher education, forced New York to create a public university system since its private universities could not handle the influx; the State University of New York was created by Governor Dewey in 1948.

 

World War II constituted New York's last great industrial era. At its conclusion, the defense industry shrank and the economy shifted towards producing services rather than goods. Returning soldiers disproportionately displaced female and minority workers who had entered the industrial workforce only when the war left employers no other choice. Companies moved to the south and west, seeking lower taxes and a less costly, non–union workforce. Many workers followed the jobs. The middle class expanded and created suburbs such as the one on Long Island. The automobile accelerated this decentralization; planned communities like Levittown offered affordable middle-class housing.

 

Larger cities stopped growing around 1950. Growth resumed only in New York City, in the 1980s. Buffalo's population fell by half between 1950 and 2000. Reduced immigration and worker migration led New York State's population to decline for the first time between 1970 and 1980. California and Texas both surpassed it in population.

 

New York entered its third era of massive transportation projects by building highways, notably the New York State Thruway. The project was unpopular with New York City Democrats, who referred to it as "Dewey's ditch" and the "enemy of schools", because the Thruway disproportionately benefited upstate. The highway was based on the German Autobahn and was unlike anything seen at that point in the United States. It was within 30 miles (50 km) of 90% of the population at its conception. Costing $600 million, the full 427-mile (687 km) project opened in 1956.

 

Nelson Rockefeller was governor from 1959 to 1973 and changed New York politics. He began as a liberal, but grew more conservative: he limited SUNY's growth, responded aggressively to the Attica Prison riot, and promulgated the uniquely severe Rockefeller Drug Laws. The World Trade Center and other profligate projects nearly drove New York City into bankruptcy in 1975. The state took substantial budgetary control, which eventually led to improved fiscal prudence.

 

The Executive Mansion was retaken by Democrats in 1974 and remained under Democratic control for 20 years under Hugh Carey and Mario Cuomo. Late–century Democrats became more centrist, including US Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan (1977–2001) and New York City Mayor Ed Koch (1978–1989), while state Republicans began to align themselves with the more conservative national party. They gained power through the elections of Senator Alfonse D'Amato in 1980, Mayor Rudolph Giuliani in 1993, and Governor George Pataki in 1994. New York remained one of the most liberal states. In 1984, Ronald Reagan was the last Republican to carry the state, although Republican Michael Bloomberg served as New York City mayor in the early 21st century.

 

In the late 20th century, telecommunication and high technology industries employed many New Yorkers. New York City was especially successful at this transition. Entrepreneurs created many small companies, as industrial firms such as Polaroid withered. This success drew many young professionals into the still–dwindling cities. New York City was the exception and has continued to draw new residents. The energy of the city created attractions and new businesses. Some people believe that changes in policing created a less threatening environment; crime rates dropped, and urban development reduced urban decay.

 

This in turn led to a surge in culture. New York City became, once again, "the center for all things chic and trendy". Hip-hop and rap music, led by New York City, became the most popular pop genre. Immigration to both the city and state rose. New York City, with a large gay and lesbian community, suffered many deaths from AIDS beginning in the 1980s.

 

New York City increased its already large share of television programming, home to the network news broadcasts, as well as two of the three major cable news networks. The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times became two of the three "national" newspapers, read throughout the country. New York also increased its dominance of the financial services industry centered on Wall Street, led by banking expansion, a rising stock market, innovations in investment banking, including junk bond trading and accelerated by the savings and loan crisis that decimated competitors elsewhere in New York.

 

Upstate did not fare as well as downstate; the major industries that began to reinvigorate New York City did not typically spread to other regions. The number of farms in the state had fallen to 30,000 by 1997. City populations continued to decline while suburbs grew in area, but did not increase proportionately in population. High-tech industry grew in cities such as Corning and Rochester. Overall New York entered the new millennium "in a position of economic strength and optimism".

 

In 2001, New York entered a new era following the 9/11 attacks, the worst terrorist attack ever to take place on American soil. Two of the four hijacked passenger jets crashed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, destroying them, and killing almost 3,000 people. One flew into the Pentagon demolishing the walls. The final one was almost taken back over by the passengers aboard and crashed into an open grassland with 296 out of the 500 people dead. Thousands of New Yorkers volunteered their time to search the ruin for survivors and remains in the following weeks.

 

Following the attacks, plans were announced to rebuild the World Trade Center site. 7 World Trade Center became the first World Trade Center skyscraper to be rebuilt in five years after the attacks. One World Trade Center, four more office towers, and a memorial to the casualties of the September 11 attacks are under construction as of 2011. One World Trade Center opened on November 3, 2014.

 

On October 29 and 30, 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused extensive destruction of the state's shorelines, ravaging portions of New York City, Long Island, and southern Westchester with record-high storm surge, with severe flooding and high winds causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of New Yorkers, and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems. The storm and its profound effects have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of New York City and Long Island to minimize the risk from another such future event. Such risk is considered highly probable due to global warming and rising sea levels.

My Dad left me and this world when was about to leave college and when i needed him the most.

 

Anyways with a lot of difficulties i faced the reality and like all adolescents, I passed out of college into a sea of societal demons, mothers expectations and my own dreams.

 

My dream was to enter into the field of media be it becoming an actor or an anchor.

 

When i was in college due to my presence in most of extra curricular activities i was a very popular student who was always in demand when it came to hosting college festivals and shows but once i was out of college i faced reality and faced confusion in terms of whether to keep anchoring as a hobby and work full time in Merchant Navy and follow my Dad’s footsteps.

 

Had even got admission for the training but my heart was not into it i and finally i decided against it and follow my dreams of getting into the entertainment business.

 

I became an assistant for a movie, acted in a couple of short films, started hosting with local orchestra group and through the journey of hosting i realised that hosting Sangeet Sandhya is my niche

 

I was good in hosting it and through Word of mouth praising within no time I became a household name in the Sangeet Sandhya i.e. pre wedding gigs.

 

My mom was still unsure about my profession but as the praise for my work began to trickle in through her well wishers and neighbours, she and my family developed a sense of ease, started developing faith in my talent and with my choice of career.

 

I have immense faith my talent and I work to express and not impress.

 

My mother has always taught me to be grounded and be consistent in whatever i do.

 

Her advise always comes handy and makes me more committed to my profession.

 

Lastly i m sure my dad somewhere up there is a very proud and very happy with my achievements, still long way to reach my goals and i m sure his duas are with me.

 

www.humansofmumbai.in

North Pier is the most northerly of the three coastal piers in Blackpool, England. Built in the 1860s, it is also the oldest and longest of the three. Although originally intended only

as a promenade, competition forced the pier to widen its attractions to include theatres and bars. Unlike Blackpool's other piers, which attracted the working classes with open air

dancing and amusements, North Pier catered for the "better-class" market, with orchestra concerts and respectable comedians. Until 2011, it was the only Blackpool pier that

consistently charged admission.

The pier is designated by English Heritage as a Grade II listed building, due to its status as the oldest surviving pier created by Eugenius Birch. As of 2012 it is still in regular use,

despite having suffered damage from fires, storms and collisions with boats. Its attractions include bars, a theatre, a carousel and an arcade. One of the oldest remaining Sooty

glove puppets is on display commemorating Harry Corbett buying the original puppet there.

North Pier was built at the seaward end of Talbot Road, where the town's first railway station, Blackpool North, was built. Its name reflects its location as the most northerly of

Blackpool's three piers. It is about 450 yards (410 m) north of Blackpool Tower, which is roughly the midpoint of Blackpool's promenade. The sea front is particularly straight and

flat on this stretch of coastline, and the 1,650 feet (500 m) pier extends at right angles into the Irish Sea, more or less level with the promenade.

History: The construction of Blackpool Pier (eventually North Pier) started in May 1862, in Layton-cum-Warbreck, part of the parish of Bispham. In October 1862 severe storms

suggested that the planned height of the pier was insufficient, and it was increased by 3 feet (0.91 m) North Pier was the second of fourteen piers designed by Eugenius Birch,

and since Margate Pier was destroyed by a storm in 1978, it is the oldest of the remaining examples of his work still in use. It was the first of Birch's piers to be built by Glasgow

engineering firm Richard Laidlaw and Son.

