View allAll Photos Tagged undetectable
Nano-technology can be scary stuff. Especially when your a tyrant of an oppressed nation somewhere! Developed by the best at a secret military base within Japan, these little buggers specialize in taking out the enemy when they are at their most vulnerable...the toilet.
Almost undetectable, this machine uses it quick robotic legs to scurry and climb into the toilet bowl and hide under the water or the seat. To ensure it isn't accidentally spotted, it's exoskeleton is camoflouged white-ish gray.
Though very simple in design, the TB-41 (Toilet Bomb: Type #41) is packed with a minimal amount of C4 to act as a large cherry bomb. When placed in the right spot, it turns the innocent white bowl into a chair of death. When detonated it combines dangerous chemicals with the unstable gases found in the sewage to create a devastating explosive reaction. In theory, the blast should also turn the porcelain into jagged pieces of shrapnel.
It can be activated by either remote detonation or chemi-analytical activation. The latter refers to the sensor the bot contains and process the chemicals and minerals found in the water, particularly iron, found in urine.
It's name derives from a Japanese Yokai (Monster) called the Kappa, a water goblin / water demon. It was a combination of a turtle, a frog, a duck and a man. It's notorious because it targetted people who went #2 by the river (which was common in ancient Japan). It would stick it's arm up the @$$ of the victim, grab them by the tongue and turn them inside out!!! While the poor soul flopped around, the Kappa would take the liver and eat it. Now that toilets have been invented, it is said that they will try to reach through them. Sometimes even through other drains, leading to showers or sinks, whenever possible.
It seems only fitting that this bot be given such a name.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
NAe São Paulo is a Clemenceau-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Brazilian Navy. São Paulo was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as Foch and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. In December 2014 it was announced that São Paulo will be expected to continue active service until 2039, at which time the vessel will be nearly 80 years old.
From this carrier, the Marinha do Brasil operates its only fixed-wing aircraft, and these were initially A-4 Skyhawks. In 1997 Brazil negotiated a $70 million contract for purchase of 20 A-4KU and three TA-4KU Skyhawks from Kuwait. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks, modified A-4Ms and TA-4Js delivered in 1977, were among the last of those models built by Douglas. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks were selected by Brazil because of low flight time, excellent physical condition, and a favorable price tag. The Brazilian Navy Re-designated AF-1 and AF-1A Falcões (Hawks), the ex-Kuwaiti Skyhawks arrived in Arraial do Cabo on 5 September 1998.
Anyway, the Skyhawks' life span was limited and in 2005 the Brazilian Navy started looking for a potential replacement, while the AF-1s were to kept operational due to limited military budgets. On 14 April 2009, Brazlian aircraft manufacturer EMBRAER signed a contract to modernize 12 Skyhawks, nine AF-1s (single-seat) and three AF-1As (two-seat). This upgrade will restore the operating capacity of the Navy 1st Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron (VF-1). The program includes restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar, power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. The first of the 12 modified Skyhawks was delivered on 27 May 2015. EMBRAER stated that the modifications would allow the aircraft to remain operational until 2025, by which time a successor was to be fully operational.
Several replacement candidates were evaluated under Brazil's F-X2 fighter program together with the Air Force which was looking to replace its Northrop F‐5EM and Dassault Mirage 2000C aircraft. In October 2008, Brazil selected three finalists: the Dassault Rafale, the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, and the SAAB JAS 39 Gripen. The Brazilian Air Force initially planned to procure at least 36 and possibly up to 120 aircraft later, while the Brazilian Navy was looking for 24 aircraft (20 single seater and 4 two-seaters with dual controls) until 2025.
In February 2009, SAAB submitted a tender, and on 5 January 2010, reports claimed that the final evaluation report placed the Gripen ahead of other contenders; the decisive factor was reportedly lower unit and operational costs, the most compact size and the Swedish manufacturer's willingness to accept EMBRAER as a technological partner for the aircraft's further development, especially for the navalized version.
Amid delays due to financial constraints, President Dilma Rousseff announced in December 2011 the Gripen NG's selection and the start of a joint Swedish-Brazilian joint venture called SABRA. Argentina and Ecuador were interested in procuring Gripens from or through Brazil, and Mexico and Argenitina were potential export targets for SABRA's navalized Gripen derivative that was tailored to the Marinha do Brasil's needs.
The respective SABRA aircraft was appropriately christened "Grifo" and the development of thei 4th generation fighter started immediately after closing the cooperation deal in 2011. While based on the SAAB 39, the Grifo became a very different aircraft, due to several factors. The major influence was the carrier operation capability, which called for major structural modifications and enforcements as well as special equipment like foldable wings, a strengthened landing gear, an arrester hook and a new engine that would better cope with the naval environment than the Swedish RM 12 engine, a derivative of the General Electric F404-400.
Additionally, the mission focus of air superiority with additional attack capabilities was reversed, and the need for excellent low speed handling for carrier approaches was requested.
This led to a complelety different aircraft layout, with the SAAB 39's instable canard design being changed into a conservative aircraft with conventional tailplanes. The nose section was shortened in order to provide the pilot with a better field of view, while the more powerful F414-EPE afterburning turbofan was moved slightly forward due to CG reasons, resulting in a slightly shortened rear fuselage.
A mock-up of the new aircraft for the Brazlian Navy was presented and approved in early 2012, and the government placed an official order for two prototypes. Even though the Grifo appeared like a completely different aircraft, it shared a lot of elements with the SAAB 39, so that development time and costs could be reduced to a minimum - and the first prototype, internally designated EMB 391-001, made its maiden flight in early 2013. The second aircraft followed 3 months later.
The Grifo's equipment includes an AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA), capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles, and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles, which include the AIM-9 Sidewinder for close range and the AIM-120 AMRAAM for medium range.
The Grifo features, like the Gripen fighter, an advanced and integrated electronic warfare suite, capable of operating in an undetectable passive mode or to actively jam hostile radar; a missile approach warning system passively detects and tracks incoming missiles.
The Grifo can be tailored to specific missions through external sensor pods, e .g. for reconnaissance and target designation. These include Rafael's LITENING targeting pod, Saab's Modular Reconnaissance Pod System or Thales' Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod. On the Brazilian Navy's request the Grifo is also designed that it can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role.
The two prototypes completed a thorough test program until summer 2015 and subsequently went on a sales tour in South America and Asia. In the meantime, serial production started at EMBRAER's Gavião Peixoto in November 2015. The first serial machines, now officially designated AF-2A, arrived at the Brazilian Navy's São Pedro da Aldeia air base where a new Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron, VF-2 'Arquieros' (Archers) was founded. The squadron became operational in April 2016 and Grifos embarked on NAe São Paulo for the first time in September 2016, serving alongside the venerable AF-1.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Payload: 5,300 kg (11,700 lb)
Length: 13,54 m (44 ft 4 in)
Wingspan (incl. wing tip launch rails): 8.32 m (27 ft 2 in)
Height: 4.25 m (13 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 30.0 m² (323 ft²)
Empty weight: 6,800 kg[330] (14,990 lb)
Loaded weight: 8,500 kg (18,700 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)
Wheel track: 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
Powerplant:
1 × General Electric F414-EPE afterburning turbofan with
a dry thrust of 54 kN (12,100 lbf) and 85 kN (19,100 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: Mach 2 (2,204 km/h (1,190 kn; 1,370 mph) at high altitude
Combat radius: 800 km (497 mi, 432 nmi)
Ferry range: 3,200 km (1,983 mi) with drop tanks
Service ceiling: 15,240 m (50,000 ft)
Wing loading: 283 kg/m² (58 lb/ft²)
Thrust/weight: 0.97
Maximum g-load: +9 g
Armament:
1× 27 mm Mauser BK-27 Revolver cannon with 120 rounds
Eight hardpoints (three on each wing and two under fuselage)
for a wide range of guide and unguided ordnance of up to 14,330 lb (6.5 t)
The kit and its assembly:
The fictional Grifo is the result of a generic idea of converting a canard layout aircraft like the Saab Viggen into a conventional design. The Viggen was actually a serious candidate, but then I found an Italeri Gripen in the stash without a real purpose (it had been cheap, though), and with Brazil's real world procurement as background, the more conservative Grifo was born.
I wanted to use as many OOB Gripen parts as possible, and there are actually only a few external donations involved – with the outlook of converting further Gripens this way. You never know… ;)
Work started with the wings, which were cut off of the fuselage shell. Having the landing gear retract into the fuselage (much like the X-29) is a convenient detail of the Gripen, making the wing transplantation easier than on a Viggen where the wells have to be moved, too.
The original canard attachment points were faired over/hidden. The pointed Gripen nose with its pitot was cut off and replaced by a shorter, more stocky nose tip - from an F-4 Phantom II IIRC. Once the fuselage was completed, the wings were mounted, closer to the air intakes. This went smoothly, only some gaps on the undersides had to be filled.
Once the wings were in place I had to make a decision concerning the stabilizers. Despite the plan to use as many OOB parts as possible I found the OOB canards to be too sharply swept and considered several donation options.
I eventually settled for the most unique option: the stabilizers are actually main wings from a (rather malformed) Italeri/Dragon 1:200 F-117 that comes as a set with the B-2 bomber. A part of the F-117’s fuselage flank was cut off and taken over to the Grifo, too, so that these create ‘muscular’ bulges.
The stabilizers were mounted on scratched consoles/trailing wing root extensions that were somewhat inspired by the F-16’s tail design – putting the stabilizers directly onto the fuselage would have looked awkward, and with this solution I was able to extend the Gripen’s BWB-design all along the fuselage. As a side effect these consoles also offered a plausible place for rearward chaff dispensers.
The rear fuselage was shortened by 3mm, too – through the shorter nose and the wings further forward, the rest of the aircraft looked rather tail-heavy. While 3mm does not sound much, it helped with overall proportions.
The cannon fairing and the OOB pylons were taken over, as well as the cockpit interior. For carrier operations, several details were added, though: folding wing mechanism seams were engraved on the wings and an arrester hook with a fairing added under the tail section, flanked by new stabilizer fins.
The landing gear was basically taken OOB, too, but lengthened with styrene inserts for a higher stance: the main struts are now 2mm longer, while the front strut is 3mm taller. The latter was reversed, so that a catapult hook could be added to the front side, and slightly bigger wheels were mounted, too, so that the Grifo now has a rather stalky stance with a nose-up attitude. Simple, but effective!
The Sidewinders were taken OOB while the pair of AGM-84 Harpoon comes from Italeri’s 1:72 NATO weapons set.
Painting and markings:
I used the contemporary AF-1 paint scheme in three shades of grey as benchmark. These are FS 36187 (RAF Ocean Grey), FS 36307 (Flint Grey) and FS 36515 (Canadian Voodoo Grey) - sourced from a painting guide from Brazilian decal manufacturer FCM and backed by other knowledgeable sources from the region, too. And while the Ocean Grey appears a bit dark, I think that overall the colors are authentic. All paints are Modelmaster enamels.
After basic painting a light black ink wash was applied and panels highlighted through dry-brushing with lighter tones.
The cockpit interior was painted in Neutral Grey (FS 36173), while the landing gear became all-white.
The Brazilian Navy markings had to be improvised - there are 1:72 AF-1 decals available, but either not obtainable or prohibitively expensive - or both. Therefore I rather improvised, with basic Brazilian Navy markings from a vintage FCM Decal sheet for various Brazilian aircraft.
The respective roundels and codes actually belong to helicopters, and I had to wing it somehow. Unfortunately, the old FCM decals turned out to be ...old. Brittle and very delicate, application was already messy and they did not adhere well to the model. To make matters worse the acrylic varnish turned cloudy, so that a lot of paintwork repair had to be done - not helping much with a satisfactory kit finish. :(
Another interesting conversion – I am amazed how purposeful the Grifo looks. It reminds me with its high stance of a modern A-4 Skyhawk (what it somehow is), and there’s also some Super Étendard in it, esp. in the profile? At some point before painting it also had a somewhat Chinese look - maybe because the top view and the wing planform reminds of the classic MiG-21…? The wings might have been placed 3-4mm further backwards, since it is always difficult to judge proportions while work is still, but the Grifo looks convincingly like a real aircraft (model).
Aeronaves bonita! :D
The stealthy Night Raider prowls the Brikverse to hunt down and disable lost convoys and vulnerable orbital stations. Its shrouded engines and angular design make it nearly undetectable to conventional sensor systems, allowing it to unleash a deadly surprise attack with its multiple cannons and armor-piercing missiles. The Rubrum Crucesignatis has a standing bounty on all Night Raiders, but its uncanny aptitude at hit-and-fade tactics have made it difficult to catch.
The Empire of Luchardsko is a cool-looking, if lore-light, faction created by Falk for Brikwars. One of my favorites.
bit.ly/13Zxbo1 - Cell Phone Tracking Software 5 Tips Parents Need To Know for Cell Phone Spy Smartphone Monitoring Mobile phone spy monitoring and tracking software can help inform parents of their children's activities, and help businesses protect sensitive data. mSpy provides undetectable features across an array of communication options on target user smartphones and tablets. No doubt cell phones have played a crucial role in enabling parents to keep in a better touch with teens, but threats like 'sexting' and 'cyber bullying' have many parents concerned where most are wondering if it is worth it. Teens rarely pursue cell phone privileges these days. Rather they tend to share personal details with strangers in form of talking and texting in the wee hours of morning. They can also start neglecting their school assignments which leads them to feel embarrassed and fear the loss of their cell phone use. In such a set-up, teens won't share the root cause of their issues with parents because their cell phone privileges are at stake. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 In the scenario like above, parents need to know the secrets of smart parenting! Below are some useful tips to monitor your teens' safety while using cell phone. 1) Spare some time to teach them to the pitfalls of sexting and other internet dangers that surface due to inappropriate use of a cell phone. 2) Take some interest in their social life, start keeping an eye on certain things like who they are calling and texting and at what time. Monitor their calls, no one will know they are being monitored. 3) Instruct your teens not to share any personal information with strangers. 4) In case your teens have gone too far abusing the cell phone privileges, installing mobile monitoring software onto their cell phone would be the next best step. To protect and monitor your children 24/7 even when they're away. 5) Protect them from cyber-bulling and online threats. Safeguard your family. mSpy is a customizable phone spy app for smartphones and tablets which provides advanced mobile phone spy tracking and monitoring options between devices. Home and Business solutions from mSpy offer specific features designed for each environment. The mSpy phone spy home version gives parents the option of listening to incoming or outgoing phone calls, logging and tracking SMS messages, viewing photos and browser history, and tracking GPS location and viewing history. A newly provided feature allows tracking of Skype and Whatsapp activity. A complete list of features for the home version of mSpy can be found by going to Mobile Phone Spy. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 Subsribe to our channel to receive more info about: cell phone spy software cell phone spy software free download cell phone spy software reviews cell phone spy software remote installation cell phone spy software iphone cell phone spy software free trial cheating spouse cell phone iphone spy software spybubble mSpy mobistealth Samsung SGH-T959 Vibrant Samsung Galaxy S II SGH-T989 HTC myTouch 4G (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit II 4G SGH-T679 LG T-Mobile myTouch E739 LG P999 G2x (T-Mobie) LG LG Optimus T (T-Mobile) Nokia Nuron 5230 (unlocked) HTC G2 A6161 (T-Mobile) LG P509 Motorola DROID A855 (VZW) Samsung Gravity SMART SGH-T589 Samsung Highlight T749 (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit 4G SGH-T759 Samsung Behold T919 (T-Mobile) LG Doubleplay C729 Samsung Gravity T T669 (T-Mobile) HTC Amaze 4G Samsung Dart SGH-T499 Samsung Memoir T929 (T-Mobile) Samsung A777 (AT&T) Samsung Evergreen A667 (ATT) Samsung Rugby II A847 (AT&T) Pantech Ease P2020 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson Xperia X10a (AT&T) Pantech Pursuit P9020 (AT&T) Huawei U2800 ZTE R225 (unlocked) Samsung A237 (AT&T) Nokia 6350 (AT&T) Nokia 2330 (AT&T) Samsung Captivate I897 (AT&T) Nokia 6085 Pantech Breeze C520 (AT&T) Motorola BACKFLIP MB300 (AT&T) Samsung A437 (AT&T) Nokia 2600 (AT&T) Nokia 2720 (AT&T) ZTE F160 (ATT) Pantech Breeze II P2000 (AT&T) Nokia 6030 Nokia 2610 (AT&T) LG P505 Motorola Flipside MB508 (ATT) Samsung A117 (AT&T) Pantech P5000 BlackBerry Curve 3G 9300 (ATT) LG CU515 (AT&T) BlackBerry Bold 9700 (AT&T) BlackBerry Curve 8520 (AT&T) Samsung Jack i637 (AT&T) Pantech P6010 Motorola ROKR EM330 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson W580i Nokia 6126 (AT&T) Nokia 6102i bit.ly/13ZxaR9
Hair Loss Treatment | Instant Thick Hair with Gofybr - Hair Building Fibers
Visit us at; gofybr.com
^^FREE SHIPPING ON ALL ORDERS^^
30 days supply - £13.95;
gofybr.com/products/gofybr-12-5g-travel
60 days supply - £23.95;
gofybr.com/products/gofybr-25g-60-day-supply
180 days supply - £66.95;
gofybr.com/products/gofybr-75g
365 days supply - £124.95;
Gofybr instantly makes thinning hair look naturally thick & strong. Our 100% cotton fibers naturally binds to your existing hair strands and in seconds, creates a natural look of confidence!
"Our Gofybr 30 day supply is our most popular online product for 2015"
Gofybr won't come off in wind, rain or perspiration. It is totally undetectable, even from as close as two inch. Once Gofybr is sprinkled on, you won't be able to believe the difference. Simply shampoo Gofybr to wash out & remove.
Main benefits:
- Real instant hair thickening and hair volumising.
- Pure 100% natural cotton
- Wind, rain, and perspiration resistant
Like us on Facebook;
www.facebook.com/pages/Gofybr/323597771134982
Follow us on Twitter;
Hair building fibers are the perfect solution for thinning hair or bald spots. Thinning hair is a problem that effects million of men and women every year and can badly effect their confidence. Gofybr's hair building fibers are the perfect solution to this problem as they instantly build high density & thick and luscious hair in seconds.
* These are individual results & may vary from person to person. Please visit our Natural fibers page to see how Gofybr works; gofybr.com/collections/gofybr-multi
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The first case was identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The disease has since spread worldwide, leading to an ongoing pandemic.
Symptoms of COVID-19 are variable, but often include fever, cough, fatigue, breathing difficulties, and loss of smell and taste. Symptoms begin one to fourteen days after exposure to the virus. Of those people who develop noticeable symptoms, most (81%) develop mild to moderate symptoms (up to mild pneumonia), while 14% develop severe symptoms (dyspnea, hypoxia, or more than 50% lung involvement on imaging), and 5% suffer critical symptoms (respiratory failure, shock, or multiorgan dysfunction). Older people are more likely to have severe symptoms. At least a third of the people who are infected with the virus remain asymptomatic and do not develop noticeable symptoms at any point in time, but they still can spread the disease.[ Around 20% of those people will remain asymptomatic throughout infection, and the rest will develop symptoms later on, becoming pre-symptomatic rather than asymptomatic and therefore having a higher risk of transmitting the virus to others. Some people continue to experience a range of effects—known as long COVID—for months after recovery, and damage to organs has been observed. Multi-year studies are underway to further investigate the long-term effects of the disease.
The virus that causes COVID-19 spreads mainly when an infected person is in close contact[a] with another person. Small droplets and aerosols containing the virus can spread from an infected person's nose and mouth as they breathe, cough, sneeze, sing, or speak. Other people are infected if the virus gets into their mouth, nose or eyes. The virus may also spread via contaminated surfaces, although this is not thought to be the main route of transmission. The exact route of transmission is rarely proven conclusively, but infection mainly happens when people are near each other for long enough. People who are infected can transmit the virus to another person up to two days before they themselves show symptoms, as can people who do not experience symptoms. People remain infectious for up to ten days after the onset of symptoms in moderate cases and up to 20 days in severe cases. Several testing methods have been developed to diagnose the disease. The standard diagnostic method is by detection of the virus' nucleic acid by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR), transcription-mediated amplification (TMA), or by reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) from a nasopharyngeal swab.
