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Washed Ashore is a large touring exhibit composed of massive sculptures made up of marine debris collected by volunteers primarily along the southern coast of Oregon.
The mission statement is "To bring awareness to the ocean’s plastic pollution problem and influence consumer habits by creating community built aesthetically powerful art. Gumdrop the Jelly Reef is made up of toy trucks. tires, bucket, brushes, sand toys, spray bottle, football, mini bottles, golf balls, car bumper, and tool box lid.
Installation composée de toiles d’araignées présentée dans le cadre de l'exposition "On Air". Carte blanche à Tomas Saraceno au Palais de Tokyo à Paris
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Cette exposition de Tomas Saraceno, qui associe brillamment art, science (thermodynamique, aérodynamique, astrophysique....), technologies informatiques et poésie, est une des plus intéressantes cartes blanches organisées au Palais de Tokyo ces dernières années.
L'artiste a investi avec intelligence l'ensemble du Palais de Tokyo. Si on connait en général ses installations à base de toiles d'araignées, son travail va bien au-delà notamment avec la communauté Aérocène, l'exposition permet de comprendre ses idées sur l'écologie et de se familiariser avec ses expérimentations de vols de ballons aéro-solaires. S'inspirant des modes de perception des araignées qui passent par les toiles qu'elles tissent, Saraceno tente de nous faire sentir les vibrations du monde, de l'air et du cosmos. Il nous offre un parcours poétique et sensitif qui s'adresse également, non sans humour, aux araignées qui vivent en permanence dans les sous-sols du palais de Tokyo. Le site web de l'exposition très original et créatif mérite d'être exploré pour faire connaissance avec elles.
Commissaire : Rebecca Lamarche-Vadel
L’exposition ON AIR se présente comme un écosystème en mouvement, accueillant une chorégraphie à plusieurs voix entre humains et non-humains, où les oeuvres révèlent les rythmes et trajectoires communs, fragiles, et éphémères qui unissent ces mondes. ON AIR se construit grâce à la multitude de ces présences, animées et inanimées, qui y cohabitent. Extrait du site officiel
Using the top/waist-level viewfinder on the Canon Sure Shot Ace to compose the shot.
Canon Sure Shot Ace, test
Kodak Gold 200
Unicolor/Argentix, home developed
Pakon F135
A few moments after I had composed this image, but before I had the chance to fire off a test shot, this woman sat down and proceeded to look at her phone.
There was a lot of swiping; she was either reviewing the photos she had taken on the hike, or was Tindering.
Whatever.
She stayed there for quite some time, glancing up at me every once in awhile. After a few minutes, I decided to start shooting with her in the frame.
Modern society.
Deventer, Bergkerk: exhibition 'Om' van Geert-Jan Hobijn, winner of Witteveen + Bos Art + Technology price 2014
Installatie van 66 bomen in de Bergkerk, die door aan de stammen bevestigde keukenmixers volgens een speciale compositie gaan ruisen. Bezoekers kunnen door het kunstmatig ruisende bos lopen.
Composed Nature is an installation that consists of a matrix of 66 trees in the Bergkerk Church in Deventer. The trees rustle on command: by onlookers dialing a cellphone number and choosing one one of the three compositions. The household mixes attached to the trunks of the trees are then activated to make the tree rustle according to the chosen composition.
A swift wind in to the minimum 70mm allowed a wider shot of No.92011 "Handel" as it passed Barrow Mill in the gloom with 6S94, the one time "Silver Bullets"!!!
This is composed of 4 horizontally oriented shots, each of three exposures at -2, 0,+2.
Try this one full size to see all the detail..
See it On Black.
Bloodstone is a chert-like rock that is composed of cryptocrystalline quartz. It consists of a mix of deep green and deep red quartz. By itself, deep green cryptocrystalline quartz is called "plasma", and the deep red variety is called "jasper". Bloodstone, or "heliotrope", is plasma with spots or streaks or patches of jasper.
I have never in my life seen a bloodstone sample with provenance information. Surprisingly, there is little to no technical geologic literature on bloodstone - at least, none that is available and out in the open.
This specimen has zero information about its locality and geologic context. Many claim that most bloodstone comes from India. If this sample is Indian in origin, it is possibly derived from a fracture fill in Deccan Traps basalt lava flows (= Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary times), and possibly from the Kathiawar Peninsula in western India.
Bloodstone is also supposedly known from California and Italy.
Spikenard was found in the 1st Century B.C.. Composed of Myrrh, Nard, Cinnamon, Iris and Sunbul Perfume, St. Mary Magdalene/St. Mary of Bethany is said to have used this expensive perfume to anoint Our Lord Jesus Christ.
John 12:3
New American Standard Bible (©1995)
"Mary then took a pound of very costly perfume of pure nard, and anointed the feet of Jesus and wiped His feet with her hair; and the house was filled with the fragrance of the perfume."
A well composed photograph of Wolverhampton Corporation trolleybus 410 passing St Thomas's Church on Wednesfield High Street in 1961. With probably less than a mile to go, the trolleybus is bound for its terminal point on the Lichfield Road opposite 'The Albion' Inn. The Albion pub has since been renamed 'The Lancaster'. This was in memory of the seven service men who lost their lives when the Lancaster bomber they were flying crashed into fields nearby, the tragedy occurring just a few days after WW2 had ended.
The other trolleybus in the picture is 469 (FJW469), which is also working the 59 service. 469 is on the inward bound journey to Wolverhampton, and looks particular clean having been recently repainted in the May of 1961.
The 59 trolleybus service
The 59 trolleybus route ran between Thornley Street in Wolverhampton to the borough boundary on the A4124 Lichfield Road A4124. En route, the 59 served Heath Town, Wednesfield (High Street) and Woodend. The daytime service was frequent with a trolleybus scheduled for every 4-minutes during peak periods (1959 timetable). The route was served by trolleybuses until Sunday 03rd November 1963, when trolleybus operations on this route ended. The following day, the trolleybuses were replaced with high-capacity 72-seater Guy Arab motor buses. The new motor buses were operated on a lesser frequency with a bus every 6-minutes at peak times. This meant that fewer buses were required to run the service, with the associated savings in bus crews and operating costs.
410 - DJW940
Trolleybus 410 was a 1945 built Sunbeam W, part of a batch of a buses of delivered between 1944 and 1945. Numbered 402 to 418, all carried Park Royal 56-seat bodywork built to strict wartime specification. While the Sunbeam chassis was rugged and well engineered, the austerity bus bodies fitted to them were constructed from substandard materials and were not durable in the longer term. In 1951, the decision was taken to replace the bodies on these wartime buses with new Park Royal 54-seater bus bodies. Between August 1951 and May 1952, 402 to 417 were taken out of service a few at a time and re-bodied; 410 re-entered service with its new body in April 1952. For reasons I do not know, trolleybus 418 was not re-bodied until 1959, and was instead fitted with a Charles H Roe built bus body, along with trolleybuses 419-455.
In late June 1964, 410 became a 'driving trainer' bus and by that time was based at Cleveland Road Depot, where it remained in use until late July 1965. Its demise likely came as a result of the coming abandonment of the Wolverhampton - Bilston - Darlaston, and Wolverhampton to Walsall trolleybus services, and the reduction in training new trolleybus drivers.
Surplus to requirements, 410 along with other redundant trolleybuses were stored until sold for scrap in November 1965. Most of these trolleybuses were sold to scrap dealer W. Gammell of Dudley Fields, but 410 was disposed of to Ferromet (scrap metal merchants) on the Bilston Road for breaking.
Todays picture looks planned, thought-out and composed. In reality it was a drive by shooting. There is no way in hell I was going to park my car, get out and stand behind this old man sitting on the bench and take his picture without his permission. What if he turned around or if someone saw me? I couldn't go up and ask the guy if I could take the picture because what if he said I can't? What if he asked why? What if he said yes but then moved or sat in a different way? Also try explaining to people you want the picture for a web based project. The word picture plus internet in the same sentence will not get you good feedback. So, I had to resort to the lowest form of photography, voyeurism. After I was done passing this guy I saw another excellent shot, it was a woman dressed in total black "abaya" and she was sitting on the bench. Not only that but there was another local man in white "deshdasha" who was walking and was about to pass by from behind her. That meant I could have gotten another shot like the one I have now except it involved two local people. That would have made the picture a lot more powerful, more postcard like. But, I decided it wasn't worth the risk, I would definitely would have been spotted by the guy and would have gotten into a lot of trouble. I hope this will be my last voyeur shot.
just a little out of box tinkering on a wednesday. since i've been nothing but italy these last few months i am now counting the days til i get to go back to my favorite park and take tons of great pictures. so i suppose this is sort of a fitting of a transition right?
FR Argyranthème des moissons - EN Corn marigold - ES Corona de rey - DE Saat-Wucherblume
Glebionis segetum (L.) Fourr. (port)
Jachère (alt. 450 m)
Reuland (province de Liège, Ostbelgien, Belgique)
Archéophyte (Sud et Est du Bassin méditerranéen)
Explore 08-18-07
nothing special - fruits and vegetables nicely arranged at a mexican village market - i just loved the colours (((:
ELIZABETH LAKE NATURE PRESERVE VARGA ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE
About
Elizabeth Lake Nature Preserve Varga Archeological Site is a large, diverse wetland community composed of every different stage of high-quality wetland, including: graminoid fens, calcareous floating mats, graminoid bogs, marshes, low gradient creek, pond, lake, sedge meadow, wet prairie and dry Mesic savanna. The Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) identified Lake Elizabeth as the highest quality lake ecosystem remaining in McHenry County and one of the highest in Illinois.