The pier, which cost £11,740 to build, originally consisted of a promenade 1,405 feet (428 m) long and 28 feet (8.5 m) wide, extending to 55 feet (17 m) wide at the pier-head. The

bulk of the pier was constructed from cast iron, with a wooden deck laid on top. The cast iron piles on which the structure rests were inserted using Birch's screw pile process; the

screw-tipped piles were twisted into the sand until they hit bedrock. This made construction much quicker and easier, and guaranteed that the pier had a solid foundation. The

cast iron columns, 12 inches (300 mm) in diameter, were filled with concrete for stability at intervals of 60 feet (18 m), and supported by struts that were on average were slightly

more than 1 inch (25 mm) thick.The pier's promenade deck is lined with wooden benches with ornamental cast iron backs. At intervals along the pier are hexagonal kiosks built

around 1900 in wood and glass with minaret roofs topped with decorative finials. On opening two of the kiosks were occupied by a bookstall and confectionery stall and the

kiosks near the ends of the pier were seated shelters. The pier-head is a combination of 420 tons of cast iron and 340 tons of wrought iron columns; standing 50 feet (15 m)

above the low water line, it sees a regular 35 feet (11 m) change in sea level due to the tide.

The pier was officially opened in a grand ceremony on 21 May 1863, even though the final 50 yards (46 m) had not yet been completed. All the shops in the area were closed

and decorated with flags and streamers for the ceremony, which included a procession and a cannon salute, and was attended by more than 20,000 visitors. Although the town

only had a population of approximately 4,000, more than 200,000 holiday makers regularly stayed there during the summer months; this included 275,000 admissions in 1863,

400,000 in 1864 and 465,000 the following year. The pier was officially opened by Major Preston, and he and 150 officials then travelled to the Clifton Hotel for a celebratory

meal.

The pier was intended primarily for leisure rather than seafaring; for the price of 2d (worth approximately £4.90 in 2012) the pier provided the opportunity for visitors to walk close

to the sea without distractions.This fee was insufficient to deter "trippers'", which led to Major Preston campaigning for a new pier to cater for the 'trippers'. In 1866, the

government agreed that a second pier could be built, despite objections from the Blackpool Pier Company that it was close to their pier and therefore unnecessary

As permitted by the original parliamentary order, a landing jetty was built at the end of North Pier in incremental stages between 1864 and 1867. The full length of the jetty was

474 feet (144 m), and the extensions increased the pier's total length to its current 1,650 feet (500 m). The Blackpool Pier Company used the jetty to operate pleasure steamers

that made trips to the surrounding areas. In 1871 swimming and diving lessons were added to the pier.

In 1874, the pier-head was extended to allow Richard Knill Freeman to incorporate a pavilion, which opened in 1877. The interior decoration led it to be known as the "Indian

Pavilion", and it was Blackpool's primary venue for indoor entertainment until the Winter Gardens opened in 1879.

To differentiate itself from the new pier, North Pier focused on catering for the "better classes", charging for entry and including attractions such as an orchestra and band

concerts, in contrast to the Central Pier (or the "People's pier"), which regularly had music playing and open-air dancing. The pier owners highlighted the difference, charging at

least a shilling (worth approximately £19.90 in 2012) for concerts and ensuring that advertisements for comedians focused on their lack of vulgarity. Sundays were given over to a

church parade.

On 8 October 1892, a storm-damaged vessel, Sirene, hit the southern side of the pier, causing four shops and part of the deck to collapse onto the beach below. Several columns

were also dislodged, and the ship's bowsprit hit the pier entrance. All eleven crew members were rescued when they were hauled onto the pier. Damage to the pier was

estimated to be £5,000 and was promptly repaired.

Nelson's former flagship, HMS Foudroyant, was moored alongside North Pier for an exhibition, but slipped anchor and was wrecked on the shore in a violent storm on 16 June

1897, damaging part of the jetty. The wreck of the ship broke up during December storms.

The pier was closed for the winter during 1895–6 as it unsafe; as a result, the pier was widened as electric lighting was added.

An Arcade Pavilion was added in 1903 at the entrance to the pier and contained a wide range of amusements to suit all tastes. Further alterations were made to the pier in 1932-

3 when the open air stand was replaced with a stage and sun lounge.

In 1936, a pleasure steamer returning from Llandudno crashed into the pier. The collision left a 10 feet (3.0 m) gap, and stranded a number of people at the far end.

The 1874 Indian Pavilion was severely damaged by fire in 1921. It was refurbished, but was then destroyed by a second fire in 1938. In 1939 it was replaced by a theatre, built in

an Art Deco style. At around the same time, the bandstand was removed and replaced with a sun lounge.

In the 1960s, the Merrie England bar and an amusement arcade were constructed at the end of the pier nearest to the shore. The 1939 theatre, which is still in use, narrowly

escaped damage in 1985 when the early stages of a fire were noticed by performer Vince Hill. In the 1980s, a Victorian-styled entrance was built. In 1991 the pier gained the

Carousel bar as an additional attraction, and a small tramway to ease access to the pier-head. By this point, the pier had ceased to have any nautical use, but the jetty section

was adapted for use as a helicopter pad in the late 1980s. Storms on 24 December 1997 destroyed the landing jetty, including the helipad.

The North Pier is one of the few remaining examples of Birch's classic pier architecture and is a Grade II Listed building, the only Blackpool pier to hold that status. It was

recognised as "Pier of the Year" in 2004 by the National Piers Society.

North Pier's attractions include a Gypsy palm reader and an ice cream parlour, the North Pier Theatre, a Victorian tea room, and the Carousel and Merrie England bars. The

arcade, built in the 1960s, has approximately eleven million coins pass through its machines each year.

One of the earliest Sooty bear puppets used by Harry Corbett is on display on the pier. Corbett bought the original Sooty puppet on North Pier for his son, Matthew. When Corbett

took the puppet on BBC's Talent Night programme, he marked the nose and ears with soot so that they would show up on the black and white television, giving the puppet its

name.

The Carousel bar on the pier-head has a Victorian wrought iron canopy, and its outdoor sun-lounge is classified as the largest beer garden in Blackpool. Next to the bar is a two

tier carousel, the "Venetian Carousel", which is protected from sand and spray by a glass wall.

After the fire in 1938, the pavilion was replaced with a 1,564 seat theatre which has since hosted a number of acts including; Frankie Vaughan, Frank Randle, Tessie O'Shea,

Dave Morris, Bernard Delfont, Morecambe and Wise, Paul Daniels, Freddie Starr, Russ Abbott, Bruce Forsyth, Des O'Connor, Joe Longthorne, Lily Savage, Brian Conley and

Hale and Pace.

In 2002 a heritage room with photographs was opened up, the foyer entrance was refurbished and a disabled lift added. By 2005, there was no longer a live organist playing in

the sun lounge although other live entertainment continues. In 2013, the live organist was brought back into the sun lounge.

The pier was built and owned by the Blackpool Pier Company, created with three thousand £5-shares in 1861 (worth approximately £2,990 in 2012). The same firm operated the

pier in 1953, and the company was incorporated in 1965. The Resorts Division of First Leisure, including the pier, was sold to Leisure Parks for £74 million in 1998. In 2009, the

pier was sold to the Six Piers group, which owns Blackpool's other two piers, and hoped to use it as a more tranquil alternative to them. The new owners opened the Victorianthemed

tea room, and built an eight-seat shuttle running the length of the pier.

In April 2011, the pier was sold to a Blackpool family firm, Sedgwick's, the owners of amusement arcades and the big wheel on Blackpool's Central Pier. Peter Sedgwick

explained that he proposed to his wife on North Pier forty years ago, and promised to buy it for her one day. He said that he wants to restore the Victorian heritage of the pier and

re-instate the pier's tram. An admission charge of fifty pence to access the board-walk section of the pier was abolished by the Sedgewicks.

A petition to wind up the Northern Victorian Pier Limited (the company used by the Sedgwick family to manage Blackpool North Pier) was presented on 17 September 2012 by

Carlsberg UK Limited, a creditor of the Company, and this was to be heard at Blackpool County Court on 15 November 2012.

At the 11th hour, an agreement to pay the outstanding balance owed to Carlsberg was made and Peter Sedgwick's company escaped liquidation.

[Wikipedia]

The Japanese spent the 1970s and 80 consistently improving quality and features in the cars they produced. This led Toyota to introduce a new marque to sit above their mainstream cars, named Lexus. Nissan did the same with Infinti, Mazda with Amati, and Honda with Acura.

 

The first model to wear the Acura badge was the Legend - also sold globally under the Honda badge. The Legend was laucned in 1985, with a Coupe model following in 1987. The Legend was the first Honda to feature on V6 engines, initially of 2.5L , then 2.7L capacity, producing 165 PS and 180 PS respectively. The powertrain was mounted longitudinally, and drove the front wheels only - Honda had not yet marketed a rear-drive saloon car.

 

Though the US was considered the primary market for the car, and this showed strongly in the styling of the Coupe model.

 

The second generation Honda / Acura Legend was launched in 1990, again featuring both Saloon and Coupe models.