Preventive measures include physical or social distancing, quarantining, ventilation of indoor spaces, covering coughs and sneezes, hand washing, and keeping unwashed hands away from the face. The use of face masks or coverings has been recommended in public settings to minimise the risk of transmissions. Several vaccines have been developed and several countries have initiated mass vaccination campaigns.
Although work is underway to develop drugs that inhibit the virus, the primary treatment is currently symptomatic. Management involves the treatment of symptoms, supportive care, isolation, and experimental measures.
SIGNS AND SYSTOMS
Symptoms of COVID-19 are variable, ranging from mild symptoms to severe illness. Common symptoms include headache, loss of smell and taste, nasal congestion and rhinorrhea, cough, muscle pain, sore throat, fever, diarrhea, and breathing difficulties. People with the same infection may have different symptoms, and their symptoms may change over time. Three common clusters of symptoms have been identified: one respiratory symptom cluster with cough, sputum, shortness of breath, and fever; a musculoskeletal symptom cluster with muscle and joint pain, headache, and fatigue; a cluster of digestive symptoms with abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea. In people without prior ear, nose, and throat disorders, loss of taste combined with loss of smell is associated with COVID-19.
Most people (81%) develop mild to moderate symptoms (up to mild pneumonia), while 14% develop severe symptoms (dyspnea, hypoxia, or more than 50% lung involvement on imaging) and 5% of patients suffer critical symptoms (respiratory failure, shock, or multiorgan dysfunction). At least a third of the people who are infected with the virus do not develop noticeable symptoms at any point in time. These asymptomatic carriers tend not to get tested and can spread the disease. Other infected people will develop symptoms later, called "pre-symptomatic", or have very mild symptoms and can also spread the virus.
As is common with infections, there is a delay between the moment a person first becomes infected and the appearance of the first symptoms. The median delay for COVID-19 is four to five days. Most symptomatic people experience symptoms within two to seven days after exposure, and almost all will experience at least one symptom within 12 days.
Most people recover from the acute phase of the disease. However, some people continue to experience a range of effects for months after recovery—named long COVID—and damage to organs has been observed. Multi-year studies are underway to further investigate the long-term effects of the disease.
CAUSE
TRANSMISSION
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) spreads from person to person mainly through the respiratory route after an infected person coughs, sneezes, sings, talks or breathes. A new infection occurs when virus-containing particles exhaled by an infected person, either respiratory droplets or aerosols, get into the mouth, nose, or eyes of other people who are in close contact with the infected person. During human-to-human transmission, an average 1000 infectious SARS-CoV-2 virions are thought to initiate a new infection.
The closer people interact, and the longer they interact, the more likely they are to transmit COVID-19. Closer distances can involve larger droplets (which fall to the ground) and aerosols, whereas longer distances only involve aerosols. Larger droplets can also turn into aerosols (known as droplet nuclei) through evaporation. The relative importance of the larger droplets and the aerosols is not clear as of November 2020; however, the virus is not known to spread between rooms over long distances such as through air ducts. Airborne transmission is able to particularly occur indoors, in high risk locations such as restaurants, choirs, gyms, nightclubs, offices, and religious venues, often when they are crowded or less ventilated. It also occurs in healthcare settings, often when aerosol-generating medical procedures are performed on COVID-19 patients.
Although it is considered possible there is no direct evidence of the virus being transmitted by skin to skin contact. A person could get COVID-19 indirectly by touching a contaminated surface or object before touching their own mouth, nose, or eyes, though this is not thought to be the main way the virus spreads. The virus is not known to spread through feces, urine, breast milk, food, wastewater, drinking water, or via animal disease vectors (although some animals can contract the virus from humans). It very rarely transmits from mother to baby during pregnancy.
Social distancing and the wearing of cloth face masks, surgical masks, respirators, or other face coverings are controls for droplet transmission. Transmission may be decreased indoors with well maintained heating and ventilation systems to maintain good air circulation and increase the use of outdoor air.
The number of people generally infected by one infected person varies. Coronavirus disease 2019 is more infectious than influenza, but less so than measles. It often spreads in clusters, where infections can be traced back to an index case or geographical location. There is a major role of "super-spreading events", where many people are infected by one person.
A person who is infected can transmit the virus to others up to two days before they themselves show symptoms, and even if symptoms never appear. People remain infectious in moderate cases for 7–12 days, and up to two weeks in severe cases. In October 2020, medical scientists reported evidence of reinfection in one person.
VIROLOGY
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. It was first isolated from three people with pneumonia connected to the cluster of acute respiratory illness cases in Wuhan. All structural features of the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus particle occur in related coronaviruses in nature.
Outside the human body, the virus is destroyed by household soap, which bursts its protective bubble.
SARS-CoV-2 is closely related to the original SARS-CoV. It is thought to have an animal (zoonotic) origin. Genetic analysis has revealed that the coronavirus genetically clusters with the genus Betacoronavirus, in subgenus Sarbecovirus (lineage B) together with two bat-derived strains. It is 96% identical at the whole genome level to other bat coronavirus samples (BatCov RaTG13). The structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2 include membrane glycoprotein (M), envelope protein (E), nucleocapsid protein (N), and the spike protein (S). The M protein of SARS-CoV-2 is about 98% similar to the M protein of bat SARS-CoV, maintains around 98% homology with pangolin SARS-CoV, and has 90% homology with the M protein of SARS-CoV; whereas, the similarity is only around 38% with the M protein of MERS-CoV. The structure of the M protein resembles the sugar transporter SemiSWEET.
The many thousands of SARS-CoV-2 variants are grouped into clades. Several different clade nomenclatures have been proposed. Nextstrain divides the variants into five clades (19A, 19B, 20A, 20B, and 20C), while GISAID divides them into seven (L, O, V, S, G, GH, and GR).
Several notable variants of SARS-CoV-2 emerged in late 2020. Cluster 5 emerged among minks and mink farmers in Denmark. After strict quarantines and a mink euthanasia campaign, it is believed to have been eradicated. The Variant of Concern 202012/01 (VOC 202012/01) is believed to have emerged in the United Kingdom in September. The 501Y.V2 Variant, which has the same N501Y mutation, arose independently in South Africa.
SARS-CoV-2 VARIANTS
Three known variants of SARS-CoV-2 are currently spreading among global populations as of January 2021 including the UK Variant (referred to as B.1.1.7) first found in London and Kent, a variant discovered in South Africa (referred to as 1.351), and a variant discovered in Brazil (referred to as P.1).
Using Whole Genome Sequencing, epidemiology and modelling suggest the new UK variant ‘VUI – 202012/01’ (the first Variant Under Investigation in December 2020) transmits more easily than other strains.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
COVID-19 can affect the upper respiratory tract (sinuses, nose, and throat) and the lower respiratory tract (windpipe and lungs). The lungs are the organs most affected by COVID-19 because the virus accesses host cells via the enzyme angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), which is most abundant in type II alveolar cells of the lungs. The virus uses a special surface glycoprotein called a "spike" (peplomer) to connect to ACE2 and enter the host cell. The density of ACE2 in each tissue correlates with the severity of the disease in that tissue and decreasing ACE2 activity might be protective, though another view is that increasing ACE2 using angiotensin II receptor blocker medications could be protective. As the alveolar disease progresses, respiratory failure might develop and death may follow.
Whether SARS-CoV-2 is able to invade the nervous system remains unknown. The virus is not detected in the CNS of the majority of COVID-19 people with neurological issues. However, SARS-CoV-2 has been detected at low levels in the brains of those who have died from COVID-19, but these results need to be confirmed. SARS-CoV-2 could cause respiratory failure through affecting the brain stem as other coronaviruses have been found to invade the CNS. While virus has been detected in cerebrospinal fluid of autopsies, the exact mechanism by which it invades the CNS remains unclear and may first involve invasion of peripheral nerves given the low levels of ACE2 in the brain. The virus may also enter the bloodstream from the lungs and cross the blood-brain barrier to gain access to the CNS, possibly within an infected white blood cell.
The virus also affects gastrointestinal organs as ACE2 is abundantly expressed in the glandular cells of gastric, duodenal and rectal epithelium as well as endothelial cells and enterocytes of the small intestine.
The virus can cause acute myocardial injury and chronic damage to the cardiovascular system. An acute cardiac injury was found in 12% of infected people admitted to the hospital in Wuhan, China, and is more frequent in severe disease. Rates of cardiovascular symptoms are high, owing to the systemic inflammatory response and immune system disorders during disease progression, but acute myocardial injuries may also be related to ACE2 receptors in the heart. ACE2 receptors are highly expressed in the heart and are involved in heart function. A high incidence of thrombosis and venous thromboembolism have been found people transferred to Intensive care unit (ICU) with COVID-19 infections, and may be related to poor prognosis. Blood vessel dysfunction and clot formation (as suggested by high D-dimer levels caused by blood clots) are thought to play a significant role in mortality, incidences of clots leading to pulmonary embolisms, and ischaemic events within the brain have been noted as complications leading to death in people infected with SARS-CoV-2. Infection appears to set off a chain of vasoconstrictive responses within the body, constriction of blood vessels within the pulmonary circulation has also been posited as a mechanism in which oxygenation decreases alongside the presentation of viral pneumonia. Furthermore, microvascular blood vessel damage has been reported in a small number of tissue samples of the brains – without detected SARS-CoV-2 – and the olfactory bulbs from those who have died from COVID-19.
Another common cause of death is complications related to the kidneys. Early reports show that up to 30% of hospitalized patients both in China and in New York have experienced some injury to their kidneys, including some persons with no previous kidney problems.
Autopsies of people who died of COVID-19 have found diffuse alveolar damage, and lymphocyte-containing inflammatory infiltrates within the lung.
IMMUNOPATHOLOGY
Although SARS-CoV-2 has a tropism for ACE2-expressing epithelial cells of the respiratory tract, people with severe COVID-19 have symptoms of systemic hyperinflammation. Clinical laboratory findings of elevated IL-2, IL-7, IL-6, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferon-γ inducible protein 10 (IP-10), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein 1-α (MIP-1α), and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) indicative of cytokine release syndrome (CRS) suggest an underlying immunopathology.
Additionally, people with COVID-19 and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) have classical serum biomarkers of CRS, including elevated C-reactive protein (CRP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), D-dimer, and ferritin.
Systemic inflammation results in vasodilation, allowing inflammatory lymphocytic and monocytic infiltration of the lung and the heart. In particular, pathogenic GM-CSF-secreting T-cells were shown to correlate with the recruitment of inflammatory IL-6-secreting monocytes and severe lung pathology in people with COVID-19 . Lymphocytic infiltrates have also been reported at autopsy.
VIRAL AND HOST FACTORS
VIRUS PROTEINS
Multiple viral and host factors affect the pathogenesis of the virus. The S-protein, otherwise known as the spike protein, is the viral component that attaches to the host receptor via the ACE2 receptors. It includes two subunits: S1 and S2. S1 determines the virus host range and cellular tropism via the receptor binding domain. S2 mediates the membrane fusion of the virus to its potential cell host via the H1 and HR2, which are heptad repeat regions. Studies have shown that S1 domain induced IgG and IgA antibody levels at a much higher capacity. It is the focus spike proteins expression that are involved in many effective COVID-19 vaccines.
The M protein is the viral protein responsible for the transmembrane transport of nutrients. It is the cause of the bud release and the formation of the viral envelope. The N and E protein are accessory proteins that interfere with the host's immune response.
HOST FACTORS
Human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) is the host factor that SARS-COV2 virus targets causing COVID-19. Theoretically the usage of angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) and ACE inhibitors upregulating ACE2 expression might increase morbidity with COVID-19, though animal data suggest some potential protective effect of ARB. However no clinical studies have proven susceptibility or outcomes. Until further data is available, guidelines and recommendations for hypertensive patients remain.
The virus' effect on ACE2 cell surfaces leads to leukocytic infiltration, increased blood vessel permeability, alveolar wall permeability, as well as decreased secretion of lung surfactants. These effects cause the majority of the respiratory symptoms. However, the aggravation of local inflammation causes a cytokine storm eventually leading to a systemic inflammatory response syndrome.
HOST CYTOKINE RESPONSE
The severity of the inflammation can be attributed to the severity of what is known as the cytokine storm. Levels of interleukin 1B, interferon-gamma, interferon-inducible protein 10, and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 were all associated with COVID-19 disease severity. Treatment has been proposed to combat the cytokine storm as it remains to be one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in COVID-19 disease.
A cytokine storm is due to an acute hyperinflammatory response that is responsible for clinical illness in an array of diseases but in COVID-19, it is related to worse prognosis and increased fatality. The storm causes the acute respiratory distress syndrome, blood clotting events such as strokes, myocardial infarction, encephalitis, acute kidney injury, and vasculitis. The production of IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, TNF-alpha, and interferon-gamma, all crucial components of normal immune responses, inadvertently become the causes of a cytokine storm. The cells of the central nervous system, the microglia, neurons, and astrocytes, are also be involved in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines affecting the nervous system, and effects of cytokine storms toward the CNS are not uncommon.
DIAGNOSIS
COVID-19 can provisionally be diagnosed on the basis of symptoms and confirmed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or other nucleic acid testing of infected secretions. Along with laboratory testing, chest CT scans may be helpful to diagnose COVID-19 in individuals with a high clinical suspicion of infection. Detection of a past infection is possible with serological tests, which detect antibodies produced by the body in response to the infection.
VIRAL TESTING
The standard methods of testing for presence of SARS-CoV-2 are nucleic acid tests, which detects the presence of viral RNA fragments. As these tests detect RNA but not infectious virus, its "ability to determine duration of infectivity of patients is limited." The test is typically done on respiratory samples obtained by a nasopharyngeal swab; however, a nasal swab or sputum sample may also be used. Results are generally available within hours. The WHO has published several testing protocols for the disease.
A number of laboratories and companies have developed serological tests, which detect antibodies produced by the body in response to infection. Several have been evaluated by Public Health England and approved for use in the UK.
The University of Oxford's CEBM has pointed to mounting evidence that "a good proportion of 'new' mild cases and people re-testing positives after quarantine or discharge from hospital are not infectious, but are simply clearing harmless virus particles which their immune system has efficiently dealt with" and have called for "an international effort to standardize and periodically calibrate testing" On 7 September, the UK government issued "guidance for procedures to be implemented in laboratories to provide assurance of positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA results during periods of low prevalence, when there is a reduction in the predictive value of positive test results."
IMAGING
Chest CT scans may be helpful to diagnose COVID-19 in individuals with a high clinical suspicion of infection but are not recommended for routine screening. Bilateral multilobar ground-glass opacities with a peripheral, asymmetric, and posterior distribution are common in early infection. Subpleural dominance, crazy paving (lobular septal thickening with variable alveolar filling), and consolidation may appear as the disease progresses. Characteristic imaging features on chest radiographs and computed tomography (CT) of people who are symptomatic include asymmetric peripheral ground-glass opacities without pleural effusions.
Many groups have created COVID-19 datasets that include imagery such as the Italian Radiological Society which has compiled an international online database of imaging findings for confirmed cases. Due to overlap with other infections such as adenovirus, imaging without confirmation by rRT-PCR is of limited specificity in identifying COVID-19. A large study in China compared chest CT results to PCR and demonstrated that though imaging is less specific for the infection, it is faster and more sensitive.
Coding
In late 2019, the WHO assigned emergency ICD-10 disease codes U07.1 for deaths from lab-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and U07.2 for deaths from clinically or epidemiologically diagnosed COVID-19 without lab-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection.
PATHOLOGY
The main pathological findings at autopsy are:
Macroscopy: pericarditis, lung consolidation and pulmonary oedema
Lung findings:
minor serous exudation, minor fibrin exudation
pulmonary oedema, pneumocyte hyperplasia, large atypical pneumocytes, interstitial inflammation with lymphocytic infiltration and multinucleated giant cell formation
diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) with diffuse alveolar exudates. DAD is the cause of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and severe hypoxemia.
organisation of exudates in alveolar cavities and pulmonary interstitial fibrosis
plasmocytosis in BAL
Blood: disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC); leukoerythroblastic reaction
Liver: microvesicular steatosis
PREVENTION
Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection include staying at home, wearing a mask in public, avoiding crowded places, keeping distance from others, ventilating indoor spaces, washing hands with soap and water often and for at least 20 seconds, practising good respiratory hygiene, and avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.
Those diagnosed with COVID-19 or who believe they may be infected are advised by the CDC to stay home except to get medical care, call ahead before visiting a healthcare provider, wear a face mask before entering the healthcare provider's office and when in any room or vehicle with another person, cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue, regularly wash hands with soap and water and avoid sharing personal household items.
The first COVID-19 vaccine was granted regulatory approval on 2 December by the UK medicines regulator MHRA. It was evaluated for emergency use authorization (EUA) status by the US FDA, and in several other countries. Initially, the US National Institutes of Health guidelines do not recommend any medication for prevention of COVID-19, before or after exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus, outside the setting of a clinical trial. Without a vaccine, other prophylactic measures, or effective treatments, a key part of managing COVID-19 is trying to decrease and delay the epidemic peak, known as "flattening the curve". This is done by slowing the infection rate to decrease the risk of health services being overwhelmed, allowing for better treatment of current cases, and delaying additional cases until effective treatments or a vaccine become available.
VACCINE
A COVID‑19 vaccine is a vaccine intended to provide acquired immunity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2), the virus causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‑19). Prior to the COVID‑19 pandemic, there was an established body of knowledge about the structure and function of coronaviruses causing diseases like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), which enabled accelerated development of various vaccine technologies during early 2020. On 10 January 2020, the SARS-CoV-2 genetic sequence data was shared through GISAID, and by 19 March, the global pharmaceutical industry announced a major commitment to address COVID-19.
In Phase III trials, several COVID‑19 vaccines have demonstrated efficacy as high as 95% in preventing symptomatic COVID‑19 infections. As of March 2021, 12 vaccines were authorized by at least one national regulatory authority for public use: two RNA vaccines (the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine and the Moderna vaccine), four conventional inactivated vaccines (BBIBP-CorV, CoronaVac, Covaxin, and CoviVac), four viral vector vaccines (Sputnik V, the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine, Convidicea, and the Johnson & Johnson vaccine), and two protein subunit vaccines (EpiVacCorona and RBD-Dimer). In total, as of March 2021, 308 vaccine candidates were in various stages of development, with 73 in clinical research, including 24 in Phase I trials, 33 in Phase I–II trials, and 16 in Phase III development.
Many countries have implemented phased distribution plans that prioritize those at highest risk of complications, such as the elderly, and those at high risk of exposure and transmission, such as healthcare workers. As of 17 March 2021, 400.22 million doses of COVID‑19 vaccine have been administered worldwide based on official reports from national health agencies. AstraZeneca-Oxford anticipates producing 3 billion doses in 2021, Pfizer-BioNTech 1.3 billion doses, and Sputnik V, Sinopharm, Sinovac, and Johnson & Johnson 1 billion doses each. Moderna targets producing 600 million doses and Convidicea 500 million doses in 2021. By December 2020, more than 10 billion vaccine doses had been preordered by countries, with about half of the doses purchased by high-income countries comprising 14% of the world's population.
SOCIAL DISTANCING
Social distancing (also known as physical distancing) includes infection control actions intended to slow the spread of the disease by minimising close contact between individuals. Methods include quarantines; travel restrictions; and the closing of schools, workplaces, stadiums, theatres, or shopping centres. Individuals may apply social distancing methods by staying at home, limiting travel, avoiding crowded areas, using no-contact greetings, and physically distancing themselves from others. Many governments are now mandating or recommending social distancing in regions affected by the outbreak.