Because of its wide range of habitats, Elizabeth Lake Nature Preserve Varga Archaeological Site has 29 species of native fish, at least 200 species of plant life, 55 species of birds, 15-20 butterfly species, and 20 state threatened and endangered species including Iowa darters, pugnose shiners, ospreys and black terns. Several different kinds of wildlife can be spotted, including white-tailed deer, raccoon, rabbit, muskrat, woodchuck, beaver, marsh wren, sora rail, green frog, smooth green snake and other small animals. The diverse wetlands are important for amphibian breeding and provide habitat for a variety of waterfowl, migrating birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects. A small woodland area exists on the south western portion of the preserve.
Nature Preserve Status
In 1985, 1998, and 1999, McHenry County Conservation District dedicated a total of 238 acres as an Illinois State nature preserve. Nature preserve status protects habitat for native plants, animals and natural communities by limiting access to the land to educational purposes, scientific research, and passive recreational enjoyment. Because of this protection, Elizabeth Lake allows the public unique access to high-quality natural resources that provide habitat for several threatened and endangered plant and animal species.
Ten to twenty thousand years ago, glaciers moved across the land, burying the Chicago area in 2,000 – 3,000 feet of ice. Visitors to Elizabeth Lake will notice evidence of this glacial movement in the landscape surrounding the lake and the lake itself. Elizabeth Lake is a kettle lake, a steep bowl shaped hole in the ground that was formed by a leftover chunk of melting ice and is now filled with meltwater and precipitation.
History
Archaeologists believe that small groups of Indians settled in temporary hunting camps on the land during warmer months of the year from as early as 12,000 B.C. – 1700 A.D. Artifacts such as arrowheads and pottery were found on the site during archaeological studies in 1974, 1994 and 2000.
Mary Ray, a native of England came to America in 1833 at age 17 and resided in what was to become known as “English Prairie” in Northern McHenry County. In 1837 she married Jonathan Ineson, also an early settler and had eight children in all, including the first set of twins born on the prairie. The girls were baptized Mary and Elizabeth. Both lakes were named after these girls, Lake Mary in Wisconsin and Lake Elizabeth, which extends from Wisconsin into Illinois.
Recent history suggests that the land was farmed before it was purchased by Richmond Hunt Club and used for recreational hunting, fishing and boating. McHenry County Conservation District purchased 120 acres with the help of the Nature Conservancy in 1981 and added parcels to the site in the years following.
Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devils_Tower
Devils Tower (also known as Bear Lodge Butte) is a butte, possibly laccolithic, composed of igneous rock in the Bear Lodge Ranger District of the Black Hills, near Hulett and Sundance in Crook County, northeastern Wyoming, above the Belle Fourche River. It rises 1,267 feet (386 m) above the Belle Fourche River, standing 867 feet (265 m) from summit to base. The summit is 5,112 feet (1,559 m) above sea level.
Devils Tower was the first United States national monument, established on September 24, 1906 by President Theodore Roosevelt. The monument's boundary encloses an area of 1,347 acres (545 ha).
Source: www.nps.gov/deto/index.htm
Many People, Many Stories, One Place
The Tower is an astounding geologic feature that protrudes out of the prairie surrounding the Black Hills. It is considered sacred by Northern Plains Indians and indigenous people. Hundreds of parallel cracks make it one of the finest crack climbing areas in North America. Devils Tower entices us to learn more, explore more and define our place in the natural and cultural world.
Source: www.blackhillsbadlands.com/parks-monuments/devils-tower-n...
Devils Tower National Monument, a unique and striking geologic wonder steeped in Native American legend, is a modern-day national park and climbers' challenge. Devils Tower sits across the state line in northeast Wyoming. The Tower is a solitary, stump-shaped granite formation that looms 1,267 feet above the tree-lined Belle Fourche River Valley, like a skyscraper in the country. Once hidden below the earth’s surface, erosion has stripped away the softer rock layers revealing the Tower.
The two-square-mile park surrounding the tower was proclaimed the nation’s first national monument by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906. The park is covered with pine forests, woodlands, and grasslands. While visiting the park you are bound to see deer, prairie dogs, and other wildlife. The mountain’s markings are the basis for Native American legend. One legend has it that a giant bear clawed the grooves into the mountainside while chasing several young Indian maidens. Known by several northern plains tribes as Bears Lodge, it is a sacred site of worship for many American Indians. Devils Tower is also remembered as the movie location for “Close Encounters of the Third Kind.”
The stone pillar is about 1,000 feet in diameter at the bottom and 275 feet at the top and that makes it the premier rock climbing challenge in the Black Hills. Hikers enjoy the Monument’s trails. The 1.25-mile Tower Trail encircles the base. This self-guided hike offers close-up views of the forest and wildlife, not to mention spectacular views of the Tower itself. The Red Beds Trail covers a much wider three-mile loop around the tower.
Source: travelwyoming.com/places-to-go/destinations/national-park...
While America’s first national monument garnered significant attention as the backdrop to the 1977 Stephen Spielberg movie, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, the tower is sacred to Northern Plains Indian tribes and the Black Hills region Kiowa Tribe. With oral storytelling and a history that dates back thousands of years, today, American Indian tribes continue to hold sacred ceremonies at the tower, including sweat lodges and sun dances. There is more to this monument than its rich history. You can stop at the visitor’s center to learn about one of the ranger-led programs, night sky viewing, hiking and even climbing to the top of Devils Tower. If one day isn’t enough to explore this unforgettable area, bring your camping gear to stay within the monument, or stay just outside or in accommodations at one of the nearby towns.
Additional Foreign Language Tags:
(United States) "الولايات المتحدة" "Vereinigte Staaten" "アメリカ" "美国" "미국" "Estados Unidos" "États-Unis"
(Wyoming) "وايومنغ" "怀俄明州" "व्योमिंग" "ワイオミング州" "와이오밍" "Вайоминг"
(Devils Tower National Monument) "النصب التذكاري الوطني لبرج الشياطين" "魔鬼塔国家纪念碑" "डेविल्स टॉवर राष्ट्रीय स्मारक" "デビルズタワー国定公園" "데빌스 타워 국립천연기념물" "Национальный монумент «Башня дьявола»" "Monumento Nacional Torre del Diablo"
www.gdecooman.fr - portfolio, stages photo et visites guidées de Lille
EN
Borobudur, is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist Temple in Central Java, Indonesia. The monument consists of six square platforms topped by three circular platforms and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. A main dome, located at the center of the top platform, is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues seated inside a perforated stupa. It is the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world.
Evidence suggests Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and abandoned following the 14th-century decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion to Islam. Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
FR
Borobudur, est un temple Bouddhiste Mahayana située dans la régioon centrale de l'ile de Java, Indonesie. Il est composé et six plate-formes carrées surmontées de trois plate-formes circulaires et est décoré de 2 672 bas-reliefs et 504 statues de Bouddha. Le dôme central, situé au centre de la plate-forme supérieure est entouré de 72 statues de Bouddha assis à l'intérieure de stupas ajourées. C'est le plus grand temple bouddhiste du monde ainsi que l'un des plus importants.
Borobudur a été construit au 9ème siècle et abandonné et tomba dans l'oublié au 14ème siècle lors du déclin des royaumes Hindous de Java et la conversion du peuple à l'Islam. En 1814, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, alors gouverneur Britannique de Java, redécouvrit le temple sur les indications de la population autochtone. Borobudur a depuis connu plusieurs programmes de restauration. Le plus important fut entrepris par le gouvernement indonésien et l'UNESCO entre 1975 et 1982, à la suite de quoi le site fut classé au Patrimoine mondial.
Italien / Toskana - Chianti
Gaiole in Chianti
Chianti (Italian pronunciation: [ˈkjanti]), in Italy also referred to as Monti del Chianti ("Chianti Mountains") or Colline del Chianti ("Chianti Hills"), is a mountainous area of Tuscany in the provinces of Florence, Siena and Arezzo, composed mainly of hills and mountains. It is known for the wine produced in and named for the region, Chianti.
History
The territory of Chianti was initially limited, in the thirteenth century, by the municipalities of Gaiole in Chianti, Radda in Chianti and Castellina in Chianti and thus defined the "Chianti League" (Lega di Chianti).
Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, even decided in 1716 to issue an edict in which he officially recognized the boundaries of the Chianti district, which was the first legal document in the world to define a wine production area.
The villages of Chianti are often characterized by Romanesque churches and fortified medieval castles, signs of the ancient wars between Siena and Florence or as Monteriggioni, a fortified village north of Siena, on the ancient Via Cassia that leads to Florence.
In 1932, the wine designation specified the production limits for Chianti Classico, which is a DOCG (in Italian "Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita", governed by Italian regulations).
Geography
In addition to the cities already mentioned at the origin of this region, the city of Greve in Chianti radically expresses its connection directly in its name or as Impruneta which claims the name Impruneta in Chianti although it is not an official designation.
Agriculture
Like all rural regions of Tuscany, there is no monoculture and there are vineyards, olive trees, cereals and potatoes.