Michelangelo Buonarroti

Il secondo e terzo progetto per la tomba di Giulio II (1513-1516)

 

Nel febbraio 1513, con la morte del papa, gli eredi decisero di riprendere il progetto della tomba monumentale, con un nuovo disegno e un nuovo contratto nel maggio di quell'anno. Si può immaginare Michelangelo desideroso di riprendere lo scalpello, dopo quattro anni di estenuante lavoro in un'arte che non era la sua prediletta. La modifica più sostanziale del nuovo monumento era l'addossamento a una parete e l'eliminazione della camera mortuaria, caratteristiche che vennero mantenute fino al progetto finale. L'abbandono del monumento isolato, troppo grandioso e dispendioso per gli eredi, comportò un maggiore affollamento di statue sulle facce visibili. Ad esempio le quattro figure sedute, invece che disporsi sulle due facciate, erano adesso previste in prossimità dei due angoli sporgenti sulla fronte. La zona inferiore aveva una partitura analoga, ma senza il portale centrale, sostituito da una fascia liscia che evidenziava l'andamento ascensionale. Lo sviluppo laterale era ancora consistente, poiché era ancora previsto il catafalco in posizione perpendicolare alla parete, sul quale la statua del papa giacente era retta, da due figure alate. Nel registro inferiore invece, su ciascun lato, restava ancora spazio per due nicchie che riprendevano lo schema del prospetto anteriore. Più in alto, sotto una corta volta a tutto sesto retta da pilastri, si trovava una Madonna col Bambino entro una mandorla e altre cinque figure[50].

 

Tra le clausole contrattuali c'era anche quella che legava l'artista, almeno sulla carta, a lavorare esclusivamente alla sepoltura papale, con un termine massimo di sette anni per il completamento.

 

Lo scultore si mise al lavoro di buona lena e sebbene non rispettò la clausola esclusiva per non precludesi ulteriori guadagni extra (come scolpendo il primo Cristo della Minerva, nel 1514), realizzò i due Prigioni oggi al Louvre (Schiavo morente e Schiavo ribelle) e il Mosè, che poi venne riutilizzato nella versione definitiva della tomba[55]. I lavori vennero spesso interrotti per viaggi alle cave di Carrara.

 

Nel luglio 1516 si giunse a un nuovo contratto per un terzo progetto, che riduceva il numero delle statue. I lati vennero accorciati e il monumento andava assumendo così l'aspetto di una monumentale facciata, mossa da decorazioni scultoree. Al posto della partitura liscia al centro della facciata (dove si trovava la porta) viene forse previsto un rilievo bronzeo e, nel registro superiore, il catafalco viene sostituito da una figura del papa sorretto come in una Pietà da due figure sedute, coronate da una Madonna col Bambino sotto una nicchia[50]. I lavori alla sepoltura vengono bruscamente interrotti dalla commissione da parte di Leone X dei lavori alla basilica di San Lorenzo[43].

Michelangelo e Sebastiano del Piombo

 

In quegli stessi anni, una competizione sempre più accesa con l'artista dominante della corte papale, Raffaello, lo portò a stringere un sodalizio con un altro talentuoso pittore, il veneziano Sebastiano del Piombo. Occupato da altri incarichi, Michelangelo spesso forniva disegni e cartoni al collega, che li trasformava in pittura. Tra questi ci fu ad esempio la Pietà di Viterbo[56].

 

Nel 1516 nacque una competizione tra Sebastiano e Raffaello, scatenata da una doppia commissione del cardinale Giulio de' Medici per due pale destinata alla sua sede di Narbona, in Francia. Michelangelo offrì un cospicuo aiuto a Sebastiano, disegnando la figura del Salvatore e del miracolato nella tela della Resurrezione di Lazzaro (oggi alla National Gallery di Londra). L'opera di Raffaello invece, la Trasfigurazione non venne completata per la scomparsa dell'artista nel 152

A Firenze per i papi medicei (1516-1534)

La facciata di San Lorenzo (1516-1519)

 

Nel frattempo infatti il figlio di Lorenzo il Magnifico, Giovanni, era salito al soglio pontificio col nome di Leone X e la città di Firenze era tornata ai Medici nel 1511, comportando la fine del governo repubblicano con alcune apprensioni in particolare per i parenti di Michelangelo, che avevano perso incarichi d'ordine politico e i relativi compensi[58]. Michelangelo lavorò per il nuovo papa fin dal 1514, quando rifece la facciata della sua cappella a Castel Sant'Angelo (dal novembre, opera perduta); nel 1515 la famiglia Buonarroti ottenne dal papa il titolo di conti palatini[59].

 

In occasione di un viaggio del papa a Firenze nel 1516, la facciata della chiesa "di famiglia" dei Medici, San Lorenzo, era stata ricoperta di apparati effimeri realizzati da Jacopo Sansovino e Andrea del Sarto. Il pontefice decise allora di indire un concorso per realizzare una vera facciata, a cui parteciparono Giuliano da Sangallo, Raffaello, Andrea e Jacopo Sansovino, nonché Michelangelo stesso, su invito del papa. La vittoria andò a quest'ultimo, all'epoca impegnato a Carrara e Pietrasanta per scegliere i marmi per il sepolcro di Giulio II[58]. Il contratto è datato 19 gennaio 1518[59].

 

Il progetto di Michelangelo, per il quale vennero eseguiti numerosi disegni e ben due modelli lignei (uno è a oggi a Casa Buonarroti) prevedeva una struttura a nartece con un prospetto rettangolare, forse ispirato a modelli di architettura classica, scandito da potenti membrature animate da statue in marmo, bronzo e da rilievi. Si sarebbe trattato di un passo fondamentale in architettura verso una concezione nuova di facciata, non più basata sulla mera aggregazione di elementi singoli, ma articolata in modo unitario, dinamico e fortemente plastico[60].

 

Il lavoro procedette però a rilento, a causa della scelta del papa di servirsi dei più economici marmi di Seravezza, la cui cava era mal collegata col mare, rendendo difficile il loro trasporto per via fluviale fino a Firenze. Nel settembre 1518 Michelangelo sfiorò anche la morte per una colonna di marmo che, durante il trasporto su un carro, si staccò colpendo micidialmente un operaio accanto a lui, un evento che lo sconvolse profondamente, come raccontò in una lettera a Berto da Filicaia datata 14 settembre 1518[61]. In Versilia Michelangelo creò la strada per il trasporto dei marmi, ancora oggi esistente (anche se ampliata nel 1567 da Cosimo I). I blocchi venivano calati dalla cava di Trambiserra ad Azzano, davanti al Monte Altissimo, fino al Forte dei Marmi (insediamento sorto proprio in quell'occasione) e da lì imbarcate in mare e spedite a Firenze tramite l'Arno.

 

Nel marzo 1520 il contratto fu rescisso, per la difficoltà dell'impresa e i costi elevati. In quel periodo Michelangelo lavorò ai Prigioni per la tomba di Giulio II, in particolare ai quattro incompiuti oggi alla Galleria dell'Accademia. Scolpì probabilmente anche la statua del Genio della Vittoria di Palazzo Vecchio e alla nuova versione del Cristo risorto per Metello Vari (opera portata a Roma nel 1521), rifinita da suoi assistenti e posta nella basilica di Santa Maria sopra Minerva[58]. Tra le commissioni ricevute e non portate a termine c'è una consulenza per Pier Soderini, per una cappella nella chiesa romana di San Silvestro in Capite (1518)[62].

La Sagrestia Nuova (1520-1534)

 

Il mutamento dei desideri papali venne causato dai tragici eventi familiari legati alla morte degli ultimi eredi diretti della dinastia medicea: Giuliano Duca di Nemours nel 1516 e, soprattutto, Lorenzo Duca d'Urbino nel 1519. Per ospitare degnamente i resti dei due cugini, nonché quelli dei fratelli Magnifici Lorenzo e Giuliano, rispettivamente padre e zio di Leone X, il papa maturò l'idea di creare una monumentale cappella funebre, la Sagrestia Nuova, da ospitare nel complesso di San Lorenzo. L'opera venne affidata a Michelangelo prima ancora del definitivo annullamento della commissione della facciata; dopotutto l'artista poco tempo prima, il 20 ottobre 1519, si era offerto al pontefice per realizzare una sepoltura monumentale per Dante in Santa Croce, manifestando quindi la sua disponibilità a nuovi incarichi[58]. La morte di Leone sospese il progetto solo per breve tempo, poiché già nel 1523 venne eletto suo cugino Giulio, che prese il nome di Clemente VII e confermò a Michelangelo tutti gli incarichi[58].

