The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk is a single seat subsonic carrier-capable attack aircraft developed for the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps in the early 1950s. The delta winged, single turbojet engined Skyhawk was designed and produced by Douglas Aircraft Company, and later by McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated A4D under the U.S. Navy's pre-1962 designation system.

The Skyhawk is a relatively lightweight aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight of 24,500 pounds (11,100 kg) and has a top speed of more than 670 miles per hour (1,080 km/h). The aircraft's five hardpoints support a variety of missiles, bombs and other munitions. It was capable of carrying a bomb load equivalent to that of a World War II-era Boeing B-17 bomber, and could deliver nuclear weapons using a low-altitude bombing system and a "loft" delivery technique. The A-4 was originally powered by the Wright J65 turbojet engine; from the A-4E onwards, the Pratt & Whitney J52 was used.

Skyhawks played key roles in the Vietnam War, the Yom Kippur War, and the Falklands War. Sixty years after the aircraft's first flight in 1954, some of the 2,960 produced (through February 1979)[1] remain in service with several air arms around the world.

When asked to provide a new fire-fighting vehicle capable of high performance both cross-country and on made up surfaces, Alvis used the experience it had gained from their successful Saladin and Saracen armoured vehicles to develop the six-wheeled Salamander. Combined with the bodywork and equipment supplied by Pyrene and Fomite, the resulting six-wheel-drive crash tender had an excellent performance and could deliver its equipment and crew to the scene of a crash twice as fast as similar vehicles then in service.

In the immediate post-war years the Royal Air Force had to make do with increasingly old and outdated wartime fire-fighting vehicles. By the mid 1950s new equipment was needed to meet the greater demands presented by the jet aircraft in service. The RAF experimented with various means of extinguishing fires and concluded foam was still the best medium due to its smothering, cooling and non-toxic properties.

Production of these specialised vehicles totalled only 133, of which 88 were supplied to the RAF and one to the British Army. The remainder were sold overseas to Canada, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and South Africa.

This Alvis Mk.6 Salamander 6x6 crash tender, 23AG76, services with the Royal Air Force for 20 years. It entered service in 1958 and served at many stations, including RAF St Mawgan and RAF Biggin Hill. On its retirement in 1978 it was presented at the RAF Museum and is on display at Hendon.

hybrid creature capable of surviving on land for long periods of time without the need of water.

With advances in bomber technology, the U.S. Army Air Corps in 1937 began wondering if its current fighters were inadequate to defend the nation from attack. The USAAC, on the advice of Lieutenant Benjamin Kelsey, issued Proposal X-608/609, calling for an interceptor equipped with tricycle landing gear and the Allison V-1710 inline engine, heavy cannon armament, and capable of 360 mph and a ceiling of above 20,000 feet, which it had to reach within six minutes. The design could either be a twin-engined (X-608) or a single-engined (X-609). The latter resulted in the Bell P-39 Airacobra—the former becoming the Lockheed P-38 Lightning.

The proposal was a tough one, and after several discarded designs, Lockheed designer Clarence “Kelly” Johnson settled on an unusual planform: two engines extending back to twin tails, joined by the wings and tailplane, with the pilot and armament concentrated in a central “gondola” fuselage. The reason for the tail “booms” was that the aircraft needed superchargers, and the only place to put them was behind the engines. The design itself posed several problems, namely engine torque: twin-engined propeller aircraft tend to pull heavily in the direction of the torque. Johnson solved this by having the propellers counter-rotate away from each other, canceling the torque between them. Placing all guns along a central axis in front of the pilot also made shooting more accurate and easier to figure out; various armament options were tried before Lockheed settled on four machine guns and a single 20mm cannon. Flush rivets and stainless steel construction gave the aircraft a smooth finish and better speed. The first XP-38 flew in January 1939. To prove the fighter’s usefulness to a skeptical USAAC, the XP-38 was flown cross-country from Lockheed’s plant in Burbank to New York City. It crash-landed due to engine icing just outside of New York, but it made the trip in just over seven hours at a sustained speed of 399 mph, setting a new record.

Impressed, the USAAC ordered 13 YP-38 pre-production aircraft, but these were delayed by Lockheed already being at maximum production, with the result that the first YP-38 did not reach the now-U.S. Army Air Force until June 1941. It had already been ordered by the Royal Air Force, but now a new problem came up: the P-38 was too hot an aircraft. In dives, it had been found that the P-38 would quickly enter compressibility and keep accelerating until it hit the ground, due to the air over the wings becoming supersonic while the aircraft itself remained subsonic. Frantic efforts by Lockheed to fix the problem failed, and despite the introduction of dive brakes on later aircraft, the P-38 was never cured of this problem. The British only held to their order of 143 aircraft after legal action by Lockheed—making matters worse was that RAF aircraft were delivered without counter-rotating propellers or superchargers, making them difficult to control and at a severe disadvantage above 15,000 feet. Plus, the lack of adequate cockpit heating meant that the pilots risked hypothermia during the cold European winters. The RAF had named the aircraft “Lightning” for its performance, but loathed the fighter and were more than happy to return them to Lockheed. The P-38, which had finally entered production as the P-38D Lightning, had acquired a bad reputation that it would never fully recover from.

Despite its misgivings, the USAAF continued the Lightning in production, because whatever the aircraft’s other problems, it could not be matched in speed or range. Deployed to Iceland and the Aleutian Islands, P-38s scored the first American kill of the European theater on August 14th, 1942; it had already scored its first kills, over the Aleutians, a week before. Deployed to North Africa to cover the Operation Torch landings and operations in Tunisia, the heavy armament, speed, range, and surprising ease of flying (the P-38 used a wheel rather than a stick), the Lightning earned the nickname Gabelschwanzteufel (Fork-Tailed Devil) from its German opponents at first. Unfortunately, the Germans soon discovered the P-38’s weakness—it still was a poor performer above 15,000 feet, it had a very slow roll rate, and lethal blind spots. It was liked by its pilots, who pointed out that it was the only long-range escort then available, and the only one that could lose an engine and stay in the air, but its poor reputation persisted. Even after further combat proved its worth and improvements by Lockheed resulted in the P-38J, the 8th Air Force began relegating its P-38s to ground attack duties (which it was surprisingly good at) in favor of the P-51 Mustang. It remained in Europe until war’s end, operating as attack aircraft and F-5 reconnaissance aircraft; a few were further modified with a bombardier position in a clear nose as pathfinders, the so-called “Droopsnoot.” Despite its mixed reputation, European Lightnings produced several aces, including Robin Olds; French author and aviation pioneer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry was killed in his P-38 during a reconnaissance mission over Corsica in July 1944.