Silviculture
In the lower hills, there is the exploitation of oak woods, on the higher hills those of chestnut and holm oaks. Everywhere there are cypresses.
Viticulture
The name of Chianti wine refers to a region strictly located in the provinces of Florence, Siena, Arezzo, Pistoia, Pisa and Prato.
Cities in the region with explicit reference in their names:
Greve in Chianti and its hamlets: Panzano in Chianti, San Polo in Chianti
Radda in Chianti
Gaiole in Chianti
Castellina in Chianti
(Wikipedia)
Das Chianti-Gebiet [ˈkjantigəˌbiːt], auch Colline del Chianti (Chianti-Hügel) oder Monti del Chianti (Chianti-Berge) genannt, ist eine Hügelkette (Gebirgskette) im Zentrum der Toskana, in der schon seit Jahrhunderten Chianti-Wein produziert wird. Das Weinbaugebiet macht ca. ein Drittel der gesamten Toskana aus.
Geografie
Das Kerngebiet der Hügelkette teilt sich in die Gebiete Chianti fiorentino und Chianti senese auf. Hierbei liegt der fiorentinische Teil am südöstlichen Rand der Metropolitanstadt Florenz und umfasst die Gemeinden Barberino Val d’Elsa, Greve in Chianti, San Casciano in Val di Pesa und Tavarnelle Val di Pesa. Der senesische Teil liegt im Nordosten der Provinz Siena und umfasst Castellina in Chianti, Castelnuovo Berardenga, Gaiole in Chianti, Poggibonsi und Radda in Chianti. Der sogenannte Chianti aretino ist der westliche Teil der Provinz Arezzo zwischen Arno und Chianti und gehört nicht zum Kerngebiet. Ihm gehören die Gemeinden Cavriglia, Bucine, Pergine Valdarno, Montevarchi und San Giovanni Valdarno an. Diese liegen geografisch gesehen im westlichen Valdarno[ (Arnotal).
Das Chianti-Gebiet umfasst im Westen Teile des Elsatals (Val d’Elsa) und des Pesatals (Val di Pesa), im Norden das Grevetal (Val di Greve), im Osten Teile des Arnotals (Valdarno) und des Ambratals (Val d’Ambra bzw. Valdambra). Im Südosten grenzt der Chianti an die Crete Senesi, im Südwesten an die Montagnola Senese.
In den Hügeln des Chianti entspringen die Flüsse bzw. Torrenti Ambra, Arbia, Bozzone, Greve, Ombrone, Pesa und Staggia. Zudem durchfließt im Westen der Elsa aus Süden und der Montagnola Senese kommend das Gebiet, das im Norden und Nordosten teilweise an den Arno grenzt.
Höchste Erhebung im Chianti-Gebiet ist der Berg Monte San Michele, der im Gemeindegebiet von Greve in Chianti liegt. Er erreicht eine Höhe von 893 Metern.
Geschichte
Das Gebiet wurde zuerst von den Etruskern und danach von den Römern besiedelt. Beide Kulturen hinterließen viele Spuren – auch, was den Weinbau angeht. Erstmals dokumentiert wurde das Gebiet als Clanti im 8. Jahrhundert. Im Mittelalter kämpften Florenz und Siena um die Vorherrschaft in diesem Gebiet. Der Name "Chianti" (Lega del Chianti) stand ursprünglich für einen Militärbund der Städte Radda, Castellina und Gaiole, der im 13. Jahrhundert entstand. Später wurde der Name auf immer größere Gebiete ausgeweitet. Dörfer und Klöster, Burgen und Festungen wurden in dieser Zeit errichtet, die dann später, als es wieder friedlicher wurde, in Landgüter und Villen umgewandelt wurden. In dieser Zeit fanden umfangreiche Waldrodungen statt, um Olivenhaine und Weinberge anzulegen. Diese Veränderungen brachten wirtschaftliche Erfolge und internationalen Ruhm für die Region.
Gesamtes Chianti-Gebiet (Weinbau)
Das gesamte Chianti-Gebiet erstreckt sich von Pisa (im Nordwesten) bis Montalcino (im Südosten) und ist offiziell in neun Untergebiete geteilt:
Chianti Classico (siehe unten)
Chianti Rufina (um Pontassieve)
Chianti Colline Pisane (um Pisa)
Chianti Montalbano (um Carmignano)
Chianti Colli Fiorentini (um Florenz)
Chianti Colli Senesi (um Siena)
Chianti Aretini (um Arezzo)
Chianti Montespertoli
Weinbau im Chianti-Classico-Gebiet
Es ist im Norden begrenzt von den Vororten von Florenz, im Osten von den Chianti-Bergen, im Süden von Siena und im Westen von den Tälern der Flüsse Pesa und Elsa. Es ist das Kernland des Chianti-Gebietes. Eine 70 km lange Weinstraße (die „Via Chiantigiana“, SS 222) verbindet die beiden großen Städte und führt durch eine großartige Kulturlandschaft. An der Straße liegen viele bekannte Weinorte aufgereiht wie an einer Perlenkette. Nur ein Zehntel des sehr waldigen Gebiets (insgesamt ca. 70.000 Hektar) wird für Weinbau verwendet. Der Gallo Nero (= „Schwarzer Hahn“) ist das Kennzeichen der Chianti-Classico-Weine. Das Consorzio del Marchio Storico Chianti Classico wacht über die Einhaltung der Regeln für guten Chianti.
(Wikipedia)
Colaboration with www.flickr.com/photos/hwspies/
Inspiriert vom Projekt "Same but Different" (www.flickr.com/photos/78853988@N07/albums/72157714439434573) von www.flickr.com/photos/ute_kluge/ und www.flickr.com/photos/78853988@N07/
Jeudi 23 janvier 2014. En route pour Bejaïa. Les gorges de Kherrata.
Kherrata est une commune de Kabylie en Algérie, située dans la wilaya de Béjaïa à environ 60 km du chef-lieu.
En 1870, à l’entrée des Gorges du Chabet El Akhra, au bord de l’oued Agrioun, à 450 mètres d’altitude, à mi-chemin de Sétif et de Bougie, un petit hameau se construit : 13 familles composées de 13 hommes - 8 femmes et 21 enfants - y construisent 12 maisons. La création officielle du village de Kherrata par l’Administration coloniale a lieu en 1876 et son peuplement en 1878. Selon une interprétation orale, le village de Kherrata porte le mot arabe signifiant « Laboureurs ». Le village est situé au pied de la chaîne des Babors dont le sommet culmine à 2 400 mètres, à l’entrée des gorges du Chabet El Akhra, locution qu’on peut traduire par : « Le ravin du bout du monde » ou « Le défilé de la mort ».
Entre 1886 et 1940, l’Administration coloniale met en œuvre les projets de construction d’une église, d’une Justice de paix, d’une gendarmerie, d’une prison et autres, comme la mise en service d’un réseau téléphonique…
Une plaque, à l’entrée des Gorges par rapport à Bougie, rappelle les grands travaux de percement de la route réalisés sous la direction des Ponts et Chaussées de 1863 à 1870 au rythme d’un kilomètre par an. Les premières liaisons routières eurent lieu vers 1900. Un service de diligences assurait dans les deux sens le transport postal et des voyageurs. Ces voitures à chevaux rattachaient Sétif à Bougie en quelque treize heures sur un parcours jalonné de cinq relais routiers. Des convois de chariots de marchandises sillonnaient cette route effectuant un aller-retour en une semaine.
En 1913, le colon Eugène Dussaix fit bâtir un château à la sortie du village, à proximité de l’entrée des Gorges, avant de donner le jour à une minoterie moderne ; cependant, le petit moulin à façon étant le symbole du village de Kherrata aux yeux des colons, fut conservé pour permettre aux populations indigènes de venir y faire moudre leur grain. Une église fut construite en 1921 par le même industriel.
La ville est touchée par les Massacres de Sétif et Guelma qui débutent le 8 mai 1945 et pendant lesquels des émeutes nationalistes algériennes sont réprimées dans le sang par les forces armées françaises faisant entre 8 000 et 45 000 morts selon les historiens.
Le 8 mai 1998, à l’occasion du 53e anniversaire des événements du 8 mai 1945, le musée du Moudjahid de Kherrata voit le jour. La plus grande partie du musée est réservée aux événements du 8 mai 1945 et à la Guerre de Libération Nationale. Cependant, quelques gravures ayant trait à l’époque romaine, où Jugurtha figure en bonne place, sont également présentées. Ce musée est situé dans une ancienne église désaffectée qui fait désormais office de conservatoire et où sont rassemblées et classées des collections de photos et d’objets divers revêtant un intérêt historique. On peut y découvrir des effets vestimentaires militaires portés par des combattants pendant la Révolution, d’anciennes armes ayant servi dans des batailles, des instruments et autres outils utilisés par les résistants algériens.
Située au nord de la wilaya de Béjaïa, sur le littoral méditerranéen et traversée par le fleuve de la Soummam, la commune de Béjaïa est bordée au nord et à l'est par la mer Méditerranée.