 

Il primo progetto michelangiolesco era quello di un monumento isolato al centro della sala ma, in seguito a discussioni con i committenti, lo cambiò prevedendo di collocare le tombe dei Capitani addossate al centro delle pareti laterali, mentre quelle dei Magnifici, addossate entrambe alla parete di fondo davanti all'altare.

 

L'opera venne iniziata nel 1525 circa: la struttura in pianta si rifaceva alla Sagrestia Vecchia, sempre nella chiesa di San Lorenzo, del Brunelleschi: a pianta quadrata e con piccolo sacello anch'esso quadrato. Grazie alle membrature, in pietra serena e a ordine gigante, l'ambiente acquista un ritmo più serrato e unitario; inserendo tra le pareti e le lunette un mezzanino e aprendo tra queste ultime delle finestre architravate, dà alla sala un potente senso ascensionale concluso nella volta a cassettoni di ispirazione antica.

 

Le tombe che sembrano far parte della parete, riprendono nella parte alta le edicole, che sono inserite sopra le otto porte dell'ambiente, quattro vere e quattro finte. Le tombe dei due capitani si compongono di un sarcofago curvilineo sormontato da due statue distese con le Allegorie del Tempo: in quella di Lorenzo il Crepuscolo e l'Aurora, mentre in quella di Giuliano la Notte e il Giorno. Si tratta di figure massicce e dalle membra poderose che sembrano gravare sui sarcofagi quasi a spezzarli e a liberare le anime dei defunti, ritratti nelle statue inserite sopra di essi. Inserite in una nicchia della parete, le statue non sono riprese dal vero ma idealizzate mentre contemplano: Lorenzo in una posa pensierosa e Giuliano con uno scatto repentino della testa. La statua posta sull'altare con la Madonna Medici è simbolo di vita eterna ed è fiancheggiata dalle statue dei Santi Cosma e Damiano (protettori dei Medici) eseguite su disegno del Buonarroti, rispettivamente da Giovanni Angelo Montorsoli e Raffaello da Montelupo.

 

All'opera, anche se non continuativamente, Michelangelo lavorò fino al 1534, lasciandola incompiuta: senza i monumenti funebri dei Magnifici, le sculture dei Fiumi alla base delle tombe dei Capitani e, forse, di affreschi nelle lunette. Si tratta comunque di uno straordinario esempio di simbiosi perfetta tra scultura e architettura[63].

 

Nel frattempo Michelangelo continuava a ricevere altre commissioni che solo in piccola parte eseguiva: nell'agosto 1521 inviò a Roma il Cristo della Minerva, nel 1522 un certo Frizzi gli commissionò una tomba a Bologna e il cardinale Fieschi gli chiese una Madonna scolpita, entrambi progetti mai eseguiti[62]; nel 1523 ricevette nuove sollecitazioni da parte degli eredi di Giulio II, in particolare Francesco Maria Della Rovere, e lo stesso anno gli venne commissionata, senza successo, una statua di Andrea Doria da parte del Senato genovese, mentre il cardinal Grimani, patriarca di Aquileia, gli chiese un dipinto o una scultura mai eseguiti[62]. Nel 1524 papa Clemente gli commissionò la biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, i cui lavori avviarono a rilento, e un ciborio (1525) per l'altare maggiore di San Lorenzo, sostituito poi dalla Tribuna delle reliquie; nel 1526 si arrivò a una drammatica rottura coi Della Rovere per un nuovo progetto, più semplice, per la tomba di Giulio II, che venne rifiutato[58]. Altre richieste inevase di progetti di tombe gli pervengono dal duca di Suessa e da Barbazzi canonico di San Petronio a BolognaL'insurrezione e l'assedio (1527-1530)

 

Un motivo comune nella vicenda biografica di Michelangelo è l'ambiguo rapporto con i propri committenti, che più volte ha fatto parlare di ingratitudine dell'artista verso i suoi patrocinatori. Anche con i Medici il suo rapporto fu estremamente ambiguo: nonostante siano stati loro a spingerlo verso la carriera artistica e a procurargli commissioni di altissimo rilievo, la sua convinta fede repubblicana lo portò a covare sentimenti di odio contro di essi, vedendoli come la principale minaccia contro la libertas fiorentina[63].

 

Fu così che nel 1527, arrivata in città la notizia del Sacco di Roma e del durissimo smacco inferto a papa Clemente, la città di Firenze insorse contro il suo delegato, l'odiato Alessandro de' Medici, cacciandolo e instaurando un nuovo governo repubblicano. Michelangelo aderì pienamente al nuovo regime, con un appoggio ben oltre il piano simbolico. Il 22 agosto 1528 si mise al servizio del governo repubblicano, riprendendo la vecchia commissione dell'Ercole e Caco (ferma dal 1508), che propose di mutare in un Sansone con due filistei[58]. Il 10 gennaio 1529 venne nominato membro dei "Nove di milizia", occupandosi di nuovi piani difensivi, specie per il colle di San Miniato al Monte[58]. Il 6 aprile di quell'anno riceve l'incarico di "Governatore generale sopra le fortificazioni", in previsione dell'assedio che le forze imperiali si apprestavano a cingere[63]. Visitò appositamente Pisa e Livorno nell'esercizio del proprio ufficio, e si recò anche a Ferrara per studiarne le fortificazioni (qui Alfonso I d'Este gli commissionò una Leda con il cigno, poi andata perduta[62]), rientrando a Firenze il 9 settembre[58]. Preoccupato per l'aggravarsi della situazione, il 21 settembre fuggì a Venezia, in previsione di trasferirsi in Francia alla corte di Francesco I, che però non gli aveva ancora fatto offerte concrete. Qui venne però raggiunto prima dal bando del governo fiorentino che lo dichiarò ribelle, il 30 settembre. Tornò allora nella sua città il 15 novembre, riprendendo la direzione delle fortezze[58].

 

Di questo periodo rimangono disegni di fortificazione, realizzate attraverso una complicata dialettica di forme concave e convesse che sembrano macchine dinamiche atte all'offesa e alla difesa. Con l'arrivo degli Imperiali a minacciare la città, a lui è attribuita l'idea di usare la platea di San Miniato al Monte come avamposto con cui cannoneggiare sul nemico, proteggendo il campanile dai pallettoni nemici con un'armatura fatta di materassi imbottiti.

 

Le forze in campo per gli assedianti erano però soverchianti e con la sua disperata difesa la città non poté altro che negoziare un trattato, in parte poi disatteso, che evitasse la distruzione e il saccheggio che pochi anni prima avevano colpito Roma. All'indomani del ritorno dei Medici in città (12 agosto 1530) Michelangelo, che sapeva di essersi fortemente compromesso e temendo quindi una vendetta, si nasconde rocambolescamente e riuscì a fuggire dalla città (settembre 1530), riparando a Venezia[63]. Qui restò brevemente, assalito da dubbi sul da farsi. In questo breve periodo soggiornò all'isola della Giudecca per mantenersi lontano dalla vita sfarzosa dell'ambiente cittadino e leggenda vuole che avesse presentato un modello per il ponte di Rialto al doge Andrea Gritti.

La Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana (1530-1534)

 

Il perdono di Clemente VII non si fece però attendere, a patto che l'artista riprendesse immediatamente i lavori a San Lorenzo dove, oltre alla Sagrestia, si era aggiunto cinque anni prima il progetto di una monumentale libreria. È chiaro come il papa fosse mosso, più che dalla pietà verso l'uomo, dalla consapevolezza di non poter rinunciare all'unico artista capace di dare forma ai sogni di gloria della sua dinastia, nonostante la sua indole contrastata[63]. All'inizio degli anni trenta scolpì anche un Apollino per Baccio Valori, il feroce governatore di Firenze imposto dal papa[58].

 

La biblioteca pubblica, annessa alla chiesa di San Lorenzo, venne interamente progettata dal Buonarroti: nella sala di lettura si rifece al modello della biblioteca di Michelozzo in San Marco, eliminando la divisione in navate e realizzando un ambiente con le mura scandite da finestre sormontate da mezzanini tra pilastrini, tutti con modanature in pietra serena. Disegnò anche i banchi in legno e forse lo schema di soffitto intagliato e pavimento con decorazioni in cotto, organizzati in medesime partiture. Il capolavoro del progetto è il vestibolo, con un forte slancio verticale dato dalle colonne binate che cingono il portale timpanato e dalle edicole sulle pareti.

 

Solo nel 1558 Michelangelo fornì il modello in argilla per lo scalone, da lui progettato in legno, ma realizzato per volere di Cosimo I de' Medici, in pietra serena: le ardite forme rettilinee e ellittiche, concave e convesse, vengono indicate come una precoce anticipazione dello stile barocco.