Outbreaks have occurred in prisons due to crowding and an inability to enforce adequate social distancing. In the United States, the prisoner population is aging and many of them are at high risk for poor outcomes from COVID-19 due to high rates of coexisting heart and lung disease, and poor access to high-quality healthcare.
SELF-ISOLATION
Self-isolation at home has been recommended for those diagnosed with COVID-19 and those who suspect they have been infected. Health agencies have issued detailed instructions for proper self-isolation. Many governments have mandated or recommended self-quarantine for entire populations. The strongest self-quarantine instructions have been issued to those in high-risk groups. Those who may have been exposed to someone with COVID-19 and those who have recently travelled to a country or region with the widespread transmission have been advised to self-quarantine for 14 days from the time of last possible exposure.
Face masks and respiratory hygiene
The WHO and the US CDC recommend individuals wear non-medical face coverings in public settings where there is an increased risk of transmission and where social distancing measures are difficult to maintain. This recommendation is meant to reduce the spread of the disease by asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic individuals and is complementary to established preventive measures such as social distancing. Face coverings limit the volume and travel distance of expiratory droplets dispersed when talking, breathing, and coughing. A face covering without vents or holes will also filter out particles containing the virus from inhaled and exhaled air, reducing the chances of infection. But, if the mask include an exhalation valve, a wearer that is infected (maybe without having noticed that, and asymptomatic) would transmit the virus outwards through it, despite any certification they can have. So the masks with exhalation valve are not for the infected wearers, and are not reliable to stop the pandemic in a large scale. Many countries and local jurisdictions encourage or mandate the use of face masks or cloth face coverings by members of the public to limit the spread of the virus.
Masks are also strongly recommended for those who may have been infected and those taking care of someone who may have the disease. When not wearing a mask, the CDC recommends covering the mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing or sneezing and recommends using the inside of the elbow if no tissue is available. Proper hand hygiene after any cough or sneeze is encouraged. Healthcare professionals interacting directly with people who have COVID-19 are advised to use respirators at least as protective as NIOSH-certified N95 or equivalent, in addition to other personal protective equipment.
HAND-WASHING AND HYGIENE
Thorough hand hygiene after any cough or sneeze is required. The WHO also recommends that individuals wash hands often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, especially after going to the toilet or when hands are visibly dirty, before eating and after blowing one's nose. The CDC recommends using an alcohol-based hand sanitiser with at least 60% alcohol, but only when soap and water are not readily available. For areas where commercial hand sanitisers are not readily available, the WHO provides two formulations for local production. In these formulations, the antimicrobial activity arises from ethanol or isopropanol. Hydrogen peroxide is used to help eliminate bacterial spores in the alcohol; it is "not an active substance for hand antisepsis". Glycerol is added as a humectant.
SURFACE CLEANING
After being expelled from the body, coronaviruses can survive on surfaces for hours to days. If a person touches the dirty surface, they may deposit the virus at the eyes, nose, or mouth where it can enter the body cause infection. Current evidence indicates that contact with infected surfaces is not the main driver of Covid-19, leading to recommendations for optimised disinfection procedures to avoid issues such as the increase of antimicrobial resistance through the use of inappropriate cleaning products and processes. Deep cleaning and other surface sanitation has been criticized as hygiene theater, giving a false sense of security against something primarily spread through the air.
The amount of time that the virus can survive depends significantly on the type of surface, the temperature, and the humidity. Coronaviruses die very quickly when exposed to the UV light in sunlight. Like other enveloped viruses, SARS-CoV-2 survives longest when the temperature is at room temperature or lower, and when the relative humidity is low (<50%).
On many surfaces, including as glass, some types of plastic, stainless steel, and skin, the virus can remain infective for several days indoors at room temperature, or even about a week under ideal conditions. On some surfaces, including cotton fabric and copper, the virus usually dies after a few hours. As a general rule of thumb, the virus dies faster on porous surfaces than on non-porous surfaces.
However, this rule is not absolute, and of the many surfaces tested, two with the longest survival times are N95 respirator masks and surgical masks, both of which are considered porous surfaces.
Surfaces may be decontaminated with 62–71 percent ethanol, 50–100 percent isopropanol, 0.1 percent sodium hypochlorite, 0.5 percent hydrogen peroxide, and 0.2–7.5 percent povidone-iodine. Other solutions, such as benzalkonium chloride and chlorhexidine gluconate, are less effective. Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation may also be used. The CDC recommends that if a COVID-19 case is suspected or confirmed at a facility such as an office or day care, all areas such as offices, bathrooms, common areas, shared electronic equipment like tablets, touch screens, keyboards, remote controls, and ATM machines used by the ill persons should be disinfected. A datasheet comprising the authorised substances to disinfection in the food industry (including suspension or surface tested, kind of surface, use dilution, disinfectant and inocuylum volumes) can be seen in the supplementary material of.
VENTILATION AND AIR FILTRATION
The WHO recommends ventilation and air filtration in public spaces to help clear out infectious aerosols.
HEALTHY DIET AND LIFESTYLE
The Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health recommends a healthy diet, being physically active, managing psychological stress, and getting enough sleep.
While there is no evidence that vitamin D is an effective treatment for COVID-19, there is limited evidence that vitamin D deficiency increases the risk of severe COVID-19 symptoms. This has led to recommendations for individuals with vitamin D deficiency to take vitamin D supplements as a way of mitigating the risk of COVID-19 and other health issues associated with a possible increase in deficiency due to social distancing.
TREATMENT
There is no specific, effective treatment or cure for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Thus, the cornerstone of management of COVID-19 is supportive care, which includes treatment to relieve symptoms, fluid therapy, oxygen support and prone positioning as needed, and medications or devices to support other affected vital organs.
Most cases of COVID-19 are mild. In these, supportive care includes medication such as paracetamol or NSAIDs to relieve symptoms (fever, body aches, cough), proper intake of fluids, rest, and nasal breathing. Good personal hygiene and a healthy diet are also recommended. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend that those who suspect they are carrying the virus isolate themselves at home and wear a face mask.
People with more severe cases may need treatment in hospital. In those with low oxygen levels, use of the glucocorticoid dexamethasone is strongly recommended, as it can reduce the risk of death. Noninvasive ventilation and, ultimately, admission to an intensive care unit for mechanical ventilation may be required to support breathing. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has been used to address the issue of respiratory failure, but its benefits are still under consideration.
Several experimental treatments are being actively studied in clinical trials. Others were thought to be promising early in the pandemic, such as hydroxychloroquine and lopinavir/ritonavir, but later research found them to be ineffective or even harmful. Despite ongoing research, there is still not enough high-quality evidence to recommend so-called early treatment. Nevertheless, in the United States, two monoclonal antibody-based therapies are available for early use in cases thought to be at high risk of progression to severe disease. The antiviral remdesivir is available in the U.S., Canada, Australia, and several other countries, with varying restrictions; however, it is not recommended for people needing mechanical ventilation, and is discouraged altogether by the World Health Organization (WHO), due to limited evidence of its efficacy.
PROGNOSIS
The severity of COVID-19 varies. The disease may take a mild course with few or no symptoms, resembling other common upper respiratory diseases such as the common cold. In 3–4% of cases (7.4% for those over age 65) symptoms are severe enough to cause hospitalization. Mild cases typically recover within two weeks, while those with severe or critical diseases may take three to six weeks to recover. Among those who have died, the time from symptom onset to death has ranged from two to eight weeks. The Italian Istituto Superiore di Sanità reported that the median time between the onset of symptoms and death was twelve days, with seven being hospitalised. However, people transferred to an ICU had a median time of ten days between hospitalisation and death. Prolonged prothrombin time and elevated C-reactive protein levels on admission to the hospital are associated with severe course of COVID-19 and with a transfer to ICU.
Some early studies suggest 10% to 20% of people with COVID-19 will experience symptoms lasting longer than a month.[191][192] A majority of those who were admitted to hospital with severe disease report long-term problems including fatigue and shortness of breath. On 30 October 2020 WHO chief Tedros Adhanom warned that "to a significant number of people, the COVID virus poses a range of serious long-term effects". He has described the vast spectrum of COVID-19 symptoms that fluctuate over time as "really concerning." They range from fatigue, a cough and shortness of breath, to inflammation and injury of major organs – including the lungs and heart, and also neurological and psychologic effects. Symptoms often overlap and can affect any system in the body. Infected people have reported cyclical bouts of fatigue, headaches, months of complete exhaustion, mood swings, and other symptoms. Tedros has concluded that therefore herd immunity is "morally unconscionable and unfeasible".
In terms of hospital readmissions about 9% of 106,000 individuals had to return for hospital treatment within 2 months of discharge. The average to readmit was 8 days since first hospital visit. There are several risk factors that have been identified as being a cause of multiple admissions to a hospital facility. Among these are advanced age (above 65 years of age) and presence of a chronic condition such as diabetes, COPD, heart failure or chronic kidney disease.
According to scientific reviews smokers are more likely to require intensive care or die compared to non-smokers, air pollution is similarly associated with risk factors, and pre-existing heart and lung diseases and also obesity contributes to an increased health risk of COVID-19.
It is also assumed that those that are immunocompromised are at higher risk of getting severely sick from SARS-CoV-2. One research that looked into the COVID-19 infections in hospitalized kidney transplant recipients found a mortality rate of 11%.
See also: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children
Children make up a small proportion of reported cases, with about 1% of cases being under 10 years and 4% aged 10–19 years. They are likely to have milder symptoms and a lower chance of severe disease than adults. A European multinational study of hospitalized children published in The Lancet on 25 June 2020 found that about 8% of children admitted to a hospital needed intensive care. Four of those 582 children (0.7%) died, but the actual mortality rate could be "substantially lower" since milder cases that did not seek medical help were not included in the study.
Genetics also plays an important role in the ability to fight off the disease. For instance, those that do not produce detectable type I interferons or produce auto-antibodies against these may get much sicker from COVID-19. Genetic screening is able to detect interferon effector genes.
Pregnant women may be at higher risk of severe COVID-19 infection based on data from other similar viruses, like SARS and MERS, but data for COVID-19 is lacking.
COMPLICATIONS
Complications may include pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), multi-organ failure, septic shock, and death. Cardiovascular complications may include heart failure, arrhythmias, heart inflammation, and blood clots. Approximately 20–30% of people who present with COVID-19 have elevated liver enzymes, reflecting liver injury.
Neurologic manifestations include seizure, stroke, encephalitis, and Guillain–Barré syndrome (which includes loss of motor functions). Following the infection, children may develop paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome, which has symptoms similar to Kawasaki disease, which can be fatal. In very rare cases, acute encephalopathy can occur, and it can be considered in those who have been diagnosed with COVID-19 and have an altered mental status.
LONGER-TERM EFFECTS
Some early studies suggest that that 10 to 20% of people with COVID-19 will experience symptoms lasting longer than a month. A majority of those who were admitted to hospital with severe disease report long-term problems, including fatigue and shortness of breath. About 5-10% of patients admitted to hospital progress to severe or critical disease, including pneumonia and acute respiratory failure.
By a variety of mechanisms, the lungs are the organs most affected in COVID-19.[228] The majority of CT scans performed show lung abnormalities in people tested after 28 days of illness.
People with advanced age, severe disease, prolonged ICU stays, or who smoke are more likely to have long lasting effects, including pulmonary fibrosis. Overall, approximately one third of those investigated after 4 weeks will have findings of pulmonary fibrosis or reduced lung function as measured by DLCO, even in people who are asymptomatic, but with the suggestion of continuing improvement with the passing of more time.
IMMUNITY
The immune response by humans to CoV-2 virus occurs as a combination of the cell-mediated immunity and antibody production, just as with most other infections. Since SARS-CoV-2 has been in the human population only since December 2019, it remains unknown if the immunity is long-lasting in people who recover from the disease. The presence of neutralizing antibodies in blood strongly correlates with protection from infection, but the level of neutralizing antibody declines with time. Those with asymptomatic or mild disease had undetectable levels of neutralizing antibody two months after infection. In another study, the level of neutralizing antibody fell 4-fold 1 to 4 months after the onset of symptoms. However, the lack of antibody in the blood does not mean antibody will not be rapidly produced upon reexposure to SARS-CoV-2. Memory B cells specific for the spike and nucleocapsid proteins of SARS-CoV-2 last for at least 6 months after appearance of symptoms. Nevertheless, 15 cases of reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 have been reported using stringent CDC criteria requiring identification of a different variant from the second infection. There are likely to be many more people who have been reinfected with the virus. Herd immunity will not eliminate the virus if reinfection is common. Some other coronaviruses circulating in people are capable of reinfection after roughly a year. Nonetheless, on 3 March 2021, scientists reported that a much more contagious Covid-19 variant, Lineage P.1, first detected in Japan, and subsequently found in Brazil, as well as in several places in the United States, may be associated with Covid-19 disease reinfection after recovery from an earlier Covid-19 infection.
MORTALITY
Several measures are commonly used to quantify mortality. These numbers vary by region and over time and are influenced by the volume of testing, healthcare system quality, treatment options, time since the initial outbreak, and population characteristics such as age, sex, and overall health. The mortality rate reflects the number of deaths within a specific demographic group divided by the population of that demographic group. Consequently, the mortality rate reflects the prevalence as well as the severity of the disease within a given population. Mortality rates are highly correlated to age, with relatively low rates for young people and relatively high rates among the elderly.
The case fatality rate (CFR) reflects the number of deaths divided by the number of diagnosed cases within a given time interval. Based on Johns Hopkins University statistics, the global death-to-case ratio is 2.2% (2,685,770/121,585,388) as of 18 March 2021. The number varies by region. The CFR may not reflect the true severity of the disease, because some infected individuals remain asymptomatic or experience only mild symptoms, and hence such infections may not be included in official case reports. Moreover, the CFR may vary markedly over time and across locations due to the availability of live virus tests.
INFECTION FATALITY RATE
A key metric in gauging the severity of COVID-19 is the infection fatality rate (IFR), also referred to as the infection fatality ratio or infection fatality risk. This metric is calculated by dividing the total number of deaths from the disease by the total number of infected individuals; hence, in contrast to the CFR, the IFR incorporates asymptomatic and undiagnosed infections as well as reported cases.
CURRENT ESTIMATES
A December 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis estimated that population IFR during the first wave of the pandemic was about 0.5% to 1% in many locations (including France, Netherlands, New Zealand, and Portugal), 1% to 2% in other locations (Australia, England, Lithuania, and Spain), and exceeded 2% in Italy. That study also found that most of these differences in IFR reflected corresponding differences in the age composition of the population and age-specific infection rates; in particular, the metaregression estimate of IFR is very low for children and younger adults (e.g., 0.002% at age 10 and 0.01% at age 25) but increases progressively to 0.4% at age 55, 1.4% at age 65, 4.6% at age 75, and 15% at age 85. These results were also highlighted in a December 2020 report issued by the WHO.
EARLIER ESTIMATES OF IFR
At an early stage of the pandemic, the World Health Organization reported estimates of IFR between 0.3% and 1%.[ On 2 July, The WHO's chief scientist reported that the average IFR estimate presented at a two-day WHO expert forum was about 0.6%. In August, the WHO found that studies incorporating data from broad serology testing in Europe showed IFR estimates converging at approximately 0.5–1%. Firm lower limits of IFRs have been established in a number of locations such as New York City and Bergamo in Italy since the IFR cannot be less than the population fatality rate. As of 10 July, in New York City, with a population of 8.4 million, 23,377 individuals (18,758 confirmed and 4,619 probable) have died with COVID-19 (0.3% of the population).Antibody testing in New York City suggested an IFR of ~0.9%,[258] and ~1.4%. In Bergamo province, 0.6% of the population has died. In September 2020 the U.S. Center for Disease Control & Prevention reported preliminary estimates of age-specific IFRs for public health planning purposes.
SEX DIFFERENCES
Early reviews of epidemiologic data showed gendered impact of the pandemic and a higher mortality rate in men in China and Italy. The Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention reported the death rate was 2.8% for men and 1.7% for women. Later reviews in June 2020 indicated that there is no significant difference in susceptibility or in CFR between genders. One review acknowledges the different mortality rates in Chinese men, suggesting that it may be attributable to lifestyle choices such as smoking and drinking alcohol rather than genetic factors. Sex-based immunological differences, lesser prevalence of smoking in women and men developing co-morbid conditions such as hypertension at a younger age than women could have contributed to the higher mortality in men. In Europe, 57% of the infected people were men and 72% of those died with COVID-19 were men. As of April 2020, the US government is not tracking sex-related data of COVID-19 infections. Research has shown that viral illnesses like Ebola, HIV, influenza and SARS affect men and women differently.
ETHNIC DIFFERENCES
In the US, a greater proportion of deaths due to COVID-19 have occurred among African Americans and other minority groups. Structural factors that prevent them from practicing social distancing include their concentration in crowded substandard housing and in "essential" occupations such as retail grocery workers, public transit employees, health-care workers and custodial staff. Greater prevalence of lacking health insurance and care and of underlying conditions such as diabetes, hypertension and heart disease also increase their risk of death. Similar issues affect Native American and Latino communities. According to a US health policy non-profit, 34% of American Indian and Alaska Native People (AIAN) non-elderly adults are at risk of serious illness compared to 21% of white non-elderly adults. The source attributes it to disproportionately high rates of many health conditions that may put them at higher risk as well as living conditions like lack of access to clean water. Leaders have called for efforts to research and address the disparities. In the U.K., a greater proportion of deaths due to COVID-19 have occurred in those of a Black, Asian, and other ethnic minority background. More severe impacts upon victims including the relative incidence of the necessity of hospitalization requirements, and vulnerability to the disease has been associated via DNA analysis to be expressed in genetic variants at chromosomal region 3, features that are associated with European Neanderthal heritage. That structure imposes greater risks that those affected will develop a more severe form of the disease. The findings are from Professor Svante Pääbo and researchers he leads at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and the Karolinska Institutet. This admixture of modern human and Neanderthal genes is estimated to have occurred roughly between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago in Southern Europe.
COMORBIDITIES
Most of those who die of COVID-19 have pre-existing (underlying) conditions, including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease. According to March data from the United States, 89% of those hospitalised had preexisting conditions. The Italian Istituto Superiore di Sanità reported that out of 8.8% of deaths where medical charts were available, 96.1% of people had at least one comorbidity with the average person having 3.4 diseases. According to this report the most common comorbidities are hypertension (66% of deaths), type 2 diabetes (29.8% of deaths), Ischemic Heart Disease (27.6% of deaths), atrial fibrillation (23.1% of deaths) and chronic renal failure (20.2% of deaths).
Most critical respiratory comorbidities according to the CDC, are: moderate or severe asthma, pre-existing COPD, pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis. Evidence stemming from meta-analysis of several smaller research papers also suggests that smoking can be associated with worse outcomes. When someone with existing respiratory problems is infected with COVID-19, they might be at greater risk for severe symptoms. COVID-19 also poses a greater risk to people who misuse opioids and methamphetamines, insofar as their drug use may have caused lung damage.
In August 2020 the CDC issued a caution that tuberculosis infections could increase the risk of severe illness or death. The WHO recommended that people with respiratory symptoms be screened for both diseases, as testing positive for COVID-19 couldn't rule out co-infections. Some projections have estimated that reduced TB detection due to the pandemic could result in 6.3 million additional TB cases and 1.4 million TB related deaths by 2025.
NAME
During the initial outbreak in Wuhan, China, the virus and disease were commonly referred to as "coronavirus" and "Wuhan coronavirus", with the disease sometimes called "Wuhan pneumonia". In the past, many diseases have been named after geographical locations, such as the Spanish flu, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, and Zika virus. In January 2020, the WHO recommended 2019-nCov and 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease as interim names for the virus and disease per 2015 guidance and international guidelines against using geographical locations (e.g. Wuhan, China), animal species, or groups of people in disease and virus names in part to prevent social stigma. The official names COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 were issued by the WHO on 11 February 2020. Tedros Adhanom explained: CO for corona, VI for virus, D for disease and 19 for when the outbreak was first identified (31 December 2019). The WHO additionally uses "the COVID-19 virus" and "the virus responsible for COVID-19" in public communications.