Le toponyme arabe Béjaïa dérive du toponyme berbère Bgayet, notamment par translittération du son ǧ en dj (ج). Ce nom berbère — qui aurait été à l'origine Tabgayet, mais dont le t initial marquant le genre féminin serait tombé — serait issu des mots tabegga, tabeɣayt, signifiant « ronces et mûres sauvages »
Située au cœur de l’espace méditerranéen, Béjaïa, ville de Kabylie en Algérie qui donna son nom aux petites chandelles (les bougies) et à partir de laquelle les chiffres arabes ont été popularisés en Europe, renferme de nombreux sites naturels et vestiges historiques, qui témoignent encore aujourd’hui des fastes de sa longue histoire. Son tissu urbain est caractérisé par une continuité ininterrompue d’occupation depuis l’Antiquité. En effet, l’occupation préhistorique de la région de Béjaïa est remarquable par les nombreux sites et gisements ibéromaurusiens (de -200 000 à -10 000 ans) que l’on rencontre, notamment dans les Babors septentrionaux. Sous forme de semis d’industries de plein air ou d’habitats d’abris sous roche, ces gisements ont livré de nombreux restes humains se rapportant à la première nappe d’Homo sapiens d’Afrique du Nord, l’Homme de Mechta-Afalou, des industries, des structures d’habitats et surtout, des manifestations artistiques.
La position géographique privilégiée de la région se prêtait à l’installation d’un comptoir phénicien ou punique. De fait, un habitat phénicien serait attesté par une sépulture dont la chronologie demeure cependant à contrôler. Un culte à Saturne, fortement marqué par la tradition autochtone y est connu. C’est en 27/26 av. J.-C. que le Romain Octave y fonda la colonie Julia Augusta Saldensium Septimana Immunis, pour les vétérans de la legio VIII Augusta. Au moment de la constitution de la colonie, cette région n’aurait pas encore appartenu à l’empire, mais elle se serait trouvée à la frontière du royaume de Juba II. Ce n’est qu’en 42 ap. J.-C. que fut créée la province de Maurétanie Césarienne. À la suite de la réforme de Dioclétien, le territoire de la ville devint partie intégrante de la Maurétanie Sitifienne. La ville fut siège épiscopal, comme l’atteste la mention d’un évêque Salditanus dans la Notitia episcoporum de 484.
Le ravitaillement en eau de la ville était assuré par un aqueduc qui captait la source de Toudja, sur la flanc du massif de Tadrart Aghbalou, à 16,5 km à l’ouest de Saldae. Une célèbre inscription de Lambèse nous renseigne sur les péripéties liées au creusement du canal pour le passage de l’aqueduc. Selon les thèses traditionnelles, l’aqueduc aurait constitué un exemple d’ouvrage de génie civil, réalisé par la main d’œuvre militaire. D’après les nouvelles conclusions de J.-P. Laporte (1994), la première intervention, vers 137, se serait limitée à une étude de faisabilité. Les travaux auraient duré de 4 à 6 ans et le rôle de l’armée se serait cantonné à la mise à disposition du chantier d’un technicien de haut niveau (un géomètre spécialisé), en la personne de Nonius Datus. À Tiahmaïne, en bordure de route, au milieu de maisons construites depuis l'indépendance, on peut voir huit piliers dont l'un porte une marque romaine (de la légion ?) une sculpture de double phallus.
Vers le milieu du XIe siècle, la carte politique du Maghreb est bouleversée. Le royaume berbère des Hammadides, en conflit avec les Almoravides à l’Ouest et avec les Zirides à l’Est, mais c'est surtout l'invasion hilalienne menaçant directement leur capitale El-Kalâa fondée par en-Naçir qui pousse le sultan el-Mansour à la transférer vers l'actuelle Béjaïa. L’antique Saldae inaugure ainsi son rôle historique et deviendra l’une des villes les plus prospères du Maghreb.
En 1136, elle repoussa une expédition de la flotte génoise, mais fut prise par les Almohades en 1152. « Les vaisseaux, écrivait Al Idrissi à l'époque du triomphe almohade, y abordent, les caravanes y viennent et c'est un entrepôt de marchandises. Les habitants sont riches et plus habiles dans divers arts et métiers qu'on ne l'est généralement ailleurs, en sorte que le commerce y est florissant. Les marchands de cette ville sont en relation avec ceux de l'Afrique occidentale ainsi qu'avec ceux du Sahara et de l'Orient ; on y entrepose beaucoup de marchandises de toute espèce. Autour de la ville sont des plaines cultivées, où l'on recueille du blé, de l'orge et des fruits en abondance. On y construit de gros bâtiments, des navires et des galères, car les montagnes environnantes sont très boisées et produisent de la résine et du goudron d'excellente qualité... Les habitants se livrent à l'exploitation des mines de fer qui donnent de très bon minerai. En un mot la ville est très industrieuse. » (Trad. de Goeje et Dozy.)
Elle redevint une place commerciale, scientifique et culturelle prospère sous les Hafsides du XIIIe au XVe siècles. Cette période médiévale représente l’âge d’or de la ville, notamment grâce à l’impulsion du prince Hammadide al-Nasir. Tour à tour capitale d’un État indépendant, puis chef-lieu de province d’un empire, la configuration de sa population (qui selon le voyageur Léon l'Africain s’éleva à plusieurs dizaines de milliers d’habitants) était très significative. Cette population était constituée en majorité de lettrés et commerçants kabyles et d’habiles artisans andalous organisés en communauté dite (al-Jama`a al-Andalusiya) cohérente, habile et dirigée par un cheikh appelé également (Amezwar Ayt-Wandlus). Enfin il y avait une minorité juive autochtone ou réfugiée d'Espagne, ainsi qu’une colonie chrétienne. La présence de cette dernière est attestée par la fameuse lettre du pape Grégoire VII au souverain al-Nasir en 1076. Selon Mas Latrie qui a publié ce document d’archive, « jamais pontife romain n’a aussi affectueusement marqué sa sympathie à un prince musulman ». Par la suite, les relations officielles et commerciales avec les républiques chrétiennes de Gênes, Pise, Venise, Marseille, Catalogne et enfin Majorque sont caractérisées par la signature de traités de commerce, de paix, traités sur les biens des naufragés… L’importance de ce commerce est illustrée par la présence dans la ville de founduks et de consulats de ces républiques chrétiennes :
Achat de marchandises maghrébines et sahariennes, de produits de l’artisanat local, notamment les « petites chandelles » de Bougie. En effet, selon le géographe Al Idrissi : « Les marchands de cette ville sont en relation avec ceux de l’Afrique occidentale ainsi qu’avec ceux du Sahara et de l’Orient ». « Les vaisseaux qui naviguent vers elle » passaient par l’arceau de Bab El-Bahr (la porte de la mer) et faisaient réparer leurs avaries sur les chantiers de Dar es Senaa (Arsenal).
Le rôle joué par Bougie dans la transmission du savoir au Moyen Âge est confirmé par les séjours plus ou moins longs de personnalités scientifiques et littéraires prestigieuses, versées dans tous les domaines de la connaissance : le métaphysicien andalou Ibn Arabi, le mathématicien italien Leonardo Fibonacci, le philosophe catalan Raymond Lulle, l’historien Ibn Khaldun, le poète sicilien Ibn Hamdis… Il en est de même pour les personnalités religieuses (Abou Madyane, Sidi Bou Sa`id, ath-Tha`aliby,..) et les voyageurs (Al Idrissi, Ibn Battuta, Léon l'Africain…). Rappelons enfin que le Mahdi Almohade Ibn Toumert y déploya son activité réformatrice, notamment par sa prédication en langue berbère. C'est durant son exil à Mellala, un petit village près de la ville qu’il rencontra le célèbre Abd El-Mumin (qui lui succédera à la tête de l’empire almohade) et lui enseigna sa doctrine unitaire.
En 1067 sous les Hammadides, la ville romaine de Saldae renaît et attire très vite nombre de familles musulmanes, chrétiennes et juives. Les Juifs de Bougie importaient de l'argent européen destiné à l'artisanat local: ils pratiquaient également le négoce du sel, du cuir, des textiles, de la cire et des esclaves5. À la suite des persécutions almohades, la communauté juive disparaît en 1147.
Cependant en 1250 alors sous les Hafsides, les Juifs de Béjaïa connaissent un véritable essor économique notamment dans le commerce qu'ils font avec les juifs de Majorque et Marseille, attestés par plusieurs documents, dont ceux de la famille Ferrusol. La ville est alors à son apogée culturel.
À la suite des persécutions contre les Juifs, des bateaux de Valence et Cadiz prennent voile vers Bejaïa . La communauté de Bougie est alors l'une des plus prospère du pays et est dirigée par un rabbin du nom de Duran, originaire de Denia , installé à la période Almohade et fut par la suite aidée de rabbins lettrés venus de Valence tels que Rabbi Benjamin Amar ou Rabbi Amran Amar.
À Bougie, les Juifs locaux supportent mal la concurrence des expulsés (mégorashim). Outre les connaissances techniques professionnels, ils arrivent avec des capitaux importants, visiblement beaucoup plus que ceux dont disposaient les Juifs locaux et exerçaient de ce fait une concurrence jugée déloyale. Cette concurrence semble d'autant plus importante lorsqu'une anecdote cite un rabbin devant intervenir pour atténuer la démarche de certains juifs auprès des autorités musulmanes visant à empêcher le débarquement de quarante cinq familles juives andalouses attendant au port pour débarquer. Ils sont suivis par l'arrivée de musulmans fuyant l'inquisition espagnole, formant une communauté qualifiée de al-Jama`a al-Andalusiya par Léon l'Africain.