 

Il 1531 fu un anno intenso: eseguì il cartone del Noli me tangere, proseguì i lavori alla Sagrestia e alla Liberia di San Lorenzo e per la stessa chiesa progettò la Tribuna delle reliquie; Inoltre gli vennero chiesti, senza esito, un progetto dal duca di Mantova, il disegno di una casa da Baccio Valori, e un tomba per il cardinale Cybo; le fatiche lo condussero anche a una grave malattia[58].

 

Nell'aprile 1532 si ebbe il quarto contratto per la tomba di Giulio II, con solo sei statue. In quello stesso anno Michelangelo conobbe a Roma l'intelligente e bellissimo Tommaso de' Cavalieri, con il quale si legò appassionatamente, dedicandogli disegni e composizioni poetiche[58]. Per lui approntò, tra l'altro, i disegni col Ratto di Ganimede e la Caduta di Fetonte, che sembrano precorrere, nella potente composizione e nel tema del compiersi fatale del destino, il Giudizio Universale[64]. Rapporti molto tesi ebbe, invece, con il guardarobiere pontificio e Maestro di Camera Pietro Giovanni Aliotti, futuro vescovo di Forlì, che Michelangelo, considerandolo troppo impiccione, chiamava il Tantecose.

 

Il 22 settembre 1533 incontrò a San Miniato al Tedesco Clemente VII e, secondo la tradizione, in quell'occasione si parlò per la prima volta della pittura di un Giudizio universale nella Sistina[58]. Lo stesso anno morì il padre Ludovico[58].

 

Nel 1534 gli incarichi fiorentini procedevano ormai sempre più stancamente, con un ricorso sempre maggiore di aiuti

L'epoca di Paolo III (1534-1545)

Il Giudizio Universale (1534-1541)

 

L'artista non approvava il regime politico tiranneggiante del Duca Alessandro, per cui con l'occasione di nuovi incarichi a Roma, tra cui il lavoro per gli eredi di Giulio II, lasciò Firenze dove non mise mai più piede, nonostante gli accattivanti inviti di Cosimo I negli anni della vecchiaia[65].

 

Clemente VII gli aveva commissionato la decorazione della parete di fondo della Cappella Sistina con il Giudizio Universale, ma non fece in tempo a vedere nemmeno l'inizio dei lavori, perché morì pochi giorni dopo l'arrivo dell'artista a Roma. Mentre l'artista riprendeva la Sepoltura di papa Giulio, venne eletto al soglio pontificio Paolo III, che non solo confermò l'incarico del Giudizio, ma nominò anche Michelangelo pittore, scultore e architetto del Palazzo Vaticano[58].

 

I lavori alla Sistina poterono essere avviati alla fine del 1536, per proseguire fino all'autunno del 1541. Per liberare l'artista dagli incarichi verso gli eredi Della Rovere Paolo III arrivò ad emettere un motu proprio il 17 novembre 1536[58]. Se fino ad allora i vari interventi alla cappella papale erano stati coordinati e complementari, con il Giudizio si assistette al primo intervento distruttivo, che sacrificò la pala dell'Assunta di Perugino, le prime due storie quattrocentesche di Gesù e di Mosè e due lunette dipinte dallo stesso Michelangelo più di vent'anni prima[65].

 

Al centro dell'affresco vi è il Cristo giudice con vicino la Madonna che rivolge lo sguardo verso gli eletti; questi ultimi formano un'ellissi che segue i movimenti del Cristo in un turbine di santi, patriarchi e profeti. A differenza delle rappresentazioni tradizionale, tutto è caos e movimento, e nemmeno i santi sono esentati dal clima di inquietudine, attesa, se non paura e sgomento che coinvolge espressivamente i partecipanti.

 

Le licenze iconografiche, come i santi senza aureola, gli angeli apteri e il Cristo giovane e senza barba, possono essere allusioni al fatto che davanti al giudizio ogni singolo uomo è uguale. Questo fatto, che poteva essere letto come un generico richiamo ai circoli della Riforma Cattolica, unitamente alla nudità e alla posa sconveniente di alcune figure (santa Caterina d'Alessandria prona con alle spalle san Biagio), scatenarono contro l'affresco i severi giudizi di buona parte della curia. Dopo la morte dell'artista, e col mutato clima culturale dovuto anche al Concilio di Trento, si arrivò al punto di provvedere al rivestimento dei nudi e alla modifica delle parti più sconvenienti.

Una statua equestre

 

Nel 1537, verso febbraio, il duca d'Urbino Francesco Maria I Della Rovere gli chiese un abbozzo per un cavallo destinato forse a un monumento equestre, che risulta completato il 12 ottobre. L'artista però si rifiutò di inviare il progetto al duca, poiché insoddisfatto. Dalla corrispondenza si apprende anche che entro i primi di luglio Michelangelo gli aveva progettato anche una saliera: la precedenza del duca rispetto a tante commissioni inevase di Michelangelo è sicuramente legata alla pendenza dei lavori alla tomba di Giulio II, di cui Francesco Maria era erede[62].

 

Quello stesso anno a Roma riceve la cittadinanza onoraria in Campidoglio[

Piazza del Campidoglio

 

Paolo III, al pari dei suoi predecessori, fu un entusiasta committente di Michelangelo[65].

 

Con il trasferimento sul Campidoglio della statua equestre di Marc'Aurelio, simbolo dell'autorità imperiale e per estensione della continuità tra la Roma imperiale e quella papale, il papa incaricò Michelangelo, nel 1538, di studiare la ristrutturazione della piazza, centro dell'amministrazione civile romana fin dal Medioevo e in stato di degrado[62].

 

Tenendo conto delle preesistenze vennero mantenuti e trasformati i due edifici esistenti, già ristrutturati nel XV secolo da Rossellino, realizzando di conseguenza la piazza a pianta trapezoidale con sullo sfondo il palazzo dei Senatori, dotato di scala a doppia rampa, e delimitata ai lati da due palazzi: il Palazzo dei Conservatori e il cosiddetto Palazzo Nuovo costruito ex novo, entrambi convergenti verso la scalinata di accesso al Campidoglio. Gli edifici vennero caratterizzati da un ordine gigante a pilastri corinzi in facciata, con massicce cornici e architravi. Al piano terra degli edifici laterali i pilastri dell'ordine gigante sono affiancati da colonne che formano un insolito portico architravato, in un disegno complessivo molto innovativo che rifugge programmaticamente dall'uso dell'arco. il lato interno del portico presenta invece colonne alveolate che in seguito ebbero una gran diffusione[66], I lavori furono compiuti molto dopo la morte del maestro, mentre la pavimentazione della piazza fu realizzata solo ai primi del Novecento, utilizzando una stampa di Étienne Dupérac che riporta quello che doveva essere il progetto complessivo previsto da Michelangelo, secondo un reticolo curvilineo inscritto in un'ellisse con al centro il basamento ad angoli smussati per la statua del Marc'Aurelio, anch'esso disegnato da Michelangelo.

 

Verso il 1539 iniziò forse il Bruto per il cardinale Niccolò Ridolfi, opera dai significati politici legata ai fuorusciti fiorentini[5

La Crocifissione per Vittoria Colonna (1541).

Dal 1537 circa Michelangelo aveva iniziato la vivida amicizia con la marchesa di Pescara Vittoria Colonna: essa lo introdusse al circolo viterbese del cardinale Reginald Pole, frequentato, tra gli altri, da Vittore Soranzo, Apollonio Merenda, Pietro Carnesecchi, Pietro Antonio Di Capua, Alvise Priuli e la contessa Giulia Gonzaga.

 

In quel circolo culturale si aspirava a una riforma della Chiesa Cattolica, sia interna sia nei confronti del resto della Cristianità, alla quale avrebbe dovuto riconciliarsi. Queste teorie influenzarono Michelangelo e altri artisti. Risale a quel periodo la Crocifissione realizzata per Vittoria, databile al 1541 e forse dispersa, oppure mai dipinta. Di quest'opera ci restano solamente alcuni disegni preparatori di incerta attribuzione, il più famoso è senz'altro quello conservato al British Museum, mentre buone copie si trovano nella concattedrale di Santa Maria de La Redonda e alla Casa Buonarroti. Inoltre esiste un'opera attribuita a Michelangelo, sulla base di un testamento di un conte viterbese datato al 1725, esposta nel Museo del Colle del Duomo di Viterbo.

 

Secondo i progetti raffigurava un giovane e sensuale Cristo, simboleggiante un'allusione alle teorie riformiste cattoliche che vedevano nel sacrificio del sangue di Cristo l'unica via di salvezza individuale, senza intermediazioni della Chiesa e dei suoi rappresentanti.