HISTORY
The virus is thought to be natural and of an animal origin, through spillover infection. There are several theories about where the first case (the so-called patient zero) originated. Phylogenetics estimates that SARS-CoV-2 arose in October or November 2019. Evidence suggests that it descends from a coronavirus that infects wild bats, and spread to humans through an intermediary wildlife host.
The first known human infections were in Wuhan, Hubei, China. A study of the first 41 cases of confirmed COVID-19, published in January 2020 in The Lancet, reported the earliest date of onset of symptoms as 1 December 2019.Official publications from the WHO reported the earliest onset of symptoms as 8 December 2019. Human-to-human transmission was confirmed by the WHO and Chinese authorities by 20 January 2020. According to official Chinese sources, these were mostly linked to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, which also sold live animals. In May 2020 George Gao, the director of the CDC, said animal samples collected from the seafood market had tested negative for the virus, indicating that the market was the site of an early superspreading event, but that it was not the site of the initial outbreak.[ Traces of the virus have been found in wastewater samples that were collected in Milan and Turin, Italy, on 18 December 2019.
By December 2019, the spread of infection was almost entirely driven by human-to-human transmission. The number of coronavirus cases in Hubei gradually increased, reaching 60 by 20 December, and at least 266 by 31 December. On 24 December, Wuhan Central Hospital sent a bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) sample from an unresolved clinical case to sequencing company Vision Medicals. On 27 and 28 December, Vision Medicals informed the Wuhan Central Hospital and the Chinese CDC of the results of the test, showing a new coronavirus. A pneumonia cluster of unknown cause was observed on 26 December and treated by the doctor Zhang Jixian in Hubei Provincial Hospital, who informed the Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December. On 30 December, a test report addressed to Wuhan Central Hospital, from company CapitalBio Medlab, stated an erroneous positive result for SARS, causing a group of doctors at Wuhan Central Hospital to alert their colleagues and relevant hospital authorities of the result. The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission issued a notice to various medical institutions on "the treatment of pneumonia of unknown cause" that same evening. Eight of these doctors, including Li Wenliang (punished on 3 January), were later admonished by the police for spreading false rumours and another, Ai Fen, was reprimanded by her superiors for raising the alarm.
The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission made the first public announcement of a pneumonia outbreak of unknown cause on 31 December, confirming 27 cases—enough to trigger an investigation.
During the early stages of the outbreak, the number of cases doubled approximately every seven and a half days. In early and mid-January 2020, the virus spread to other Chinese provinces, helped by the Chinese New Year migration and Wuhan being a transport hub and major rail interchange. On 20 January, China reported nearly 140 new cases in one day, including two people in Beijing and one in Shenzhen. Later official data shows 6,174 people had already developed symptoms by then, and more may have been infected. A report in The Lancet on 24 January indicated human transmission, strongly recommended personal protective equipment for health workers, and said testing for the virus was essential due to its "pandemic potential". On 30 January, the WHO declared the coronavirus a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. By this time, the outbreak spread by a factor of 100 to 200 times.
Italy had its first confirmed cases on 31 January 2020, two tourists from China. As of 13 March 2020 the WHO considered Europe the active centre of the pandemic. Italy overtook China as the country with the most deaths on 19 March 2020. By 26 March the United States had overtaken China and Italy with the highest number of confirmed cases in the world. Research on coronavirus genomes indicates the majority of COVID-19 cases in New York came from European travellers, rather than directly from China or any other Asian country. Retesting of prior samples found a person in France who had the virus on 27 December 2019, and a person in the United States who died from the disease on 6 February 2020.
After 55 days without a locally transmitted case, Beijing reported a new COVID-19 case on 11 June 2020 which was followed by two more cases on 12 June. By 15 June there were 79 cases officially confirmed, most of them were people that went to Xinfadi Wholesale Market.
RT-PCR testing of untreated wastewater samples from Brazil and Italy have suggested detection of SARS-CoV-2 as early as November and December 2019, respectively, but the methods of such sewage studies have not been optimised, many have not been peer reviewed, details are often missing, and there is a risk of false positives due to contamination or if only one gene target is detected. A September 2020 review journal article said, "The possibility that the COVID-19 infection had already spread to Europe at the end of last year is now indicated by abundant, even if partially circumstantial, evidence", including pneumonia case numbers and radiology in France and Italy in November and December.
MISINFORMATION
After the initial outbreak of COVID-19, misinformation and disinformation regarding the origin, scale, prevention, treatment, and other aspects of the disease rapidly spread online.
In September 2020, the U.S. CDC published preliminary estimates of the risk of death by age groups in the United States, but those estimates were widely misreported and misunderstood.
OTHER ANIMALS
Humans appear to be capable of spreading the virus to some other animals, a type of disease transmission referred to as zooanthroponosis.
Some pets, especially cats and ferrets, can catch this virus from infected humans. Symptoms in cats include respiratory (such as a cough) and digestive symptoms. Cats can spread the virus to other cats, and may be able to spread the virus to humans, but cat-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2 has not been proven. Compared to cats, dogs are less susceptible to this infection. Behaviors which increase the risk of transmission include kissing, licking, and petting the animal.
The virus does not appear to be able to infect pigs, ducks, or chickens at all.[ Mice, rats, and rabbits, if they can be infected at all, are unlikely to be involved in spreading the virus.
Tigers and lions in zoos have become infected as a result of contact with infected humans. As expected, monkeys and great ape species such as orangutans can also be infected with the COVID-19 virus.
Minks, which are in the same family as ferrets, have been infected. Minks may be asymptomatic, and can also spread the virus to humans. Multiple countries have identified infected animals in mink farms. Denmark, a major producer of mink pelts, ordered the slaughter of all minks over fears of viral mutations. A vaccine for mink and other animals is being researched.
RESEARCH
International research on vaccines and medicines in COVID-19 is underway by government organisations, academic groups, and industry researchers. The CDC has classified it to require a BSL3 grade laboratory. There has been a great deal of COVID-19 research, involving accelerated research processes and publishing shortcuts to meet the global demand.
As of December 2020, hundreds of clinical trials have been undertaken, with research happening on every continent except Antarctica. As of November 2020, more than 200 possible treatments had been studied in humans so far.
Transmission and prevention research
Modelling research has been conducted with several objectives, including predictions of the dynamics of transmission, diagnosis and prognosis of infection, estimation of the impact of interventions, or allocation of resources. Modelling studies are mostly based on epidemiological models, estimating the number of infected people over time under given conditions. Several other types of models have been developed and used during the COVID-19 including computational fluid dynamics models to study the flow physics of COVID-19, retrofits of crowd movement models to study occupant exposure, mobility-data based models to investigate transmission, or the use of macroeconomic models to assess the economic impact of the pandemic. Further, conceptual frameworks from crisis management research have been applied to better understand the effects of COVID-19 on organizations worldwide.
TREATMENT-RELATED RESEARCH
Repurposed antiviral drugs make up most of the research into COVID-19 treatments. Other candidates in trials include vasodilators, corticosteroids, immune therapies, lipoic acid, bevacizumab, and recombinant angiotensin-converting enzyme 2.
In March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) initiated the Solidarity trial to assess the treatment effects of some promising drugs: an experimental drug called remdesivir; anti-malarial drugs chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine; two anti-HIV drugs, lopinavir/ritonavir; and interferon-beta. More than 300 active clinical trials were underway as of April 2020.
Research on the antimalarial drugs hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine showed that they were ineffective at best, and that they may reduce the antiviral activity of remdesivir. By May 2020, France, Italy, and Belgium had banned the use of hydroxychloroquine as a COVID-19 treatment.
In June, initial results from the randomised RECOVERY Trial in the United Kingdom showed that dexamethasone reduced mortality by one third for people who are critically ill on ventilators and one fifth for those receiving supplemental oxygen. Because this is a well-tested and widely available treatment, it was welcomed by the WHO, which is in the process of updating treatment guidelines to include dexamethasone and other steroids. Based on those preliminary results, dexamethasone treatment has been recommended by the NIH for patients with COVID-19 who are mechanically ventilated or who require supplemental oxygen but not in patients with COVID-19 who do not require supplemental oxygen.
In September 2020, the WHO released updated guidance on using corticosteroids for COVID-19. The WHO recommends systemic corticosteroids rather than no systemic corticosteroids for the treatment of people with severe and critical COVID-19 (strong recommendation, based on moderate certainty evidence). The WHO suggests not to use corticosteroids in the treatment of people with non-severe COVID-19 (conditional recommendation, based on low certainty evidence). The updated guidance was based on a meta-analysis of clinical trials of critically ill COVID-19 patients.
WIKIPEDIA
Believe it or not parts of this Deva's eyes were gouged out, I filled in the missing areas and painted in the missing parts....it's almost undetectable that she was damaged.
Stuxnet: The Computer Code Which Crippled Iran's Nuclear Capability
BY ED BARNES AP
In the 20th century, this would have been a job for James Bond.
... for some of my scientist friends ... is this possible? (It's a long read, so if you start out bored, it probably won't get any better.)
The mission: Infiltrate the highly advanced, securely guarded enemy headquarters where scientists in the clutches of an evil master are secretly building a weapon that can destroy the world. Then render that weapon harmless and escape undetected.
But in the 21st century, Bond doesn't get the call. Instead, the job is handled by a suave and very sophisticated secret computer worm, a jumble of code called Stuxnet, which in the last year has not only crippled Iran's nuclear program but has caused a major rethinking of computer security around the globe.
Intelligence agencies, computer security companies and the nuclear industry have been trying to analyze the worm since it was discovered in June by a Belarus-based company that was doing business in Iran. And what they've all found, says Sean McGurk, the Homeland Security Department's acting director of national cyber security and communications integration, is a “game changer.”
The construction of the worm was so advanced, it was “like the arrival of an F-35 into a World War I battlefield,” says Ralph Langner, the computer expert who was the first to sound the alarm about Stuxnet. Others have called it the first “weaponized” computer virus.
Simply put, Stuxnet is an incredibly advanced, undetectable computer worm that took years to construct and was designed to jump from computer to computer until it found the specific, protected control system that it aimed to destroy: Iran’s nuclear enrichment program.
The target was seemingly impenetrable; for security reasons, it lay several stories underground and was not connected to the World Wide Web. And that meant Stuxnet had to act as sort of a computer cruise missile: As it made its passage through a set of unconnected computers, it had to grow and adapt to security measures and other changes until it reached one that could bring it into the nuclear facility.
When it ultimately found its target, it would have to secretly manipulate it until it was so compromised it ceased normal functions.
And finally, after the job was done, the worm would have to destroy itself without leaving a trace.
That is what we are learning happened at Iran's nuclear facilities -- both at Natanz, which houses the centrifuge arrays used for processing uranium into nuclear fuel, and, to a lesser extent, at Bushehr, Iran's nuclear power plant.
At Natanz, for almost 17 months, Stuxnet quietly worked its way into the system and targeted a specific component -- the frequency converters made by the German equipment manufacturer Siemens that regulated the speed of the spinning centrifuges used to create nuclear fuel. The worm then took control of the speed at which the centrifuges spun, making them turn so fast in a quick burst that they would be damaged but not destroyed. And at the same time, the worm masked that change in speed from being discovered at the centrifuges' control panel.
At Bushehr, meanwhile, a second secret set of codes, which Langner called “digital warheads,” targeted the Russian-built power plant's massive steam turbine.
Here's how it worked, according to experts who have examined the worm:
--The nuclear facility in Iran runs an “air gap” security system, meaning it has no connections to the Web, making it secure from outside penetration. Stuxnet was designed and sent into the area around Iran's Natanz nuclear power plant -- just how may never be known -- to infect a number of computers on the assumption that someone working in the plant would take work home on a flash drive, acquire the worm and then bring it back to the plant.
--Once the worm was inside the plant, the next step was to get the computer system there to trust it and allow it into the system. That was accomplished because the worm contained a “digital certificate” stolen from JMicron, a large company in an industrial park in Taiwan. (When the worm was later discovered it quickly replaced the original digital certificate with another certificate, also stolen from another company, Realtek, a few doors down in the same industrial park in Taiwan.)
--Once allowed entry, the worm contained four “Zero Day” elements in its first target, the Windows 7 operating system that controlled the overall operation of the plant. Zero Day elements are rare and extremely valuable vulnerabilities in a computer system that can be exploited only once. Two of the vulnerabilities were known, but the other two had never been discovered. Experts say no hacker would waste Zero Days in that manner.
--After penetrating the Windows operating system, the code then targeted the siemens operating system that controlled the plant. Once that was in its grip it then took over the “frequency converters” that ran the centrifuges. To do that it used specifications from the manufacturers of the converters. One was Vacon, a Finnish Company, and the other Fararo Paya, an Iranian company. What surprises experts at this step is that the Iranian company was so secret that not even the IAEA knew about it.
--The worm also knew that the complex control system that ran the centrifuges was built by Siemens, the German manufacturer, and -- remarkably -- how that system worked as well and how to mask its activities from it.
--Masking itself from the plant's security and other systems, the worm then ordered the centrifuges to rotate extremely fast, and then to slow down precipitously. This damaged the converter, the centrifuges and the bearings, and it corrupted the uranium in the tubes. It also left Iranian nuclear engineers wondering what was wrong, as computer checks showed no malfunctions in the operating system.
Estimates are that this went on for more than a year, leaving the Iranian program in chaos. And as it did, the worm grew and adapted throughout the system. As new worms entered the system, they would meet and adapt and become increasingly sophisticated.
During this time the worms reported back to two mysterious servers that had to be run by intelligence agencies, one in Denmark and one in Malaysia. The servers monitored the worms as they infiltrated Natanz. Efforts to find those servers since then have yielded no results.
This went on until June of last year, when a Belarusan company working on the Iranian power plant in Beshehr discovered it in one of its machines. It quickly put out a notice on a Web network monitored by computer security experts around the world. Ordinarily these experts would immediately begin tracing the worm and dissecting it, looking for clues about its origin and other details.
But that didn’t happen, because within minutes all the alert sites came under attack and were inoperative for 24 hours.
“I had to use e-mail to send notices but I couldn’t reach everyone. Whoever made the worm had a full day to eliminate all traces of the worm that might lead us them,” Eric Byres, a computer security expert who has examined the Stuxnet. “No hacker could have done that.”
Experts, including inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA,) say that, despite Iran's claims to the contrary, the worm was successful in its goal: causing confusion among Iran’s nuclear engineers and disabling their nuclear program.
Because of the secrecy surrounding the Iranian program, no one can be certain of the full extent of the damage. But sources inside Iran and elsewhere say that the Iranian centrifuge program has been operating far below its capacity and that the uranium enrichment program had “stagnated” during the time the worm penetrated the underground facility. Only 4,000 of the 9,000 centrifuges Iran was known to have were put into use. Some suspect that is because of the critical need to replace ones that were damaged.
And the limited number of those in use dwindled to an estimated 3,700 as problems engulfed their operation. IAEA inspectors say the sabotage better explains the slowness of the program, which they had earlier attributed to poor equipment manufacturing and management problems. As Iranians struggled with the setbacks, they began searching for signs of sabotage. From inside Iran there have been unconfirmed reports that the head of the plant was fired shortly after the worm wended its way into the system and began creating technical problems, and that some scientists who were suspected of espionage disappeared or were executed. And counter intelligence agents began monitoring all communications between scientists at the site, creating a climate of fear and paranoia.
Iran has adamantly stated that its nuclear program has not been hit by the bug. But in doing so it has backhandedly confirmed that its nuclear facilities were compromised. When Hamid Alipour, head of the nation’s Information Technology Company, announced in September that 30,000 Iranian computers had been hit by the worm but the nuclear facilities were safe, he added that among those hit were the personal computers of the scientists at the nuclear facilities. Experts say that Natanz and Bushehr could not have escaped the worm if it was in their engineers’ computers.
“We brought it into our lab to study it and even with precautions it spread everywhere at incredible speed,” Byres said.
“The worm was designed not to destroy the plants but to make them ineffective. By changing the rotation speeds, the bearings quickly wear out and the equipment has to be replaced and repaired. The speed changes also impact the quality of the uranium processed in the centrifuges creating technical problems that make the plant ineffective,” he explained.
In other words the worm was designed to allow the Iranian program to continue but never succeed, and never to know why.
One additional impact that can be attributed to the worm, according to David Albright of the Institute for Science and International Studies, is that “the lives of the scientists working in the facility have become a living hell because of counter-intelligence agents brought into the plant” to battle the breach. Ironically, even after its discovery, the worm has succeeded in slowing down Iran's reputed effort to build an atomic weapon. And Langer says that the efforts by the Iranians to cleanse Stuxnet from their system “will probably take another year to complete,” and during that time the plant will not be able to function anywhere normally.
But as the extent of the worm’s capabilities is being understood, its genius and complexity has created another perplexing question: Who did it?
Speculation on the worm’s origin initially focused on hackers or even companies trying to disrupt competitors. But as engineers tore apart the virus they learned not only the depth of the code, its complex targeting mechanism, (despite infecting more than 100,000 computers it has only done damage at Natanz,) the enormous amount of work that went into it—Microsoft estimated that it consumed 10,000 man days of labor-- and about what the worm knew, the clues narrowed the number of players that have the capabilities to create it to a handful.
security expert wrote.
Byres is more certain. “It is a military weapon,” he said.
And much of what the worm “knew” could only have come from a consortium of Western intelligence agencies, experts who have examined the code now believe.
Originally, all eyes turned toward Israel’s intelligence agencies. Engineers examining the worm found “clues” that hinted at Israel’s involvement. In one case they found the word “Myrtus” embedded in the code and argued that it was a reference to Esther, the biblical figure who saved the ancient Jewish state from the Persians. But computer experts say "Myrtus" is more likely a common reference to “My RTUS,” or remote terminal units.
Langer argues that no single Western intelligence agency had the skills to pull this off alone. The most likely answer, he says, is that a consortium of intelligence agencies worked together to build the cyber bomb. And he says the most likely confederates are the United States, because it has the technical skills to make the virus, Germany, because reverse-engineering Siemen’s product would have taken years without it, and Russia, because of its familiarity with both the Iranian nuclear plant and Siemen’s systems.
There is one clue that was left in the code that may tell us all we need to know.
Embedded in different section of the code is another common computer language reference, but this one is misspelled. Instead of saying “DEADFOOT,” a term stolen from pilots meaning a failed engine, this one reads “DEADFOO7.”
Yes, OO7 has returned -- as a computer worm.
Stuxnet. Shaken, not stirred
Part of a project documenting the HIV community in Portland, ME.
Interview with Ron Goben
February 28, 2002
My name is Ron Goben. I live in Richmond, Maine. I was born in Bath in 1953 so you do the math. I was raised in the late 60’s and 70’s when standards are far different than they are now. Being raised in rural Maine, one was expected to be married. There was no other choice.
So I tried that route. I was married in 1972 and produced a progeny, a daughter, in 1974. I was married for 17 years, because I wanted my daughter to grow up and have a somewhat normal life. My wife knew I was gay prior to our marriage, but she thought, like so many people who don’t understand lifestyles, that I had met the right person and that she was Mrs. Right. As far as I know, there’s never a Mrs. Right (laughs). She found her way with extra-marital activities with another married man, and I found mine. It happened to be, at that time, anonymous sex in rest areas. I was fairly promiscuous until about 1984 when I realized that AIDS was here to stay and that I was just as at risk as anyone else. I got divorced in 1989 and met a wonderful man. We proceeded to court for about eight months. I moved in with him, and I’ve been with him ever since.