Il a été attesté par plusieurs écrivains et historiens de l’époque que les juifs de petite Kabylie étaient, au XVIe siècle, en majorité des artisans bijoutiers et cordonniers. À son apogée au XVIe siècle, la cité des Beni Abbès est une véritable ville forteresse de 80 000 âmes, dont 300 juifs et une synagogue. Elle rivalise alors avec Tunis. Il a été établis par certains historiens que les Juifs andalous y introduisent un nouvel art importé de leur ancien pays, l'orfèvrerie émaillée, une technique permettant la création de bijoux et ciselures d'armes sophistiqués. Lorsqu'il mentionne les communautés juives de l'intérieur du même siècle, Hischberg cite la Kalaa au côté de Médéa et Miliana. Les localités du royaume des Abbasides accueillent nombre de réfugiés de Bougie. Il y avait, parmi ces réfugiés, des constructeurs, des orfèvres, des ébénistes qui allaient mettre leur savoir-faire au service des populations locales. Au XIXe siècle, la plupart des bijoutiers et orfèvres de la vallée de la Soummam sont encore tous juifs17. En 1850 à la suite de la révolte des Mokrani, les Juifs quittent la compagne pour les colonies françaises de Sétif, Bejaïa et Alger. On mentionne une petite colonie juive installée à Dellys.
Le milieu du XIVe siècle fut marqué par la recrudescence de la « course ». Selon Ibn Khaldoun, les Bougiotes ne tardèrent pas à se signaler parmi les corsaires les plus redoutés des marins chrétiens. Voulant établir des comptoirs de type colonial sur la côte algérienne, les Espagnols sur la lancée de la Reconquista, en 1510, la ville est prise par l'Espagnol Pedro Navarro. Les palais Hammadides sont détruits et le Sultan de Bejaïa Abderrahmane est poussé à la fuite.
Les Espagnols persécutent fortement la population. Ils organisent à partir de cette position des razzias dans l'arrière-pays. Les conquérants soumirent les habitants aux lois de l'inquisition espagnole en vigueur.
La plupart des habitants de Bejaïa fuit et la ville se trouve vidée. Ils se divisent, les uns trouvent refuge à Jijel tandis que les autres retrouvent le sultan Abderahman de Bougie sur les monts des Bibans où sa dynastie fonde un petit royaume autour de la Kalaâ des Béni Abbas, cependant la ville ne se rétablit pas des assauts. Attaqués en 1513 par Arudj Barberousse, les Espagnols résistent et se maintiennent jusqu'en 1555, dans des conditions difficiles, car la ville est continuellement bloquée par les autochtones. En 1541, la ville reçoit la visite de de l'Empereur Charles Quint élu empereur du Saint-Empire romain germanique en 1519. Charles Quint est le monarque chrétien le plus puissant de la première moitié du XVIe siècle.
En 1555, Salah Rais assiège la ville et oblige le gouverneur espagnol Don Alphonso de Peralta à capituler. Béjaïa devient une redoutable ville de corsaires au XIVe siècle. En 1823 les tribus des Bibans et de Béjaïa se soulèvent et s'emparent du caïd de la ville. L'agha Yahia, chef militaire de la Régence, ne parvient pas à soumettre la région. La ville reste ensuite tributaire de la régence d'Alger jusqu'en 1830. Avec les Ottomans, Béjaïa perdit son statut de capitale, même si elle continua encore à jouer son rôle de chantier de construction navale.
En 1830, les Français se lancent à la conquête de l'Algérie. Au début, l'expédition est dirigée contre Alger. Mais très tôt, les envahisseurs cherchent à occuper l'ensemble du pays, notamment la Kabylie contre laquelle sont dirigées plusieurs expéditions. La ville de Béjaïa passée sous le contrôle de la tribu des Mézaïa après la chute du dey d'Alger, connaît plusieurs incidents avec des navires français et anglais. le commandant en chef Théophile Voirol lance une nouvelle expédition conduite par le général Trézel, la ville est prise le 29 septembre 1833, après une résistance intense de ses habitants. Cependant les Français ne parviennent pas à en conquérir les alentours.
La ville et sa région opposent une farouche résistance à la présence coloniale française et prennent part à plusieurs soulèvements et insurrections, comme celle du marabouts Bou-Baghla, et surtout la grande révolte du Cheikh El Mokrani et du Cheikh Aheddad en 1871.
Le 8 mai 1945, la répression conduite par les forces coloniales françaises à Kherrata, où la marine de guerre est mise à contribution pour un bombardement naval des côtes de la région de Bougie, fait des milliers de victimes. En 1949, au sein du principal mouvement nationaliste algérien d'alors, le PPA-MTLD, éclate la « crise berbériste » : elle oppose à la direction du parti des militants en désaccord avec sa ligne dite « arabo-islamique ». Certains sont éliminés, d'autres, sous la menace de l'exclusion, se rallient à l'orientation alors dominante.
Pendant la guerre d'indépendance algérienne, l'organisation du FLN et de l'ALN crée pour la première fois un territoire administratif kabyle, la wilaya III. C'est que la région se trouve au cœur de la résistance au colonialisme français
Devils Tower (also known as Bear Lodge Butte) is a butte, possibly laccolithic, composed of igneous rock in the Bear Lodge Ranger District of the Black Hills, near Hulett and Sundance in Crook County, northeastern Wyoming, above the Belle Fourche River. It rises 1,267 feet (386 m) above the Belle Fourche River, standing 867 feet (265 m) from summit to base. The summit is 5,112 feet (1,559 m) above sea level.
Devils Tower was the first United States national monument, established on September 24, 1906 by President Theodore Roosevelt. The monument's boundary encloses an area of 1,347 acres (545 ha).
Native American names for the monolith include "Bear's House" or "Bear's Lodge" (or "Bear's Tipi", "Home of the Bear", "Bear's Lair"); Cheyenne, Lakota: Matȟó Thípila, Crow: Daxpitcheeaasáao ("Home of Bears"), "Aloft on a Rock" (Kiowa), "Tree Rock", "Great Gray Horn", and "Brown Buffalo Horn" (Lakota: Ptehé Ǧí).
The name "Devil's Tower" originated in 1875 during an expedition led by Colonel Richard Irving Dodge, when his interpreter reportedly misinterpreted a native name to mean "Bad God's Tower". All information signs in that area use the name "Devils Tower", following a geographic naming standard whereby the apostrophe is omitted.
In 2005, a proposal to recognize several Native American ties through the additional designation of the monolith as Bear Lodge National Historic Landmark were opposed by United States Representative Barbara Cubin, arguing that a "name change will harm the tourist trade and bring economic hardship to area communities". In November 2014, Arvol Looking Horse proposed renaming the geographical feature "Bear Lodge" and submitted the request to the United States Board on Geographic Names. A second proposal was submitted to request that the U.S. acknowledge what it described as the "offensive" mistake in keeping the current name and to rename the monument and sacred site Bear Lodge National Historic Landmark. The formal public comment period ended in fall 2015. Local state senator Ogden Driskill opposed the change. The name was not changed.
The landscape surrounding Devils Tower is composed mostly of sedimentary rocks. The oldest rocks visible in Devils Tower National Monument were laid down in a shallow sea during the Triassic.[citation needed] This dark red sandstone and maroon siltstone, interbedded with shale, can be seen along the Belle Fourche River. Oxidation of iron minerals causes the redness of the rocks. This rock layer is known as the Spearfish Formation. Above the Spearfish Formation is a thin band of white gypsum, called the Gypsum Springs Formation, Jurassic in age.[citation needed] Overlying this formation is the Sundance Formation. During the Paleocene Epoch, 56 to 66 million years ago, the Rocky Mountains and the Black Hills were uplifted.[citation needed] Magma rose through the crust, intruding into the existing sedimentary rock layers.
Devils Tower is composed of a porphyritic phonolite (left), and close-up view of the columns (right)
Geologists Carpenter and Russell studied Devils Tower in the late 19th century and came to the conclusion that it was formed by an igneous intrusion. In 1907, geologists Nelson Horatio Darton and C. C. O'Harra (of the South Dakota School of Mines) theorized that Devils Tower must be an eroded remnant of a laccolith.
The igneous material that forms the Tower is a phonolite porphyry intruded about 40.5 million years ago, a light to dark-gray or greenish-gray igneous rock with conspicuous crystals of white feldspar. As the magma cooled, hexagonal columns formed (though sometimes 4-, 5-, and 7-sided columns were possible), up to 20 feet (6.1 m) wide and 600 feet (180 m) tall.
As rain and snow continue to erode the sedimentary rocks surrounding the Tower's base, more of Devils Tower will be exposed. Nonetheless, the exposed portions of the Tower still experience certain amounts of erosion. Cracks along the columns are subject to water and ice erosion. Portions, or even entire columns, of rock at Devils Tower are continually breaking off and falling. Piles of broken columns, boulders, small rocks, and stones, called scree, lie at the base of the tower, indicating that it was once wider than it is today.
The geologically-related Missouri Buttes are located 3.5 mi (5.6 km) northwest of Devils Tower.
According to the traditional Indigenous beliefs of the Kiowa and Lakota, a group of girls went out to play and were spotted by several giant bears, who began to chase them. In an effort to escape the bears, the girls climbed atop a rock, fell to their knees, and prayed to the Great Spirit to save them. Hearing their prayers, the Great Spirit made the rock rise from the ground towards the heavens so that the bears could not reach the girls. The bears, in an effort to climb the rock, left deep claw marks in the sides, which had become too steep to climb. Those are the marks which appear today on the sides of Devils Tower. When the girls reached the sky, they were turned into the stars of the Pleiades.