 

Uno schema analogo presentava anche la Pietà per Vittoria Colonna, dello stesso periodo, nota da un disegno a Boston e da alcune copie di allievi.

 

In quegli anni a Roma Michelangelo poteva quindi contare su una sua cerchia di amici ed estimatori, tra cui oltre alla Colonna, Tommaso de' Cavalieri e artisti quali Tiberio Calcagni e Daniele da Volterra

Cappella Paolina (1542-1550)

 

Dal 1542 il papa gli commissionò quella che rappresenta la sua ultima opera pittorica, dove ormai anziano lavorò per quasi dieci anni, in contemporanea ad altri impegni[65]. Il papa Farnese, geloso e seccato del fatto che il luogo ove la celebrazione di Michelangelo pittore raggiungesse i suoi massimi livelli fosse dedicato ai papi Della Rovere, gli affidò la decorazione della sua cappella privata in Vaticano che prese il suo nome (Cappella Paolina). Michelangelo realizzò due affreschi, lavorando da solo con faticosa pazienza, procedendo con piccole "giornate", fitte di interruzioni e pentimenti.

 

Il primo a essere realizzato, la Conversione di Saulo (1542-1545), presenta una scena inserita in un paesaggio spoglio e irreale, con compatti grovigli di figure alternati a spazi vuoti e, al centro, la luce accecante che da Dio scende su Saulo a terra; il secondo, il Martirio di San Pietro (1545-1550), ha una croce disposta in diagonale in modo da costituire l'asse di un ipotetico spazio circolare con al centro il volto del martire.

 

L'opera nel suo complesso è caratterizzata da una drammatica tensione e improntata a un sentimento di mestizia, generalmente interpretata come espressione della religiosità tormentata di Michelangelo e del sentimento di profondo pessimismo che caratterizza l'ultimo periodo della sua vita.

La conclusione dei lavori alla tomba di Giulio II (1544-1545)

La Tomba di Giulio II

 

Dopo gli ultimi accordi del 1542, la tomba di Giulio II venne posta in essere nella chiesa di San Pietro in Vincoli tra il 1544 e il 1545 con le statue del Mosè, di Lia (Vita attiva) e di Rachele (Vita contemplativa) nel primo ordine.

 

Nel secondo ordine, al fianco del pontefice disteso con sopra la Vergine col Bambino si trovano una Sibilla e un Profeta. Anche questo progetto risente dell'influsso del circolo di Viterbo; Mosè uomo illuminato e sconvolto dalla visione di Dio è affiancato da due modi di essere, ma anche da due modi di salvezza non necessariamente in conflitto tra di loro: la vita contemplativa viene rappresentata da Rachele che prega come se per salvarsi usasse unicamente la Fede, mentre la vita attiva, rappresentata da Lia, trova la sua salvezza nell'operare. L'interpretazione comune dell'opera d'arte è che si tratti di una specie di posizione di mediazione tra Riforma e Cattolicesimo dovuta sostanzialmente alla sua intensa frequentazione con Vittoria Colonna e il suo entourage.

 

Nel 1544 disegnò anche la tomba di Francesco Bracci, nipote di Luigi del Riccio nella cui casa aveva ricevuto assistenza durante una grave malattia che l'aveva colpito in giugno[58]. Per tale indisposizione, nel marzo aveva rifiutato a Cosimo I de' Medici l'esecuzione di un busto[62]. Lo stesso anno avviarono i lavori al Campidoglio, progettati nel 1538

Vecchiaia (1546-1564)

 

Gli ultimi decenni di vita di Michelangelo sono caratterizzati da un progressivo abbandono della pittura e anche della scultura, esercitata ormai solo in occasione di opere di carattere privato. Prendono consistenza invece numerosi progetti architettonici e urbanistici, che proseguono sulla strada della rottura del canone classico, anche se molti di essi vennero portati a termine in periodi seguenti da altri architetti, che non sempre rispettarono il suo disegno originale[

Palazzo Farnese (1546-1550)

 

A gennaio 1546 Michelangelo si ammalò, venendo curato in casa di Luigi del Riccio. Il 29 aprile, ripresosi, promise una statua in bronzo, una in marmo e un dipinto a Francesco I di Francia, che però non riuscì a fare[62].

 

Con la morte di Antonio da Sangallo il Giovane nell'ottobre 1546, a Michelangelo vennero affidate le fabbriche di Palazzo Farnese e della basilica di San Pietro, entrambe lasciate incompiute dal primo[58].

 

Tra il 1547 e il 1550 l'artista progettò dunque il completamento della facciata e del cortile di Palazzo Farnese: nella facciata variò, rispetto al progetto del Sangallo, alcuni elementi che danno all'insieme una forte connotazione plastica e monumentale ma al tempo stesso dinamica ed espressiva. Per ottenere questo risultato accrebbe in altezza il secondo piano, inserì un massiccio cornicione e sormontò il finestrone centrale con uno stemma colossale (i due ai lati sono successivi).

Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano (1546-1564)

Per quanto riguarda la basilica vaticana, la storia del progetto michelangiolesco è ricostruibile da una serie di documenti di cantiere, lettere, disegni, affreschi e testimonianze dei contemporanei, ma diverse informazioni sono in contrasto tra loro. Infatti, Michelangelo non redasse mai un progetto definitivo per la basilica, preferendo procedere per parti[67]. In ogni caso, subito dopo la morte dell'artista toscano furono pubblicate diverse stampe nel tentativo di restituire una visione complessiva del disegno originario; le incisioni di Étienne Dupérac si imposero subito come le più diffuse e accettate[68].Michelangelo pare che aspirasse al ritorno alla pianta centrale del Bramante, con un quadrato inscritto nella croce greca, rifiutando sia la pianta a croce latina introdotta da Raffaello Sanzio, sia i disegni del Sangallo, che prevedevano la costruzione di un edificio a pianta centrale preceduto da un imponente avancorpo

 

Demolì parti realizzate dai suoi predecessori e, rispetto alla perfetta simmetria del progetto bramantesco, introdusse un asse preferenziale nella costruzione, ipotizzando una facciata principale schermata da un portico composto da colonne d'ordine gigante (non realizzato). Per la massiccia struttura muraria, che doveva correre lungo tutto il perimetro della fabbrica, ideò un unico ordine gigante a paraste corinzie con attico, mentre al centro della costruzione costruì un tamburo, con colonne binate (sicuramente realizzato dall'artista), sul quale fu innalzata la cupola emisferica a costoloni conclusa da lanterna (la cupola fu completata, con alcune differenze rispetto al presunto modello originario, da Giacomo Della Porta).

 

Tuttavia, la concezione michelangiolesca fu in gran parte stravolta da Carlo Maderno, che all'inizio del XVII secolo completò la basilica con l'aggiunta di una navata longitudinale e di una imponente facciata sulla base delle spinte della Controriforma.

 

Nel 1547 morì Vittoria Colonna, poco dopo la scomparsa dell'altro amico Luigi del Riccio: si tratta di perdite molto amare per l'artista[58]. L'anno successivo, il 9 gennaio 1548 muore suo fratello Giovansimone Buonarroti. Il 27 agosto il Consiglio municipale di Roma propose di affidare all'artista il restauro del ponte di Santa Maria. Nel 1549 Benedetto Varchi pubblicò a Firenze "Due lezzioni", tenute su un sonetto di Michelangelo[58]. Nel gennaio del 1551 alcuni documenti della cattedrale di Padova accennano a un modello di Michelangelo per il coro[62].

La serie delle Pietà (1550-1555 circa)

 

Dal 1550 circa iniziò a realizzare la cosiddetta Pietà dell'Opera del Duomo (dalla collocazione attuale nel Museo dell'Opera del Duomo di Firenze), opera destinata alla sua tomba e abbandonata dopo che l'artista frantumò, in un accesso d'ira due o tre anni più tardi, il braccio e la gamba sinistra del Cristo, spezzando anche la mano della Vergine. Fu in seguito Tiberio Calcagni a ricostruire il braccio e rifinire la Maddalena lasciata dal Buonarroti allo stato di non-finito: il gruppo costituito dal Cristo sorretto dalla Vergine, dalla Maddalena e da Nicodemo è disposto in modo piramidale con al vertice quest'ultimo; la scultura viene lasciata a diversi gradi di finitura con la figura del Cristo allo stadio più avanzato. Nicodemo sarebbe un autoritratto del Buonarroti, dal cui corpo sembra uscire la figura del Cristo: forse un riferimento alla sofferenza psicologica che lui, profondamente religioso, portava dentro di sé in quegli anni.