Like so many people, even though I had practiced what I considered safe sex since 1984, I really didn’t want to get tested. At the age of 39, I developed a muscular problem. I was an appliance repair man, lifting appliances and doing pretty butch stuff and I contributed it to old age. I put of going to the doctor for about eighteen months until I couldn’t take it anymore. I was a firm believer in if it wasn’t broke don’t fix it; I had not seen a doctor since I was 23. But I had been in the military- I was drafted at the age of 19 and went to Vietnam War. So I decided to cash in on that benefit. I went to TOGOS- a Veteran’s Administration office in Maine. I went up there not really knowing what was wrong. They tested me for everything from mono to muscular distrophy, because it was a muscular-skeletal condition. We ruled out about everything, and then he asked if I was at risk for HIV. I said “not recently,” meaning that I didn’t feel I was at risk. I had been with a partner monogamously since 1989. I had no clue, I figured HIV showed up 18 months after you were infected. I didn’t realize that it was a long-term disease.
I went back two weeks later for the results and brought my mother. Mom sat out in the waiting room and I went in to see the doctor. He called the lab for my results, and they came back positive. I was devastated. I cried, the doctor cried. You have to remember in 1993, there were about two drugs out for HIV. Not even knowing where I stood, how long I’d had the virus, I figured it was a death sentence. Basically- go home and put your affairs in order. I didn’t know of any support groups or services concerning HIV. I had known three people that had passed away from AIDS, but it wasn’t part of my life to know where they got help.
My mother knew the minute she saw my face. The doctor was very wise, and said ‘Let’s go get anti-depressants,” which is exactly what I did. I went directly on anti-depressants. Once you’re diagnosed with HIV, it’s an extreme rollercoaster. You just can’t imagine what goes through your brain, even in the middle of the night. Every little pain or ache, you think, is this the beginning of the end?
I went home and told my partner. I was petrified to tell him. He came home from work- he knew the minute he saw me. I told him he was free to do whatever he wanted, and I certainly understood. He didn’t know his status at that time either. He looked at me and said “It’s not your disease, it’s our disease.” I’ve really had a lot of support. It’s a key ingredient to longevity. He was tested and his test came back negative, and he’s still negative to this day. He gets tested about every six months.
We don’t do anything that puts him at risk, in fact we probably do the safest form of sexual entertainment that anyone can imagine. This is the level we’re comfortable at.
When I found out I was positive, I felt guilty, dirty, filthy. Was I immune to other sexually transmitted diseases? No, I had syphillis in 1986, I had a case of the clap in 1988- so I knew that I was putting myself at risk. The desire at the moment fogs reality in your brain. I don’t think that anybody that drinks or uses recreational drugs, when they’re in that heightened state of arousal, that they really think of the consequences. Just ‘the moment.’
The younger generation can’t understand can’t understand why I would get married knowing I was gay. You have to grow up in the atmosphere I grew up in, a rural farm land oriented, my father was ex-military and very staunch… that lifestyle wasn’t acceptable and I wasn’t ready to break away from my parents. Everybody tried to brainwash you at the time, and you actually thought maybe I’m not getting the right feelings because it isn’t the right person. My wife is the only women that I ever slept with, and I never slept with her until we were married. So I didn’t know what to expect. I can’t say the same for male companions. The big misconception is that people think it’s a gay disease and a lot of women don’t think they are risk. The thing that scares me are the bisexual men that put their wives at risk. And the women have no clue.
My wife and I, after the child was born, did not have sex. At any time in my practices outside of our marriage, she was never put at risk for a sexual disease. My relationship with my daughter is excellent. Outwardly, she has no problem with my status. Of course she’s concerned as any daughter would be if their father had cancer or kidney disease because she wants him around. I raised my daughter. My wife was a manic depressive and would go in solitude confinement for days on end, so I raised her as a father and a mother and a friend. We grew up together.
My mother and I are extremely close as I hope most sons and mothers are. We’ve become closer since she found out I was gay, and even closer when she found out I was HIV positive.
When she found out I was gay, she thought about it- it was a shock- but she said ‘You’re the same person I loved three minutes ago before you told me. So it makes no difference. I don’t know if I understand,’ she said, ‘but I still love you.’ The same goes for HIV- did she blacklist me as somebody perverted and dirty, no. I probably beat myself up far more than she or my family ever did. Deep down, if most people think of relationships that they’ve been in and the things that they’ve done, and if they knew their partner completely- everybody’s put themselves at risk if the other partner was positive.
The thing that I always try and let people know about becoming HIV positive- yes there’s wonderful drugs out there now, no, they’re not easy to take, no they’re not a cure but they do extend life if they work for you- There’s one thing that you’ll lose from the minute that you discover you’re HIV positive and that is intimacy. You will never ever be able to have the intimacy that you had prior to being HIV positive. Even if you both are positive, you can put each other at risk for mutated strains of the virus. For a positive and a negative person, there’s always going to be that latex barrier if you don’t want to risk the same fate. Either use protection- take care of yourself. Even if you know it’s Mr. Right, wait until you know and wait until you’re both tested. You don’t know if that person is negative. You may only be the second person that they’ve ever slept with and put themselves at risk with. But the person that he put himself at risk with could have had eight partners. You can see how it [spreads] out, and pretty soon you’ve slept with half the world. It only takes once, it only takes an instant. There’s no such thing as being partially pregnant, or partially HIV positive.
I can’t say wait, I couldn’t wait. I suppose there are people that have restraint. But I think once you’ve tasted the vine, it’s a little late, and you’re not about to go back into your hole.
Sometimes the lack of intimacy can make you feel alone, even though you are surrounded by people. There’s a certain closeness that you don’t get anymore, but I think it’s something you have to deal with. You can’t let it ruin your life, you have to realize this is the way it is. If you lost an arm or a hand, you couldn’t do the things that you used to do. You lost your ability to have free sex, free meaning unencumbered. It’s something that you’ve got to deal with. If you’re ever positive, or if you’ve ever done IV drugs, just what goes through your mind- I couldn’t consciously put anybody else at risk.
Are there positive things from becoming HIV positive? You betcha. You will look at life totally different than you ever have before. You realize how precious life is, how wonderful life can be, how loving people are.
I’m an early riser. The first thing when your feet hit the floor, it’s another day, you realize you feel pretty good. I have helped two friends die with AIDS since I’ve been diagnosed, and I’ve watched the lights go out. You soon realize that you don’t know when your time is, whether it’s going to be AIDS, a car, or anything else. Instead of peeing and moaning about the small things in life, whether your hair doesn’t look right, or you’re too fat, or you’re getting too old, it doesn’t matter, it’s that you’re loved by somebody and that you can return that love. I just look at everyday as a fresh start. Maybe it’s because I’m on 450mg of Wellbutrin (laughs), but I’ve always had this outlook since I became positive. I just can’t see how you can help it- life is a wonderful thing. Ya, there’s tragedies in life, there’s tragedies in everything. But from those you grow, you understand and you learn. You learn to respect things, and people, and their lifestyles and the way they think. If you don’t agree, don’t concern yourself with it. Just accept that they’re different is all you have to do. If they are narrow minded, it’s their problem, don’t make it yours.
You have to remember that I came out as gay, I mean really out- running up and down the streets yelling “I’m queer, I’m queer” at 37 years old. So I’ve only been alive 12 years. Before that, those times are gray and foggy. And of those 12 years that I’ve been alive, I’ve been positive for almost eight years of those. There was so much living that I had to do anyway, that I was not going to let HIV stand in my way, and I’m still not.
There is uncertainty with life. You don’t know if next month, the drug regimen that you’re on is going to work, if you have to go on another one, if your body can accept it. You haven’t got time for the foolishness of cat and mouse games and being coy. You just have to be yourself. You find that it’s effective, it gets you where you want to be. It lets other people know what you want, when you’re asking for help or just direction.
I had a good friend that just passed away last October. He became better embittered. He felt cheated by the world, he felt cheated by his lover who had died of AIDS nine years before. That he was cheated of a satisfactory life. Even though he died not of AIDS related causes- he died of an anuerism probably caused by the drug medications. His life was cut short long before he died, simply because he had closed out the world and he blamed everybody but himself. He just need to accept what had happened and get on with it. I love him dearly, and he was my best friend for about eight years. We did everything from go to the beach together, good will shopping, to going out to eat. I miss him a lot, but I’m sure he’s at peace, but he’s with his lover. This is what he seemed to want for the last eight years of life. If you become HIV positive, don’t worry about the first six months. You’re going to have unbelievable anxiety. If you’re not in a relationship and you’re first dating relationship comes up- do you tell, don’t you tell? Do you pretend that everybody’s supposed to protect themselves? You’re going to have all these anxieties, but don’t cheat yourself out of life. I mean, just because you’re HIV positive, and even though you’ll feel dirty when you first tested positive and you feel that you’re used goods and that no one will ever want you even on a mark down sale- you’re every bit as good as everybody else. You’re no dirtier than they were, you just happened to get caught.
There’s somebody out there for you. You’re just not looking in the right place, or you’re not in the right spot. If you turn yourself into a shell, inside, and don’t expand and let yourself out and make contacts and live life to its fullest, then you may never find that person because you’re not allowing them to come into your life.
The biggest thing that people have to understand that think HIV is no big issue anymore because of all the wonderful drugs that are on the market- I take fifty pills a day. That’s a hell of a lot of pills. That’s a lot of swallowing. Why do I take fifty, you ask? One of the drugs is twelve pills a day. Another is two twice a day. Yes, they’re making regimens easier, but they have side effects. I take pills to counteract side-effects, to counteract side-effects. Why do I do this? Because the pills are working, and that’s why I stay with them.
A lot of people don’t think that support groups are their issue, or their way out. If you find yourself positive- try a support group. All support groups are not about dying and pissing and moaning- they’re about people that are in it together that can help each other and love each other. And you know you’re not alone. I have been in a support group since 1994, four months after I tested positive. I think people that don’t go are missing something.
Yes, going every week is a constant reminder, but for those people that are single that may be the only contact that they have with people who are HIV positive. The medical history that you gain is phenomenal. It used to be prior to the medications that are out, that if you belong to a support group, you’d live two years longer than people that didn’t. Hell, it certainly can’t hurt.
I’ve become much more open, I’ve become accessible and made myself accessible. I do volunteer work. I don’t work anymore, not because I’m HIV positive, but because of a muscle condition and a bone disorder that they can’t seem to figure out. I’ve tried to go back to work twice, and have gotten very ill both times.
I’m very lucky that I use the Veteran Services. I don’t see any stigma or prejudice, at the present time. My medication costs me a minimal amount. I couldn’t get that coverage elsewhere, unless I was under Medicaid. I don’t qualify for Medicaid. Until the age of forty, I was working sixty hours a week. I get a really good Social Security. Also, I have a partner that pays the mortgage! I get a small service disability pension. I contacted Hepatitis B while I was in the service, through unsterile instruments while they were looking for cancer. I was one of twenty people that that happened to. If I went back to work, it wouldn’t affect my situation, because I could still use the VA. But you do worry about how quickly can you get back on Social Security if it doesn’t work out? They give you a nine month trial period but that’s over a five year period.
It’s really scary because- are you going to make as much when you go back to work, even on disability? It’s frightening. People that aren’t in the safe spot that I am with my medical care, thought that’s changing all the time- they just tripled my co-pay, they have a lot to loose by going back to work. It’s petrifying. There was supposed to be a medical waiver that’s way past due, to help people who were working to afford medication. God knows we need it. People feel far more productive when they’re working. Other than that you have to work under the table or do volunteer work, if you have a self worth problem. You don’t want to stay at home and drink and booze- I don’t drink at all, but I could only imagine if I had that inclination how easy it would be to slip into it. The side effects, even for people that are working can make your work almost impossible to complete.
It’s not the end of the world if you find that you’re positive. In my case, it opened my life. Maybe it was the beginning of the world.
I’m on Delavradine, one of the older drugs, one in particular that I’m on. It causes extreme nausea, and it has ever since day one of the drug. I take Compazine to combat nausea. If I didn’t take it, I couldn’t continue to take my HIV drugs if it wasn’t for the other drugs to counter the side effects. Swallowing the pills and in an half hour throwing them back up is not going to do you any good. They can cause sleep disorders of magnitude proportions. Where you used to sleep like a rock, now you’re an insomniac. So you have to take drugs to lull you to sleep. Because you have a lot of issues on your plate, you may find that you need anti-depressants. Some of the drugs cause depression as a side effect, so it’s very easy to understand why you’re pills can escalate to an astronomical proportion. If you want quality of life, you need all of them.
They are looking now at people holding off longer and longer to be treated to not put them at risk of side effects. The current train of thought is a CD4 count of 350 before they start treatment and a viral load of 50,000. A viral load of 50,000 is nothing, really. You can go all the way to a million. I’m on what they call an undetectable. Anything less than 50 doesn’t show. But that means that floating in your blood stream, you have less than 50 copies per milogram of the HIV virus. My CD4 has gone up to 460. Normal is usually from 800 to 1,200 for a healthy person without a weakened immune system. I was down to 201 when I started drugs, so I’ve been able to maintain and increase my CD4 count. Don’t let those numbers fool you. A person who’s one drugs and their CD4 count goes up, it’s wonderful, but those cells aren’t as healthy as somebody who is drug naïve. If somebody had a CD4 count of 400 and had not taken drugs yet, then that is a real solid CD4 count. Somebody who has dropped down to 200, taken drugs and has elevated back to 400, those cells aren’t as strong and can’t fight the virus near as well. It keeps you from getting opportunistic infections and it keeps you well, but if you stop taking your drugs you would fall down very quickly. Your counts would drop drastically. A normal person loses about 50-100 T cells a year without any treatment. You can actually be infected and still live seven or eight years before you could possibly show any outward signs of being infected.
I know who infected me- it was a relationship that I was in and I developed symptoms, the onset or the outbreak is mono-like symptons. You feel very tired, you feel like you’ve got the flu, you can have night sweats. This is a flu that can last three to four weeks. I went and got tested at that time, not for HIV- believe it or not, in 1983 there wasn’t even a test for HIV. They did an immune SA, which is a immune response test, and I had CD4 counts at that time of 83. Unfortunately, nobody notified me that my CD4 counts were low. I got better, like most people will, with the initial infection and everything went rosey until 1983 until 1993, ten years.
Did I have to go back and tell ex-partners? I didn’t because they don’t know when I was infected, and honestly some of them I wouldn’t have known because it was anonymous sex. I didn’t even know their name- I didn’t want to know their name, that’s not what I was after!
Being in the system, and seeing how it’s degressed from getting major funding and support in the early 90’s- back then, it was a terminal disease. Now the perception of most people is that it’s a manageable disease, not terminal. Well that’s not true, there are still people dying of AIDS. Being on treatment, nothing matters, there’s still people dying. It may take them longer to die but eventually they’re dying. The perception that they can take a pill is in fact the reason for the lack of funding. There’s not the urgency that there once was. Now it’s like diabetes, you’re just going to have to take this regimen for the rest of your life. The unfortunate part is that insulin generally doesn’t cause the side effects that the HIV drugs do. Some people can’t take the drugs, the don’t work. Every body is different, they react totally different to the drugs. It’s so individual. I think the only way to gel people back together and this is a horrible thing and I don’t want it to happen, but for it to become, in America, a hetersexual disease completely. Then there will be concern that it will come home. Until we tip the scales, I don’ t think you’re going to see much funding. Until somebody’s son, or daughter, who is married or whatever, comes down with it, it’s going to be that kind of thing.
I wish there was ways to change that. I do think that people who are positive don’t do enough on their own behalf to make a difference either. Some are afraid. There is still stigma out there, tons of it. You don’t want to wear a sign that you’re HIV positive. I think it’s easier for me because I have Mr. Right and I’m not out there looking for Mr. Right. For those that haven’t found Mr. Right, they don’t want to blacken the slate so that their chances are nothing. It’s a pre-conception- oh, he’s not going to work because he’s HIV positive. If you meet the person and then find out that he is Mr. Right and he happens to be HIV positive, that makes a difference. Because you’re not prejudging. That’s where I lucked out. I was already in a relationship and the person that I was in a relationship realized that it could have been him and I could have been negative. He had lost friends due to AIDS like most people.
It’s going to take people, especially if you’re not tested, ten years for the disease to show up. Now with the drugs out there, it’s going to take at least another five years before you lose people. You may not notice people in your immediate surroundings until their thirty-five to forty if they were infected in their very early twenties. You may know several people who are HIV positive, but they’re not out to you. They say in Maine alone there’s 3,500 people who are positive, they think, and over half of those don’t know. You change statistics however you want it to look, I realize that. The fact is that people put themselves at risk, they don’t know their status and not being tested is a whole lot easier than being tested. You can always say, if somebody asks you, are you negative? Well, that I know of, yes. You’re not lying, you’re not decieving them, that you know of. Once you get the tests back, even if you’re lying to them, deep down inside you know, and there’s going to be a totally different situation because you do know. How you react is going to change. There’s a whole lot of difference between thinking you might be, and knowing you are. And I know people are bare-backing, all the time, all the younger generations are putting themselves at risk. I’m not sure if I was young and put in that same situation if I grew up in an era from the time that you started sex, until you find Mr. Right, you’re supposed to wear condoms, you’re supposed to have sex safe- you always wonder what the other side of the fence is like. Is the sensation that much better? Does it really take away that much? People do put themselves at risk, I think it’s only human. And it’s so easy when you’re young, to say it can’t happen to me, or it won’t happen to me. It’s like people when they’re young and they smoke. They’re not worried about lung cancer at twenty-five. Oh, I’ll worry about that when I’m forty, or forty-five, or fifty. With youth, you feel indestructible. I think that’s how you’re supposed to spend youth, but it doesn’t put you at risk.
I don’t know what the answer is. I do go on these talks and give people a chance to think about what they’re doing with their lives, but it’s only my perception, it’s only for what they want to take away from it.
Until you lose intimacy, you don’t know what it is. It’s not the cuddling, and yes you can still have sex but it’s got to be protected, there’s always got to be that barrier, it’s not skin on skin. There’s a mental barrier that goes with that latex, and you’re just never going to have that again. Yes, you can have it, but then you’re putting somebody really at risk. I don’t think that you’ll ever have the intimacy as you knew before. I just wish people would realize that everybody’s at risk, regardless of their status.
Believe it or not, anybody’s who is HIV positive, unless you’re having intimate sex with them, they’re more at risk from you than you from them. They’re at risk for colds and pneunomnia. Don’t be afraid of them. You do get a lot of misconceptions.
My grandfather, bless his heart, he’s dead now. I told him I was HIV positive. The reason I told him is because his girlfriend at the time (my grandmother passed away a few years before) and he had a lady friend, and she had developed lung cancer. And I wanted her to know- at that time there wasn’t a lot of drugs- I wanted her to know that I was dealing with a life threatening illness yet I was still live and enjoying life. So I told them in hopes that that would give her some renewed drive. My grandfather became horrified, not outwardly. I didn’t visit him for several weeks after that. My mother was also going through cancer treatment at the same time, and they happened to go to the cancer clinic at the same week. My grandfather said ‘Thank you so much for not coming by the house, because we don’t want you to use our bathroom.’ I was so taken back, my own flesh and blood, someone I had known my entire life, and I said ‘Grandpa, don’t worry, I prefer public toilets and you don’t know which one I’ve been in.’ So, there is misconceptions, and it’s not necessarily [having to do with] age. Things like that do hurt people who are HIV positive, it’s bound to. We never saw each other after that. So…
Mobile Legends Bang Bang Hack Cheats Tutorial [Unlimited Diamonds] Android iOS
No need to look anywhere else, the most advanced Mobile Legends Bang Bang Cheat is available right now for you to download. If you want to become the best player in the world and impress your friends, get the Mobile Legends Bang Bang Hack by HacksCommunity which requires no root or jailbreaking to your device. Mobile Legends Bang Bang Hack Cheats is very easy to use due to the user-friendly interface. Everyday the cheat is scanned for viruses or different exploits, so no need to worry about the hack safety.