In the Pacific, however, the P-38s performed admirably. The USAAF lacked any sort of long-range fighter, and the P-38 allowed safer operations over water and distance. This led to it being chosen to shoot down Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto in 1943, as it was the only fighter that could make the trip from Guadalcanal to Bougainville. General George Kenney, commanding the 15th Air Force, asked for all the P-38s Lockheed could supply. While it was no dogfighter, especially with the nimble Japanese fighters, it could snap turn with an A6M Zero for the first few seconds, it was better in the vertical than Japanese aircraft, and its heavy armament would annihilate every enemy that got in front of it. Whereas P-38 pilots in Europe froze to death, the lack of air conditioning in the Pacific meant that P-38 pilots there flew in only shorts, tennis shoes, and a flight helmet. The P-38’s lack of high altitude performance was not a problem in the Pacific, where most air combat took place at low level. Over 100 men would become aces in the Lightning, and with 1,800 confirmed victories, the P-38 was one of the most successful USAAF fighters in the Pacific during the war.

After World War II, newer jet fighters spelled the end of the P-38s. Even though more than 10,000 examples were built during the war, the big fighter didn’t fit into the Air Corps' post-war plans and was retired from service soon after. Though it did remain in Italian Air Force service until 1956, and was used by Nationalist China and some Central American nations (a CIA-flown P-38M was instrumental in a 1954 coup), nearly all of them had been scrapped by the mid-50s. Out of a total of 10,037 aircraft built, only 24 survive today, with half that number flyable or being restored to flying condition.

This P-38J, BuNo 44-23314, was delivered to the USAAF in May 1944 and has the distinction of being the 5,018th P-38 made—halfway to the total number of Lightnings produced; it would never leave the United States, instead being assigned to the 483rd Air Base Squadron, a Crew Replacement Training Unit, at Santa Monica, where it was used as a trainer for P-38 pilots headed to the Pacific. Declared surplus just after V-J Day, 44-23314 was donated to the Hancock College of Aeronautics to be used as a ground instruction trainer. By 1959, it was one of the last surviving P-38s and was bought by Planes of Fame. Initially, it was only restored for static display, but in 1988, it was fully restored to flying condition.

This aircraft has gone through several names and paint schemes over the years, but in January 2020, when I saw it, it was painted as an aircraft of the 475th Fighter Group at Hollandia, New Guinea, with the name "23 Skidoo" (An early 20th Century slang term meaning to get lost). The 475th would count among its ranks three of the USAAF's top aces—Charles MacDonald, Thomas McGuire, and, of course, the "ace of aces" for the U.S., Richard "Dick" Bong himself. As "23 Skidoo" still wears the standard USAAF wartime camouflage, this would still be fairly early in the 475th's career, before their P-38s were returned to bare metal for additional speed and range. This plane is also unique in that it makes a brief cameo appearance in the 1992 movie Iron Eagle III.

Everyone should have a MicroEye!

What a great way to investigate micro science.

Snap of what Dynamic Earth's MicroEye is capable of imaging.

The system is a microscope linked to big high-def monitor.

cm-wide tiny Marrella is an odd little arthropod from

a Cambrian lagerstratte (place of exceptional preservation)

high up in the Rocky Mountains near Field, BC, Canada

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossils_of_the_Burgess_Shale

link to David Lloyd's Burgess Shale quarry visit, complete with Marrella fossils and fab illustration

flic.kr/p/2ZjZ5Y

link to Cambrian apex predator Anomalocaris in my photostream

flic.kr/p/8LZTuG

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

Brunelleschi's Dome

A masterpiece capable of resisting lightning, earthquakes, and the passing of the centuries, which today enchants anyone who observes it from afar, the dome has a diameter of 45.5 meters, the same as the entire Baptistery.

In 1418 the Opera of Santa Maria del Fiore announces the competition that Brunelleschi wins, but starts to build only after two years. The works lasted until 1434.

On 25 March 1436 the Florentine Cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV

www.ilgrandemuseodelduomo.it/monumenti/2-cupola

The Chance Vought F4U Corsair was a carrier-capable fighter aircraft that saw service primarily in World War II and the Korean War. Demand for the aircraft soon overwhelmed Vought's manufacturing capability, resulting in production by Goodyear and Brewster: Goodyear-built Corsairs were designated FG and Brewster-built aircraft F3A. From the first prototype delivery to the U.S. Navy in 1940, to final delivery in 1953 to the French, 12,571 F4U Corsairs were manufactured by Vought, in 16 separate models, in the longest production run of any piston-engined fighter in U.S. history (1942–53).

Njord Viking

High Ice-classed AHTS vessel capable of operations in harsh environment offshore regions, as well as Arctic/Sub-Arctic operations.

General Information.