 

La Pietà Rondanini venne definita, nell'inventario di tutte le opere rinvenute nel suo studio dopo la morte, come: "Un'altra statua principiata per un Cristo et un'altra figura di sopra, attaccate insieme, sbozzate e non finite".

 

Michelangelo nel 1561 donò la scultura al suo servitore Antonio del Francese continuando però ad apportarvi modifiche sino alla morte; il gruppo è costituito da parti condotte a termine, come il braccio destro di Cristo, e da parti non finite, come il torso del Salvatore schiacciato contro il corpo della Vergine quasi a formare un tutt'uno. Successivamente alla scomparsa di Michelangelo, in un periodo imprecisato, questa scultura fu trasferita nel palazzo Rondanini di Roma e da questi ha mutuato il nome. Attualmente si trova nel Castello Sforzesco, acquistata nel 1952 dalla città di Milano da una proprietà privata[

Le biografie

 

Nel 1550 uscì la prima edizione delle Vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori di Giorgio Vasari che conteneva una biografia di Michelangelo, la prima scritta di un artista vivente, in posizione conclusiva dell'opera che celebrava l'artista come vertice di quella catena di grandi artefici che partiva da Cimabue e Giotto, raggiungendo nella sua persona la sintesi di perfetta padronanza delle arti (pittura, scultura e architettura) in grado non solo di rivaleggiare ma anche di superare i mitici maestri dell'antichità[70].

 

Nonostante le premesse celebrative ed encomiastiche, Michelangelo non gradì l'operazione, per le numerose scorrettezze e soprattutto per una versione a lui non congeniale della tormentata vicenda della tomba di Giulio II. L'artista allora in quegli anni lavorò con un suo fedele collaboratore, Ascanio Condivi, facendo pubblicare una nuova biografia che riportava la sua versione dei fatti (1553). A questa attinse Vasari, oltre che in seguito a una sua diretta frequentazione dell'artista negli ultimi anni di vita, per la seconda edizione delle Vite, pubblicata nel 1568[70].

 

Queste opere alimentarono la leggenda dell'artista, quale genio tormentato e incompreso, spinto oltre i propri limiti dalle condizioni avverse e dalle mutevoli richieste dei committenti, ma capace di creare opere titaniche e insuperabili[65]. Mai avvenuto fino ad allora era poi che questa leggenda si formasse quando ancora l'interessato era in vita[65]. Nonostante questa invidiabile posizione raggiunta dal Buonarroti in vecchiaia, gli ultimi anni della sua esistenza sono tutt'altro che tranquilli, animati da una grande tribolazione interiore e da riflessioni tormentate sulla fede, la morte e la salvezza, che si trovano anche nelle sue opere (come le Pietà) e nei suoi scritti[

Altri avvenimenti degli anni cinquanta

 

Nel 1550 Michelangelo aveva terminato gli affreschi alla Cappella Paolina e nel 1552 era stato completato il Campidoglio. In quell'anno l'artista fornì anche il disegno per la scala nel cortile del Belvedere in Vaticano. In scultura lavorò alla Pietà e in letteratura si occupa delle proprie biografie[58].

 

Nel 1554 Ignazio di Loyola dichiarò che Michelangelo aveva accettato di progettare la nuova chiesa del Gesù a Roma, ma il proposito non ebbe seguito[62]. Nel 1555 l'elezione al soglio pontificio di Marcello II compromise la presenza dell'artista a capo del cantiere di San Pietro, ma subito dopo venne eletto Paolo IV, che lo confermò nell'incarico, indirizzandolo soprattutto ai lavori alla cupola. Sempre nel '55 morirono suo fratello Gismondo e Francesco Amadori detto l'Urbino che lo aveva servito per ventisei anni[58]; una lettera a Vasari di quell'anno gli dà istruzioni per il compimento del ricetto della Libreria Laurenziana[62].

 

Nel settembre 1556 l'avvicinarsi dell'esercito spagnolo indusse l'artista ad abbandonare Roma per riparare a Loreto. Mentre faceva sosta a Spoleto venne raggiunto da un appello pontificio che lo obbligò a tornare indietro[58]. Al 1557 risale il modello ligneo per la cupola di San Pietro e nel 1559 fece disegni per la basilica di San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, nonché per la cappella Sforza in Santa Maria Maggiore e per la scalinata della Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana. Forse quell'anno avviò anche la Pietà Rondanini[58].

Porta Pia a Roma (1560)

 

el 1560 fece un disegno per Caterina de' Medici con un disegno per la tomba di Enrico II. Inoltre lo stesso anno progetto la tomba di Giangiacomo de' Medici per il Duomo di Milano, eseguita poi da Leone Leoni[58].

 

Verso il 1560 progettò anche la monumentale Porta Pia, vera e propria scenografia urbana con la fronte principale verso l'interno della città. Il portale con frontone curvilineo interrotto e inserito in un altro triangolare è fiancheggiata da paraste scanalate, mentre sul setto murario ai lati si aprono due finestre timpanate, con al di sopra altrettanti mezzanini ciechi. Dal punto di vista del linguaggio architettonico, Michelangelo manifestò uno spirito sperimentale ed anticonvenzionale tanto che si è parlato di "anticlassicismo

Santa Maria degli Angeli (1561)

 

Ormai vecchio, Michelangelo progettò nel 1561 una ristrutturazione della chiesa di Santa Maria degli Angeli all'interno delle Terme di Diocleziano e dell'adiacente convento dei padri certosini, avviati a partire dal 1562. Lo spazio della chiesa fu ottenuto con un intervento che, dal punto di vista murario, oggi si potrebbe definire minimale[72], con pochi setti di muro nuovi entro il grande spazio voltato del tepidarium delle terme, aggiungendo solo un profondo presbiterio e dimostrando un atteggiamento moderno e non distruttivo nei confronti dei resti archeologici.

 

La chiesa ha un insolito sviluppo trasversale, sfruttando tre campate contigue coperte a crociera, a cui sono aggiunte due cappelle laterali quadrate.

Console dell'Accademia delle Arti del Disegno

 

Il 31 gennaio 1563 Cosimo I de' Medici fondò, su consiglio dell'architetto aretino Giorgio Vasari, l'Accademia e Compagnia dell'Arte del Disegno di cui viene subito eletto console proprio il Buonarroti. Mentre la Compagnia era una sorta di corporazione cui dovevano aderire tutti gli artisti operanti in Toscana, l'Accademia, costituita solo dalle più eminenti personalità culturali della corte di Cosimo, aveva finalità di tutela e supervisione sull'intera produzione artistica del principato mediceo. Si trattava dell'ultimo, accattivante invito rivolto a Michelangelo da parte di Cosimo per farlo tornare a Firenze, ma ancora una volta l'artista declinò: la sua radicata fede repubblicana doveva probabilmente renderlo incompatibile col servizio al nuovo duca fiorentino

La morte

 

A un solo anno dalla nomina, il 18 febbraio 1564, quasi ottantanovenne, Michelangelo morì a Roma, nella sua residenza di piazza Macel de' Corvi (distrutta quando venne creato il monumento a Vittorio Emanuele II), assistito da Tommaso de' Cavalieri. Si dice che fino a tre giorni prima avesse lavorato alla Pietà Rondanini[65]. Pochi giorni prima, il 21 gennaio, la Congregazione del Concilio di Trento aveva deciso di far coprire le parti "oscene" del Giudizio Universale.

 

Nell'inventario redatto qualche giorno dopo il decesso (19 febbraio) sono registrati pochi beni, tra cui la Pietà, due piccole sculture di cui si ignorano le sorti (un San Pietro e un piccolo Cristo portacroce), dieci cartoni, mentre i disegni e gli schizzi pare che fossero stati bruciati poco prima di morire dal maestro stesso. In una cassa viene poi ritrovato un cospicuo "tesoretto", degno di un principe, che nessuno si sarebbe immaginato in un'abitazione tanto povera[

Le solenni esequie a Firenze

 

La morte del maestro venne particolarmente sentita a Firenze, poiché la città non era riuscita a onorare il suo più grande artista prima della morte, nonostante i tentativi di Cosimo. Il recupero dei suoi resti mortali e la celebrazione di esequie solenni divenne quindi un'assoluta priorità cittadina[73]. A pochi giorni dalla morte, suo nipote Lionardo Buonarroti, arrivò a Roma col preciso compito di recuperare la salma e organizzarne il trasporto, un'impresa forse ingigantita dal resoconto del Vasari nella seconda edizione delle Vite: secondo lo storico aretino i romani si sarebbero opposti alle sue richieste, desiderando inumare l'artista nella basilica di San Pietro, al che Lionardo avrebbe trafugato il corpo di notte e in gran segreto prima di riprendere la strada per Firenze[74].