Visit Webpage: www.hackscommunity.com/mobile-legends-bang-bang-hack-cheats/
Mobile Legends Bang Bang Hack Tool Features:
Add Unlimited Unlimited DiamondsMobile Legends Bang Bang [Latest & Updated Version] Created by : HacksCommunity.com Team! Mobile Legends Bang Bang Cheats Undetectable, Safe & Effective! User-friendly interface & support Plug and Play [Connect Device, Start Hack] Mobile Legends Bang Bang Hack works for all Android mobile phones and tablets & iPhone, iPad, iPod, iPad Mini and other iOS Devices! No root and jailbreak needed!
In the beginning of space travel, the ranges of FTL travel were limited to the drives themselves. As time went on, drives became more advanced and ships began to rely more on fuel. Captains had to pack their cargo holds with fuel or find somewhere to stop and refill.
Out on the Galactic Rim (where a hold full of cargo is an explosive possibility) independently minded people have been quick to take advantage. Like the hermit crabs of old Earth, purveyors of these refuelling depots find a suitable rock, burrow inside, set up basic life support and open as a going concern.
Captains usually set themselves up in very densely populated asteroid belts and have the ability to shut down all beacons and power and become undetectable at a moment's notice. The threat of fuel pirates are an ever present one and depot captains often contract mercenaries for protection during times of local upheaval.
The German Type 212 class, is a highly advanced design of non-nuclear submarine developed by Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft AG (HDW) for the German and Italian Navies. It features diesel propulsion and an additional air-independent propulsion (AIP) system using Siemens proton exchange membrane (PEM) compressed hydrogen fuel cells. The submarine can operate at high speed on diesel power or switch to the AIP system for silent slow cruising, staying submerged for up to three weeks without surfacing and with no exhaust heat. The system is also said to be vibration-free, extremely quiet and virtually undetectable.
Type 212 is the first fuel cell propulsion system equipped submarine series.
Builders: Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft GmbH (HDW) Kiel Germany.
Name U-34
Laid down December 2001
Launched July 2006
Commissioned 3 May 2007
On the Clyde for Joint Warrior 2016-1
Joint Warrior is a UK tri-Service multinational exercise that involves numerous warships, aircraft, marines and troops.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The first case was identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The disease has since spread worldwide, leading to an ongoing pandemic.
Symptoms of COVID-19 are variable, but often include fever, cough, fatigue, breathing difficulties, and loss of smell and taste. Symptoms begin one to fourteen days after exposure to the virus. Of those people who develop noticeable symptoms, most (81%) develop mild to moderate symptoms (up to mild pneumonia), while 14% develop severe symptoms (dyspnea, hypoxia, or more than 50% lung involvement on imaging), and 5% suffer critical symptoms (respiratory failure, shock, or multiorgan dysfunction). Older people are more likely to have severe symptoms. At least a third of the people who are infected with the virus remain asymptomatic and do not develop noticeable symptoms at any point in time, but they still can spread the disease.[ Around 20% of those people will remain asymptomatic throughout infection, and the rest will develop symptoms later on, becoming pre-symptomatic rather than asymptomatic and therefore having a higher risk of transmitting the virus to others. Some people continue to experience a range of effects—known as long COVID—for months after recovery, and damage to organs has been observed. Multi-year studies are underway to further investigate the long-term effects of the disease.
The virus that causes COVID-19 spreads mainly when an infected person is in close contact[a] with another person. Small droplets and aerosols containing the virus can spread from an infected person's nose and mouth as they breathe, cough, sneeze, sing, or speak. Other people are infected if the virus gets into their mouth, nose or eyes. The virus may also spread via contaminated surfaces, although this is not thought to be the main route of transmission. The exact route of transmission is rarely proven conclusively, but infection mainly happens when people are near each other for long enough. People who are infected can transmit the virus to another person up to two days before they themselves show symptoms, as can people who do not experience symptoms. People remain infectious for up to ten days after the onset of symptoms in moderate cases and up to 20 days in severe cases. Several testing methods have been developed to diagnose the disease. The standard diagnostic method is by detection of the virus' nucleic acid by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR), transcription-mediated amplification (TMA), or by reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) from a nasopharyngeal swab.
Preventive measures include physical or social distancing, quarantining, ventilation of indoor spaces, covering coughs and sneezes, hand washing, and keeping unwashed hands away from the face. The use of face masks or coverings has been recommended in public settings to minimise the risk of transmissions. Several vaccines have been developed and several countries have initiated mass vaccination campaigns.
Although work is underway to develop drugs that inhibit the virus, the primary treatment is currently symptomatic. Management involves the treatment of symptoms, supportive care, isolation, and experimental measures.
SIGNS AND SYSTOMS
Symptoms of COVID-19 are variable, ranging from mild symptoms to severe illness. Common symptoms include headache, loss of smell and taste, nasal congestion and rhinorrhea, cough, muscle pain, sore throat, fever, diarrhea, and breathing difficulties. People with the same infection may have different symptoms, and their symptoms may change over time. Three common clusters of symptoms have been identified: one respiratory symptom cluster with cough, sputum, shortness of breath, and fever; a musculoskeletal symptom cluster with muscle and joint pain, headache, and fatigue; a cluster of digestive symptoms with abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea. In people without prior ear, nose, and throat disorders, loss of taste combined with loss of smell is associated with COVID-19.
Most people (81%) develop mild to moderate symptoms (up to mild pneumonia), while 14% develop severe symptoms (dyspnea, hypoxia, or more than 50% lung involvement on imaging) and 5% of patients suffer critical symptoms (respiratory failure, shock, or multiorgan dysfunction). At least a third of the people who are infected with the virus do not develop noticeable symptoms at any point in time. These asymptomatic carriers tend not to get tested and can spread the disease. Other infected people will develop symptoms later, called "pre-symptomatic", or have very mild symptoms and can also spread the virus.
As is common with infections, there is a delay between the moment a person first becomes infected and the appearance of the first symptoms. The median delay for COVID-19 is four to five days. Most symptomatic people experience symptoms within two to seven days after exposure, and almost all will experience at least one symptom within 12 days.
Most people recover from the acute phase of the disease. However, some people continue to experience a range of effects for months after recovery—named long COVID—and damage to organs has been observed. Multi-year studies are underway to further investigate the long-term effects of the disease.
CAUSE
TRANSMISSION
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) spreads from person to person mainly through the respiratory route after an infected person coughs, sneezes, sings, talks or breathes. A new infection occurs when virus-containing particles exhaled by an infected person, either respiratory droplets or aerosols, get into the mouth, nose, or eyes of other people who are in close contact with the infected person. During human-to-human transmission, an average 1000 infectious SARS-CoV-2 virions are thought to initiate a new infection.
The closer people interact, and the longer they interact, the more likely they are to transmit COVID-19. Closer distances can involve larger droplets (which fall to the ground) and aerosols, whereas longer distances only involve aerosols. Larger droplets can also turn into aerosols (known as droplet nuclei) through evaporation. The relative importance of the larger droplets and the aerosols is not clear as of November 2020; however, the virus is not known to spread between rooms over long distances such as through air ducts. Airborne transmission is able to particularly occur indoors, in high risk locations such as restaurants, choirs, gyms, nightclubs, offices, and religious venues, often when they are crowded or less ventilated. It also occurs in healthcare settings, often when aerosol-generating medical procedures are performed on COVID-19 patients.
Although it is considered possible there is no direct evidence of the virus being transmitted by skin to skin contact. A person could get COVID-19 indirectly by touching a contaminated surface or object before touching their own mouth, nose, or eyes, though this is not thought to be the main way the virus spreads. The virus is not known to spread through feces, urine, breast milk, food, wastewater, drinking water, or via animal disease vectors (although some animals can contract the virus from humans). It very rarely transmits from mother to baby during pregnancy.
Social distancing and the wearing of cloth face masks, surgical masks, respirators, or other face coverings are controls for droplet transmission. Transmission may be decreased indoors with well maintained heating and ventilation systems to maintain good air circulation and increase the use of outdoor air.
The number of people generally infected by one infected person varies. Coronavirus disease 2019 is more infectious than influenza, but less so than measles. It often spreads in clusters, where infections can be traced back to an index case or geographical location. There is a major role of "super-spreading events", where many people are infected by one person.
A person who is infected can transmit the virus to others up to two days before they themselves show symptoms, and even if symptoms never appear. People remain infectious in moderate cases for 7–12 days, and up to two weeks in severe cases. In October 2020, medical scientists reported evidence of reinfection in one person.
VIROLOGY
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. It was first isolated from three people with pneumonia connected to the cluster of acute respiratory illness cases in Wuhan. All structural features of the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus particle occur in related coronaviruses in nature.
Outside the human body, the virus is destroyed by household soap, which bursts its protective bubble.
SARS-CoV-2 is closely related to the original SARS-CoV. It is thought to have an animal (zoonotic) origin. Genetic analysis has revealed that the coronavirus genetically clusters with the genus Betacoronavirus, in subgenus Sarbecovirus (lineage B) together with two bat-derived strains. It is 96% identical at the whole genome level to other bat coronavirus samples (BatCov RaTG13). The structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2 include membrane glycoprotein (M), envelope protein (E), nucleocapsid protein (N), and the spike protein (S). The M protein of SARS-CoV-2 is about 98% similar to the M protein of bat SARS-CoV, maintains around 98% homology with pangolin SARS-CoV, and has 90% homology with the M protein of SARS-CoV; whereas, the similarity is only around 38% with the M protein of MERS-CoV. The structure of the M protein resembles the sugar transporter SemiSWEET.
The many thousands of SARS-CoV-2 variants are grouped into clades. Several different clade nomenclatures have been proposed. Nextstrain divides the variants into five clades (19A, 19B, 20A, 20B, and 20C), while GISAID divides them into seven (L, O, V, S, G, GH, and GR).
Several notable variants of SARS-CoV-2 emerged in late 2020. Cluster 5 emerged among minks and mink farmers in Denmark. After strict quarantines and a mink euthanasia campaign, it is believed to have been eradicated. The Variant of Concern 202012/01 (VOC 202012/01) is believed to have emerged in the United Kingdom in September. The 501Y.V2 Variant, which has the same N501Y mutation, arose independently in South Africa.
SARS-CoV-2 VARIANTS
Three known variants of SARS-CoV-2 are currently spreading among global populations as of January 2021 including the UK Variant (referred to as B.1.1.7) first found in London and Kent, a variant discovered in South Africa (referred to as 1.351), and a variant discovered in Brazil (referred to as P.1).
Using Whole Genome Sequencing, epidemiology and modelling suggest the new UK variant ‘VUI – 202012/01’ (the first Variant Under Investigation in December 2020) transmits more easily than other strains.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
COVID-19 can affect the upper respiratory tract (sinuses, nose, and throat) and the lower respiratory tract (windpipe and lungs). The lungs are the organs most affected by COVID-19 because the virus accesses host cells via the enzyme angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), which is most abundant in type II alveolar cells of the lungs. The virus uses a special surface glycoprotein called a "spike" (peplomer) to connect to ACE2 and enter the host cell. The density of ACE2 in each tissue correlates with the severity of the disease in that tissue and decreasing ACE2 activity might be protective, though another view is that increasing ACE2 using angiotensin II receptor blocker medications could be protective. As the alveolar disease progresses, respiratory failure might develop and death may follow.
Whether SARS-CoV-2 is able to invade the nervous system remains unknown. The virus is not detected in the CNS of the majority of COVID-19 people with neurological issues. However, SARS-CoV-2 has been detected at low levels in the brains of those who have died from COVID-19, but these results need to be confirmed. SARS-CoV-2 could cause respiratory failure through affecting the brain stem as other coronaviruses have been found to invade the CNS. While virus has been detected in cerebrospinal fluid of autopsies, the exact mechanism by which it invades the CNS remains unclear and may first involve invasion of peripheral nerves given the low levels of ACE2 in the brain. The virus may also enter the bloodstream from the lungs and cross the blood-brain barrier to gain access to the CNS, possibly within an infected white blood cell.
The virus also affects gastrointestinal organs as ACE2 is abundantly expressed in the glandular cells of gastric, duodenal and rectal epithelium as well as endothelial cells and enterocytes of the small intestine.
The virus can cause acute myocardial injury and chronic damage to the cardiovascular system. An acute cardiac injury was found in 12% of infected people admitted to the hospital in Wuhan, China, and is more frequent in severe disease. Rates of cardiovascular symptoms are high, owing to the systemic inflammatory response and immune system disorders during disease progression, but acute myocardial injuries may also be related to ACE2 receptors in the heart. ACE2 receptors are highly expressed in the heart and are involved in heart function. A high incidence of thrombosis and venous thromboembolism have been found people transferred to Intensive care unit (ICU) with COVID-19 infections, and may be related to poor prognosis. Blood vessel dysfunction and clot formation (as suggested by high D-dimer levels caused by blood clots) are thought to play a significant role in mortality, incidences of clots leading to pulmonary embolisms, and ischaemic events within the brain have been noted as complications leading to death in people infected with SARS-CoV-2. Infection appears to set off a chain of vasoconstrictive responses within the body, constriction of blood vessels within the pulmonary circulation has also been posited as a mechanism in which oxygenation decreases alongside the presentation of viral pneumonia. Furthermore, microvascular blood vessel damage has been reported in a small number of tissue samples of the brains – without detected SARS-CoV-2 – and the olfactory bulbs from those who have died from COVID-19.
Another common cause of death is complications related to the kidneys. Early reports show that up to 30% of hospitalized patients both in China and in New York have experienced some injury to their kidneys, including some persons with no previous kidney problems.
Autopsies of people who died of COVID-19 have found diffuse alveolar damage, and lymphocyte-containing inflammatory infiltrates within the lung.
IMMUNOPATHOLOGY
Although SARS-CoV-2 has a tropism for ACE2-expressing epithelial cells of the respiratory tract, people with severe COVID-19 have symptoms of systemic hyperinflammation. Clinical laboratory findings of elevated IL-2, IL-7, IL-6, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferon-γ inducible protein 10 (IP-10), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein 1-α (MIP-1α), and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) indicative of cytokine release syndrome (CRS) suggest an underlying immunopathology.
Additionally, people with COVID-19 and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) have classical serum biomarkers of CRS, including elevated C-reactive protein (CRP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), D-dimer, and ferritin.
Systemic inflammation results in vasodilation, allowing inflammatory lymphocytic and monocytic infiltration of the lung and the heart. In particular, pathogenic GM-CSF-secreting T-cells were shown to correlate with the recruitment of inflammatory IL-6-secreting monocytes and severe lung pathology in people with COVID-19 . Lymphocytic infiltrates have also been reported at autopsy.
VIRAL AND HOST FACTORS
VIRUS PROTEINS
Multiple viral and host factors affect the pathogenesis of the virus. The S-protein, otherwise known as the spike protein, is the viral component that attaches to the host receptor via the ACE2 receptors. It includes two subunits: S1 and S2. S1 determines the virus host range and cellular tropism via the receptor binding domain. S2 mediates the membrane fusion of the virus to its potential cell host via the H1 and HR2, which are heptad repeat regions. Studies have shown that S1 domain induced IgG and IgA antibody levels at a much higher capacity. It is the focus spike proteins expression that are involved in many effective COVID-19 vaccines.
The M protein is the viral protein responsible for the transmembrane transport of nutrients. It is the cause of the bud release and the formation of the viral envelope. The N and E protein are accessory proteins that interfere with the host's immune response.
HOST FACTORS
Human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) is the host factor that SARS-COV2 virus targets causing COVID-19. Theoretically the usage of angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) and ACE inhibitors upregulating ACE2 expression might increase morbidity with COVID-19, though animal data suggest some potential protective effect of ARB. However no clinical studies have proven susceptibility or outcomes. Until further data is available, guidelines and recommendations for hypertensive patients remain.
The virus' effect on ACE2 cell surfaces leads to leukocytic infiltration, increased blood vessel permeability, alveolar wall permeability, as well as decreased secretion of lung surfactants. These effects cause the majority of the respiratory symptoms. However, the aggravation of local inflammation causes a cytokine storm eventually leading to a systemic inflammatory response syndrome.
HOST CYTOKINE RESPONSE
The severity of the inflammation can be attributed to the severity of what is known as the cytokine storm. Levels of interleukin 1B, interferon-gamma, interferon-inducible protein 10, and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 were all associated with COVID-19 disease severity. Treatment has been proposed to combat the cytokine storm as it remains to be one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in COVID-19 disease.
A cytokine storm is due to an acute hyperinflammatory response that is responsible for clinical illness in an array of diseases but in COVID-19, it is related to worse prognosis and increased fatality. The storm causes the acute respiratory distress syndrome, blood clotting events such as strokes, myocardial infarction, encephalitis, acute kidney injury, and vasculitis. The production of IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, TNF-alpha, and interferon-gamma, all crucial components of normal immune responses, inadvertently become the causes of a cytokine storm. The cells of the central nervous system, the microglia, neurons, and astrocytes, are also be involved in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines affecting the nervous system, and effects of cytokine storms toward the CNS are not uncommon.
DIAGNOSIS
COVID-19 can provisionally be diagnosed on the basis of symptoms and confirmed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or other nucleic acid testing of infected secretions. Along with laboratory testing, chest CT scans may be helpful to diagnose COVID-19 in individuals with a high clinical suspicion of infection. Detection of a past infection is possible with serological tests, which detect antibodies produced by the body in response to the infection.
VIRAL TESTING
The standard methods of testing for presence of SARS-CoV-2 are nucleic acid tests, which detects the presence of viral RNA fragments. As these tests detect RNA but not infectious virus, its "ability to determine duration of infectivity of patients is limited." The test is typically done on respiratory samples obtained by a nasopharyngeal swab; however, a nasal swab or sputum sample may also be used. Results are generally available within hours. The WHO has published several testing protocols for the disease.
A number of laboratories and companies have developed serological tests, which detect antibodies produced by the body in response to infection. Several have been evaluated by Public Health England and approved for use in the UK.
The University of Oxford's CEBM has pointed to mounting evidence that "a good proportion of 'new' mild cases and people re-testing positives after quarantine or discharge from hospital are not infectious, but are simply clearing harmless virus particles which their immune system has efficiently dealt with" and have called for "an international effort to standardize and periodically calibrate testing" On 7 September, the UK government issued "guidance for procedures to be implemented in laboratories to provide assurance of positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA results during periods of low prevalence, when there is a reduction in the predictive value of positive test results."
IMAGING
Chest CT scans may be helpful to diagnose COVID-19 in individuals with a high clinical suspicion of infection but are not recommended for routine screening. Bilateral multilobar ground-glass opacities with a peripheral, asymmetric, and posterior distribution are common in early infection. Subpleural dominance, crazy paving (lobular septal thickening with variable alveolar filling), and consolidation may appear as the disease progresses. Characteristic imaging features on chest radiographs and computed tomography (CT) of people who are symptomatic include asymmetric peripheral ground-glass opacities without pleural effusions.
Many groups have created COVID-19 datasets that include imagery such as the Italian Radiological Society which has compiled an international online database of imaging findings for confirmed cases. Due to overlap with other infections such as adenovirus, imaging without confirmation by rRT-PCR is of limited specificity in identifying COVID-19. A large study in China compared chest CT results to PCR and demonstrated that though imaging is less specific for the infection, it is faster and more sensitive.
Coding
In late 2019, the WHO assigned emergency ICD-10 disease codes U07.1 for deaths from lab-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and U07.2 for deaths from clinically or epidemiologically diagnosed COVID-19 without lab-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection.
PATHOLOGY
The main pathological findings at autopsy are:
Macroscopy: pericarditis, lung consolidation and pulmonary oedema
Lung findings:
minor serous exudation, minor fibrin exudation
pulmonary oedema, pneumocyte hyperplasia, large atypical pneumocytes, interstitial inflammation with lymphocytic infiltration and multinucleated giant cell formation
diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) with diffuse alveolar exudates. DAD is the cause of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and severe hypoxemia.
organisation of exudates in alveolar cavities and pulmonary interstitial fibrosis
plasmocytosis in BAL
Blood: disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC); leukoerythroblastic reaction
Liver: microvesicular steatosis
PREVENTION
Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection include staying at home, wearing a mask in public, avoiding crowded places, keeping distance from others, ventilating indoor spaces, washing hands with soap and water often and for at least 20 seconds, practising good respiratory hygiene, and avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.
Those diagnosed with COVID-19 or who believe they may be infected are advised by the CDC to stay home except to get medical care, call ahead before visiting a healthcare provider, wear a face mask before entering the healthcare provider's office and when in any room or vehicle with another person, cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue, regularly wash hands with soap and water and avoid sharing personal household items.
The first COVID-19 vaccine was granted regulatory approval on 2 December by the UK medicines regulator MHRA. It was evaluated for emergency use authorization (EUA) status by the US FDA, and in several other countries. Initially, the US National Institutes of Health guidelines do not recommend any medication for prevention of COVID-19, before or after exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus, outside the setting of a clinical trial. Without a vaccine, other prophylactic measures, or effective treatments, a key part of managing COVID-19 is trying to decrease and delay the epidemic peak, known as "flattening the curve". This is done by slowing the infection rate to decrease the risk of health services being overwhelmed, allowing for better treatment of current cases, and delaying additional cases until effective treatments or a vaccine become available.
VACCINE
A COVID‑19 vaccine is a vaccine intended to provide acquired immunity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2), the virus causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‑19). Prior to the COVID‑19 pandemic, there was an established body of knowledge about the structure and function of coronaviruses causing diseases like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), which enabled accelerated development of various vaccine technologies during early 2020. On 10 January 2020, the SARS-CoV-2 genetic sequence data was shared through GISAID, and by 19 March, the global pharmaceutical industry announced a major commitment to address COVID-19.
In Phase III trials, several COVID‑19 vaccines have demonstrated efficacy as high as 95% in preventing symptomatic COVID‑19 infections. As of March 2021, 12 vaccines were authorized by at least one national regulatory authority for public use: two RNA vaccines (the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine and the Moderna vaccine), four conventional inactivated vaccines (BBIBP-CorV, CoronaVac, Covaxin, and CoviVac), four viral vector vaccines (Sputnik V, the Oxford–AstraZeneca vaccine, Convidicea, and the Johnson & Johnson vaccine), and two protein subunit vaccines (EpiVacCorona and RBD-Dimer). In total, as of March 2021, 308 vaccine candidates were in various stages of development, with 73 in clinical research, including 24 in Phase I trials, 33 in Phase I–II trials, and 16 in Phase III development.
Many countries have implemented phased distribution plans that prioritize those at highest risk of complications, such as the elderly, and those at high risk of exposure and transmission, such as healthcare workers. As of 17 March 2021, 400.22 million doses of COVID‑19 vaccine have been administered worldwide based on official reports from national health agencies. AstraZeneca-Oxford anticipates producing 3 billion doses in 2021, Pfizer-BioNTech 1.3 billion doses, and Sputnik V, Sinopharm, Sinovac, and Johnson & Johnson 1 billion doses each. Moderna targets producing 600 million doses and Convidicea 500 million doses in 2021. By December 2020, more than 10 billion vaccine doses had been preordered by countries, with about half of the doses purchased by high-income countries comprising 14% of the world's population.
SOCIAL DISTANCING
Social distancing (also known as physical distancing) includes infection control actions intended to slow the spread of the disease by minimising close contact between individuals. Methods include quarantines; travel restrictions; and the closing of schools, workplaces, stadiums, theatres, or shopping centres. Individuals may apply social distancing methods by staying at home, limiting travel, avoiding crowded areas, using no-contact greetings, and physically distancing themselves from others. Many governments are now mandating or recommending social distancing in regions affected by the outbreak.
Outbreaks have occurred in prisons due to crowding and an inability to enforce adequate social distancing. In the United States, the prisoner population is aging and many of them are at high risk for poor outcomes from COVID-19 due to high rates of coexisting heart and lung disease, and poor access to high-quality healthcare.
SELF-ISOLATION
Self-isolation at home has been recommended for those diagnosed with COVID-19 and those who suspect they have been infected. Health agencies have issued detailed instructions for proper self-isolation. Many governments have mandated or recommended self-quarantine for entire populations. The strongest self-quarantine instructions have been issued to those in high-risk groups. Those who may have been exposed to someone with COVID-19 and those who have recently travelled to a country or region with the widespread transmission have been advised to self-quarantine for 14 days from the time of last possible exposure.
Face masks and respiratory hygiene
The WHO and the US CDC recommend individuals wear non-medical face coverings in public settings where there is an increased risk of transmission and where social distancing measures are difficult to maintain. This recommendation is meant to reduce the spread of the disease by asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic individuals and is complementary to established preventive measures such as social distancing. Face coverings limit the volume and travel distance of expiratory droplets dispersed when talking, breathing, and coughing. A face covering without vents or holes will also filter out particles containing the virus from inhaled and exhaled air, reducing the chances of infection. But, if the mask include an exhalation valve, a wearer that is infected (maybe without having noticed that, and asymptomatic) would transmit the virus outwards through it, despite any certification they can have. So the masks with exhalation valve are not for the infected wearers, and are not reliable to stop the pandemic in a large scale. Many countries and local jurisdictions encourage or mandate the use of face masks or cloth face coverings by members of the public to limit the spread of the virus.
Masks are also strongly recommended for those who may have been infected and those taking care of someone who may have the disease. When not wearing a mask, the CDC recommends covering the mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing or sneezing and recommends using the inside of the elbow if no tissue is available. Proper hand hygiene after any cough or sneeze is encouraged. Healthcare professionals interacting directly with people who have COVID-19 are advised to use respirators at least as protective as NIOSH-certified N95 or equivalent, in addition to other personal protective equipment.
HAND-WASHING AND HYGIENE
Thorough hand hygiene after any cough or sneeze is required. The WHO also recommends that individuals wash hands often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, especially after going to the toilet or when hands are visibly dirty, before eating and after blowing one's nose. The CDC recommends using an alcohol-based hand sanitiser with at least 60% alcohol, but only when soap and water are not readily available. For areas where commercial hand sanitisers are not readily available, the WHO provides two formulations for local production. In these formulations, the antimicrobial activity arises from ethanol or isopropanol. Hydrogen peroxide is used to help eliminate bacterial spores in the alcohol; it is "not an active substance for hand antisepsis". Glycerol is added as a humectant.
SURFACE CLEANING
After being expelled from the body, coronaviruses can survive on surfaces for hours to days. If a person touches the dirty surface, they may deposit the virus at the eyes, nose, or mouth where it can enter the body cause infection. Current evidence indicates that contact with infected surfaces is not the main driver of Covid-19, leading to recommendations for optimised disinfection procedures to avoid issues such as the increase of antimicrobial resistance through the use of inappropriate cleaning products and processes. Deep cleaning and other surface sanitation has been criticized as hygiene theater, giving a false sense of security against something primarily spread through the air.
The amount of time that the virus can survive depends significantly on the type of surface, the temperature, and the humidity. Coronaviruses die very quickly when exposed to the UV light in sunlight. Like other enveloped viruses, SARS-CoV-2 survives longest when the temperature is at room temperature or lower, and when the relative humidity is low (<50%).
On many surfaces, including as glass, some types of plastic, stainless steel, and skin, the virus can remain infective for several days indoors at room temperature, or even about a week under ideal conditions. On some surfaces, including cotton fabric and copper, the virus usually dies after a few hours. As a general rule of thumb, the virus dies faster on porous surfaces than on non-porous surfaces.
However, this rule is not absolute, and of the many surfaces tested, two with the longest survival times are N95 respirator masks and surgical masks, both of which are considered porous surfaces.
Surfaces may be decontaminated with 62–71 percent ethanol, 50–100 percent isopropanol, 0.1 percent sodium hypochlorite, 0.5 percent hydrogen peroxide, and 0.2–7.5 percent povidone-iodine. Other solutions, such as benzalkonium chloride and chlorhexidine gluconate, are less effective. Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation may also be used. The CDC recommends that if a COVID-19 case is suspected or confirmed at a facility such as an office or day care, all areas such as offices, bathrooms, common areas, shared electronic equipment like tablets, touch screens, keyboards, remote controls, and ATM machines used by the ill persons should be disinfected. A datasheet comprising the authorised substances to disinfection in the food industry (including suspension or surface tested, kind of surface, use dilution, disinfectant and inocuylum volumes) can be seen in the supplementary material of.
VENTILATION AND AIR FILTRATION
The WHO recommends ventilation and air filtration in public spaces to help clear out infectious aerosols.
HEALTHY DIET AND LIFESTYLE
The Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health recommends a healthy diet, being physically active, managing psychological stress, and getting enough sleep.
While there is no evidence that vitamin D is an effective treatment for COVID-19, there is limited evidence that vitamin D deficiency increases the risk of severe COVID-19 symptoms. This has led to recommendations for individuals with vitamin D deficiency to take vitamin D supplements as a way of mitigating the risk of COVID-19 and other health issues associated with a possible increase in deficiency due to social distancing.
TREATMENT
There is no specific, effective treatment or cure for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Thus, the cornerstone of management of COVID-19 is supportive care, which includes treatment to relieve symptoms, fluid therapy, oxygen support and prone positioning as needed, and medications or devices to support other affected vital organs.
Most cases of COVID-19 are mild. In these, supportive care includes medication such as paracetamol or NSAIDs to relieve symptoms (fever, body aches, cough), proper intake of fluids, rest, and nasal breathing. Good personal hygiene and a healthy diet are also recommended. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend that those who suspect they are carrying the virus isolate themselves at home and wear a face mask.
People with more severe cases may need treatment in hospital. In those with low oxygen levels, use of the glucocorticoid dexamethasone is strongly recommended, as it can reduce the risk of death. Noninvasive ventilation and, ultimately, admission to an intensive care unit for mechanical ventilation may be required to support breathing. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has been used to address the issue of respiratory failure, but its benefits are still under consideration.
Several experimental treatments are being actively studied in clinical trials. Others were thought to be promising early in the pandemic, such as hydroxychloroquine and lopinavir/ritonavir, but later research found them to be ineffective or even harmful. Despite ongoing research, there is still not enough high-quality evidence to recommend so-called early treatment. Nevertheless, in the United States, two monoclonal antibody-based therapies are available for early use in cases thought to be at high risk of progression to severe disease. The antiviral remdesivir is available in the U.S., Canada, Australia, and several other countries, with varying restrictions; however, it is not recommended for people needing mechanical ventilation, and is discouraged altogether by the World Health Organization (WHO), due to limited evidence of its efficacy.
PROGNOSIS
The severity of COVID-19 varies. The disease may take a mild course with few or no symptoms, resembling other common upper respiratory diseases such as the common cold. In 3–4% of cases (7.4% for those over age 65) symptoms are severe enough to cause hospitalization. Mild cases typically recover within two weeks, while those with severe or critical diseases may take three to six weeks to recover. Among those who have died, the time from symptom onset to death has ranged from two to eight weeks. The Italian Istituto Superiore di Sanità reported that the median time between the onset of symptoms and death was twelve days, with seven being hospitalised. However, people transferred to an ICU had a median time of ten days between hospitalisation and death. Prolonged prothrombin time and elevated C-reactive protein levels on admission to the hospital are associated with severe course of COVID-19 and with a transfer to ICU.
Some early studies suggest 10% to 20% of people with COVID-19 will experience symptoms lasting longer than a month.[191][192] A majority of those who were admitted to hospital with severe disease report long-term problems including fatigue and shortness of breath. On 30 October 2020 WHO chief Tedros Adhanom warned that "to a significant number of people, the COVID virus poses a range of serious long-term effects". He has described the vast spectrum of COVID-19 symptoms that fluctuate over time as "really concerning." They range from fatigue, a cough and shortness of breath, to inflammation and injury of major organs – including the lungs and heart, and also neurological and psychologic effects. Symptoms often overlap and can affect any system in the body. Infected people have reported cyclical bouts of fatigue, headaches, months of complete exhaustion, mood swings, and other symptoms. Tedros has concluded that therefore herd immunity is "morally unconscionable and unfeasible".
In terms of hospital readmissions about 9% of 106,000 individuals had to return for hospital treatment within 2 months of discharge. The average to readmit was 8 days since first hospital visit. There are several risk factors that have been identified as being a cause of multiple admissions to a hospital facility. Among these are advanced age (above 65 years of age) and presence of a chronic condition such as diabetes, COPD, heart failure or chronic kidney disease.
According to scientific reviews smokers are more likely to require intensive care or die compared to non-smokers, air pollution is similarly associated with risk factors, and pre-existing heart and lung diseases and also obesity contributes to an increased health risk of COVID-19.
It is also assumed that those that are immunocompromised are at higher risk of getting severely sick from SARS-CoV-2. One research that looked into the COVID-19 infections in hospitalized kidney transplant recipients found a mortality rate of 11%.
See also: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children
Children make up a small proportion of reported cases, with about 1% of cases being under 10 years and 4% aged 10–19 years. They are likely to have milder symptoms and a lower chance of severe disease than adults. A European multinational study of hospitalized children published in The Lancet on 25 June 2020 found that about 8% of children admitted to a hospital needed intensive care. Four of those 582 children (0.7%) died, but the actual mortality rate could be "substantially lower" since milder cases that did not seek medical help were not included in the study.
Genetics also plays an important role in the ability to fight off the disease. For instance, those that do not produce detectable type I interferons or produce auto-antibodies against these may get much sicker from COVID-19. Genetic screening is able to detect interferon effector genes.
Pregnant women may be at higher risk of severe COVID-19 infection based on data from other similar viruses, like SARS and MERS, but data for COVID-19 is lacking.
COMPLICATIONS
Complications may include pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), multi-organ failure, septic shock, and death. Cardiovascular complications may include heart failure, arrhythmias, heart inflammation, and blood clots. Approximately 20–30% of people who present with COVID-19 have elevated liver enzymes, reflecting liver injury.
Neurologic manifestations include seizure, stroke, encephalitis, and Guillain–Barré syndrome (which includes loss of motor functions). Following the infection, children may develop paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome, which has symptoms similar to Kawasaki disease, which can be fatal. In very rare cases, acute encephalopathy can occur, and it can be considered in those who have been diagnosed with COVID-19 and have an altered mental status.
LONGER-TERM EFFECTS
Some early studies suggest that that 10 to 20% of people with COVID-19 will experience symptoms lasting longer than a month. A majority of those who were admitted to hospital with severe disease report long-term problems, including fatigue and shortness of breath. About 5-10% of patients admitted to hospital progress to severe or critical disease, including pneumonia and acute respiratory failure.
By a variety of mechanisms, the lungs are the organs most affected in COVID-19.[228] The majority of CT scans performed show lung abnormalities in people tested after 28 days of illness.
People with advanced age, severe disease, prolonged ICU stays, or who smoke are more likely to have long lasting effects, including pulmonary fibrosis. Overall, approximately one third of those investigated after 4 weeks will have findings of pulmonary fibrosis or reduced lung function as measured by DLCO, even in people who are asymptomatic, but with the suggestion of continuing improvement with the passing of more time.
IMMUNITY
The immune response by humans to CoV-2 virus occurs as a combination of the cell-mediated immunity and antibody production, just as with most other infections. Since SARS-CoV-2 has been in the human population only since December 2019, it remains unknown if the immunity is long-lasting in people who recover from the disease. The presence of neutralizing antibodies in blood strongly correlates with protection from infection, but the level of neutralizing antibody declines with time. Those with asymptomatic or mild disease had undetectable levels of neutralizing antibody two months after infection. In another study, the level of neutralizing antibody fell 4-fold 1 to 4 months after the onset of symptoms. However, the lack of antibody in the blood does not mean antibody will not be rapidly produced upon reexposure to SARS-CoV-2. Memory B cells specific for the spike and nucleocapsid proteins of SARS-CoV-2 last for at least 6 months after appearance of symptoms. Nevertheless, 15 cases of reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 have been reported using stringent CDC criteria requiring identification of a different variant from the second infection. There are likely to be many more people who have been reinfected with the virus. Herd immunity will not eliminate the virus if reinfection is common. Some other coronaviruses circulating in people are capable of reinfection after roughly a year. Nonetheless, on 3 March 2021, scientists reported that a much more contagious Covid-19 variant, Lineage P.1, first detected in Japan, and subsequently found in Brazil, as well as in several places in the United States, may be associated with Covid-19 disease reinfection after recovery from an earlier Covid-19 infection.
MORTALITY
Several measures are commonly used to quantify mortality. These numbers vary by region and over time and are influenced by the volume of testing, healthcare system quality, treatment options, time since the initial outbreak, and population characteristics such as age, sex, and overall health. The mortality rate reflects the number of deaths within a specific demographic group divided by the population of that demographic group. Consequently, the mortality rate reflects the prevalence as well as the severity of the disease within a given population. Mortality rates are highly correlated to age, with relatively low rates for young people and relatively high rates among the elderly.
The case fatality rate (CFR) reflects the number of deaths divided by the number of diagnosed cases within a given time interval. Based on Johns Hopkins University statistics, the global death-to-case ratio is 2.2% (2,685,770/121,585,388) as of 18 March 2021. The number varies by region. The CFR may not reflect the true severity of the disease, because some infected individuals remain asymptomatic or experience only mild symptoms, and hence such infections may not be included in official case reports. Moreover, the CFR may vary markedly over time and across locations due to the availability of live virus tests.
INFECTION FATALITY RATE
A key metric in gauging the severity of COVID-19 is the infection fatality rate (IFR), also referred to as the infection fatality ratio or infection fatality risk. This metric is calculated by dividing the total number of deaths from the disease by the total number of infected individuals; hence, in contrast to the CFR, the IFR incorporates asymptomatic and undiagnosed infections as well as reported cases.
CURRENT ESTIMATES
A December 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis estimated that population IFR during the first wave of the pandemic was about 0.5% to 1% in many locations (including France, Netherlands, New Zealand, and Portugal), 1% to 2% in other locations (Australia, England, Lithuania, and Spain), and exceeded 2% in Italy. That study also found that most of these differences in IFR reflected corresponding differences in the age composition of the population and age-specific infection rates; in particular, the metaregression estimate of IFR is very low for children and younger adults (e.g., 0.002% at age 10 and 0.01% at age 25) but increases progressively to 0.4% at age 55, 1.4% at age 65, 4.6% at age 75, and 15% at age 85. These results were also highlighted in a December 2020 report issued by the WHO.
EARLIER ESTIMATES OF IFR
At an early stage of the pandemic, the World Health Organization reported estimates of IFR between 0.3% and 1%.[ On 2 July, The WHO's chief scientist reported that the average IFR estimate presented at a two-day WHO expert forum was about 0.6%. In August, the WHO found that studies incorporating data from broad serology testing in Europe showed IFR estimates converging at approximately 0.5–1%. Firm lower limits of IFRs have been established in a number of locations such as New York City and Bergamo in Italy since the IFR cannot be less than the population fatality rate. As of 10 July, in New York City, with a population of 8.4 million, 23,377 individuals (18,758 confirmed and 4,619 probable) have died with COVID-19 (0.3% of the population).Antibody testing in New York City suggested an IFR of ~0.9%,[258] and ~1.4%. In Bergamo province, 0.6% of the population has died. In September 2020 the U.S. Center for Disease Control & Prevention reported preliminary estimates of age-specific IFRs for public health planning purposes.