Another version tells that two Sioux boys wandered far from their village when Mato the bear, a huge creature that had claws the size of tipi poles, spotted them, and wanted to eat them for breakfast. He was almost upon them when the boys prayed to Wakan Tanka the Creator to help them. They rose up on a huge rock, while Mato tried to get up from every side, leaving huge scratch marks as he did. Finally, he sauntered off, disappointed and discouraged. The bear came to rest east of the Black Hills at what is now Bear Butte. Wanblee, the eagle, helped the boys off the rock and back to their village. A painting depicting this legend by artist Herbert A. Collins hangs over the fireplace in the visitor center at Devils Tower.
In a Cheyenne version of the story, the giant bear pursues the girls and kills most of them. Two sisters escape back to their home with the bear still tracking them. They tell two boys that the bear can only be killed with an arrow shot through the underside of its foot. The boys have the sisters lead the bear to Devils Tower and trick it into thinking they have climbed the rock. The boys attempt to shoot the bear through the foot while it repeatedly attempts to climb up and slides back down leaving more claw marks each time. The bear was finally scared off when an arrow came very close to its left foot. This last arrow continued to go up and never came down.
Wooden Leg, a Northern Cheyenne, related another legend told to him by an old man as they were traveling together past the Devils Tower around 1866–1868. An Indigenous man decided to sleep at the base of Bear Lodge next to a buffalo head. In the morning he found that both he and the buffalo head had been transported to the top of the rock by the Great Medicine with no way down. He spent another day and night on the rock with no food or water. After he had prayed all day and then gone to sleep, he awoke to find that the Great Medicine had brought him back down to the ground, but left the buffalo head at the top near the edge. Wooden Leg maintained that the buffalo head was clearly visible through the old man's spyglass. At the time, the tower had never been climbed and a buffalo head at the top was otherwise inexplicable.
The buffalo head gives this story special significance for the Northern Cheyenne. All the Cheyenne maintained in their camps a sacred teepee to the Great Medicine containing the tribal sacred objects. In the case of the Northern Cheyenne, the sacred object was a buffalo head.
N. Scott Momaday (Kiowa) was given the name Tsoai-talee (Rock Tree Boy) by Pohd-lohk, a Kiowa elder, linking the child to the Devils Tower bear myth. To reinforce this mythic connection, his parents took him there. Momaday incorporated the bear myth as unifying subtext into his 1989 novel The Ancient Child.
The Bighorn Mountains are a mountain range in northern Wyoming and southern Montana in the United States, forming a northwest-trending spur from the Rocky Mountains extending approximately 200 mi (320 km) northward on the Great Plains. They are separated from the Absaroka Range, which lie on the main branch of the Rockies to the west, by the Bighorn Basin. Much of the land is contained within the Bighorn National Forest.
The Bighorns were uplifted during the Laramide orogeny beginning approximately 70 million years ago. They consist of over 9,000 ft (2,700 m) of sedimentary rock strata laid down before mountain-building began: the predominantly marine and near-shore sedimentary layers range from the Cambrian through the Lower Cretaceous, and are often rich in fossils. There is an unconformity where Silurian strata were exposed to erosion and are missing. The granite bedrock below these sedimentary layers is now exposed along the crest of the Bighorns. The precambrian formations contain some of the oldest rocks in the world, at 3.25 billion years old. Following the uplift, large volumes of sediments, rich in early Tertiary fossils, were deposited in the adjoining basins. The ice ages of the Pleistocene led to extensive glaciation. Though many cirques, U-shaped valleys and glacial lakes can be found in the mountain range, the only remaining active glacier is the Cloud Peak Glacier, which is on the east slope of Cloud Peak.
Geologist N.H. Darton with the U.S. Geological Survey produced one of the earliest studies of geology in the area, drawn from field research from 1901-1905.
Despite extensive prospecting in the Bighorns, no major deposits of precious metals have been found to date. Brief gold rushes of placer deposits occurred at Bald Mountain City and Porcupine Creek, and in Big Goose Canyon. The lack of precious metals helped stave off development and settlement in the mountains, in contrast to the Colorado Rockies.
The Madison limestone aquifer provides a significant source of groundwater for the town of Dayton. Limestone karst formations throughout the range contain many fissures and cracks that have developed into extensive cave systems, including Tongue River Cave, and the caves adjacent to Medicine Mountain. The Natural Trap Cave on the west slope of the Bighorns contains numerous remains of prehistoric mammals.
The highest peaks within the Bighorns are located in Wyoming in the 1.12×106-acre (4,500 km2) Bighorn National Forest. Two peaks rise to over 13,000 feet (3,960 m): Cloud Peak (13,175 ft, 4013 m) and Black Tooth Mountain (13,005 ft, 3964 m). There are a dozen more that rise to over 12,000 feet (3,650 m). From the east the mountains present a vertical relief of over 8,000 feet (2,450 m), rising abruptly from the plains. Overall, the Bighorns are more rounded than their sister mountain ranges to the west.
The Cloud Peak Wilderness is the centerpiece of a roadless block of land around 189,000 acres in size. The Wilderness is surrounded by acreage of U.S National Forest as well as Bureau of Land Management, state, and some private land. Most of the Cloud Peak Wilderness is above the tree line; the National Forest lands surrounding it are lower in elevation and covered in coniferous forests. Mule deer, elk, moose, black bear, and mountain lion are found throughout the area.
Two more large roadless areas remained in the Bighorns as of 1992. It is unknown whether these areas have since been reduced in size by road-building and other development. Both areas straddle the Montana-Wyoming state line, in the northern part of the range. One area, north of U.S. Route 14A and containing the headwaters of the Little Bighorn River, is 155,000 acres of National Forest land. This little-known region features subalpine terrain cut by steep canyons. Pronghorn inhabit the area, as it includes a portion of the Great Plains. What little human use it receives is from hunters and fishermen. The second roadless area is located mainly on the Crow Indian Reservation in Montana; its 144,000 acres also includes 34,000 acres of Devil's Canyon on the Bighorn N.F. in Wyoming. In this part of the range, semidesert prairie is cut by steep canyons leading to Yellowtail Reservoir, and high, Douglas-fir cloaked ridges top out at over 9,000'. Colorful rock formations are common. Rocky Mountain juniper and limber pine are scattered on lower elevations, and wildlife includes pronghorn, rattlesnake, golden eagle, ferruginous hawk, and mule deer. The Crow Indians manage a wild bison herd on this portion of the Bighorns. The Crow lands are a sacred area, and thus are off-limits to non-tribal members.
The three highways traversing the Bighorns are designated Scenic Byways by the US Forest Service and the State of Wyoming. These include U.S. Routes 14, 14A, and 16.
The high elevation of the Bighorns results in condensation of air and significant yearly snowfall, creating a highland oasis of moisture towering over the otherwise arid plains that surround the range in all directions. The melting snow feeds many rivers through the summer months. The range is the location of the headwaters of the Little Bighorn, Tongue, and Powder rivers.
Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area consists of approximately 120,000 acres (490 km2) within the Bighorn Mountains. It includes Bighorn Lake, a reservoir damming the Bighorn River.
In 2015, a sudden, huge 'gash' was found in Wyoming's Big Horn Mountains. The Wyoming Geological Survey studied the area and determined that "The Crack" may be the result of an "apparent active landslide" in the southern end of the Big Horn Mountains.
The Bighorns provided important resources for ancestral indigenous people, including plants, migratory big game, rock shelters, tepee poles, and stone for tools. American Indian trails crisscrossed the range, while the canyons provided important winter shelters. Stone game blinds in the high country were used by pedestrian hunters to kill migratory big game animals with atlatl-propelled spears or bows. The northern Bighorns and the Tongue River drainage were formerly a significant summer range for migratory bison that wintered in either the Bighorn Basin and the Powder River/Tongue River/Little Bighorn River drainages. The southern Bighorns, particularly in the Middle Fork of the Powder River, contained an important American Indian trail adjacent to a bison migration corridor. The Wilson Price Hunt expedition of Astorians noted in 1811 that the bison dung was so dense in this area that it resembled a "continuous barnyard" for several miles. Hunt noticed Shoshone and Crow Indians in the area. The Medicine Wheel on the northern end of the Bighorns is an important sacred site built by ancestral tribes that is still used in present-day American Indian ceremonies.
Ancestors of the Shoshone Tribe likely had the longest continuous association with the Bighorns, potentially dating back 1,000 years or more. Stone artifacts found in the Absaroka Range farther west are known to have originated in the Bighorns, suggesting ancestral movement between the two ranges.
The Apsalooke or Crow tribe located in this region about 300–400 years ago after discovering the sacred tobacco plant growing in the Bighorn Mountains below Cloud Peak. This ended a multi-generational sojourn that began near Devils Lake, North Dakota, where a leader named No Vitals received a vision to seek the tobacco. The Crow chief Arapooish gave a speech in the 1830s showing that his people were fully aware of the migratory behaviors of bighorn sheep and deer, which spent summer on high-elevation summer range in the Bighorns and other mountain ranges.
Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Lakota use of the Bighorns region mostly dates to the period after 1800, when they made incursions into traditional Shoshone and Crow territory. Of the Cheyenne, Arapaho and Lakota, the Arapaho had longest history on the east slope of the Rocky Mountains in a region spanning from the Yellowstone River to the Arkansas River, which included the Bighorns. The Cheyenne and Lakota were originally agricultural tribes based on rivers of the Great Plains and the Midwest. By the 1860s and 1870s, the Lakota showed a knowledge of the ancestral trail systems in the Bighorn Mountains, particularly in incidents like the Sibley Fight
Wyoming is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It borders Montana to the north and northwest, South Dakota and Nebraska to the east, Idaho to the west, Utah to the southwest, and Colorado to the south. With a population of 576,851 in 2020, Wyoming is the least populous state despite being the 10th largest by area, with the second-lowest population density after Alaska. The state capital and most populous city is Cheyenne, which had an estimated population of 63,957 in 2018.
Wyoming's western half consists mostly of the ranges and rangelands of the Rocky Mountains; its eastern half consists of high-elevation prairie, and is referred to as the High Plains. Wyoming's climate is semi-arid in some parts and continental in others, making it drier and windier overall than other states, with greater temperature extremes. The federal government owns just under half of Wyoming's land, generally protecting it for public uses. The state ranks sixth in the amount of land—-and fifth in the proportion of its land—-that is owned by the federal government. Its federal lands include two national parks (Grand Teton and Yellowstone), two national recreation areas, two national monuments, and several national forests, as well as historic sites, fish hatcheries, and wildlife refuges.
Indigenous peoples inhabited the region for thousands of years. Historic and currently federally recognized tribes include the Arapaho, Crow, Lakota, and Shoshone. Part of the land that is now Wyoming came under American sovereignty via the Louisiana Purchase, part via the Oregon Treaty, and, lastly, via the Mexican Cession. With the opening of the Oregon Trail, the Mormon Trail, and the California Trail, vast numbers of pioneers travelled through parts of the state that had once been traversed mainly by fur trappers, and this spurred the establishment of forts, such as Fort Laramie, that today serve as population centers. The Transcontinental Railroad supplanted the wagon trails in 1867 with a route through southern Wyoming, bringing new settlers and the establishment of founding towns, including the state capital of Cheyenne. On March 27, 1890, Wyoming became the union's 44th state.
Farming and ranching, and the attendant range wars, feature prominently in the state's history. Today, Wyoming's economy is largely based on tourism and the extraction of minerals such as coal, natural gas, oil, and trona. Its agricultural commodities include barley, hay, livestock, sugar beets, wheat, and wool.
Wyoming was the first state to allow women the right to vote (not counting New Jersey, which had allowed it until 1807), and the right to assume elected office, as well as the first state to elect a female governor. In honor of this part of its history, its most common nickname is "The Equality State" and its official state motto is "Equal Rights".[1] It is among the least religious states in the country,[15] and is known for having a political culture that leans towards libertarian conservatism.[16] The Republican presidential nominee has carried the state in every election since 1968.
There is evidence of prehistoric human habitation in the region known today as the U.S. state of Wyoming stretching back roughly 13,000 years. Stone projectile points associated with the Clovis, Folsom and Plano cultures have been discovered throughout Wyoming. Evidence from what is now Yellowstone National Park indicates the presence of vast continental trading networks since around 1,000 years ago.
The Union Pacific Railroad played a central role in the European colonization of the area. Wyoming would become a U.S. territory in 1868. It was the first state to grant women the right to vote in 1869 (although it was then still a territory). Wyoming would become a U.S. state on July 10, 1890, as the 44th state.
There is evidence of prehistoric human habitation in the region known today as the U.S. state of Wyoming stretching back roughly 13,000 years. Stone projectile points associated with the Clovis, Folsom and Plano cultures have been discovered throughout Wyoming. In the Big Horn Mountains there is a medicine wheel that has not yet been dated accurately due to disruption of the site prior to the two archaeological excavations of 1958 and 1978. However, the Big Horn Medicine Wheel's design of twenty-eight spokes is similar to the Majorville Medicine Wheel in Canada that has been dated at 3200 BCE (5200 years ago) by careful stratification of known artifact types. Throughout the Bighorn Mountains, south to Medicine Lodge Creek, artifacts of occupation date back 10,000 years. Large ceremonial blades chipped from obsidian rock formations in what is now Yellowstone National Park to the west of the Bighorns, have been found in the Hopewell burial mounds of Southern Ohio, indicative of vast continental trading networks since around 1000 years ago.[1] When White explorers first entered the region, they encountered numerous American Indian tribes including the Arapaho, Bannock, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Nez Perce, Sioux, Shoshone and Ute.
Europeans may have ventured into the northern sections of the state in the 18th century. Most of the southern part of modern-day Wyoming was nominally claimed by Spain and Mexico until the 1830s, but they had no presence. John Colter, a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, was probably the first American to enter the region in 1807.[8] His reports of thermal activity in the Yellowstone area were considered at the time to be fictional. Robert Stuart and a party of five men returning from Astoria, Oregon discovered South Pass in 1812. The route was later followed by the Oregon Trail. In 1850, Jim Bridger located what is now known as Bridger Pass, which was later used by both the Union Pacific Railroad in 1868, and in the 20th century by Interstate 80. Bridger also explored the Yellowstone region and like Colter, most of his reports on that region of the state were considered at the time to be tall tales. During the early 19th century, fur trappers known as mountain men flocked to the mountains of western Wyoming in search of beaver. In 1824, the first mountain man rendezvous was held in Wyoming. The gatherings continued annually until 1840, with the majority of them held within Wyoming territory.
The route later known as the Oregon Trail was already in regular use by traders and explorers in the early 1830s. The trail snakes across Wyoming, entering the state on the eastern border near the present day town of Torrington following the North Platte River to the current town of Casper. It then crosses South Pass, and exits on the western side of the state near Cokeville. In 1847, Mormon emigrants blazed the Mormon Trail, which mirrors the Oregon Trail, but splits off at South Pass and continues south to Fort Bridger and into Utah. Over 350,000 emigrants followed these trails to destinations in Utah, California and Oregon between 1840 and 1859. In 1859, gold was discovered in Montana, drawing miners north along the Bozeman and Bridger trails through the Powder River Country and Big Horn Basin respectively.
The influx of emigrants and settlers into the state led to further encounters with the native people there, and settler military presence along the trails increased; military posts such as Fort Laramie were established. In 1851, representatives from the United States and American Indian nations signed the first Treaty of Fort Laramie in hopes of ensuring peace and the safety of settlers on the trails. While the 1850s were subsequently quiet, tensions rose again after settlers increasingly encroached upon lands promised to the tribes in the region. This was the case after settlers, in 1864, blazed the Bozeman Trail through the hunting grounds of the Powder River Country, which the United States had promised to the tribes in the 1851 treaty. As encounters between settlers and natives grew more serious in 1865, Major General Grenville M. Dodge ordered the first Powder River Expedition to attempt to quell the violence. The expedition ended in the Battle of the Tongue River against the Arapaho. In the following year, the fighting escalated into Red Cloud's War, which was the first major military conflict between the United States and the Wyoming Indian tribes. The second Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868 ended the war by closing the Powder River Country to whites. Violation of this treaty by miners in the Black Hills led to the Black Hills War in 1876, which was fought mainly along the border of Wyoming and Montana.
In 1866, Nelson Story Sr. drove approximately 1000 head of Texas Longhorns to Montana through Wyoming along the Bozeman Trail—the first major cattle drive from Texas into Montana. The Wyoming Stock Growers Association is a historic American cattle organization created in 1873. The Association was started among Wyoming cattle ranchers to standardize and organize the cattle industry, but quickly grew into a political force that has been called "the de facto territorial government" of Wyoming's organization into early statehood, and wielded great influence throughout the Western United States. The association is still active to this day, but it is best known for its rich history and is perhaps most famous for its role in Wyoming's Johnson County War. In 1892 the Johnson County War, also known as the War on Powder River and the Wyoming Range War, took place in Johnson, Natrona and Converse County, Wyoming. It was fought between small settling ranchers against larger established ranchers in the Powder River Country and culminated in a lengthy shootout between local ranchers, a band of hired killers, and a sheriff's posse, eventually requiring the intervention of the United States Cavalry on the orders of President Benjamin Harrison. The events have since become a highly mythologized and symbolic story of the Wild West, and over the years variations of the storyline have come to include some of the west's most famous historical figures and gunslingers. The storyline and its variations have served as the basis for numerous popular novels, films, and television shows.
In 1870, roughly three-eights of Wyoming's population was foreign born, coming primarily from Ireland, Germany and England. The Union Pacific Railroad played a central role in the settlement of Wyoming. The land was good for cattle ranches, but without transportation it was too far for a cattle drive. The UP railroad companies had large land grants that were used to back the borrowings from New York and London that financed construction. UP was anxious to locate settlers upon the land as soon as possible, so there would be a steady outflow of cattle, and a steady inflow of manufactured items purchased by the ranchers. UP also built towns that were needed to service the railroad itself, with dining halls for passengers, construction crews, repair shops and housing for train crews. The towns attracted cattle drives and cowboys.
The UP reached the town of Cheyenne, which later became the state capital, in 1867. The railroad eventually spanned the entire state, boosting the population, and creating some of Wyoming's largest cities, such as Laramie, Rock Springs and Evanston. The railroad needed coal, which was discovered in quantity in the southwestern part of the state, especially around Rock Springs In 1885, a murderous riot known as the Rock Springs Massacre broke out when white miners drove out Chinese miners employed by the Union Pacific Coal Company in Rock Springs.