Length o.a.: 85,20 metres

Length b.p.: 76,20 metres

Beam, moulded: 22,00 metres

Depth to main deck: 9,00 metres

Draft, design: 6,00 metres

Deadweight at 7,60 m: 4.500 tons

Accommodation: 45 persons

Speed: 17 knots

Bollard pull: 210 tons

Endurance: 9.000 miles

Propulsion

Main engines: MAK 2x6M32 + 2x8M32

Output: 14.000 kW at 600 rpm

Main Propellers: 2 x CPP

Forward retractile thruster: 1 x 830 kW

Forward tunnel thruster: 2 x 830 kW

Aft tunnel thrusters: 2 x 830 kW

TANK CAPACITIES

Fuel oil: 1.000 m3

Fresh water: 1.247 m3

Ballast: 2.013 m3

Oil Recovery: 1.989 m3

Rig chain locker: 665 m3

Liquid mud: 965 m3

Brine: 628 m3

Special products: 187 m3

Dry bulk: 220 m3

Main Anchor/Towing winch: 400 Tons at 18,7 m/min

Brake holding: 525 Tons 1st layer

Secondary Winch: 138 Tons at 28 m/min

Brake holding: 62 Tons 1st layer

2 Deck Cranes (sliding): 6/12 Tons at 20/10 mts

2 Tugger winch: 24 Tons at 22 m/min

2 Towing pins: 300 Tons

2 Karm Forks: 600 Tons

2 Capstans: 14 Tons at 24 m/min

AUXILIARY GENERATING SETS

Diesel generating sets: 2 x 720 ekW. 440 V. 60 Hz

Shaft generators: 2 x 2.700 ekW. 440 V. 60 Hz

Emergency generator set: 1 x 400 ekW. 440 V. 60 Hzp

Camera: Nikon F100

Len: Nikon Nikkor Ai AF 50mm f/1.4D

Film: Fujifilm NEOPAN SS100 BW (Expired) @iso 200

The mach-2 capable Hustler's super-sleek underbelly. No doubt Snoopy's the rattiest B-58 in the world, but of the 8 left, he's the one in the most picturesque location. Purple and red set Protomachines flashlight. 100 second exposure, under full moon.

The old Red T Tessar is capable of bubble bokeh (see --> here). In this instance the effect is not very pronounced, as the highlights are not intense enough. But there are some budding bubbles.

KW Praktica FX, built between 1955-57

Carl Zeiss Jena red T Tessar 50/2.8

Kodak Color Plus 200 colour negative film, pushed by 1 stop

Developed and scanned by www.meinfilmlab.de

I am constantly discovering, realizing, and finding the cause of my ignorance.

I am also constantly changing. What I know or capable of a couple months ago might not be the same now, that's what growing feels like I guess.

This week the growth was more tangible, more painful. My ideas and my ability to execute it shows the gap of my inadequacy much more clearer than before. But maybe the gap grows because we're constantly moving forward and thus have broadened our horizon further expanding our creative capabilities. Every time I feel this gap with such clarity I would remind myself that this is what growth feels like, that I need to take another step forward with my storytelling.

I have a really hard time executing my moon food series this week. I went through a lot of disappointments with my work. I never looked at an image and feel so much hate. Hate for failing to show the story I wanted to tell. It's funny that good taste helps us understand how bad we are, how ineffectively we are in telling our story or engaging with our audience. But disappointment serves as a motivation, self-awareness on how to do better the next time.

And I want to thank you. Thank you for the constant understanding that I am using this space for my need to grow.

p.s. Catch up with you late late tomorrow! ❤️ Stay safe.

Budapest, Jewish Quarter

Erzsébetváros

Budapest is a living history, and few streets are capable of taking you back in time like Király utca, which divides District VI and District VII.

Before World War II, Király utca (King Street) was one of Pest’s grand boulevards and central shopping streets. Jewish and gentile shop owners sold haberdashery, cut hair, sold jewelry and foodstuffs. There was actually a trolley that ran up and down the cobblestone street, ferrying shoppers from one end to the other.

Strolling down Király these days, you will come across many unique small shops and unique spaces, including used book stores, pubs, and design stores. At Király 19, if the gate happens to be open, go to the back of the builiding, through the passageway, and you will find the last remaining portion of the ghetto wall that kept many of Budapest’s Jewish population contained during the Nazi occupation.

Despite the Nazis’ retreat, the dangers in the ghetto persisted, and this was a very dangerous street to be found on. Jews were hunted day and night by the blood-thirsty, virulently anti-Semitic Arrow Cross party, a Hungarian militia who took it upon themselves to finish the job the Nazis started. They killed an estimated 25,000 Jews in the brief period from 1944-1945, during and after the Nazi occupation.

Scanning the buildings, you can spot pock marks in the facades. These are bullet holes are from building-to-building urban warfare, most likely during the Siege of Budapest in WWII, when the city was taken from the Germans block by block. Though the street is not named for him, Imre Kertész was one of the Jews from Budapest who was rounded up and deported, sent to Auschwitz first, then eventually imprisoned in Buchenwald. His novel Fatelessness was a fictionalized version of that upheaval, and would contribute to his winning of the Nobel Prize in literature, Hungary’s first.

Much of the history of ‘King Street’ is tragic. But the street itself is still alive with activity and commerce – and is visually captivating as always.

ppmhungary.wordpress.com/2013/03/17/location-spotter-kira...

hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kir%C3%A1ly_utca_%28Budapest%29

capable of defeating concrete...

I have finally managed to grab some decent shots of an experimental electric-drive battery powered carbon fibre bus that lives local to me.

RX15HSU is a 'Bristol Superlight' built by the Frazer-Nash Research company based in Farnborough, Hants. The bus was first registered on 28/08/2015 and I've been after a decent shot of it ever since!

Their concept bus is kitted out to B27D layout and weighs in at just 3.5 tonnes, its revenue weight listed as 4840kg. It carries a 1.0L engine which is used to recharge the lithium batteries and as such the bus is marketed as ultra low emission / zero emission capable.

I grabbed some shots of the bus when it was out on a demonstration run on 02/03/2017.

A collection of cracking photos of this bus in St.Moritz is here: www.fotoswiss.com/-/galleries/reports-reportagen/ebus-by-...

A 6-minute video of the bus in St.Moritz is here: www.enjoystmoritz.ch/index.php/2016/03/23/frazer-nash-bri...

The Liebherr LTM 1450-8.1 features a very long yet powerful 7-piece 85 metre (279 ft) telescopic boom. The 8-axle crane has been designed for worldwide cost-effective mobility and fast, easy setup on site. Our large fast-erecting crane is capable of travelling on public roads with a 12-tonne (26,450 lb) axle load carrying its complete telescopic boom, all its outriggers and the complete hoist winch. This enables it to be prepared for use very quickly once it reaches the site. The crane can lift up to 500 tons with counterweights. This one is built on a 1:40 scale. (3 studs = 1m)

Many thanks to Mad physicist for some techniques and the inspiration.

North American F-100D Super Sabre.

The North American F-100 Super Sabre is an American supersonic jet fighter aircraft that served with the USAF and a few other contries from 1954 to as late as 1979. As the first of the Century Series of USAF jet fighters , it was the first USAF fighter capable of supersonic speed in level flight. The F-100 was designed by North American Aviation as a high performance follow-on to the F-86 Sabre air superiority fighter.

Missing the F-100 Super Sabre in my collection of RDAF aircrafts, I decided it to be my next LEGO model. I always hesitate to build models that all ready are represented with very good or even excellent versions, and in this case there are some brilliant versions from (Lego Pilot) Wayne, Ralph Savelsberg and in particular Cody Osell. Having seen Cody´s excellent model I decided to use the same wedge pieces for the nose section as he did, but everything else is my own design. Funny thing though is that we ended up using the same pieces for the landing gear wheels and the main fuselage section, allthoug my version has a sligthly (half plate) raised middle section, to give it a little more curve of the upperside. The wings however are very different. The rear wings are angled at exactly 45 deg to the fuselage, and built as one continuous plate. The main wings are also angled at nearly 45 deg, built individualy, and attached with hinges inside the fuselage. Using this technique led to a very thin looking wing with a nice and clean leading edge. The model is equipped with two 450 US gal (1730 l.) droptanks and 4 AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles. The color scheme is chosen from a period in the mid sixties, when ESK 727 had their F-100s painted with the distinctive red nose and striping. A single aircraft painted this way can be seen at Danmarks Flymuseum in Stauning, Denmark. The model has no working features and is solely built for display.

About the RDAF North American F-100D Super Sabre:

As a successor to the F-84G, squadron ESK 727 recieved 17 F-100D and 3 F-100F in 1959. Two years later also ESK 725 and ESK 730 recieved 31 F-100D and 7 F-100F leading to a total of 58 fighter aircraft. The delivery of these aircrafts was part of the postwar Military Assistance Programme.

Due to a lot of incidents and accidents, many aircrafts were lost, and by the end of 1966 only 41 aircrafts remained, and because of the Vietnam war it was impossible get any replacement. In 1974 a new opportunity oppened to buy 14 two-seater F-100F from USAF. After a number of modifications, to suit the Danish standards, these aircrafts were designated TF-100F.

In 1976 to 77 again a lot of planes were lost, this time because of bad service quality from the companies servicing the J-57 jet engine.

Over the past years a lot of changes and modifications was made to the F-100; Navigation system, bombsight, and weapon systems.

In august 1982 the F-100 Super Sabre flew for the last time, ending an era of 23 years with the Royal Danish Airforce.

Specifications:

Crew: 1

Dimensions:

wingspan 38 ft 9 in (11,81 m)

length 50 ft 0 in (15,2 m)

height 16 ft 3 in (4.95 m)

Powerplant:

1 × Pratt & Whitney J-57-P-21/21A turbojet, 10.200 lbf (45 kN),

16.000 lbf (71 kN) with afterburner

Performance:

max speed 864 mph (1.390 km/h), Mach 1,3

range 1.733 miles (3210 km)

service ceiling 50.000 ft (15,000 m)

rate of climb 22.400 ft/min (114 m/s)

Weight:

empty 21.000 lb (9.500 kg)

max 34.832 lb (15.800 kg)

Armament:

Guns:4x 20mm (0.787 in) Pontiac M39A1 revolver cannon w/200 rpg

Missiles:4x AIM-9 Sidewinder or

2x AGM-12 Bullpup or

2x or 4x LAU-3/A 2.75 in (70 mm) unguided rocket dispensers

Bombs:7.040 lb (3.190 kg) conventional or special.

More informations about the North American F-100D Super Sabre at

Wikipedia.

Hope you enjoy the pictures.

жж 13:14:27 DSC_3745

Masai Mara National Reserve

Kenya

East Africa

The Masai giraffe, also spelled Maasai giraffe, or the Kilimanjaro giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi), is the largest subspecies of giraffe and the tallest land mammal. It is found in Kenya and Tanzania.

The Masai giraffe has jagged spots on its body. It also has a short tassel of hair on its tail. The bony outgrowths of the male's skull superficially provide the appearance of up to five ossicones. The dominant male's spots tend to be darker in colour than those of other members of its herd.

Adult males usually reach around 5.5 m in height—although they have been recorded at reaching heights of up to 6 m—and females tend to be a bit shorter at around 5–5.5 m (16–18 ft) tall. Their legs and necks are both about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) long, and their heart has a mass of roughly 12 kg (26 lb).

No breeding season is noted for the Masai giraffe. Females typically can breed from the age of 4. They give birth standing up. Giraffes give birth after 2–6 hours of labor. About 50–75% of the calves die in their first few months due to predation. Though many calves die, the mothers stab predators such as hyenas or lions with their sharp hooves. This can critically injure or kill a predator quickly; the Masai giraffe's kick is strong and is capable of crushing a lion's skull or shattering its spine. - Wikipedia

via NewsAsia ift.tt/1QJlBHB

Pak test-fires nuclear capable ballistic Shaheen-1A missile

19 years and a month old & still capable of putting in a full day's work is First Glasgow's sole remaining Plaxton President-bodied Dennis Trident out of a fleet that once numbered in the hundreds: LT02 NWC (33120; based out of Caledonia depot). Caught here crossing Glasgow Bridge with a early-evening 57A to Kennishead. Note the McGill's ex-Kinchbus Citaro (BF67 WHR/3366) in hot pursuit.

120 is notable for two reasons, it's one of 7 Presidents (6 Volvo B7TLs currently work out of Scotstoun, numbered 32300-305) and one of 6 'classic' Tridents (in addition to 5 ALX400s) still hanging on. It owes it's continued survival in large part to social distancing and the need for extra deckers that comes with it. Even without this factored in, the fact that it's outlived all it's brethern by over 2 years is in itself remarkable. It's for these reasons that 120 has become borderline mythical within the Glaswegian spotting community, being photographed wherever it goes. It has also gone some way to discredit the long-held belief that the Trident wasn't as robust as it's step-entrance forebearers.

With new all-electric deckers now in the pipeline, the writing now seems to be on the wall for the surviving Tridents. Precisely how much longer they will last remains to be seen, but one thing is for certain: they owe nothing to no-one.

Photo Date: 21st April 2021

The McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet is an all-weather, twin-engine, supersonic, carrier-capable, multirole combat aircraft, designed as both a fighter and attack aircraft (hence the F/A designation). Designed by McDonnell Douglas (now part of Boeing) and Northrop (now part of Northrop Grumman), the F/A-18 was derived from the latter's YF-17 in the 1970s for use by the United States Navy and Marine Corps. The Hornet is also used by the air forces of several other nations, and formerly by the U.S. Navy's Flight Demonstration Squadron, the Blue Angels.

The F/A-18 was designed to be a highly versatile aircraft due to its avionics, cockpit displays, and excellent aerodynamic characteristics, with the ability to carry a wide variety of weapons. The aircraft can perform fighter escort, fleet air defense, suppression of enemy air defenses, air interdiction, close air support, and aerial reconnaissance. Its versatility and reliability have proven it to be a valuable carrier asset, though it has been criticised for its lack of range and payload compared to its earlier contemporaries, such as the Grumman F-14 Tomcat in the fighter and strike fighter role, and the Grumman A-6 Intruder and LTV A-7 Corsair II in the attack role.

The Hornet first saw combat action during the 1986 United States bombing of Libya and subsequently participated in the 1991 Gulf War and 2003 Iraq War. The F/A-18 Hornet served as the baseline for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, its larger, evolutionary redesign.

Like a snake sheds its skin, we are capable of getting rid of assembled habits, creating space to call matters into question. Instead of the Shakespearian " To be or not to be " we could favor " to become or not to become". By "becoming", we challenge the range of possibilities in our life and go beyond the merely "being". We can retreat, then, from the imprisonment of a deadly routine, acquire an identity and develop our personality." - Erik Pevernagie

Something super quick and with many obstacles to create! It was fun to go back to a place I love and create something fresh and new. Greatly inspired by my deep, deep DEEP slytherin self (natural hufflepuff! I have been called Draco in the past because of my hair so it seems fitting! <3

#7dayswithholly- Day 4: 'Green.'

Now capable of Vertical "Twake" off and Landing, take to the skies in the Spirit of Twankus!

Giant Hogweed is an invasive non-native plant species that grows abundantly along river corridors, steams and beyond. The species can reach a substantial height within in a single growing season, with individuals found on average to be two to five metres in height.

Seeds germinate from March onwards, with the plant quickly establishing a taproot. It takes three to four years to reach maturity, and in the final year produces the main stem and a large flower head. A typical flower head is capable of producing 20 000 seeds, however up to 50 000 have been recorded for a single plant. Giant Hogweed can be found flowering from June to August, with seeds being released from late August each year.

Enord is capable of incredible speed in the air, due his Far more bigger Energy source, than he does needs.

Enord has a Hearthstone as Power source, that was belonged to an Unkown Toa, who did offered his Body to science before his Death.

Because this Enord is Overflowing with Energy!

He truly enjoys even the smallest flights, because then he can be over everyone who he wants! :D

At sea of Great Yarmouth, Atlantis Dweller is capable of carrying out ROV inspection, survey, light construction and air diving projects. On board the vessel, one FCV3000 work class ROV is permanently installed in the ROV hangers. A second WROV or Seaeye Lynx inspection ROV optional.

Name: Atlantis Dweller

Vessel type: Multi purpose vessel (MPV)

Home port: Nassau

Flag: Bahamas

IMO: 9429742

MMSI: 311000810

Call sign: C6DX6

Max persons onboard: 70

Cabins: 16 x single, 27 x double

Length overall: 69.2 m

Beam: 16.2 m

Draught: 4.74 m

Gross tonnage: 3,346 ton

Net tonnage: 1,004 ton

Max deadweight: 1,750 ton

Fuel capacity: 622.8 m3

Propulsion: Diesel-electric

Engines: 4 x Caterpillar 3512B

Engine output: 4 x 1,909 hp (1,424 kW)

Speed: 11 knots

Builder: Westcon Contractors A/S, Ølen, Norway

Yard number: 32

Year built: 2009

Owner: Fugro Subsea A/S, Haugesund, Norway

Operator: Fugro Subsea Services Ltd, Aberdeen

hands

Airframe: former Royal Navy (RN) Fleet Air Arm (FAA) Hawker Nimrod I carrier-capable single-seat biplane fighter, 1931

P4190952 - Copy Aov3 EV=-1 Anx2 Q90 1600h

Oceanic is a premier oceanfront restaurant in Pompano Beach, offering stunning waterfront dining experiences with lunch, dinner, happy hour, and weekend brunch options. Perfect for any occasion, it also features private event spaces.

The Oceanic restaurant in Pompano Beach is an "architectural marvel". While specific individual architects aren't typically named in public sources for such projects, the architectural vision behind Oceanic was conceived by Lou and Joy Moshakos, the owners of LM Restaurants, and their daughter Amber.

The design of the 20,000 square foot restaurant (with over 9,000 square feet of open-air space) took five years to finalize and involved three different architects and design teams. The final design, inspired by the hull of a grand ocean liner, aims to evoke a sense of "awe and wonder" similar to that of a transatlantic voyage, according to Amber Moshakos.

The design features include:

Exterior: An all-white exterior reminiscent of Greek architecture.

Interior: Arched wooden beams in the ceiling, expansive floor-to-ceiling glass doors, and a color scheme of blues and greens.

Unique Elements: A grand, circular dining room with a 25-foot-high ceiling, skylights, and dangling colored glass pieces that resemble fish swimming underwater. The design also incorporates frayed boat ropes and modern art made of ocean driftwood.

The restaurant also features an artistic mobile of 200 fish swimming across a 25-foot ceiling.

Views: All seating areas, whether indoors or on the patio decks, offer spectacular views of the ocean and the adjacent Pompano Beach Fishing Pier.

Event Space: The second floor is dedicated to private events, with its own kitchen, bar, and open-air, floor-to-ceiling glass sliding doors, capable of hosting up to 400 guests.

Bar Area: A 5,000 square foot indoor-outdoor bar with a progressive tap wine system that is eco-friendly and ensures wine quality and temperature control.

The architectural and design choices for Oceanic at Pompano Beach were intentional to create a "landmark destination" that honors the ocean and provides guests with a unique dining experience.

Credit for the data above is given to the following websites:

www.oceanicpompano.com/

www.facebook.com/OceanicPompano/

bcpa.net/RecInfo.asp?URL_Folio=484331010200

www.google.com/search?q=how+is+the+architect+of+oceanic+p...

© All Rights Reserved - you may not use this image in any form without my prior permission.

Name: The BoogieMan

Real Name: Eugene Preston

Status: Villian

Abilities: Other than sweet dance moves, none. But his necklace is capable of hypnotizing those who look at him as long as he's dancing. Once he stops dancing, or once they look away, they're no longer hypnotized.

Origin: Eugene Preston loves dancing, especially to disco. So when he found a magical amulet he decided to put his skills to good use. So now he dances in the streets, and whenever anyone comes by, he hypnotizes them into giving him all their money or jewelry. He has been accused of mugging, but he claims everyone just loves his dancing. And so he roams free, looking for more victims to fall into his trap.

Sorry I haven't posted in a while, I've just been readjusting (and I wanted to finish some Loh characters). I do have four others ready, and five more planned. So I hope you like my first Loh villain, and be on the lookout because there are more to come!

P.S. If you were tagged, it's because I know you have made some Loh characters, and I would like your help. Right now there are around 830 posts in the League of LEGO Heroes group, and because I don't really want to go through all of those posts looking to see if someone's similar, I'd appreciate it if you could tell me if you know of someone who's similar to mine. So that means anyone who looks the same, shares a similar name, similar backstory, or they're an overall similar character. If you do know of some, I'd be willing to change mine so that I'm not copying whoever's it is. Thank you.

FN6-1a Striker II

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[Information]

Featuring the new FN6 chassis the Striker II strikes a deadly balance between speed and armor making it capable of high mobility maneuvers while still being able to operate under harsh conditions

---

[Build notes]

My process usually for most of my mecha typically involves a central idea that gradually develops. The Striker’s idea was that of tanks and grunt mechs. With this revamp I felt that it was that same combination of idea but fully realized and perfected (in my mind at least). Let me know your thoughts in the comments, till next time.

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Facebook: www.facebook.com/Gearuma/

Instagram: www.instagram.com/gearuma/

This little girl is capable of murder, cause you hurt her

Cady Groves - This Little Girl

Credits

****************

-CLOTHES-

_CandyDoll_Deandra Skirt & Top

Violent Seduction - Rose Jail Heels

-ACCESSORIES-

Sway's [Tied up] Knife

[Fetch] Bow Cuffs

Kibitz - Rosie rings

-HAIR-

Doe: Mango

-PROPS-

House of Avro - Body under blood stained rug

Sway's [Tied up] Chair

PILOT and JIM - Key to my Nope Wall Art

uK - Autumn Vanity Table w/Mirror

floorplan. pallet wall

DRD chesterfield couch

The iPhone is now capable of shooting RAW using iOS 10 and Adobe Lightroom mobile.

The results are astounding. This is an edited RAW file from the iPhone and you can see the detail that can be brought out of the highlights.

Watch the tutorial on my YouTube channel - www.firstmanphotography.com/tutorials/shoot-raw-files-on-...

The washing machine had conked out so Lisa, being the capable gal she is, took it apart and fixed it! :)

"Humans, may I aid your struggle by making you capable of knowledge?"

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I dunno, very random. I got a good use out of the ODG BM combat rig and an old insectoids head. Had to post the combos :P

So guys, serious talk here ;)

I'm going to college soon, which will significantly slow my posting and activity. That said... most of the projects I've been working on all summer won't be finished or be posted anytime soon... or so I predict. I'll have minimal time to work on a lot of my custom creations/painting, so that stuff isn't gonna get finished right away. I will work on it when I can though, so cheer up! ;)

So yeah. Good stuff. I love lego. I will miss it alot when I'm busy and won't have as much time for it this year :'(

S'all good though. I might take my photo setup and parts with me, so you never know ;)

--Jesse

When it's called for, Madame Tina is perfectly capable of posing as a member of polite society. 😋

Caution, massive technobabble wall ahead.

The Merlin is a medium gunship boasting state-of-the-art armament and armor. Its main weapon is a extremely high-power laser, capable of penetrating through most enemy armor (barely visible under the fuselage). To deal with the massive quantities of heat the laser puts out during operation, as well as to protect its delicate electronics, the weapon retracts into the body of the gunship when not being fired, protecting it and allowing it to be rapidly cooled between bursts. In addition, the Merlin has four hardpoints for extra fuel, jammers, or missiles- this model is carrying a full load of 12 self-guided bunker-buster missiles. Finally, it has two 30mm cannons (because it's totally not OP already).

The coaxial rotors and the two engines give the Merlin more manuverability and acceleration than a comparable VTOL hovership would. Top speed does suffer, however. A crew of two flies the Merlin, and they are kept informed by the large radar array in the nose.

Speed- 2

Maneuverability- 3

Armor- 5

Firepower- 5

Range- 4

Technology- 2

Cargo- 1

Total (out of maximum 30)-

Cost (total)- 22

This has been under construction for about two weeks. Built the cockpit first, then spent a while trying to build a cargo bay for troop transport. I eventually gave up on troop transport and added the engines onto the doors, then built the rest of the fuselage and the weapon pylons. The rotors came next- I realized that with nothing on top to balance out the sloping engines, it looked like a lumpy tan penguin trying to skydive. The folding laser was the final addition, when I realized I had a ton of empty space to use up inside but still no way for troops to get in. I'm quite happy with the way everything turned out here, especially the cockpit. BTW, cockpit creds go to someone, I think Andrew Somers, and the radar design is from Rancorbait. Hope you enjoyed!

PS: This will probably be available for export/files at some point.

The forest that lies at the edge of the South Eastern border of Tarakia is unlike any other terrain in the entire county, it's soft, well watered, and more than capable of engulfing any vehicle well past the half way line in certain areas. The vast expanse of the Tarakian desert is capable of supporting heavy armour, and the mountainous regions that guard the North and South are solid enough to support any amount of weight, meaning that these areas can be filled with large formations of armour from many different classes. The forest region doesn't have the capability to support anything larger than a medium tank in most areas, and this has been a blessing, because it means that the enemy can't use heavy armour either. Given the very few realistic avenues of attack against Tarakia, an enemy would be forced to take one of four choices, and for some time now, many have seen the forest region as the weakest of the four, due to the inability to field heavy armour. The forest borders Tarakia, and on the other side, two other nations, who both field very few heavy tanks, instead preferring medium tanks, but any unified force intent on attacking Tarakia would have to go through one, or both of these two nations, meaning that just because the adjacent nations don't have many heavy tanks, heavy tanks passing through the forest isn't entirely impossible.

All previous attempts to use heavy armour in this region have resulted in hushed up failure, due to the building style of the Tarakian armoured forces, which favours heavily armoured tanks with powerful weaponry, at the cost of agility, this ended up with an alarmingly high number of tanks getting stuck, which meant that tanks could only operate in a limited number of locations in the forest. With the general feeling that if an attack were to happen, it would happen in this region, calls for a heavy tank that could be used in all areas of the forest were laid down. However, some thing's don't change, and the die hard established few in the Tarakian military dictated that any new heavy tank design must still meet the required protection and firepower standards of any Tarakian heavy tank, which gave the designers quite a headache. Having to design a tank with enough armour that caused previous tanks to sink, but some how light enough not to sink, with the same level of protection. Quickly realising that they wouldn't be able to get away with a conventional Tarakian tank design, and that the only way to achieve the level of protection needed, was to use thinner armour, but to slope it so heavily that it's effectively the same level of protection. After a great deal of testing, it was found that even with as much sloping as physically possible, the new tank came in at a fully loaded weight of almost 70 tonnes, which is still much lighter than units such as the Marauder or the Dragoon. To counter the weight of the unit, the designers gave it a longer hull, and wider tracks to dissipate the weight over a greater area.

The end result of a great deal of work and even more testing, is the Ares MkII heavy tank, which is much smaller, and has a much lower profile than all previous Tarakian heavy tank designs. The low profile will allow the tank to remain concealed in pre-built, armoured firing positions, which allow the hull to be completely hidden, while only the turret is exposed. Almost every aspect of the Ares is completely new, including the shape and design of the hull, the entire running gear, the suspension, the engine and transmission, the entire turret and turret basket design, and the ammunition storage. A new feature unique to the Ares is a 130mm cannon, which can fire a myriad of shell types, but as of now, it carries a high explosive, and an armour piercing round, which can penetrate any known enemy tank. With a completely new hull design, which is smaller than previous heavy tanks, the room inside was limited, so a new engine had to be designed that could provide enough power for a tank of 70 tonnes, but small enough to fit into a redesigned and much smaller than normal hull. As usual, the clever folks at the Tarakian R&D department delivered an engine capable of delivering 1420bhp, with above average fuel consumption. However, all this goodness does come at a cost, because this engine produces a lot of heat, which requires the rear portion of the tank to be fitted out with multiple cooling vents, and two large cooling fans. Due to the limited space inside the tank, the internal fuel tank is smaller than the designers would have liked, so six auxiliary fuel tanks were added to the exterior of the tank. Each tank has it's own full pump and cut off valve, meaning that even if they're damaged, or sabotaged, they can never harm the internals of the tank. Making up almost 50% of the tanks fuel supply, it was deemed these to be quite important, so each tank is rolled from 30mm steel plates, to stop them from being easily holed by small arms fire, excluding things like 50. cal weapons. 20 shells can be removed from the middle of the tank, and a second internal tank can be added.

The Ares MkII is crewed by five men, including a commander, gunner, loader, driver, and a navigator who doubles as a radioman. Carrying 63 rounds, which are located in several places around the tank, the rate of fire can be as high as ten rounds a minute.

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I might at some point cut this tank in half, and render a picture of the internal layout.

Love alone is capable of uniting living beings in such a way as to complete and fulfill them, for it alone takes them and joins them by what is deepest in themselves.

Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

Textures thanks to Kim Klassen for sweettreat, sweettart and light paper :)

Explored March 20th :)

Katherine Johnson's life is a testament to what our world is capable of if we open our eyes to possibilities.

Mrs. Johnson was a NASA mathematician whose work was critical to the success of many of the major space achievements we normally think of. As one of the first African-American women to work there, Mrs. Johnson calculated orbital mechanic trajectories, launch windows, and emergency return paths for many landmark events. When Alan Shepard became the first American in space, Katherine Johnson, amongst other significant contributions, projected where his Freedom 7 Mercury capsule would land in the ocean, so that he could be retrieved quickly. When John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth, he refused to fly until Mrs. Johnson manually verified the projections calculated by the new IBM digital computers. She mastered complex manual calculations for rendezvous paths for the Apollo Lunar Module, and command module on flights to the Moon, like 1969's Apollo 11 flight. When the Apollo 13 Moon mission was aborted, her work on backup procedures and charts helped set a safe path for the crew's return to Earth. In a 2010 interview, Mrs. Johnson recalled, "Everybody was concerned about them getting there. We were concerned about them getting back." She was essential to the beginning of the Space Shuttle program, contributed to the Earth Resources Satellite, and she worked on plans for a mission to Mars.

Katherine Johnson finished high school at 14, then degrees, summa cum laude, in mathematics and French at 18, in West Virginia. She was an African-American mother of three girls, in the still-segregated south, where women's work was less valued. She faced state racial segregation laws, and federal workplace segregation rules. Engineers were white males only, at the time. Up against gender and racial barriers, Katherine Johnson was assertive, asking to be included in all-male editorial meetings. She simply said she had done the work and that she belonged. Her co-workers at NASA were wise to allow her to lend her brilliant contributions to the team.

The much acclaimed 2016 film, Hidden Figures, follows Mrs. Johnson and her fellow female African-American mathematicians, Mary Jackson and Dorothy Vaughan, through their challenges and achievements, working at NASA. If you have not seen this film, I highly recommend it.

By reaching beyond the expectations and norms of the time, Katherine Johnson showed us what is possible when we cast aside our biases, and allow potential to thrive. She was a true pioneer, with numerous honours and accolades, who is a hero and a role model to us all.

Mrs. Katherine Johnson passed away on February 24, 2020, at the beautiful and admirable age of 101. A life well lived!

10:52 From the headlines

Dragonflies are powerful and agile fliers, capable of migrating across oceans, moving in any direction, and changing direction suddenly. In flight, the adult dragonfly can propel itself in six directions: upward, downward, forward, back, to left and to right.

They have four different styles of flight: A number of flying modes are used that include counter-stroking, with forewings beating 180° out of phase with the hindwings, is used for hovering and slow flight. This style is efficient and generates a large amount of lift; phased-stroking, with the hindwings beating 90° ahead of the forewings, is used for fast flight.

This style creates more thrust, but less lift than counter-stroking; synchronised-stroking, with forewings and hindwings beating together, is used when changing direction rapidly, as it maximises thrust; and gliding, with the wings held out, is used in three situations: free gliding, for a few seconds in between bursts of powered flight; gliding in the updraft at the crest of a hill, effectively hovering by falling at the same speed as the updraft; and in certain dragonflies such as darters, when "in cop" with a male, the female sometimes simply glides while the male pulls the pair along by beating his wings.

This image was taken at La Ferme, near Franschhoek in the Western Cape of South Africa.

Shorebirds of Ireland, Freshwater Birds of Ireland and The Birds of Ireland: A Field Guide 2nd Edition with Jim Wilson.

www.markcarmodyphotography.com

The Rook (Corvus frugilegus) is a member of the Corvidae family in the passerine order of birds. Named by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, the species name frugilegus is Latin for "food-gathering".

Rooks are distinguished from similar members of the crow family by the bare grey-white skin around the base of the adult's bill in front of the eyes. The feathering around the legs also look shaggier and laxer than the congeneric Carrion Crow. The juvenile is superficially more similar to the Crow because it lacks the bare patch at the base of the bill, but it loses the facial feathers after about six months. Collective nouns for rooks include building, parliament, clamour and storytelling. Nesting is always colonial (rookeries), usually in the very tops of the trees. Branches and twigs are broken off trees (very rarely picked up off the ground), though as many are likely to be stolen from nearby nests as are collected from trees.

Though resident in Great Britain, Ireland and much of north and central Europe, vagrant to Iceland and northern Scandinavia, it also occurs as an eastern race in Asia where it differs in being very slightly smaller on average, and having a somewhat more fully feathered face.

In captivity, when confronted with problems, rooks have recently been documented as one of multiple species of bird capable of tool use to obtain a goal. (wikipedia)

This individual was was doing its best Carrion Crow impression in Griffith Park, Dublin 9.

Click on image to see this one up close... the texture and colors!

I see you too and off this golden Otto scrambled as he headed into the brush. This beauty was over 8 feet long, slowed by the sun but quickened by my presence. The green iguana, also known as the American iguana, is a large, arboreal, mostly herbivorous species of lizard of the genus Iguana. It is native to Central, South America, and the Caribbean. Usually, this animal is simply called the iguana.

The green iguana ranges over a large geographic area, from southern Brazil and Paraguay as far north as Mexico and the Caribbean islands. They have been introduced from South America to Puerto Rico and are very common throughout the island, where they are colloquially known as gallina de palo and considered an invasive species; in the United States feral populations also exist in South Florida, Hawaii, the U.S. Virgin Islands and the Rio Grande Valley of Texas. They turn a golden orange as they mature.

The bite is always worse than the bark. To begin, it's important to know that iguanas are very capable of severely injuring people, other pets and even themselves when the body language they use is not recognized. Most iguanas will give you a very clear sign that trouble is ahead. Most experienced iguana owners who have been bitten or injured by an iguana simply weren't paying close attention to the signs. If you learn to see the signs, you and the iguana will be much safer and probably a lot happier.

About the dewlap... a dewlap is a fold of loose skin hanging from the neck or throat of an animal, especially that present in many cattle. The first thing to know is that iguanas use their dewlap to communicate. There are several things that an iguana can say with their dewlap extended. First of all, an extended dewlap can simply be a greeting. An extended dewlap is often used to say hello to another creature during mating and most generally as a territorial sign. Secondly, it can be a form of protection. A threatened iguana may extend its dewlap to create a larger presence, which may intimidate a predator into thinking it is much larger than it is. Thirdly, an extended dewlap can be a sign that the iguana is trying to adjust its temperature. An extended dewlap on an iguana that's basking in the sun is quite normal. It may be catching more sun to warm up or catching a breeze to cool off. So it's important to see "the big picture" when reading Iguana body language. Parts of an iguana... www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=Up3IVbC...

Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, Miami FL

www.susanfordcollins.com

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.