 

Appena arrivata nella città toscana (11 marzo 1564), la bara venne portata in Santa Croce e ispezionata secondo un complesso cerimoniale, stabilito dal luogotenente dell'Accademia delle Arti del Disegno, Vincenzo Borghini. Si trattò del primo atto funebre (12 marzo) che, per quanto solenne, venne presto superato da quello del 14 luglio 1564 in San Lorenzo, patrocinato dalla casata ducale e degno più di un principe che di un artista. L'intera basilica venne addobbata riccamente con drappi neri e di tavole dipinte con episodi della sua vita; al centro venne predisposto un catafalco monumentale, ornato di pitture e sculture effimere, dalla complessa iconografia. L'orazione funebre venne scritta e letta da Benedetto Varchi, che esaltò "le lodi, i meriti, la vita e l'opere del divino Michelangelo Buonarroti"[74].

 

L'inumazione avvenne infine in Santa Croce, in un sepolcro monumentale disegnato da Giorgio Vasari, composto da tre figure piangenti che rappresentano la pittura, la scultura e l'architettura[74].

 

I funerali di stato suggellarono lo status raggiunto dall'artista e furono la consacrazione definitiva del suo mito, come artefice insuperabile, capace di raggiungere vertici creativi in qualunque campo artistico e, più di quelli di qualunque altro, capaci di emulare l'atto della creazione divina.

Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.

Foto d'anonimo anni '60;

Michelangelo BuonarrotiRaccolta Foto de Alvariis;

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Dalla preziosa consistenza, nutre, deterge e strucca la pelle del viso in profondità senza seccare. È ricco di principi attivi preziosi per una detergenza accurata e per il benessere globale della pelle. L’Olio di Mandorle Dolci di Sicilia e l’Olio Extra vergine di Oliva assicurano l’elasticità cutanea, gli estratti di Camomilla e Calendula svolgono un’azione lenitiva e antinfiammatoria favorendo la cicatrizzazione dei tessuti, i meristemi di Quercia tolgono le infiammazioni e Tè verde e Acido gallico sono antiossidanti e prevengono i radicali liberi.

   

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Actos que se van a desarrollar durante la conmemoración del 200º aniversario del

rescate del Cristo de la Cama, consistente en el traslado de la Imagen desde la Iglesia

de Santa Isabel de Portugal (vulgo San Cayetano) a la Basílica del Pilar.

El rescate se produjo el 17 de febrero de 1809 del Convento de San Francisco, lo que

actualmente es la Diputación Provincial. El día 10 los franceses volaron el Convento,

que era defendido por unos cuantos aragoneses y por los voluntarios de Valencia. El

día 17, María Blánquez entro en el convento y vio que todos los pasos que

procesionan en Semana santa, quince en total, estaban destruidos, salvo el Santísimo

Cristo de la Cama, que estaba indemne en su Capilla de la Hermandad. Salió a la

calle, cogió a cuatro hombres, volvió a entrar al convento y todos ellos cogieron al

Cristo de la cama. Lo llevaron primero a la parroquia de la santa Cruz, después a la

de Santiago y finalmente al Palacio Arzobispal, lugar en donde vivía el general

Palafox, que enfermo lo venero y ordeno fuera llevado al interior de la Basílica del

Pilar, siendo colocado en el Altar de los convertido mirando a su Madre, la virgen del

Pilar.

Este hecho es el que conmemoramos.

A las 18´00 horas se oirá en la Ciudad de Zaragoza a los Artilleros de Aragón

anunciando el comienzo de la procesión cívico religiosa.

Con la salida desde San Cayetano de la Bandera de la Hermandad de la Sangre de

Cristo dará comienzo la procesión, encontrándose el resto de participantes ubicados

en la plaza. Seguidamente saldrá la peana, portada a varal, del Cristo de la Cama. Lo

hará con un toque preparado para la ocasión por la Sección de Tambores de la

Hermandad de San Joaquín y Virgen de los Dolores. Una vez que nuestro Cristo de la

Cama este en la plaza sonara el Himno Nacional interpretado al órgano por Ignacio

Navarro Gil.

Finalizado el himno, se descubrirá una placa en cerámica de Muel, promovida por la

Asociación Cultural Redobles. Dicha placa será descubierta por el Ilmo. Sr. D.

Francisco Javier Lambán Montañés, o persona en quien en delegue, acompañado por

el Hermano Mayor de la Hermandad de la Sangre de Cristo. A la vez que se descubre

la placa, don José Antonio Armillas, Comisario del Bicentenario glosara brevemente

la figura de María Blánquez y lo que ella significo.

Finalizado este acto, dará comienzo en sí el desfile.

Por la calle Manifestación, calle Alfonso y calle Coso, nos dirigiremos a la plaza de

España, en donde se realiza el segundo acto del desfile. Este consiste en depositar dos

coronas de laurel. La primera en la placa que recuerda al Convento de San Francisco

y la segunda en el monumento a los Mártires.

La del Convento de San Francisco será portada por mujeres ataviadas con el traje

regional, en recuerdo y homenaje a María Blánquez. Entregada por don Francisco

Javier Lambán Montañés (o persona en quién delegue), le acompañaran el

Comandante Militar de Zaragoza, General Juan Pinto y el Hermano Mayor de la

Sangre de Cristo. La recibirán dos soldados del Batallón Pardos de Aragón.

La segunda corona, la entregara don Juan Alberto Belloch Julve (o persona en quién

delegue), acompañado también por el Comandante Militar y el Hermano Mayor,

siendo recibida por dos soldados del Batallón de Infantería Voluntarios de Aragón.

Durante este acto sonara en la plaza el Carillón de la Diputación Provincial con

marchas alusivas a los Sitios.

Finalizado el acto, continuaremos el desfile en dirección a la Plaza de la Seo por calle

don Jaime, calle Mayor, calle Dormer, calle Cisne y calle Cuellar.

En la plaza de la Seo se realiza el tercer y último acto. Consiste en una breve

alocución del General Pinto, Comandante Militar de Zaragoza y Teruel, en recuerdo

y homenaje del General Palafox. A Su conclusión, el Batallón de Infantería

Voluntarios de Aragón hará una descarga de fusilería.

Ya para finalizar, nos encaminaremos a la plaza del Pilar, finalizando el desfile,

alrededor de las 20´30 horas, con la entrada del Cristo de la Cama en la Basílica, en

donde permanecerá hasta el miércoles 25 de febrero.

Finalizado el desfile y por lo tanto el traslado, la Hermandad de la Sangre de Cristo

realizara una ofrenda a la Virgen del Pilar.

La Hermandad de la Sangre de Cristo, con el fin de dar mayor realce a este

acontecimiento histórico, ha invitado a participar a todos aquellos Ayuntamientos e

Instituciones galardonados con la Medalla del Bicentenario “Defensor de Zaragoza”,

distinción que también ha obtenido la propia Hermandad. Han confirmado su

asistencia una representación de los Ayuntamientos de Alcañiz, Barbastro, Calatayud,

Cariñena, Chelva, Huesca, Jaca, monzón y Valencia. También han confirmado su

participación los Artilleros de Aragón, Batallón Pardos de Aragón, Batallón de

Infantería Ligera Voluntarios de Aragón, la Asociación Cultural Royo del Rabal

(ronda y escenificación de personajes históricos de la época), la Asociación Cultural

Los Sitios (personajes históricos de la época), la Hermandad de San Juan de la Peña,

la Cofradía del Santo Sepulcro, la Hermandad del santo Refugio, la Real Ilustre

Congregación de Nuestra Señora de la Soledad de Madrid y la Real Maestranza de

Caballería.

La parte musical durante el desfile correrá a cargo de la Banda de Guerra de la

Brigada de Caballería Castillejos II, de la Banda Música de la Academia General

Militar y la Ronda de jotas de la Asociación Cultural el Rabal. Durante el desfile y

con el fin de que los peaneros lleven el ritmo adecuado, les acompaña un piquete de

diez instrumentos, cuyos miembros son de la cofradía de la Institución de la Sagrada

Eucaristía, que lo harán sin los distintivos propios de la Cofradía.

Cabe destacar el estreno de una marcha procesional en las calles de Zaragoza. La

primera y ultima pieza que interprete la Banda de Música será la Marcha al Cristo de

la Cama, cuyo autor es don Abel Moreno y que fue donada a la Hermandad por la

Asociación para el Estudio de la Semana Santa.

Ernesto Millán Lázaro

Hermano Mayor

Hermandad Sangre de Cristo