The name "Wyoming" was used by Representative J. M. Ashley of Ohio, who introduced the Ashley Bill to Congress to provide a "temporary government for the territory of Wyoming". The name was made famous by the 1809 poem Gertrude of Wyoming by Thomas Campbll. "Wyoming" is derived from the Delaware (Munsee) name xwé:wamənk, meaning "at the big river flat", originally applied to the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania.
After the arrival of the railroad, the population began to grow steadily in the Wyoming Territory, which was established on July 25, 1868. Unlike Colorado to the south, Wyoming never experienced a rapid population boom in the 19th century from any major mineral discoveries such as gold or silver.
Inclusion of women's suffrage in the Wyoming constitution was debated in the constitutional convention, but ultimately accepted. The constitution was mostly borrowed from those of other states, but also included an article making all the water in Wyoming property of the state. Wyoming overcame the obstacles of low population and of being the only territory in the U.S. giving women the right to vote, and the United States admitted Wyoming into the Union as the 44th state on July 10, 1890.
In 1869, Wyoming territory granted women the right to vote, becoming the first U.S. state to extend suffrage to women. Wyoming was also the home of many other firsts for U.S. women in politics. The first time women served on a jury was in Wyoming (Laramie in 1870). Wyoming had the first female court bailiff (Mary Atkinson, Laramie, in 1870), and the country's first female justice of the peace (Esther Hobart Morris, South Pass City, in 1870). Wyoming became the first state in the Union to elect a female governor, Nellie Tayloe Ross, who was elected in 1924 and took office in January 1925.
Following on the reports of men like Colter and Bridger, a number of organized expeditions were undertaken in northwestern Wyoming. The Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition in 1869 and the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition in 1870 confirmed the stories of the mountain men. In 1871, Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden led a formal geological survey of the area, the result of which ultimately convinced Congress to set aside the region. Yellowstone National Park became the world's first National Park in 1872. In August 1886, the U.S. Army was given administration of the park. In 1917, administration of the park was transferred to the new National Park Service. Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance, and researchers have examined more than 1,000 archaeological sites. Most of Yellowstone National Park is located in Wyoming.
Wyoming is also home to the nation's first national monument (Devils Tower created in 1906), and the first national forest (Shoshone National Forest created in 1891).
The Homestead Act of 1862 attracted many new farmers and ranchers to Wyoming, where they congregated along the fertile banks of the rivers. Most of the land in Wyoming in the 2nd half of the 19th century was in the public domain and so was open for both homesteading and open range for grazing cattle. As individual ranchers moved into the state, they became at odds with the larger ranches for control of the range and water sources. Tensions rose to a boiling point in April 1892 as an armed conflict known as the Johnson County War, fought between the large cattle operators and smaller ranchers and homesteaders. The increased number of settlers also brought with them merchants, as well as outlaws. A number of notable outlaws of the time started their careers in Wyoming, including Butch Cassidy and Harry Longabaugh, both of whom were incarcerated in Wyoming as young men.[25] A remote area in Johnson County, Wyoming known as the Hole-in-the-Wall was a well known hideout for a loose association of outlaw gangs known as the Hole in the Wall Gang. It was used from the 1860s through the early 20th century by outlaws operating throughout Wyoming.
Precious metals were never discovered in great quantities, though a small amount of gold was discovered near South Pass prompting a small rush in the 1860s. Coal was discovered early and has been mined extensively through the state. Union Pacific Railroad ran several coal mines in the southern part of the state to supply the railroad. In 1885 tensions at a Union Pacific mine in Rock Springs resulted in the Rock Springs massacre, one of the largest race riots in U.S. history. Oil is also plentiful throughout the state. In 1924, irregularities over the allocation of naval reserves near Casper resulted in the Teapot Dome Scandal. Natural gas, bentonite and uranium have also been mined through the state's history.
One exception is the copper mines in Carbon County west of Encampment. The Ferris-Haggarty Mine Site supplied copper for the electrification of the world in the late 1800s and early 1900s.
After 1890, Wyoming pageants and parades, as well as school courses, increasingly told a nostalgic story of Wyoming as rooted in the frontier West. During the 1940s, Wyoming millionaire William R. Coe made large contributions to the American studies programs at Yale University and at the University of Wyoming. Coe wished to celebrate the values of the Western United States in order to meet the threat of communism.
While composing some shots for 'What's up your mind', I noticed this feather placed perfectly on a long wooden stick.
While it made a good subject to shoot, I found it difficult to shoot with DSLR, compared to my P&S, which has swivel LCD screen to see how is the focus.
Using DSLR, with live view still helped, but it was very difficult to shoot by keeping the camera on the stick and then making a guess work on hows the focus and Dof.
I shot at least 4-5 shots and this one was close to have a good focus, though would have loved more clarity in it. I would had to lie down on the floor to do it, but somehow avoided it :)
Perhaps next time would lie down only, to know what I am shooting. But no doubt, I like P&S more for these shots :)
This is 3 pictures of my Pen-FT/F. Zuiko 38mm 1:1.8 that I took using my E-510 and composed in Photoshop.
The Olympus Pen F was the world's first and only half-frame system single-lens reflex camera, released in 1963. The camera featured a porro-prism finder and was the first to have a rotary titanium shutter. It could be used with a highly versatile range of 20 exchangeable lenses. The Olympus Pen F was a revolutionary camera packed with innovative features. The rotary shutter, which combined speed with durability, was reportedly perfected only after long and hard effort by Olympus engineers.
The Olympus PEN FT went on sale in 1966. Though identical to the Pen F in external appearance, it had a built-in TTL exposure meter.
When the camera was pointed at a subject, the TTL number exposure control system displayed an aperture number in the view-finder according to the shutter speed setting. There were many other enhancements, including a single-action film advance system, and a built-in self-timer.
Flickr Explore #498, June 17, 2009
This shot is certainly plain and has few elements to compose but is still awfully stark, except for the apparent crenelations on the fire brick silo. I see no reason for them. I am beginning to think that the Longmont Brick and Tile Company, long gone, had a "fire" sale on their tile at some time past. I just drove out southwest of town and found more flood destruction on Nimbus Road west of Niwot at their cemetery. I caught this across the road from the cemetery. The bridge over Lefthand turned the flood waters down the road so I had to walk across a lot of sand to get this shot. I kind of like the afternoon light that streams over the mountains on the right. It augments the dying of summer life for the tree. I also like the prominent and imposing bare tree, with one side stripped bare. It almost looks like a parachute, catching the last rays. I had already hit Golden Ponds (only partly open), Thompson Park and the Longmont cemetery. I got caught up in a project chasing autumn leaves falling in a breeze. My first shot was at Thompson park when I missed a pretty good show in the breeze... by two minutes. We've had pretty good color and pretty good breezes but I never have hit both in the perfect "fall." In fact, this is next to the Niwot cemetery and I waited for quite a while with another photographer as the breezes started to flag. I'd say autumn shots were gone but the cottonwoods match the stark.
Strangely, we had a summer that was closer to normal, if high in humidity, but I don't think ignoring climate change or pumping petroleum will make rougher weather go away. That is at least until the looming petroleum wars are settled and the Koch Brothers and their political tea purchases are put away in their place. Until then CO2 levels in the atmosphere which are at an 850 million year high, will not be turned around. Actually, all anti-fraccking proposals passed in Colorado.
An interesting view of the audience/gallery of observers, I assume composed primarily of NASA personnel, watching three television monitors of the activities within the Command Module mockup in the background, at the North American Rockwell (NAR) plant in Downey, CA.
Thanks to Mr. Ed Hengeveld, what’s transpiring here is a stowage review using the mockup, conducted March 15, 1968. Participating were (then) Apollo 8 astronauts McDivitt, Scott & Schweickart, plus their backups Conrad & Gordon. Later in the day, the test was repeated by Apollo 9 astronauts Borman, Collins & Anders. Possibly, their backups, Armstrong, Lovell & Aldrin also participated, Aldrin at the very least.
In the below linked photograph (of Aldrin), what I erroneously thought was a device to display a simulated exterior view out the window, is instead one of three CCTV cameras documenting activities inside the Command Module.
Note also the diagrams below each television monitor, providing the position & field-of-view of its respective television camera. A Service Module mockup is visible in the background to the upper right.
From the day before, March 14:
NASA announced to the public that program officials had decided to use a 60-percent-oxygen and 40-percent-nitrogen atmosphere in the Apollo spacecraft cabin while on the launch pad (and to retain the pure-oxygen environment in space). This technical decision - because of the earlier tragedy with Apollo 204 over a year earlier - was subjected to closer public scrutiny than perhaps any comparable decision in the history of the U.S. space program. The change affected only ground operations and support equipment and did not necessitate any major changes in the spacecraft itself. Exhaustive testing of the redesigned interior of the vehicle since October 1967 had demonstrated that the risk of fire inside the spacecraft had been drastically reduced. Hardware changes inside the cabin, spokesmen said, had minimized possible sources of ignition and materials changes had vastly reduced the danger of fire propagation.
NASA News Release 68-47, "Apollo Spacecraft Cabin Atmosphere," March 14, 1968."
From/at: