View allAll Photos Tagged 0.18
Luminance HDR 2.3.0 tonemapping parameters:
Operator: Mantiuk06
Parameters:
Contrast Mapping factor: 0.18
Saturation Factor: 1.01
Detail Factor: 5.6
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PreGamma: 1
11-9-2018 9-10-48 AM
ƒ/14.0 - 18.0mm - 1/200th - ISO 100
With no wind to speak of during the night, and temps dropping to minus 14c below. The lake partly froze over to about 200ft from the shoreline.
Then, after a slight dusting of snow this morning, and the early Sunshine - ‘Voila’, something for the shadows to fall on.
Just prior to this shot, and with the combination of frigid air touching the warmer unfrozen lake waters, a virtual wall of steam arose some 30ft above the surface of the water. Weird to look at to say the least.
The steam soon disappeared with a brisk breeze, which was pushing the wave action against the ice edge. Making the loose shards of ice vibrate against each other, sounding like a multitude of small bells ringing in the distance.
For one moment I thought perhaps Christmas had come early !!
Tremont - Great Smoky Mountain National Park
April 2011
10 sec
f/14.0
18 mm
ISO 100
Circular Polarizer
Single Exposure
This image comes from the Tremont region of Great Smoky National Park. The photography opportunities along the gravel road and horse trail that parallel the Middle Prong of the Little River are truly remarkable. I recently enjoyed 2 1/2 days camping and shooting in the park. This image was taken shortly before dusk on my first night in the park. I elected to compose the image slightly off of the horizontal to emphasize the movement of this powerful river. That compositional decision has received mixed reviews, so please check out the the alternative version included in the comments section. I'd certainly welcome feedback on viewer preferences.
Thank you for visiting. Click on the image to view a larger version.
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Copyright Nathan Montgomery, 2011. Please do not reproduce any of my photographs without my permission.
A giant tortoise at the Charles Darwin Research Station on Santa Cruz
Galapagos Giant Tortoise
The Galápagos tortoise or Galápagos giant tortoise (Geochelone nigra) is the largest living tortoise, native to seven islands of the Galápagos archipelago. The Galápagos tortoise is unique to the Galápagos Islands. Fully grown adults can weigh over 300 kilograms (661 lb) and measure 1.2 meters (4 ft) long. They are long-lived with a life expectancy in the wild estimated to be 100-150 years. Populations fell dramatically because of hunting and the introduction of predators and grazers by humans since the seventeenth century. Now only ten subspecies of the original twelve exist in the wild. However, conservation efforts since the establishment of the Galápagos National Park and the Charles Darwin Foundation have met with success, and hundreds of captive-bred juveniles have been released back onto their home islands. They have become one of the most symbolic animals of the fauna of the Galápagos Islands. The tortoises have very large shells (carapace) made of bone. The bony plates of the shell are integral to the skeleton, fused with the ribs in a rigid protective structure. Naturalist Charles Darwin remarked "These animals grow to an immense size ... several so large that it required six or eight men to lift them from the ground.". This is due to the phenomenon of island gigantism whereby in the absence of natural predation, the largest tortoises had a survival advantage and no disadvantage in fleeing or fending off predators. When threatened, it can withdraw its head, neck and all forelimbs into its shell for protection, presenting a protected shield to a would-be predator. The legs have hard scales that also provide armour when withdrawn. Tortoises keep a characteristic scute pattern on their shell throughout life. These have annual growth bands but are not useful for aging as the outer layers are worn off. There is little variation in the dull-brown colour of the shell or scales. Physical features (including shape of the shell) relate to the habitat of each of the subspecies. These differences were noted by Captain Porter even before Charles Darwin. Larger islands with more wet highlands such as Santa Cruz and the Alcedo Volcano on Isabela have lush vegetation near the ground. Tortoises here tend to have 'dome-back' shells. These animals have restricted upward head movement due to shorter necks, and also have shorter limbs. These are the heaviest and largest of the subspecies.Smaller, drier islands such as Española and Pinta are inhabited by tortoises with 'saddleback' shells comprising a flatter carapace which is elevated above the neck and flared above the hind feet. Along with longer neck and limbs, this allows them to browse taller vegetation. On these drier islands the Galápagos Opuntia cactus (a major source of their fluids) has evolved a taller, tree-like form. This is evidence of an evolutionary arms race between progressively taller tortoises and correspondingly taller cacti. Saddlebacks are smaller in size than domebacks. They tend to have a yellowish color on lower mandible and throat. At one extreme, the Sierra Negra volcano population that inhabits southern Isabela Island has a very flattened "tabletop" shell. However, there is no saddleback/domeback dualism; tortoises can also be of 'intermediate' type with characteristics of both. The tortoises are slow-moving reptiles with an average long-distance walking speed of 0.3 km/h (0.18 mph). Although feeding giant tortoises browse with no apparent direction, when moving to water-holes or nesting grounds, they can move at surprising speeds for their size. Marked individuals have been reported to have traveled 13 km in two days. Being cold-blooded, the tortoises bask for two hours after dawn, absorbing the energy through their shells, then becoming active for 8–9 hours a day. They may sleep for about sixteen hours in a mud wallow partially or submerged in rain-formed pools (sometimes dew ponds formed by garua-moisture dripping off trees). This may be both a thermoregulatory response and a protection from parasites such as mosquitoes and ticks. Some rest in a 'pallet'- a snug depression in soft ground or dense brush- which probably helps to conserve heat and may aid digestion. On the Alcedo Volcano, repeated use of the same sites by the large resident population has resulted in the formation of small sandy pits. Darwin observed that: "The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf; certainly they do not overhear a person walking near behind them. I was always amused, when overtaking one of these great monsters as it was quietly pacing along, to see how suddenly, the instant I passed, it would draw in its head and legs, and uttering a deep hiss fall to the ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead." The tortoises can vocalise in aggressive encounters, whilst righting themselves if turned upside down and, in males, during mating. The latter is described as "rhythmic groans". The tortoises are herbivorous animals with a diet comprising cactus, grasses, leaves, vines, and fruit. Fresh young grass is a favorite food of the tortoises, and others are the 'poison apple' (Hippomane mancinella) (toxic to humans), the endemic guava (Psidium galapageium), the water fern (Azolla microphylla), and the bromeliad (Tillandsia insularis). Tortoises eat a large quantity of food when it is available at the expense of incomplete digestion. Its favorite food is grasses. The tortoise normally eat an average of 70 to 80 pounds a day. Tortoises have a classic example of a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with some species of Galápagos finch. The finch hops in front of the tortoise to show that it is ready and the tortoise then raises itself up high on its legs and stretches out its neck so that the bird can pick off ticks that are hidden in the folds of the skin (especially on the rear legs, cloacal opening, neck, and skin between plastron and carapace), thus freeing the tortoise from harmful parasites and providing the finch with an easy meal. Other birds, including Galápagos Hawk and flycatchers, use tortoises as observation posts from which to sight their prey. Mating occurs at any time of the year, although it does have seasonal peaks between January and August. When two mature males meet in the mating season they will face each other, rise up on their legs and stretch up their necks with their mouths open to assess dominance. Occasionally, head-biting occurs, but usually the shorter loser tortoise will back off, leaving the other to mate with the female. In groups of tortoises from mixed island populations, saddleback males have an advantage over domebacks. Frustrated non-dominant males have been observed attempting to mate with other males and boulders. The male sniffs the air when seeking a female, bellows loudly, and bobs his head. The male then rams the female with the front of his shell and bites her exposed legs until she withdraws them, immobilizing her. Copulation can last several hours with roaring vocalisations from the males. Their concave shell base allows males to mount the females from behind. It brings its tail which houses the penis into the female's cloaca. After mating (June-December), the females journey up to several kilometres to reach nesting areas of dry, sandy ground (often near the coast). Nest digging can last from hours to days and is elaborate and exhausting. It is carried out blindly using only the hind legs to dig a 30 cm deep hole, into which she lays up to sixteen hard-shelled eggs the size of tennis balls. The female makes a muddy plug for the nest hole out of soil mixed with urine and leaves the eggs to incubate. In rocky areas, the eggs are deposited randomly into cracks. The young emerge from the nest after 120 to 140 days gestation later (December-April) and may weigh only 80 grams (2.8 oz) and measure 6 centimetres (2.4 in). Temperature plays a role in the sex of the hatchling: if the nest temperature is lower, more males will hatch; if it is high, more females will hatch. When the young tortoises emerge from their shells, they must dig their way to the surface, which can take up to a month. All have domed carapaces, and subspecies are indistinguishable. Galápagos Hawk used to be the only native predator of the tortoise hatchlings, as Darwin remarked: "The young tortoises, as soon as they are hatched, fall prey in great numbers to buzzards". Sex can be determined only when the tortoise is 15 years old, and sexual maturity is reached at 20 to 25 years old. The tortoises grow slowly for about 40 years until they reach their full size. Reproductive prime is considered to be from the ages of 60–90. The shape of the carapace of some subspecies of the tortoises is said to have reminded the early Spanish explorers of a kind of saddle they called a "galápago," and for these saddle-shaped tortoises they named the archipelago. Up to 250,000 tortoises inhabited the islands when they were discovered. Today only about 15,000 are left.
The inhabitants...state that they can distinguish the tortoise from different islands; and that they differ not only in size, but in other characters. Captain Porter has described those from Charles and from the nearest island to it, namely Hood Island, as having their shells in front thick and turned up like a Spanish saddle, whilst the tortoises from James Island are rounder, blacker, and have a better taste when cooked.---Charles Darwin 1845
There were probably twelve subspecies of Geochelone nigra in the Galápagos Islands, although some recognise up to 15 subspecies. Now only 11 subspecies remain, five on Isabela Island, and the other six on Santiago, Santa Cruz, San Cristóbal, Pinzón, Española and Pinta. Of these, the Pinta Island subspecies is extinct in the wild and is represented by a single individual (Lonesome George). In the past, zoos took animals without knowing their island of origin. Production of fertile offspring from various pairings of tortoises largely confirmed that they are subspecies and not different species. All the subspecies of giant tortoise evolved in Galápagos from a common ancestor that arrived from the mainland, floating on the ocean currents (the tortoises can drift for long periods of time as they are buoyant and can stretch head upwards to breathe). Only a single pregnant female or breeding pair needed to arrive in this way, and then survive, for Galápagos to be colonised. In the seventeenth century, pirates started to use the Galápagos islands as a base for resupply, restocking on food, water and repairing vessels before attacking Spanish colonies on the South American mainland. The tortoises were collected and stored live on board ships where they could survive for at least a year without food or water, providing valuable fresh meat, whilst their diluted urine and water stored in their neck bags could also be used as drinking water. Of the meat, Darwin wrote: "the breast-plate roasted (as the Gauchos do 'carne con cuero'), with the flesh on it, is very good; and the young tortoises make excellent soup; but otherwise the meat to my taste is indifferent." In the nineteenth century, whaling ships and fur-sealers collected tortoises for food and many more were killed for high grade 'turtle oil' from the late 1800s onward. Darwin described this process thus: "beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat. When a tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail, so as to see inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal plate is thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated and it is said to recover soon from this strange operation." A total of over 15,000 tortoises is recorded in the logs of 105 whaling ships between 1811 and 1844. As hunters found it easiest to collect the tortoises living round the coastal zones, the least decimated populations tended to be those in the highlands. Population decline accelerated with the early settlement of the islands, when they were hunted for meat, their habitat was cleared for agriculture and alien mammal species were introduced. Feral pigs, dogs, cats and black rats are effective predators of eggs and young tortoises, whilst goats, donkeys and cattle compete for grazing. In the twentieth century, increasing human settlement and urbanisation and collection of tortoises for zoo and museum specimens depleted numbers even more. The Galápagos giant tortoise is now strictly protected. Young tortoises are raised in a programme by the Charles Darwin Research Station in order to bolster the numbers of the extant subspecies. Eggs are collected from places on the islands where they are threatened and when the tortoises hatch they are kept in captivity until they have reached a size that ensures a good chance of survival and are returned to their original ranges. The Galápagos National Park Service systematically culls feral predators and competitors where necessary such as the complete eradication of goats from Pinta. The conservation project begun in the 1970s successfully brought 10 of the 11 endangered subspecies up to guarded population levels. The most significant recovery was that of the Española Tortoise, whose breeding stock comprised 2 males and 11 females brought to the Darwin Station. Fortuitously, a third male was discovered at the San Diego Zoo and joined the others in a captive breeding program. These 13 tortoises gave rise to over 1000 tortoises now released into their home island. In all, 2500 individuals of all breeds have been reintroduced to the islands. However, persecution still continues on a much smaller scale; more than 120 tortoises have been killed by poachers since 1990 and they have been taken hostage as political leverage by local fishermen.
Santa Cruz
With the largest human population in the Galapagos archipelago, Isla Santa Cruz is the most important of the Galapagos Islands. Meaning Holy Cross in Spanish, this island is also known as Indefatigable, after the HMS Indefatigable landed here long ago. The second largest island terms of land area at 986 sq km, Isla Santa Cruz is home to the key town of Puerto Ayora, the Charles Darwin Research Station and the headquarters of the Galapagos National Park Service. With its own airport on Isla Baltra a few miles away, Isla Santa Cruz is where most visitors who come to the Galapagos Islands usually stay. With a number of bars, hotels, restaurants and shops in Puerto Ayora, most tours of the Archipelago also usually begin from here.
Galapagos Islands
The Galápagos Islands (official name: Archipiélago de Colón; other Spanish names: Islas de Colón or Islas Galápagos) are an archipelago of volcanic islands distributed around the equator in the Pacific Ocean, some 900 km west of Ecuador. It is a UNESCO World Heritage site: wildlife is its most notable feature. Because of the only very recent arrival of man the majority of the wildlife has no fear of humans and will allow visitors to walk right up them, often having to step over Iguanas or Sea Lions.The Galápagos islands and its surrounding waters are part of a province, a national park, and a biological marine reserve. The principal language on the islands is Spanish. The islands have a population of around 40,000, which is a 40-fold expansion in 50 years. The islands are geologically young and famed for their vast number of endemic species, which were studied by Charles Darwin during the voyage of the Beagle. His observations and collections contributed to the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
NIKON D750 + 16.0-35.0 mm f/4.0 @ 18 mm, 552 sec at f/9, ISO 100
www.rc.au.net/blog/2016/03/13/wombarra/
© Rodney Campbell
This is building #1 of the couple of buildings that occupy the property. There are a total of 4 units on the property which is on 0.18 acres.
Credit for the data above is given to the following website:
pbcpao.gov/Property/Details?parcelId=74434321090020190
© All Rights Reserved - you may not use this image in any form without my prior permission.
Heliophanus cupreus, the copper sun jumper, is a species of jumping spider belonging to the family Salticidae.
Heliophanus cupreus has a Palearctic distribution, being found throughout Europe except Iceland. It is alco present in North Africa, Turkey, Caucasus, Russia (Europe to West Siberia), Iran and China. In Great Britain it has a scattered distribution as far north as central Scotland where it is normally a coastal species.
Heliophanus cupreus has been collected from a wide variety of habitat types such as woodlands, grasslands, raised bogs, coastal cliffs and shingle beaches, as well as disturbed habitats such as wastelands and quarries. Within its varied habitats, Heliophanus cupreus is commonly encountered in the drier locations. It is occasionally observed to be active on the surface but is more commonly found within the litter. In northern Great Britain Heliophanus cupreus seems to require sunny conditions. When resting, Heliophanus cupreus may be found in a silken cell placed either under stones or within the litter.
Heliophanus cupreus can reach a body length of about 3.6–4 mm (0.14–0.16 in) in males, of 4.6–5.8 mm (0.18–0.23 in) in females. These spiders have a dark, blackish body, with a metallic sheen. On the female the palps are yellow or light brown and contrast with her overall appearance. Furthermore the prosoma is usually crossed by a white line behind the eyes and the abdomen is circled with a white line, with white dots above.
The male has dark palps with white squamose hairs on front. The tibial apophysis has a fine, long, pointed, hook-shaped process. The male has a long palpal bulb. The cephalothorax is black with a metallic sheen and has white hairs, towards the front bright and on some individuals there are 1-2 bright pairs of spots to the rear.
Legs are light yellow, with black longitudinal stripes, although some individuals may have uniformly dark legs. The opisthosoma is grey-black, again with a metallic sheen and white hairs.
The adults of both sexes are found mainly in May, June and July and females may persist into the autumn.
For more information, please visit en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliophanus_cupreus
Ce n'est pas pour l'instant ce genre de Photos que j'aime réaliser, car j'aime surtout lorsqu'il y a un beau contraste…
Cependant, je trouve ce cliché amusant. J'ai tout d'abord remarqué le décors original de cette Librairie, avec cette belle Robe dont le corps est réalisé avec des dos de livres anciens en cuir. Encore une autre de mes passions : les livres anciens et leurs odeurs caractéristiques... Puis ensuite la découverte du négatif, avec cette impression de double exposition, ces immeubles de l'autre côté de la rue et ce ciel que je n'avais même pas remarqué tant mon regard était attiré par cette Robe, ces Livres et ces Écritures.
Ces peut-être ce Reflet dans cette vitrine qui fait l'originalité de cette Photo...
Toujours mon beau petit boîtier Zero Image, moyen format, avec une focale de 25 mm et utilisé avec un Sténopé de 0,18 mm.
Ma pellicule, la TRIX 400… Et utilisation de mon Protocole 2 ( Voir la photo de la Gare de Lille ).
Numérisation : Epson V800 Photo.
Post-traitement avec Capture NX2 : simple désaturation.
Flickr pour APPRENDRE - PARTAGER - TRANSMETTRE !!!!!!
Photographed at Shoreline Lake Park in Mountain View, California
I always enjoy seeing and photographing bushtits. I tend to think of them as "flying mice" because of their small size, cuteness factor and coloration. This male bushtit, striking a pose with its vertical perches, models typical bushtit behavior.
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From Wikipedia: The American bushtit inhabits mixed open woodlands, often containing oaks and a scrubby chaparral understory ; it also inhabits parks and gardens. It is a year-round resident of the western United States and highland parts of Mexico, ranging from Vancouver through the Great Basin and the lowlands and foothills of California to southern Mexico and Guatemala.
The American bushtit is one of the smallest passerines in North America, at 11 cm (4.3 in) in length and 5–6 g (0.18–0.21 oz) in weight. It is gray-brown overall, with a large head, a short neck, a long tail, and a short stubby bill. The male has dark eyes and the adult female, yellow. Coastal forms have a brown "cap" while those in the interior have brown "mask."
The American bushtit is active and gregarious, foraging for small insects and spiders in mixed-species feeding flocks containing species such as chickadees and warblers, of 10 to over 40 individuals. Members of the group constantly make contact calls to each other that can be described as a short spit.
This species produces an elaborate pendant nest of moss and lichen assembled with spider silk and lined with feathers.
AB2A0697-1_fCAFlkr
This is building #1 of the couple of buildings that occupy the property. There are a total of 4 units on the property which is on 0.18 acres.
Credit for the data above is given to the following website:
pbcpao.gov/Property/Details?parcelId=74434321090020190
© All Rights Reserved - you may not use this image in any form without my prior permission.
Luminance HDR 2.3.0 tonemapping parameters:
Operator: Fattal
Parameters:
Alpha: 0.18
Beta: 0.84
Color Saturation: 1.14
Noise Reduction: 0.1
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PreGamma: 1
Luminance HDR 2.3.1 tonemapping parameters:
Operator: Mantiuk06
Parameters:
Contrast Mapping factor: 1
Saturation Factor: 0.41
Detail Factor: 9.5
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PreGamma: 0.18
Schwarzsee (English: "Black Lake") is a small lake in the Canton of Fribourg, Switzerland with an area of 0.47 km2 (0.18 sq mi). The lake in the Swiss Prealps is bordered by the peaks of Schwyberg (1,628 m) in the West, Les Reccardets (1,923 m) and Spitzfluh (1,951 m) in the South, as well as Kaiseregg (2,185 m).
Escultura-Objeto-Libro
Medidas: 0.18 x 0.17 x 0.19
Técnica: Madera tallada con aplicaciones de canutillos y plumas
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PLEASE:
Do not post animated gifs or pictures in your comments. Especially the "awards". No invitations to groups where one must comment and/or invite and/or give award and no group icon without any comment.
POR FAVOR: No pongas gifs animados, logos o premios (awards) en tu comentario. No me envíes invitaciones a grupos donde exista la obligación de comentar o premiar fotos, ni a aquellos donde existe un comentario preformateado con el logo del grupo.
THANKS / Muchas gracias!!
for my blog of pinhole film photography visit jesusjoglar.net
ZI45_0425
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Prohibited the use for commercial purposes without prior written authorization. Don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit permission. joglar@gmail.com
Das Biel-Tor von aussen.
Und die Solothurner sind stolz auf Ihr jährliches Film-Festival (siehe rechts).
f8.0-18.mm-/1.250-200
This is building #2 of the couple of buildings that occupy the property. There are a total of 4 units on the property which is on 0.18 acres.
Credit for the data above is given to the following website:
pbcpao.gov/Property/Details?parcelId=74434321090020190
© All Rights Reserved - you may not use this image in any form without my prior permission.
Global Warming is the increase in the average temperature of Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) between the start and the end of the 20th century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century was very likely caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases resulting from human activity such as fossil fuel burning and deforestation. The IPCC also concludes that variations in natural phenomena such as solar radiation and volcanic eruptions had a small cooling effect after 1950. These basic conclusions have been endorsed by more than 40 scientific societies and academies of science, including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries.
Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the 21st century. The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations and the use of differing estimates of future greenhouse gas emissions. Most studies focus on the period leading up to the year 2100. However, warming is expected to continue beyond 2100 even if emissions stop, because of the large heat capacity of the oceans and the long lifetime of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical deserts. Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects include changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, species extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe, though the nature of these regional variations is uncertain.
Over 200 companies in Singapore will be taking part in Earth Hour 2010 this Saturday night, 27 March @ 830pm by powering down their lights and energy for 60 minutes. What else can you do to help climate change beyond Earth Hour?
Thanks for viewing!!!!
Get a print of my 60 MINUTES here!!
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Umgangssprachlich ausgedrückt ist der Cw-Wert ein Maß für die „Windschlüpfigkeit“ eines Körpers. Es lässt sich aus dem Strömungswiderstandskoeffizienten bei zusätzlicher Kenntnis von Geschwindigkeit, Stirnfläche, Flügelfläche etc. und Dichte des Fluids (z. B. der Luft) die Kraft des Strömungswiderstands berechnen.
CW = Strömungswiderstandskoeffizient
Widerstandsbeiwert, -koeffizient,
co-effizient
W = Widerstand
Besonderheit
Im transsonischen Bereich und im Überschallbereich ändert sich der Strömungswiderstandskoeffizient stark.
In der Nähe der Schallgeschwindigkeit steigt er auf ein Mehrfaches an und sinkt bei sehr hohen Machzahlen auf etwa den doppelten Unterschall-cw-Wert.
Das Verhalten im Überschallbereich wird bestimmt durch die Geometrie des Körpers
Tropfen-Form ist günstiger als Kugel-Form.
Karmann Ghia Typ 14 Coupé Baujahr 67/68 cwWert 0,39
Karmann Ghia Typ 14 Cabriolet geschlossen Bj. 67/68 cwWert 0,38
Karmann Ghia Typ 14 Cabriolet offen Bj 67/68 cwWert 0,48
Karmann Ghia Typ 34 Coupé Bj. 67/68 cwWert 0,39
Karmann Ghia Coupé Bj 72/73 cwWert 0,38
Weshalb konnte der CW-WERT trotz Topfen-Form nicht unter 0.38
gedrückt werden?
Denn eine scheinbar strömungsgünstige Karosserieform allein reicht nicht, um solche Fabelwerte zu erzielen. Viele kleine Verbesserungen sind zusätzlich notwendig, um den Wind möglichst reibungsarm um das Fahrzeug herumzuführen.
Gebrauchsfähige Serienfahrzeuge:
de.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Auto_und_Motorrad/Luftwide...
Heutige Top CW-WERTE sind unter 0,30, und werden nicht mehr unabhängig geprüft.
Tesla schafft 0,23 bis 0,26
Mercedes misst 0,22 bis 0.26
Das gilt nicht für Vans oder SUV.
Das sind immer Werksangaben:!!!
Doch die neue A-Klasse schafft den Spagat.
CW-Wert-von 0,22: Neue A-Klasse Limousine verbessert Weltrekord von Mercedes
Mithilfe von Lufteinlässen an der Front. Die Luft wird innerhalb der Karosserie abgeleitet.
Der Boden ist wie bei Elektroautos komplett versiegelt.
Je nach Geschwindigkeit kann die Menge der Lufteinlässe variiert werden.
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Mit ihrer windschlüpfigen Form setzt die kommende Mercedes A-Klasse Limousine eine weltweite Bestmarke für Aerodynamik bei Pkw:
Mit einem cw-Wert von 0,22 bei 2,19 m² Stirnfläche übertrifft das neue Modell alle anderen Pkw.
Damit ist der Luftwiderstand des neuen Modells sogar noch deutlich geringer als beim 2012 eingeführten Vorgänger (cw 0,26, Stirnfläche 2,20 m²).
A-Klasse stellt Rekord des CLA ein
Gleichzeitig überbietet die A-Klasse den vor fünf Jahren im eigenen Haus aufgestellten Rekord. 2013 machte das Coupé CLA von sich reden, da es als erstes Serienauto einen cw-Wert von 0,23 erreichte
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Dazu gehören Abdeckungen für den Motorraum, den Hauptboden, Teile der Hinterachse und den Diffusor.
Der Unterboden stellt sonst eine Quelle für Verwirbelungen dar.
Die Radspoiler vorn und hinten wurden so ausgelegt, dass die Luft die Räder möglichst verlustarm umströmt.
Auch bei den Felgen und Reifen fand aerodynamischer Feinschliff statt.
Optional ist ein zweiteiliges Jalousiesystem hinter der Kühlermaske erhältlich, das die Durchströmung des Motorraums minimiert.
Das reduziert den Luftwiderstand noch ein wenig
CW-WERT
0,78 Mensch, stehend
0,6 Gleitschirm (Bezugsfläche Strömungsquerschnittsfläche!)
0,53…0,69 Fahrrad (Mountainbike, gestreckt/aufrecht)
0,51 moderner LKW
0,45 Kugel (Re 6,7 · 105)
0,34
Halbkugelschale, konvexe Seite 0,09…0,18
Kugel (Re > 4,1 · 105)
0,08 Flugzeug (Bezugsfläche Tragfläche)
0,03 Pinguin
0,02 Stromlinienkörper „Tropfenform
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I only had one chance to see anything of VIVID Sydney this year as I was laid up with a cold for the start and then off to Europe for the rest of the event. I did however feel well enough to take a walk through some of the Rocks and Circular Quay through to the Opera House then the gardens. Probably more walking then I should have done but I wanted to get something to add to my 2016 VIVID by Day project. This is certainly quite a vivid shout which is not really what that project is about but hey, don't look a gift horse in the mouth - what does that really mean.. Oh yeah, just take it don't question your good fortune. I hope to get something happening with the day project before the 2018 edition comes around.
Fujifilm X-Pro1
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
Japan
Name:Nagato
Namesake:Nagato Province
Builder:Kure Naval Arsenal
Laid down:28 August 1917
Launched:9 November 1919
Sponsored by:Admiral Katō Tomosaburō
Completed:15 November 1920
Commissioned:25 November 1920
Stricken:15 September 1945
Fate:Sunk as a target in Operation Crossroads, 29/30 July 1946
Status:Diveable wreck
General characteristics (as built)
Class and type:Nagato-class battleship
Displacement:32,720 t (32,200 long tons) (standard)
Length:215.8 m (708 ft)
Beam:29.02 m (95 ft 3 in)
Draft:9.08 m (29 ft 9 in)
Installed power:
21 × water-tube boilers
80,000 shp (60,000 kW)
Propulsion:4 shafts; 4 × steam turbines
Speed:26.5 knots (49.1 km/h; 30.5 mph)
Range:5,500 nmi (10,200 km; 6,300 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph)
Complement:1,333
Armament:
4 × twin 41 cm (16 in) guns
20 × single 14 cm (5.5 in) guns
4 × single 76 mm (3 in) AA guns
8 × 533 mm (21.0 in) torpedo tubes
Armor:
Waterline belt: 100–305 mm (3.9–12.0 in)
Deck: 69 mm (2.7 in) + 75 mm (3 in)
Gun turrets: 190–356 mm (7.5–14.0 in)
Barbettes: 305 mm (12 in)
Conning tower: 369 mm (14.5 in)
General characteristics (1944)
Displacement:39,130 t (38,510 long tons) (standard)
Length:224.94 m (738 ft)
Beam:34.6 m (113 ft 6 in)
Draft:9.49 m (31 ft 2 in)
Installed power:
80,000 shp (60,000 kW)
10 × water-tube boilers
Speed:25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph)
Range:8,650 nmi (16,020 km; 9,950 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph)
Complement:1,734
Sensors and
processing systems:
1 × Type 21 air search radar
2 × Type 13 early-warning radars
2 × Type 22 surface-search radars
Armament:
4 × twin 41 cm guns
18 × single 14 cm guns
4 × twin 127 mm (5 in) DP guns
98 × 25 mm (1 in) AA guns
Armor:
Deck: 69 mm (2.7 in) + 100 mm (3.9 in) + 38 mm (1.5 in)
Turrets: 280–460 mm (11.0–18.1 in)
Barbettes: 457 mm (18.0 in)
Aircraft carried:3 × floatplanes
Aviation facilities:1 × catapult
Nagato (長門), named for Nagato Province, was a super-dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). Completed in 1920 as the lead ship of her class, she carried supplies for the survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923. The ship was modernized in 1934–1936 with improvements to her armor and machinery and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style. Nagato briefly participated in the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and was the flagship of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto during the attack on Pearl Harbor. She covered the withdrawal of the attacking ships and did not participate in the attack itself.
Other than participating in the Battle of Midway in June 1942, where she did not see combat, the ship spent most of the first two years of the Pacific War training in home waters. She was transferred to Truk in mid-1943, but did not see any combat until the Battle of the Philippine Sea in mid-1944 when she was attacked by American aircraft. Nagato did not fire her main armament against enemy vessels until the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October. She was lightly damaged during the battle and returned to Japan the following month. The IJN was running out of fuel by this time and decided not to fully repair her. Nagato was converted into a floating anti-aircraft platform and assigned to coastal defense duties. She was attacked in July 1945 as part of the American campaign to destroy the IJN's last remaining capital ships, but was only slightly damaged and went on to be the only Japanese battleship to have survived World War II. In mid-1946, the ship was a target for nuclear weapon tests during Operation Crossroads. She survived the first test with little damage, but was sunk by the second.
Description
Nagato had a length of 201.17 meters (660 ft) between perpendiculars and 215.8 meters (708 ft) overall. She had a beam of 29.02 meters (95 ft 3 in) and a draft of 9.08 meters (29 ft 9 in).[1] The ship displaced 32,720 metric tons (32,200 long tons) at standard load and 39,116 metric tons (38,498 long tons) at full load.[2] Her crew consisted of 1,333 officers and enlisted men as built and 1,368 in 1935.[3] The crew totaled around 1,734 men in 1944.[4]
In 1930,[5] Nagato's bow was remodeled to reduce the amount of spray produced when steaming into a head sea. This increased her overall length by 1.59 meters (5 ft 3 in) to 217.39 meters (713 ft 3 in). During her 1934–1936 reconstruction, the ship's stern was lengthened by 7.55 meters (24.8 ft) to improve her speed and her forward superstructure was rebuilt into a pagoda mast. She was given torpedo bulges to improve her underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armor and equipment. These changes increased her overall length to 224.94 m (738 ft), her beam to 34.6 m (113 ft 6 in) and her draft to 9.49 meters (31 ft 2 in). Her displacement increased over 7,000 metric tons (6,900 long tons) to 46,690 metric tons (45,950 long tons) at deep load. The ship's metacentric height at deep load was 2.35 meters (7 ft 9 in).[6] In November 1944, the tops of Nagato's mainmast and funnel were removed to improve the effective arcs of fire for her anti-aircraft guns.[7]
Propulsion
Nagato was equipped with four Gihon geared steam turbines, each of which drove one propeller shaft. The turbines were designed to produce a total of 80,000 shaft horsepower (60,000 kW), using steam provided by 21 Kampon water-tube boilers; 15 of these were oil-fired while the remaining half-dozen consumed a mixture of coal and oil. The ship could carry 1,600 long tons (1,600 t) of coal and 3,400 long tons (3,500 t) of fuel oil,[2] giving her a range of 5,500 nautical miles (10,200 km; 6,300 mi) at a speed of 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph). The ship exceeded her designed speed of 26.5 knots (49.1 km/h; 30.5 mph) during her sea trials, reaching 26.7 knots (49.4 km/h; 30.7 mph) at 85,500 shp (63,800 kW).[3]
Funnel smoke would often choke and blind crewmen on the bridge and in the fire-control systems so a "fingernail"-shaped deflector was installed on the fore funnel in 1922 to direct the exhaust away from them. It was less than effective and the fore funnel was rebuilt in a serpentine shape in an unsuccessful effort during a refit in 1924.[3] That funnel was eliminated during the ship's 1930s reconstruction when all of her boilers were replaced by ten oil-fired Kampon boilers, which had a working pressure of 22 kg/cm2 (2,157 kPa; 313 psi) and temperature of 300 °C (572 °F).[8] In addition her turbines were replaced by lighter, more modern, units.[9] When Nagato conducted her post-reconstruction trials, she reached a speed of 24.98 knots (46.26 km/h; 28.75 mph) with 82,300 shp (61,400 kW).[10] Additional fuel oil was stored in the bottoms of the newly added torpedo bulges, which increased her capacity to 5,560 long tons (5,650 t) and thus her range to 8,560 nmi (15,850 km; 9,850 mi) at 16 knots.[2]
Armament
Nagato's eight 45-caliber 41-centimeter (16 inch) guns were mounted in two pairs of twin-gun, superfiring turrets fore and aft. Numbered one through four from front to rear, the hydraulically powered turrets gave the guns an elevation range of −2 to +35 degrees. The rate of fire for the guns was around two rounds per minute. The turrets aboard the Nagato-class ships were replaced in the mid-1930s with the turrets stored from the unfinished Tosa-class battleships. While in storage the turrets had been modified to increase their range of elevation to –3 to +43 degrees,[11] which increased the gun's maximum range from 30,200 to 37,900 meters (33,000 to 41,400 yd).[12]
The ship's secondary armament of twenty 50-caliber 14-centimeter guns was mounted in casemates on the upper sides of the hull and in the superstructure. The manually operated guns had a maximum range of 20,500 metres (22,400 yd) and fired at a rate of six to 10 rounds per minute.[13] Anti-aircraft defense was provided by four 40-caliber 3rd Year Type three-inch[Note 1] AA guns in single mounts. The 3-inch (76 mm) high-angle guns had a maximum elevation of +75 degrees, and had a rate of fire of 13 to 20 rounds per minute.[14] The ship was also fitted with eight 53.3-centimeter (21.0 in) torpedo tubes, four on each broadside, two above water and two submerged.[15]
Around 1926, the four above-water torpedo tubes were removed and the ship received three additional 76 mm AA guns that were situated around the base of the foremast.[16] They were replaced by eight 40-caliber 12.7-centimeter Type 89 dual-purpose (DP) guns in 1932,[7] fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin-gun mounts.[17] When firing at surface targets, the guns had a range of 14,700 meters (16,100 yd); they had a maximum ceiling of 9,440 meters (30,970 ft) at their maximum elevation of +90 degrees. Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute, but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute.[18] Two twin-gun mounts for license-built Vickers two-pounder light AA guns were also added to the ship that same year.[7][Note 2] These guns had a maximum elevation of +80 degrees which gave them a ceiling of 4,000 meters (13,000 ft).[20] They had a maximum rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute.[21]
When the ship was reconstructed in 1934–1936, the remaining torpedo tubes and the two forward 14 cm (5-1/2 inch) guns were removed from the hull. The remaining 14 cm guns had their elevation increased to +35 degrees which increased their range to 20,000 meters (22,000 yd). An unknown number of license-built Hotchkiss M1929 machine gun 13.2 mm (0.52 in) in twin mounts were added. The maximum range of these guns was 6,500 meters (7,100 yd),[22] but the effective range against aircraft was 700–1,500 meters (770–1,640 yd). The cyclic rate was adjustable between 425 and 475 rounds per minute, but the need to change 30-round magazines reduced the effective rate to 250 rounds per minute.[23]
The unsatisfactory two-pounders were replaced in 1939 by twenty license-built Type 96 Hotchkiss Type 96 25 mm (0.98 in) light AA guns in a mixture of twin-gun and single mounts.[7] This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II, but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon. According to historian Mark Stille, the twin and triple mounts "lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets; the gun exhibited excessive vibration; the magazine was too small, and, finally, the gun produced excessive muzzle blast".[24] These 25 mm guns had an effective range of 1,500–3,000 meters (1,600–3,300 yd), and an effective ceiling of 5,500 meters (18,000 ft) at an elevation of 85 degrees. The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen-round magazines.[21] Additional Type 96 guns were installed during the war; on 10 July 1944, the ship was reported to have 98 guns on board. An additional 30 guns were added during a refit in Yokosuka in November. Two more twin 12.7 cm (5 inch) gun mounts were added at the same time abreast the funnel[25] and her 14 cm guns were removed as she was by then a floating anti-aircraft battery.[7]
Armor
The ship's waterline armor belt was 305 mm (12 in) thick and tapered to a thickness of 100 mm (3.9 in) at its bottom edge; above it was a strake of 229 mm (9.0 in) armor. The main deck armor was 69 mm (2.7 in) while the lower deck was 75 mm (3 in) thick.[26] The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of 305 mm on the face, 230–190 mm (9.1–7.5 in) on the sides, and 152–127 mm (6.0–5.0 in) on the roof.[12] The barbettes of the turrets were protected by armor 305 mm thick, while the casemates of the 140 mm (1.6 in) guns were protected by 25 mm (0.98 in) armor plates. The sides of the conning tower were 369 mm (14.5 in) thick.[2]
The new 41 cm turrets installed during Nagato's reconstruction were more heavily armored than the original ones. Face armor was increased to 460 mm (18.1 in), the sides to 280 mm (11.0 in), and the roof to 250–230 mm (9.8–9.1 in).[27] The armor over the machinery and magazines was increased by 38 mm on the upper deck and 25 mm (0.98 in) on the upper armored deck.[9] These additions increased the weight of the ship's armor to 13,032 metric tons (12,826 long tons),[10] 32.6 percent of her displacement.[9] In early 1941, as a preparation for war,[7] Nagato's barbette armor was reinforced with 100 mm (3.9 in) armor plates above the main deck and 215 mm (8.5 in) plates below it.[28]
Fire control and sensors
When completed in 1920, the ship was fitted with a 10-meter (32 ft 10 in) rangefinder in the forward superstructure; six-meter (19 ft 8 in) and three-meter (9 ft 10 in) anti-aircraft rangefinders were added in May 1921 and 1923, respectively. The rangefinders in the second and third turrets were replaced by 10-meter units in 1932–1933.[29]
Nagato was initially fitted with a Type 13 fire-control system derived from Vickers equipment received during World War I, but this was replaced by an improved Type 14 system around 1925. It controlled the main and secondary guns; no provision was made for anti-aircraft fire until the Type 31 fire-control director was introduced in 1932. A modified Type 14 fire-control system was tested aboard the ship in 1935 and later approved for service as the Type 34. A new anti-aircraft director called the Type 94 that was used to control the 127 mm AA guns was introduced in 1937, although when Nagato received hers is unknown. The Type 96 25 mm (0.98 in) AA guns were controlled by a Type 95 director that was also introduced in 1937.[30]
While in drydock in May 1943, a Type 21 air search radar was installed on the roof of the 10-meter rangefinder at the top of the pagoda mast. On 27 June 1944, two Type 22 surface search radars were installed on the pagoda mast and two Type 13 early warning radars were fitted on her mainmast.[7]
Aircraft
Nagato was fitted with an 18-meter (59 ft 1 in)[31] aircraft flying-off platform on Turret No. 2 in August 1925. Yokosuka Ro-go Ko-gata and Heinkel HD 25 floatplanes were tested from it before it was removed early the following year.[7] An additional boom was added to the mainmast in 1926 to handle the Yokosuka E1Y now assigned to the ship.[16] A Hansa-Brandenburg W.33 floatplane was tested aboard Nagato that same year.[7] A catapult was fitted between the mainmast and Turret No. 3[32] in mid-1933,[7] a collapsible crane was installed in a portside sponson, and the ship was equipped to operate two or three floatplanes, although no hangar was provided. The ship now operated Nakajima E4N2 biplanes until they were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938. A more powerful catapult was installed in November 1938 to handle heavier aircraft, such as the one Kawanishi E7K that was added in 1939–1940. Mitsubishi F1M biplanes replaced the E8Ns on 11 February 1943.[33]
Construction and service
Nagato, named for Nagato Province,[34] was ordered on 12 May 1916[35] and laid down at the Kure Naval Arsenal on 28 August 1917 as the lead ship of her class. She was launched on 9 November 1919 by Admiral Katō Tomosaburō, completed on 15 November 1920 and commissioned 10 days later with Captain Nobutaro Iida in command. Nagato was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division and became the flagship of Rear Admiral Sōjirō Tochinai. On 13 February 1921, the ship was inspected by the Crown Prince, Hirohito. Captain Kanari Kabayama relieved Iida on 1 December 1921. The ship hosted Marshal Joseph Joffre on 18 February 1922 and Edward, Prince of Wales, and his aide-de-camp Lieutenant Louis Mountbatten on 12 April during the prince's visit to Japan.[7]
After the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, Nagato loaded supplies from Kyushu for the victims on 4 September. Together with her sister ship Mutsu, she sank the hulk of the obsolete battleship Satsuma on 7 September 1924 during gunnery practice in Tokyo Bay in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty. The ship was transferred to the reserve of the 1st Division on 1 December[36] and became a gunnery training ship. In August 1925, aircraft handling and take-off tests were conducted aboard Nagato. She was reassigned as the flagship of the Combined Fleet on 1 December, flying the flag of Admiral Keisuke Okada. Captain Kiyoshi Hasegawa assumed command of the ship on 1 December 1926.
Nagato was again placed in reserve on 1 December 1931 and her anti-aircraft armament was upgraded the following year. In August 1933 the ship participated in fleet maneuvers north of the Marshall Islands and she began her first modernization on 1 April 1934. This was completed on 31 January 1936 and Nagato was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of the 1st Fleet. During the attempted coup d'état on 26 February by disgruntled Army officers, the ship was deployed in Tokyo Bay and some of her sailors were landed in support of the government. In August, she transported 1,749 men of the 43rd Infantry Regiment of the 11th Infantry Division from Shikoku to Shanghai during the Second Sino-Japanese War.[7] Her floatplanes bombed targets in Shanghai on 24 August before she returned to Sasebo the following day.[37] Nagato became a training ship on 1 December until she again became the flagship of the Combined Fleet on 15 December 1938. The ship participated in an Imperial Fleet Review on 11 October 1940. She was refitted in early 1941 in preparation for war.[7]
World War II
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto issued the code phrase "Niitaka yama nobore" (Climb Mount Niitaka) on 2 December 1941 from Nagato at anchor at Hashirajima to signal the 1st Air Fleet (Kido Butai) in the North Pacific to proceed with its attack on Pearl Harbor. When the war started for Japan on 8 December,[Note 3] she sortied for the Bonin Islands, along with Mutsu, the battleships Hyūga, Yamashiro, Fusō, Ise of Battleship Division 2, and the light carrier Hōshō as distant cover for the withdrawal of the fleet attacking Pearl Harbor, and returned six days later. Yamamoto transferred his flag to the new battleship Yamato on 12 February 1942. Nagato was briefly refitted 15 March – 9 April at Kure Naval Arsenal.[7]
In June 1942 Nagato, commanded by Captain Hideo Yano, was assigned to the Main Body of the 1st Fleet during the Battle of Midway, together with Yamato, Mutsu, Hosho, the light cruiser Sendai, nine destroyers and four auxiliary ships.[38][39] Following the loss of all four carriers of the 1st Air Fleet on 4 June, Yamamoto attempted to lure the American forces west to within range of the Japanese air groups at Wake Island, and into a night engagement with his surface forces, but the American forces withdrew and Nagato saw no action. After rendezvousing with the remnants of the 1st Air Fleet on 6 June, survivors from the aircraft carrier Kaga were transferred to Nagato.[40] On 14 July, the ship was transferred to Battleship Division 2 and she became the flagship of the 1st Fleet. Yano was promoted to rear admiral on 1 November and he was replaced by Captain Yonejiro Hisamune nine days later. Nagato remained in Japanese waters training until August 1943. On 2 August Captain Mikio Hayakawa assumed command of the ship.[7]
That month, Nagato, Yamato, Fusō and the escort carrier Taiyō, escorted by two heavy cruisers and five destroyers transferred to Truk in the Caroline Islands. In response to the carrier raid on Tarawa on 18 September, Nagato and much of the fleet sortied for Eniwetok to search for the American forces before they returned to Truk on 23 September, having failed to locate them. The Japanese had intercepted some American radio traffic that suggested an attack on Wake Island, and on 17 October, Nagato and the bulk of the 1st Fleet sailed for Eniwetok to be in a position to intercept any such attack. The fleet arrived on 19 October, departed four days later, and arrived back at Truk on 26 October. Hayakawa was promoted to rear admiral on 1 November and he was relieved on 25 December by Captain Yuji Kobe.[7]
On 1 February 1944, Nagato departed Truk with Fusō to avoid an American air raid, and arrived at Palau on 4 February. They left on 16 February to escape another air raid. The ships arrived on 21 February at Lingga Island, near Singapore, and the ship became the flagship of Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki, commander of Battleship Division 1, on 25 February until he transferred his flag to Yamato on 5 May. Aside from a brief refit at Singapore, the ship remained at Lingga training until 11 May when she was transferred to Tawitawi on 12 May. The division was now assigned to the 1st Mobile Fleet, under the command of Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa.[7]
On 10 June, Battleship Division 1 departed Tawitawi for Batjan in preparation for Operation Kon, a planned counterattack against the American invasion of Biak. Three days later, when Admiral Soemu Toyoda, commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet, was notified of American attacks on Saipan, Operation Kon was canceled and Ugaki's force was diverted to the Mariana Islands. The battleships rendezvoused with Ozawa's main force on 16 June. During the Battle of the Philippine Sea, Nagato escorted the aircraft carriers Jun'yō, Hiyō and the light carrier Ryūhō. She fired 41 cm Type 3 Sankaidan incendiary anti-aircraft shrapnel shells at aircraft from the light carrier Belleau Wood that were attacking Jun'yō and claimed to have shot down two Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers. The ship was strafed by American aircraft during the battle, but was not damaged and suffered no casualties.[7] During the battle Nagato rescued survivors from Hiyō that were transferred to the carrier Zuikaku once the ship reached Okinawa on 22 June. She continued on to Kure where she was refitted with additional radars and light AA guns. Undocked on 8 July, Nagato loaded a regiment of the 28th Infantry Division the following day and delivered them to Okinawa on 11 July. She arrived at Lingga via Manila on 20 July.[41]
Battle of Leyte Gulf
Kobe was promoted to rear admiral on 15 October. Three days later, Nagato sailed for Brunei Bay, Borneo, to join the main Japanese fleet in preparation for "Operation Sho-1", the counterattack planned against the American landings at Leyte. The Japanese plan called for Ozawa's carrier forces to lure the American carrier fleets north of Leyte so that Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita's 1st Diversion Force (also known as the Center Force) could enter Leyte Gulf and destroy American forces landing on the island. Nagato, together with the rest of Kurita's force, departed Brunei for the Philippines on 22 October.[42]
In the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea on 24 October, Nagato was attacked by multiple waves of American dive bombers and fighters. At 14:16[Note 4] she was hit by two bombs dropped by planes from the fleet carrier Franklin and the light carrier Cabot. The first bomb disabled five of her casemate guns, jammed one of her Type 89 gun mounts, and damaged the air intake to No. 1 boiler room, immobilizing one propeller shaft for 24 minutes until the boiler was put back on line.[7] Damage from the second bomb is unknown. The two bombs killed 52 men between them; the number of wounded is not known.[43]
On the morning of 25 October, the 1st Diversion Force passed through the San Bernardino Strait and headed for Leyte Gulf to attack the American forces supporting the invasion. In the Battle off Samar, Nagato engaged the escort carriers and destroyers of Task Group 77.4.3, codenamed "Taffy 3". At 06:01 she opened fire on three escort carriers, the first time she had ever fired her guns at an enemy ship, but missed. At 06:54 the destroyer USS Heermann fired a spread of torpedoes at the fast battleship Haruna; the torpedoes missed Haruna and headed for Yamato and Nagato which were on a parallel course. The two battleships were forced 10 miles (16 km) away from the engagement before the torpedoes ran out of fuel. Turning back, Nagato engaged the American escort carriers and their screening ships, claiming to have damaged one cruiser[Note 5] with forty-five 410 mm and ninety-two 14 cm shells. The ineffectiveness of her shooting was the result of the poor visibility caused by numerous rain squalls and by smoke screens laid by the defending escorts. At 09:10 Kurita ordered his ships to break off the engagement and head north. At 10:20 he ordered the fleet south once more, but as they came under increasingly severe air attack he ordered a retreat again at 12:36. At 12:43 Nagato was hit in the bow by two bombs, but the damage was not severe. Four gunners were washed overboard at 16:56 as the ship made a sharp turn to avoid dive-bomber attacks; a destroyer was detached to rescue them, but they could not be found. As it retreated back to Brunei on 26 October, the Japanese fleet came under repeated air attacks. Nagato and Yamato used Sankaidan shells against them and claimed to have shot down several bombers. Over the course of the last two days she fired ninety-nine 410 mm and six hundred fifty-three 14 cm shells, suffering 38 crewmen killed and 105 wounded during the same time.[7]
Final days of the war
On 15 November the ship was assigned to Battleship Division 3 of the 2nd Fleet. After an aerial attack at Brunei on 16 November, Nagato, Yamato, and the fast battleship Kongō left the following day, bound for Kure. En route, Kongō and one of the escorting destroyers were sunk by USS Sealion on 21 November. On 25 November, she arrived at Yokosuka, Japan, for repairs. Lack of fuel and materials meant that she could not be brought back into service and she was turned into a floating anti-aircraft battery. Her funnel and mainmast were removed to improve the arcs of fire of her AA guns, which were increased by two Type 89 mounts and nine triple Type 96 gun mounts. Her forward secondary guns were removed in compensation. Captain Kiyomi Shibuya relieved Kobe in command of Nagato on 25 November. Battleship Division 3 was disbanded on 1 January 1945 and the ship was reassigned to Battleship Division 1. That formation was disbanded on 10 February and she was assigned to the Yokosuka Naval District as a coastal defense ship.[7] Moored alongside a pier, a coal-burning donkey boiler was installed on the pier for heating and cooking purposes and a converted submarine chaser was positioned alongside to provide steam and electricity;[44] her anti-aircraft guns lacked full power and were only partially operational. On 20 April, Nagato was reduced to reserve and retired Rear Admiral Miki Otsuka assumed command a week later.[7]
In June 1945, all of her secondary guns and about half of her anti-aircraft armament was moved ashore, together with her rangefinders and searchlights. Her crew was accordingly reduced to less than 1,000 officers and enlisted men. On 18 July 1945, the heavily camouflaged ship was attacked by fighter bombers and torpedo bombers from five American carriers as part of Admiral William Halsey Jr.'s campaign to destroy the IJN's last surviving capital ships. Nagato was hit by two bombs, the first 500-pound (230 kg) bomb struck the bridge and killed Otsuka, the executive officer, and twelve sailors when it detonated upon hitting the roof of the conning tower. The second 500-pound bomb struck the deck aft of the mainmast and detonated when it hit No. 3 barbette. It failed to damage the barbette or the turret above it, but blew a hole nearly 12 feet (3.7 m) in diameter in the deck above the officer's lounge, killing 21 men and damaging four Type 96 guns on the deck above. A dud rocket of uncertain size hit the ship's fantail, but failed to do any significant damage. To convince the Americans that Nagato had been badly damaged by the attack, her damage was left unrepaired and some of her ballast tanks were pumped full of seawater to make her sit deeper in the water as if she had sunk to the harbor bottom.[7][44]
Captain Shuichi Sugino was appointed as Nagato's new captain on 24 July, but he was unable to take up his appointment until 20 August. Retired Rear Admiral Masamichi Ikeguchi was assigned as the ship's interim captain until Sugino arrived. The Yokosuka Naval District received an alarm on the night of 1/2 August that a large convoy was approaching Sagami Bay and Nagato was ordered to attack immediately. The ship was totally unprepared for any attack, but Ikeguchi began the necessary preparations. The water in the ballast compartments was pumped out and her crew began reloading the propellant charges for her 16-inch guns. The ship received more fuel from a barge later that morning, but no order to attack ever came as it had been a false alarm. Sailors from the battleship USS Iowa, Underwater Demolition Team 18,[44] and the high-speed transport USS Horace A. Bass[45] secured the battleship on 30 August after the occupation began and Captain Thomas J Flynn, executive officer of the Iowa, assumed command. By the time the war ended, Nagato was the only Japanese battleship still afloat.[46] She was stricken from the Navy List on 15 September.[44]
After the war
The ship was selected to participate as a target ship in Operation Crossroads, a series of nuclear weapon tests held at Bikini Atoll in mid-1946. In mid-March, Nagato departed Yokosuka for Eniwetok under the command of Captain W. J. Whipple with an American crew of about 180 men supplementing her Japanese crew.[47] The ship was only capable of a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) from her two operating propeller shafts. Her hull had not been repaired from the underwater damage sustained during the attack on 18 July 1945 and she leaked enough that her pumps could not keep up. Her consort, the light cruiser Sakawa, broke down on 28 March and Nagato attempted to take her in tow, but one of her boilers malfunctioned and the ship ran out of fuel in bad weather. The ship had a list of seven degrees to port by the time tugboats from Eniwetok arrived on 30 March. Towed at a speed of 1 knot (1.9 km/h; 1.2 mph), the ship reached Eniwetok on 4 April where she received temporary repairs. On her trip to Bikini in May, Nagato reached 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph).[7]
Operation Crossroads began with the first blast (Test Able), an air burst on 1 July; she was 1,500 meters (1,640 yd) from ground zero and was only lightly damaged. A skeleton crew boarded Nagato to assess the damage and prepare her for the next test on 25 July. As a test, they operated one of her boilers for 36 hours without any problems. For Test Baker, an underwater explosion, the ship was positioned 870 meters (950 yd) from ground zero. Nagato rode out the tsunami from the explosion with little apparent damage; she had a slight starboard list of two degrees after the tsunami dissipated. A more thorough assessment could not be made because she was dangerously radioactive. Her list gradually increased over the next five days and she capsized and sank during the night of 29/30 July.[44]
The wreck is upside down and her most prominent features are her four propellers, at a depth of 33.5 meters (110 ft) below the surface.[48] She has become a scuba diving destination in recent years and The Times named Nagato as one of the top ten wreck diving sites in the world in 2007.[48][49]
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Mãng cầu Xiêm, còn gọi là mãng cầu gai, na Xiêm, na gai Mãng cầu xiêm có tên khoa học là Annona muricata thuộc họ thực vật Annonaceae. (Annona, phát xuất từ tên tại Haiti, anon, nghĩa là thu-hoạch của năm ‘muricata’ có nghĩa l à mặt bên ngoài sần lên, có những mũi nhọn).
Các tên thông thường: Soursop (Anh-Mỹ), Guanabana, Graviola, Brazilian Paw Paw, Corossolier (Pháp), Guanavana, Durian benggala Nangka londa.
thuộc loại tiểu mộc, có thể cao 6-8 m. Vỏ thân có nhiều lỗ nhỏ màu nâu. lá màu đậm có mùi thơm, không lông, xanh quanh năm. Hoa màu xanh, mọc ở thân. Quả mãng cầu xiêm to và có gai mềm. Thịt quả ngọt và hơi chua, hạt có màu nâu sậm. Cây mãng cầu xiêm sống ở những khu vực có độ ẩm cao và có mùa Đông không lạnh lắm, nhiệt độ dưới 5°C sẽ làm lá và các nhánh nhỏ hỏng và nhiệt độ dưới 3°C thì cây có thể chết. Cây mãng cầu xiêm được trồng làm cây ăn quả. Quả mãng cầu Xiêm nặng trung bình từ 1-2 kg có khi đến 2,5 kg, vỏ ngoài nhẵn chỉ phân biệt múi nọ với múi kia nhờ mỗi múi có một cái gai cong, mềm vì vậy còn có tên là mãng cầu gai.
Giới (regnum):
Plantae
(không phân hạng):Angiospermae
(không phân hạng)Magnoliidae
Bộ (ordo):
Magnoliales
Họ (familia):
Annonaceae
Chi (genus):
Annona
Loài (species):
A. muricata
Mãng cầu xiêm là một trái cây nhiệt đới rất thường gặp trong vùng Nam Mỹ và Đông Ấn (West Indies). Đây cũng là một trong những cây đầu tiên được đưa từ Mỹ châu về lục địa ‘Cựu Thế Giới’, và mãng cầu xiêm sau đó được trồng rộng rãi suốt từ khu vực Đông Nam Trung Hoa sang đến Úc và những vùng bình nguyên tại Đông và Tây Phi châu.
Đặc tính thực vật:
Mãng cầu xiêm thuộc loại tiểu mộc, có thể cao 6-8 m. Vỏ thân có nhiều lỗ nhỏ màu nâu. Lá hình trái xoan, thuôn thành ngọn giáo, mọc so le. Lá có mùi thơm. Phiến lá có 7-9 cặp gân phụ. Hoa mọc đơn độc ở thân hay nhánh già; hoa có 3 lá đài nhỏ màu xanh, 3 cánh ngoài màu xanh-vàng, và 3 cánh trong màu vàng. Nhị và nhụy hoa tạo thành 1 khối tròn, Trái thuộc loại trái mọng kép, lớn, hình trứng phình dài 20-25 cm, màu xanh lục hay vàng xanh, khi chín quá mức sẽ đổi sang vàng. Trái có thể kết tại nhiều vị trí khác nhau trên thân, cành hay nhánh con, và có thể cân nặng đến 5kg (15 lb). Vỏ rất mỏng, bên ngoài có những nốt phù thành những múi nhỏ nhọn hay cong, chứa nhiều hạt màu đen. Trái thường được thu hái lúc còn xanh, cứng và ăn ngon nhất vào lúc 4-5 ngày sau khi hái, lúc đó quả trở thành mềm vừa đủ để khi nhấn nhẹ ngón tay vào sẽ có một vết lõm. Phần thịt của tr ái màu trắng chia thành nhiều khối chứa hạt nhỏ.
Thành phần dinh dưỡng và hóa học:
100 gram phần thịt của trái mãng cầu xiêm, bỏ hạt, chứa:
- Calories 53.1-61.3
- Chất đạm 1 g
- Chất béo 0.97 g
- Chất sơ 0.79 g
- Calcium 10.3 mg
- Sắt 0.64 mg
- Magnesium 21 mg
- Phosphorus 27.7 mg
- Potassium 287 mg
- Sodium 14 mg
- Beta-Carotene (A) 2 IU
- Thiamine 0.110 mg
- Riboflavine 0.050 mg
- Niacin 1.280 mg
- Pantothenic acid 0.253 mg
- Pyridoxine 0.059 mg
- Vitamin C 29.6 mg
Lá mãng cầu xiêm chứa các acetogenins loại monotetrahydrofurane như annopentocins A, B và C; Cis và Trans-annomuricin-D-ones(4, 5), Muricoreacin, Muricohexocin… ngoài ra còn có tannin, chất nhựa resin.
Trái mãng cầu xiêm chứa các alkaloids loại isoquinoleine như: annonaine, nornuciferine và asimilobine.
Hạt chứa khoảng 0.05 % alcaloids trong đó 2 chất chính là muricin và muricinin. Nghiên cứu tại ĐH Bắc Kinh (2001) ghi nhận hạt có chứa các acetogenins: Muricatenol, Gigantetrocin-A, -B, Annomontacin, Gigante tronenin. Trong hạt còn có các hỗn hợp N-fatty acyl tryptamines, một lectin có ái lực mạnh với glucose/mannose; các galactomannans..
Vài phương thức sử dụng:
Mãng cầu xiêm được dùng làm thực phẩm tại nhiều nơi trên thế giới. Tên soursop, cho thấy quả có thể có vị chua, tuy nhiên độ chua thay đổi, tùy giống, có giống khá ngọt để ăn sống được, có giống phải ăn chung với đường. Trái chứa nhiều nước, nên thường dùng để uống hơn là ăn! Như tại Ba Tây có món Champola, tại Puerto Rico có món Carato là những thức uống theo kiểu ‘nuớc sinh tố’ ở Việt Nam: mãng cầu xay chung với sữa, nước (tại Philippines, còn pha thêm màu xanh, đỏ như sinh tố pha si-rô ở Việt Nam)
Mãng cầu xiêm (lá, rễ và hạt) được dùng làm thuốc tại rất nhiều nơi trên thế-giới, nhất là tại những quốc gia Nam Mỹ:
Tại Peru, trong vùng núi Andes, lá mãng cầu được dùng làm thuốc trị cảm, xổ mũi; hạt nghiền nát làm thuốc trừ sâu bọ; trong vùng Amazon, vỏ cây và lá dùng trị tiểu đường, làm dịu đau, chống co giật.
Tại Guyana: lá và vỏ cây, nấu thành trà dược giúp trị đau và bổ tim.
Tại Ba Tây, trong vùng Amazon: lá nấu thành trà trị bệnh gan; dầu ép từ lá và trái còn non, trộn với dầu olive làm thuốc thoa bên ngoài trị thấp khớp, đau sưng gân cốt.
Tại Jamaica, Haiti và West Indies: trái hay nước ép từ trái dùng trị nóng sốt, giúp sinh sữa và trị tiêu chảy; vỏ thân cây và lá dùng trị đau nhức, chống co-giật, ho, suyển.
Tại Ấn Độ, cây được gọi theo tiếng Tamilnadu là mullu-chitta: quả dùng chống thiếu vitamin C ( scorbut); hạt gây nôn mửa và làm se da.
Tại Việt Nam, hạt được dùng như hạt na, nghiền nát trong nước, lấy nước gột đầu để trị chí rận. Một phương thuốc Nam khá phổ biến để trị huyết áp cao là dùng vỏ trái hay lá mãng cầu xiêm, sắc chung với rễ nhàu và rau cần thành nước uống (bỏ bã) mỗi ngày.
Dược tính của mãng cầu xiêm:
Các nhà khoa học đã nghiên cứu về dược tính của mãng cầu xiêm từ 1940 và ly trích được nhiều hoạt chất. Một số các nghiên cứu sơ khởi được công bố trong khoảng thời gian 1940 đến 1962 ghi nhận vỏ thân và lá mãng cầu xiêm có những tác dụng làm hạ huyết áp, chống co giật, làm giãn nở mạch máu, thư giãn cơ trơn khi thử trên thú vật. Đến 1991, tác dụng hạ huyết áp của lá mãng cầu xiêm đã được tái xác nhận. Các nghiên cứu sau đó đã chứng minh được là dịch chiết từ lá, vỏ thân, rễ, chồi và hạt mãng cầu xiêm có những tác dụng kháng sinh chống lại một số vi khuẩn gây bệnh, và vỏ cây có khả năng chống nấm.
Hoạt tính của các acetogenins:
Trong một chương trình nghiên cứu về dược thảo của National Cancer Institute vào năm 1976, lá và chồi của mãng cầu xiêm được ghi nhận là có hoạt tính diệt các tế bào của một số loại ung thư. Hoạt tính này được cho là do ở nhóm hợp chất, đặt tên là annonaceous acetogenins
Các nghiên cứu về acetogenins cho thấy những chất này có khả năng ức chế rất mạnh phức hợp I (Complex I) ở trong các hệ thống chuyển vận điện tử nơi ty lạp thể (mitochondria) kể cả của tế bào ung thư [ các cây của gia đình Anonna có chứa nhiều loại acetogenins hoạt tính rất mạnh, một số có tác dụng diệt tế bào u-bướu ở nồng độ EC50 rất thấp, ngay ở 10-9 microgram/ mL.]
Trường Đại Học Purdue là nơi có nhiều nghiên cứu nhất về hoạt tính của gia đình Annona, giữ hàng chục bản quyền về acetogenins, và công bố khá nhiều thí nghiệm lâm sàng về tác dụng của acetogenins trên ung thư, diệt bướu ung độc:
Một nghiên cứu năm 1998 ghi nhận một loại acetogenin trích từ mãng cầu xiêm có tác dụng chọn lựa, diệt được tế bào ung thư ruột già loại adenocarcinoma, tác dụng này mạnh gấp 10 ngàn lần thuốc Adriamycin.
Theo các kết quả nghiên cứu tại Purdue thì: ‘các acetogenins từ annonaceae, là những acid béo có dây carbon dài từ 32-34, phối hợp với một đơn vị 2-propanol tại C-2 để tạo thành một vòng lactone. Acetogenins có những hoạt tính sinh học như chống u-bướu, kích ứng miễn nhiễm, diệt sâu bọ, chống protozoa, diệt giun sán và kháng sinh. Acetogenins là những chất ức chế rất mạnh NADH:Ubiquinone oxidoreductase, vốn là một enzym căn bản cần thiết cho complex I đưa đến phàn ứng phosphoryl-oxid hóa trong mitochondria. Acetogenins tác dụng trực tiếp vào các vị trí ubiquinone-catalytic nằm trong complex I và ngay vào men glucose dehydrogenase của vi trùng. Acetogenins cũng ức chế men ubiquinone-kết với NADH oxidase, chỉ có nơi màng plasma của tế bào ung thư.(Recent Advances in Annonaceous Acetogenins-Purdue University -1997)
Các acetogenins Muricoreacin và Muricohexocin có những hoạt tính diệt bào khá mạnh trên 6 loại tế bào ung thư như ung thư tiền liệt tuyền (prostate) loại adenocarcinoma (PC-3), ung thư lá lách loại carcinoma (PACA-2) (ĐH Purdue, West LaFayette, IN- trong Phytochemistry Số 49-1998)
Một acetogenin khác :Bullatacin có khả năng diệt được các tế bào ung thư đã kháng được nhiều thuốc dùng trong hóa-chất trị liệu, do ở hoạt tính ngăn chận sự chế tạo Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) cần thiết cho hoạt động của tế bào ung thư (Cancer Letter June 1997)
Các acetogenins trích từ lá Annomutacin, cùng các hợp chất loại annonacin-A-one có hoạt tính diệt được tế bào ung thư phổi dòng A-549 (Journal of Natural Products Số Tháng 9-1995)
Các duợc tính khác:
Các alkaloid: annonaine, nornuciferine và asimilobine trích được từ trái có tác dụng an thần và trị đau: Hoạt tính này do ở khả năng ức chế sự nối kết của [3H] rauwolscine vào các thụ thể 5-HT1A nằm trong phần yên của não bộ. (Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology Số 49-1997).
Dịch chiết từ trái bằng ethanol có tác dụng ức chế được siêu vi khuẩn Herpes Simplex (HSV-1) ở nồng độ 1mg/ml (Journal of Ethnophar macology Số 61-1998).
Các dịch chiết bằng hexane, ethyl acetate và methanol từ trái đều có những hoạt tính diệt được ký sinh trùng Leishmania braziliensis và L.panamensis (tác dụng này còn mạnh hơn cả chất Glucantime dùng làm tiêu chuẩn đối chiếu). Ngoài ra các acetogenins cô lập được annonacein, annonacin A và annomuricin A có các hoạt tính gây độc hại cho các tế bào ung thư dòng U-937 (Fitotherapia Số 71-2000).
Thử nghiệm tại Đại học Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceio-AL, Ba Tây ghi nhận dịch chiết từ lá bằng ethanol có khả năng diệt được nhuyến thể (ốc-sò) loài Biomphalaria glabrata ở nồng độ LD50 = 8.75 ppm, và có thêm đặc điểm là diệt được các tụ khối trứng của sên (Phytomedicine Số 8-2001).
Một lectin loại glycoproteine chứa 8% carbohydrate, ly trích từ hạt có hoạt tính kết tụ hồng huyết cầu của người, ngỗng, ngựa và gà, đồng thời ức chế được sự tăng trưởng của các nấm và mốc loại Fusarium oxysoporum, Fusarium solani và Colletotrichum musae (Journal of Protein Chemistry Số 22-2003)
Mãng cầu xiêm có liên hệ với bệnh Parkinson:
Tại vùng West Indies thuộc Pháp, nhất là ở Guadaloupe có tình trạng xảy ra bất thường về con số các bệnh nhân bị bệnh Parkinson, loại kháng-levo dopa: những bệnh nhân này đều tiêu thụ một lượng cao, và trong một thời gian lâu dài soursop hay mãng cầu xiêm (A.muricata).
Những nghiên cứu sơ khởi trong năm 1999 (công bố trên tạp chí Lancet Số 354, ngày 23 tháng 10 năm 1999) trên 87 bệnh nhân đưa đến kết luận là rất có thể có sự liên hệ giữa dùng nhiều mãng cầu xiêm, vốn có chứa các alkaloids loại benzyltetrahydroisoquinoleine độc hại về thần kinh. Nhóm bệnh nhân có những triệu chứng Parkinson không chuyên biệt (atipycal), gồm 30 người dùng khá nhiều mãng cầu trong cách ăn uống hàng ngày.
Nghiên cứu sâu rộng hơn vào năm 2002, cũng tại Guadeloupe, nhằm vào nhóm bệnh nhân Parkinson (atypical) cho thấy khi tách riêng các tế bào thần kinh (neuron) loại mesencephalic dopaminergic và cấy trong môi trường có chứa dịch chiết toàn phần rễ mãng cầu xiêm, hoặc chứa các hoạt chất cô lập như coreximinine, reticuline, có các kết quả như sau: Sau 24 giờ tiếp xúc: 50% các tế bào thần kinh cấy bị suy thoái ở nồng độ 18 microg/ml dịch chiết toàn phần; 4.3 microg/ml coreximine và 100 microg/ml reticuline.
Nghiên cứu này đưa đến kết luận là những alkaloids trích từ mãng cầu xiêm có thể có tác dụng điều hợp chức năng cùng sự thay đổi để sinh tồn của các tế bào thần kinh dopaminergic trong các thử nghiệm ‘in vitro’; và rất có thể có những liên hệ tác hại giữa việc dùng mãng cầu xiêm ở lượng cao và liên tục với những suy thoái về tế bào thần kinh. Do đó bệnh nhân Parkinson, do yếu tố an toàn nên tránh ăn mãng cầu xiêm! (Movement Disorders Số 17-2002).
Độc tính và liều lượng:
Theo tài liệu của Herbal Secrets of the Rain Forest:
Liều trị liệu của lá (cũng chứa lượng acetrogenins khá cao, so với rễ và hạt) là 2-3 gram chia làm 3-4 lần/ngày. Trên thị trường Hoa Kỳ có một số chế phẩm, mang tên Graviola, dưới các dạng viên nang (capsule) và cồn thuốc (tincture).
Không nên dùng các chế phẩm làm từ lá, rễ và hạt mãng cầu xiêm (phần thịt của quả không bị hạn chế) trong các trường hợp:
- Có thai: do hoạt tính gây co tht tử cung khi thử trên chuột.
- Huyết áp cao: Lá, rễ và ht có tác dụng gây hạ huyết áp, ức chế tim, người dùng thuốc trị áp huyết cần bàn với BS điều trị.
- Khi dùng lâu dài các chế phẩ;m Graviola có thể gây các rối loạn về vi sinh vật trong đường ruột.
- Một số trường h&##7907;p bị ói mửa, buồn nôn khi dùng Graviola, trong trường hợp này nên giảm bớt liều sử dụng.
- Không nên dùng Graviola chung với CoEnzyme Q 10 (một trong những cơ chế hoạt động của acetogenins là ngăn chặn sự cung cấp ATP cho tế bào ung thư, và CoEnzym Q.10 là một chất cung cấp ATP), uống chung sẽ làm giảm công hiệu của cả 2 loại.
Annona muricata is a member of the family of Custard apple trees called Annonaceae and a species of the genus Annona known mostly for its edible fruits Anona. Annona muricata produces fruits that are usually called Soursop due to its slightly acidic taste when ripe. A. muricata trees grew natively in the Caribbean and Central America but are now widely cultivated and in some areas, escaping and living on their own in tropical climates throughout the world.
Common names
•English: Brazilian pawpaw, soursop, prickly custard apple, Soursapi
•Spanish: guanábana, guanábano, anona, catche, catoche, catuche, zapote agrio
•Chamorro: laguaná, laguana, laguanaha, syasyap
•German: Sauersack, Stachelannone, anona, flashendaum, stachel anone, stachliger
•Fijian: sarifa, seremaia
•French: anone muriquee, cachiman épineux, corossol épineux,anone, cachiman épineux, caichemantier, coeur de boeuf, corossol, corossolier, epineux
•Indonesian: sirsak
•Malay: Durian Belanda
•Māori: kātara‘apa, kātara‘apa papa‘ā, naponapo taratara
•Dutch: zuurzak
•Portuguese: graviola, araticum-grande, araticum-manso, coração-de-rainha, jaca-de-pobre, jaca-do-Pará, anona, curassol, graviola, pinha azeda
•Samoan: sanalapa, sasalapa, sasalapa
•Tahitian: tapotapo papa‘a, tapotapo urupe
•Vietnamese: mãng cầu Xiêm, mãng cầu gai
•Chinese: 刺果番荔枝
Description
Annona muricata is a small, upright, evergreen that can grow to about 4 metres (13 ft) tall and cannot stand frost.
Stems and leaves
The young branches are hairy.
Leaves are oblong to oval, 8 centimetres (3.1 in) to 16 centimetres (6.3 in) long and 3 centimetres (1.2 in) to 7 centimetres (2.8 in) wide. Glossy dark green with no hairs above, paler and minutely hairy to no hairs below.
The leaf stalks are 4 millimetres (0.16 in) to 13 millimetres (0.51 in) long and without hairs.
Flowers
Flower stalks (peduncles) are 2 millimetres (0.079 in) to 5 millimetres (0.20 in) long and woody. They appear opposite from the leaves or as an extra from near the leaf stalk, each with one or two flowers, occasionally a third.
Stalks for the individual flowers (pedicels) are stout and woody, minutely hairy to hairless and 15 millimetres (0.59 in) to 20 millimetres (0.79 in) with small bractlets nearer to the base which are densely hairy.
Petals are thick and yellowish. Outer petals meet at the edges without overlapping and are broadly ovate, 2.8 centimetres (1.1 in) to 3.3 centimetres (1.3 in) by 2.1 centimetres (0.83 in) to 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in), tapering to a point with a heart shaped base. Evenly thick, covered with long, slender, soft hairs externally and matted finely with soft hairs within. Inner petals are oval shaped and overlap. 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in) to 2.8 centimetres (1.1 in) by 2 centimetres (0.79 in). Sharply angled and tapering at the base. Margins are comparatively thin, with fine matted soft hairs on both sides. The receptacle is conical and hairy. Stamens 4.5 millimetres (0.18 in) long and narrowly wedge-shaped. The connective-tip terminate abruptly and anther hollows are unequal. Sepals are quite thick and do not overlap. Carpels are linear and basally growing from one base. The ovaries are covered with dense reddish brown hairs, 1-ovuled, style short and stigma truncate.
Fruits and reproduction
Dark green, prickly (or bristled) fruits are egg-shaped and can be up to 30 centimetres (12 in) long, with a moderately firm texture.[5] Flesh is juicy, acid, whitish and aromatic.
Abundant seeds the average weight of 1000 fresh seeds is 470 grams (17 oz) and had an average oil content of 24%. When dried for 3 days in 60 °C (140 °F) the average seed weight was 322 grams (11.4 oz) and were tolerant of the moisture extraction; showing no problems for long-term storage under reasonable conditions.
Distribution
Annona muricata is tolerant of poor soil and prefers lowland areas between the altitudes of 0 metres (0 ft) to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft).
Native
Neotropic:
Caribbean: Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Haiti, Puerto Rico
Central America: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Belize
South America: Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador[4
The Great Western Steam Up was held on the grounds of the Nevada State Railroad Museum from July 1 – July 4, 2022, in celebration of the 150th anniversary of the Virginia & Truckee Railroad. Nine operating steam locomotives were featured with many more on display. The event was billed as the largest reunion of existing V&T locomotives in over 75 years.
Daily events included rides behind visiting narrow and standard-gauge steam locomotives, a daily pageant of steam locomotives, historical vehicle and equipment displays, local food trucks, live entertainment, and “lost art” demonstrations.
The featured locomotives were:
Glenbrook, narrow gauge 2-6-0 (Baldwin 1875) built for the Carson & Tahoe Lumber & Fluming Company and used at Glenbrook, Nevada, along with an identical twin, Tahoe (see NCNG 5, below). It last ran in the 1920s and was acquired by the Nevada County Narrow Gauge for parts. In the 1940s it was placed on exhibit at the Nevada State Museum in Carson City and beginning in 1981 was restored to service (completed in 2015). It has been returned to its 1875 appearance.
No. 1, Joe. Douglass, narrow gauge 0-4-2T (H. K. Porter 1882) built for the Dayton, Sutro & Carson Valley Railroad. It operated at a mine in Dayton, Nevada, and later helped build Lake Arrowhead dam in California. It was cosmetically restored to its present appearance in 1994 and is displayed at the Nevada State Railroad Museum. It is a wood burner, but not operational.
No. 1, narrow gauge 0-4-0T (Porter 1889) built for the Sacramento Brick Company. It was later acquired by Hal Wilmunder and operated on his private Antelope & Western Railroad near Roseville, California. The engine is now owned and cared for by the Wilmunder family, and can usually be seen at the NCNG Museum in Nevada City, Calif.
No. 1, standard gauge 2-truck Heisler (Heisler Locomotive Works 1916), built for Bluestone Mining & Smelting. It originally worked on a 2.5 mile line near Mason, Nevada, before being acquired by a quarry in California. This oil-fired locomotive is owned by Chris Baldo and sees frequent use at Roots of Motive Power in Willits, California.
No. 1, Lyon, standard gauge 2-6-0 (Gentry/Strasburg/Kloke) which is a partially completed replica of the first locomotive built for the Virginia & Truckee. The original was manufactured by the Union Iron Works of San Francisco in 1869. The full-scale working replica was donated to the Nevada State Railroad Museum by Stan Gentry, builder, and is being completed by the museum shop staff. It will burn wood as did the original.
No. 3, standard gauge 0-4-0T (Porter 1909) built for the Santa Cruz Portland Cement Company. Upon retirement it was used as a billboard for a chicken restaurant in Stockton, California. It was restored to service by Stathi Pappas beginning in 2006 and is currently located at the Placerville & Sacramento Valley Railroad in Folsom, California. Nicknamed “Chiggen,” it is oil-fired.
No. 4, Eureka, narrow gauge 4-4-0 (Baldwin 1875), built for the Eureka & Palisade Railroad. Retired in 1938, it was later featured in several Hollywood movies. This classic wood-fired locomotive was restored by Dan Markoff in the 1980s and is usually kept at his home in North Las Vegas, Nevada.
No. 5, Tahoe, narrow gauge 2-6-0 (Baldwin 1875) built for the Carson & Tahoe Lumber & Fluming Company and used in logging service. It was later sold to the Nevada County Narrow Gauge of Grass Valley, Calif., and was retired in 1942. It then appeared in numerous movies and TV shows for owner Universal Pictures. No. 5 is now part of the NCNG Museum in Nevada City, Calif., and was restored to service in May 2022. This oil-fired locomotive has been restored to its 1940s appearance.
No. 8, standard gauge 4-4-0 (Cooke Locomotive & Machine Works 1888) built for the Denver, Texas & Fort Worth Railroad, and later operated on the Dardanelle & Russellville in Arkansas. It was used in 1976 on the V&T tourist railroad at Virginia City. Oil fired, it last steamed in the early 2000s.
No. 11, Reno, standard gauge 4-4-0 (Baldwin 1872) built for the Virginia & Truckee. The most renown of all V&T’s Americans, the Reno was retired in 1937 and sold to a movie studio. It spent over fifty years at Old Tucson Studios in Arizona before being acquired by the V&T tourist railroad of Virginia City, Nevada, in 2021. It is currently under restoration. Oil fired.
No. 12, Genoa, standard gauge 4-4-0 (Baldwin 1873) built for the Virginia & Truckee. It was a back-up locomotive to the Reno and was retired in 1908. For the past 40 years it’s been on indoor static display at the California State Railroad Museum in Sacramento. It last ran in 1979 and was never converted from burning wood to burning oil, like most V&T 4-4-0s were.
No. 18, narrow gauge 4-6-0 (Baldwin 1911), built for the Nevada-California-Oregon and last used by the Southern Pacific. Restored by Carson & Colorado Inc. in 2017 after being on display in an Independence, Calif., park since 1954. It is normally kept at the Eastern California Museum in Independence. Oil fired.
No. 18, Dayton, standard gauge 4-4-0 (Central Pacific Sacramento Shops 1873) built for the Virginia & Truckee. Ran on the V&T for nearly seven decades before being acquired by a movie studio. It was cosmetically restored for display in 1982 by the Nevada State Railroad Museum. Oil fired.
No. 21, J. W. Bowker, standard gauge 2-4-0 (Baldwin 1875) built for the Virginia & Truckee. Bowker served as a switch engine in Virginia City. It was later purchased by the Sierra Nevada Wood & Lumber Company. Wood-fueled but not currently operational, it has been exhibited at the California State Railroad since 1976. An oil burner, it is not currently operational.
No. 22, Inyo, standard gauge 4-4-0 (Baldwin 1875), built for the Virginia & Truckee Railroad. It served in passenger service and was nicknamed “Brass Betsy.” It was later sold to Paramount Pictures and appeared McLintock, Union Pacific, and The Great Locomotive Chase. Restored to operation in 1983 and currently housed at the Nevada State Railroad Museum. Wood fired.
No. 25, standard gauge 4-6-0 (Baldwin 1905) built for the Virginia & Truckee to handle both freight and passenger trains. It was the first new steam locomotive purchased by the V&T and replaced older 4-4-0s on the passenger run between Reno and Carson City. Oil fired, it was restored to operation in 1980 and sees frequent service at the Nevada State Railroad Museum.
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