SEX DIFFERENCES
Early reviews of epidemiologic data showed gendered impact of the pandemic and a higher mortality rate in men in China and Italy. The Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention reported the death rate was 2.8% for men and 1.7% for women. Later reviews in June 2020 indicated that there is no significant difference in susceptibility or in CFR between genders. One review acknowledges the different mortality rates in Chinese men, suggesting that it may be attributable to lifestyle choices such as smoking and drinking alcohol rather than genetic factors. Sex-based immunological differences, lesser prevalence of smoking in women and men developing co-morbid conditions such as hypertension at a younger age than women could have contributed to the higher mortality in men. In Europe, 57% of the infected people were men and 72% of those died with COVID-19 were men. As of April 2020, the US government is not tracking sex-related data of COVID-19 infections. Research has shown that viral illnesses like Ebola, HIV, influenza and SARS affect men and women differently.
ETHNIC DIFFERENCES
In the US, a greater proportion of deaths due to COVID-19 have occurred among African Americans and other minority groups. Structural factors that prevent them from practicing social distancing include their concentration in crowded substandard housing and in "essential" occupations such as retail grocery workers, public transit employees, health-care workers and custodial staff. Greater prevalence of lacking health insurance and care and of underlying conditions such as diabetes, hypertension and heart disease also increase their risk of death. Similar issues affect Native American and Latino communities. According to a US health policy non-profit, 34% of American Indian and Alaska Native People (AIAN) non-elderly adults are at risk of serious illness compared to 21% of white non-elderly adults. The source attributes it to disproportionately high rates of many health conditions that may put them at higher risk as well as living conditions like lack of access to clean water. Leaders have called for efforts to research and address the disparities. In the U.K., a greater proportion of deaths due to COVID-19 have occurred in those of a Black, Asian, and other ethnic minority background. More severe impacts upon victims including the relative incidence of the necessity of hospitalization requirements, and vulnerability to the disease has been associated via DNA analysis to be expressed in genetic variants at chromosomal region 3, features that are associated with European Neanderthal heritage. That structure imposes greater risks that those affected will develop a more severe form of the disease. The findings are from Professor Svante Pääbo and researchers he leads at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and the Karolinska Institutet. This admixture of modern human and Neanderthal genes is estimated to have occurred roughly between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago in Southern Europe.
COMORBIDITIES
Most of those who die of COVID-19 have pre-existing (underlying) conditions, including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease. According to March data from the United States, 89% of those hospitalised had preexisting conditions. The Italian Istituto Superiore di Sanità reported that out of 8.8% of deaths where medical charts were available, 96.1% of people had at least one comorbidity with the average person having 3.4 diseases. According to this report the most common comorbidities are hypertension (66% of deaths), type 2 diabetes (29.8% of deaths), Ischemic Heart Disease (27.6% of deaths), atrial fibrillation (23.1% of deaths) and chronic renal failure (20.2% of deaths).
Most critical respiratory comorbidities according to the CDC, are: moderate or severe asthma, pre-existing COPD, pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis. Evidence stemming from meta-analysis of several smaller research papers also suggests that smoking can be associated with worse outcomes. When someone with existing respiratory problems is infected with COVID-19, they might be at greater risk for severe symptoms. COVID-19 also poses a greater risk to people who misuse opioids and methamphetamines, insofar as their drug use may have caused lung damage.
In August 2020 the CDC issued a caution that tuberculosis infections could increase the risk of severe illness or death. The WHO recommended that people with respiratory symptoms be screened for both diseases, as testing positive for COVID-19 couldn't rule out co-infections. Some projections have estimated that reduced TB detection due to the pandemic could result in 6.3 million additional TB cases and 1.4 million TB related deaths by 2025.
NAME
During the initial outbreak in Wuhan, China, the virus and disease were commonly referred to as "coronavirus" and "Wuhan coronavirus", with the disease sometimes called "Wuhan pneumonia". In the past, many diseases have been named after geographical locations, such as the Spanish flu, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, and Zika virus. In January 2020, the WHO recommended 2019-nCov and 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease as interim names for the virus and disease per 2015 guidance and international guidelines against using geographical locations (e.g. Wuhan, China), animal species, or groups of people in disease and virus names in part to prevent social stigma. The official names COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 were issued by the WHO on 11 February 2020. Tedros Adhanom explained: CO for corona, VI for virus, D for disease and 19 for when the outbreak was first identified (31 December 2019). The WHO additionally uses "the COVID-19 virus" and "the virus responsible for COVID-19" in public communications.
HISTORY
The virus is thought to be natural and of an animal origin, through spillover infection. There are several theories about where the first case (the so-called patient zero) originated. Phylogenetics estimates that SARS-CoV-2 arose in October or November 2019. Evidence suggests that it descends from a coronavirus that infects wild bats, and spread to humans through an intermediary wildlife host.
The first known human infections were in Wuhan, Hubei, China. A study of the first 41 cases of confirmed COVID-19, published in January 2020 in The Lancet, reported the earliest date of onset of symptoms as 1 December 2019.Official publications from the WHO reported the earliest onset of symptoms as 8 December 2019. Human-to-human transmission was confirmed by the WHO and Chinese authorities by 20 January 2020. According to official Chinese sources, these were mostly linked to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, which also sold live animals. In May 2020 George Gao, the director of the CDC, said animal samples collected from the seafood market had tested negative for the virus, indicating that the market was the site of an early superspreading event, but that it was not the site of the initial outbreak.[ Traces of the virus have been found in wastewater samples that were collected in Milan and Turin, Italy, on 18 December 2019.
By December 2019, the spread of infection was almost entirely driven by human-to-human transmission. The number of coronavirus cases in Hubei gradually increased, reaching 60 by 20 December, and at least 266 by 31 December. On 24 December, Wuhan Central Hospital sent a bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) sample from an unresolved clinical case to sequencing company Vision Medicals. On 27 and 28 December, Vision Medicals informed the Wuhan Central Hospital and the Chinese CDC of the results of the test, showing a new coronavirus. A pneumonia cluster of unknown cause was observed on 26 December and treated by the doctor Zhang Jixian in Hubei Provincial Hospital, who informed the Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December. On 30 December, a test report addressed to Wuhan Central Hospital, from company CapitalBio Medlab, stated an erroneous positive result for SARS, causing a group of doctors at Wuhan Central Hospital to alert their colleagues and relevant hospital authorities of the result. The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission issued a notice to various medical institutions on "the treatment of pneumonia of unknown cause" that same evening. Eight of these doctors, including Li Wenliang (punished on 3 January), were later admonished by the police for spreading false rumours and another, Ai Fen, was reprimanded by her superiors for raising the alarm.
The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission made the first public announcement of a pneumonia outbreak of unknown cause on 31 December, confirming 27 cases—enough to trigger an investigation.
During the early stages of the outbreak, the number of cases doubled approximately every seven and a half days. In early and mid-January 2020, the virus spread to other Chinese provinces, helped by the Chinese New Year migration and Wuhan being a transport hub and major rail interchange. On 20 January, China reported nearly 140 new cases in one day, including two people in Beijing and one in Shenzhen. Later official data shows 6,174 people had already developed symptoms by then, and more may have been infected. A report in The Lancet on 24 January indicated human transmission, strongly recommended personal protective equipment for health workers, and said testing for the virus was essential due to its "pandemic potential". On 30 January, the WHO declared the coronavirus a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. By this time, the outbreak spread by a factor of 100 to 200 times.
Italy had its first confirmed cases on 31 January 2020, two tourists from China. As of 13 March 2020 the WHO considered Europe the active centre of the pandemic. Italy overtook China as the country with the most deaths on 19 March 2020. By 26 March the United States had overtaken China and Italy with the highest number of confirmed cases in the world. Research on coronavirus genomes indicates the majority of COVID-19 cases in New York came from European travellers, rather than directly from China or any other Asian country. Retesting of prior samples found a person in France who had the virus on 27 December 2019, and a person in the United States who died from the disease on 6 February 2020.
After 55 days without a locally transmitted case, Beijing reported a new COVID-19 case on 11 June 2020 which was followed by two more cases on 12 June. By 15 June there were 79 cases officially confirmed, most of them were people that went to Xinfadi Wholesale Market.
RT-PCR testing of untreated wastewater samples from Brazil and Italy have suggested detection of SARS-CoV-2 as early as November and December 2019, respectively, but the methods of such sewage studies have not been optimised, many have not been peer reviewed, details are often missing, and there is a risk of false positives due to contamination or if only one gene target is detected. A September 2020 review journal article said, "The possibility that the COVID-19 infection had already spread to Europe at the end of last year is now indicated by abundant, even if partially circumstantial, evidence", including pneumonia case numbers and radiology in France and Italy in November and December.
MISINFORMATION
After the initial outbreak of COVID-19, misinformation and disinformation regarding the origin, scale, prevention, treatment, and other aspects of the disease rapidly spread online.
In September 2020, the U.S. CDC published preliminary estimates of the risk of death by age groups in the United States, but those estimates were widely misreported and misunderstood.
OTHER ANIMALS
Humans appear to be capable of spreading the virus to some other animals, a type of disease transmission referred to as zooanthroponosis.
Some pets, especially cats and ferrets, can catch this virus from infected humans. Symptoms in cats include respiratory (such as a cough) and digestive symptoms. Cats can spread the virus to other cats, and may be able to spread the virus to humans, but cat-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2 has not been proven. Compared to cats, dogs are less susceptible to this infection. Behaviors which increase the risk of transmission include kissing, licking, and petting the animal.
The virus does not appear to be able to infect pigs, ducks, or chickens at all.[ Mice, rats, and rabbits, if they can be infected at all, are unlikely to be involved in spreading the virus.
Tigers and lions in zoos have become infected as a result of contact with infected humans. As expected, monkeys and great ape species such as orangutans can also be infected with the COVID-19 virus.
Minks, which are in the same family as ferrets, have been infected. Minks may be asymptomatic, and can also spread the virus to humans. Multiple countries have identified infected animals in mink farms. Denmark, a major producer of mink pelts, ordered the slaughter of all minks over fears of viral mutations. A vaccine for mink and other animals is being researched.
RESEARCH
International research on vaccines and medicines in COVID-19 is underway by government organisations, academic groups, and industry researchers. The CDC has classified it to require a BSL3 grade laboratory. There has been a great deal of COVID-19 research, involving accelerated research processes and publishing shortcuts to meet the global demand.
As of December 2020, hundreds of clinical trials have been undertaken, with research happening on every continent except Antarctica. As of November 2020, more than 200 possible treatments had been studied in humans so far.
Transmission and prevention research
Modelling research has been conducted with several objectives, including predictions of the dynamics of transmission, diagnosis and prognosis of infection, estimation of the impact of interventions, or allocation of resources. Modelling studies are mostly based on epidemiological models, estimating the number of infected people over time under given conditions. Several other types of models have been developed and used during the COVID-19 including computational fluid dynamics models to study the flow physics of COVID-19, retrofits of crowd movement models to study occupant exposure, mobility-data based models to investigate transmission, or the use of macroeconomic models to assess the economic impact of the pandemic. Further, conceptual frameworks from crisis management research have been applied to better understand the effects of COVID-19 on organizations worldwide.
TREATMENT-RELATED RESEARCH
Repurposed antiviral drugs make up most of the research into COVID-19 treatments. Other candidates in trials include vasodilators, corticosteroids, immune therapies, lipoic acid, bevacizumab, and recombinant angiotensin-converting enzyme 2.
In March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) initiated the Solidarity trial to assess the treatment effects of some promising drugs: an experimental drug called remdesivir; anti-malarial drugs chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine; two anti-HIV drugs, lopinavir/ritonavir; and interferon-beta. More than 300 active clinical trials were underway as of April 2020.
Research on the antimalarial drugs hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine showed that they were ineffective at best, and that they may reduce the antiviral activity of remdesivir. By May 2020, France, Italy, and Belgium had banned the use of hydroxychloroquine as a COVID-19 treatment.
In June, initial results from the randomised RECOVERY Trial in the United Kingdom showed that dexamethasone reduced mortality by one third for people who are critically ill on ventilators and one fifth for those receiving supplemental oxygen. Because this is a well-tested and widely available treatment, it was welcomed by the WHO, which is in the process of updating treatment guidelines to include dexamethasone and other steroids. Based on those preliminary results, dexamethasone treatment has been recommended by the NIH for patients with COVID-19 who are mechanically ventilated or who require supplemental oxygen but not in patients with COVID-19 who do not require supplemental oxygen.
In September 2020, the WHO released updated guidance on using corticosteroids for COVID-19. The WHO recommends systemic corticosteroids rather than no systemic corticosteroids for the treatment of people with severe and critical COVID-19 (strong recommendation, based on moderate certainty evidence). The WHO suggests not to use corticosteroids in the treatment of people with non-severe COVID-19 (conditional recommendation, based on low certainty evidence). The updated guidance was based on a meta-analysis of clinical trials of critically ill COVID-19 patients.
WIKIPEDIA
Mobile Legends Hack Cheats Tutorial [Unlimited Diamonds and Battle Points] Android iOS
No need to look anywhere else, the most advanced Mobile Legends Cheat is available right now for you to download. If you want to become the best player in the world and impress your friends, get the Mobile Legends Hack by HacksCommunity which requires no root or jailbreaking to your device. Mobile Legends Hack Cheats is very easy to use due to the user-friendly interface. Everyday the cheat is scanned for viruses or different exploits, so no need to worry about the hack safety.
Visit Webpage: www.hackscommunity.com/mobile-legends-hack-cheats/
Mobile Legends Hack Tool Features:
Add Unlimited Unlimited Diamonds and Battle PointsMobile Legends [Latest & Updated Version] Created by : HacksCommunity.com Team! Mobile Legends Cheats Undetectable, Safe & Effective! User-friendly interface & support Plug and Play [Connect Device, Start Hack] Mobile Legends Hack works for all Android mobile phones and tablets & iPhone, iPad, iPod, iPad Mini and other iOS Devices! No root and jailbreak needed!
MADE IN TORONTO, RESTORED RECENTLY IN NEW ZEALAND…deHavilland FB.26 KA114 Mosquito, nicknamed the 'Mossie' in WW II…flies again!!
Made in Downsview (now Toronto proper) by deHavilland of Canada in 1945!
TODAY it is the only Mosquito in flying condition, in the whole-wide world!!
…how about that?
During WW II the Mosquito had many roles: Fast-bomber, Fighter-Bomber, Night Fighter, Maritime Strike Aircraft, Fast Photo-Reconnaissance, and even advanced trainer.
Commander in Chief of the Nazi Luftwaffe, Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring said THIS about the Mosquito in 1943:
"In 1940, I could at least fly as far as Glasgow in most of my aircraft, but not now! It makes me furious when I see the Mosquito. I turn green and yellow with envy. The British, who can afford aluminium better than we can, knock together a beautiful wooden aircraft that every piano factory over there is building, and they give it a speed which they have now increased yet again.What do you make of that? There is nothing the British do not have. They have the geniuses and we have the nincompoops. After the war is over I'm going to buy a British radio set - then at least I'll own something that has always worked."
Oh, those pesky Mosquitos!
On January 20, 1943…RAF Mosquitos silenced Göring's propaganda speech celebrating the 10th anniversary of the Nazis having seized power which was being broadcast live, at the time, from Berlin, to the entire German nation!
Göring was humiliated.In response to this and other increasing well-known successful RAF Mossie attacks Hermann formed special Luftwaffe units—to specifically combat these pesky Mosquitos.
No luck, chap.
The Mosquito was an ALL-WOOD construction.
It had no defensive armour, or armament, whatsoever.
HIGH SPEED was its' defence!
The Mossies could fly low, under German radar, at high speeds and were the first STEALH (radar-undetectable) AIRCRAFT brought into existence.
The main users of the Mosquito in order of units served was the RAF, RCAF, RAAF, and the USAAF.
My dad's squadron, RCAF SQN 404 put their Mossies to use as coastal anti-shipping and submarine strike aircraft.
The CANADIAN MOSQUITO FB Mk. 26 FIGHTER-BOMBER (seen above, photographer: Unknown) was an improved version of the Mk. 21 fighter-bomber. It was powered by two 1,620 HP Packard-Merlin 225 piston engines. That was a boost of 200 HP from the 21!
Those Packard-Merlins, and all Canadian Packard-Merlins used in Canadian Mosquitos, were made in this (now vacant) Downsview Park building (also seen-above)!
A total of 338 Mk.26s were made in, and only in, Toronto!
7,781 Mosquitos were built overall, all marks, and 1,132 were BUILT IN TORONTO.
Will CANADA ever see a Mosquito beat up the skies of Canada, again?
In mid-June, 2013 the Canadian Mosquito (owned by Jerry Yagen) and seen above, WILL FLY once again over the skies of Toronto.
…and possibly land at Bombardier Toronto!
It will fly as the SHOW'S HIGHLIGHT in the Hamilton Air Show on June 15-16, 2013.
Oh…yeah…when this Canadian Mk. 26 was restored over a seven year period in Ardmore, New Zealand by AvSpecs Ltd …a COMPLETE SET of forms, jigs and moulds were created. This means that MORE CANADIAN VERSION Mk. 26 MOSQUITOS will be produced in the future!
FYI, Toronto…
M protein (g/L) (0 = cancer undetectable)
Nov = 8
Late Oct = 9
Early Oct = between 5-6
Sept = under 7.7
Aug = value missing
July = 3.0
June =3.2
Feb 2015 (began chemo) 36.1
Good news! My November blood test results show that cancer levels are stable again - Nov = 8. Hopefully this 8-9 range will be the new normal for future tests. This test result shows that my Pomalyst chemo is effectively fighting my cancer. Recall that I stopped dexamethasone (steroid) in July due to eye damage and I’m just on chemo.
My m protein value is my cancer levels marker. Think of it as the amount of myeloma/cancer in my plasma cells. Plasma cells are white blood cells used to fight infection. That’s why multiple myeloma is a cancer of the immune system and also called a blood cancer. If my m protein is 0, then cancer is undetectable in my bloodstream.
I am much more fatigued now both mentally and physically, due to my elevated cancer levels while on indefinite chemo treatment. Thinking remains a challenge and conversations are increasingly infrequent. This is to be expected as chronic fatigue is a common symptom of my multiple myeloma + anemia.
I will never let cancer discourage me. I’ll continue to maintain a positive attitude, focus on healthy eating, and avoiding negativity in my life.
Happy days ahead!
Self-portrait:
Thursday morning as fog blanketed the city, I travelled to Stanley Park. I wanted a setting that maintained the look of autumn, while the fog surrounded me. A surreal atmosphere.
To recap: On Sunday, December 3rd, I completed Cycle 37 Week 3. I have Multiple Myeloma and anemia, a rare cancer of the immune system. It is incurable, but treatable. Since February 9th 2015, I have been on Pomalyst and dexamethasone chemo treatment (Pom/dex). On July 16th, my dexamethasone treatment ended, due to eye damage, as reported by my Glaucoma Specialist, from long-term use.
Now a popular walk between Lavenham and Long Meford, the former Greater Eastern Railway section of line known as the Long Melford-Bury St Edmunds branch line, was used during World War Two as an Anti-Tank Obstacle. The high embankments and the basin width made it a perfect Anti-Tank Ditch. The bridges would have been prepared for demolition, and would have been detonated with explosives, destroying the crossing and hindering any enemy advances. There are usually signs of brickwork being disturbed to places the explosives at the lower part of the bridge. These were repaired Post War, but identifying them isn't always easy.
Bridges, Railway Bridges and other key points were prepared for ''demolition'' at short notice by preparing chambers filled with explosives, a Depth Charge Crater was a sited in a road (usually at a junction) prepared with buried explosives that could be detonated to instantly form a deep crater as an Anti-Tank Obstacle. The Canadian Pipe Mine (later known as the McNaughton Tube after General Andrew McNaughton) was a horizontally bored pipe packed with explosives, once in place this could be used to instantly ruin a road or runway. Prepared demolitions had the advantage of being undetectable from the air, the enemy could not take any precautions against them, or plot a route of attack around them.
Crossing points in the Defence Network, bridges, tunnels and other weak spots were called 'Nodes or Points of Resistance'. These were fortified with removable Road Blocks, Barbed Wire Entanglements and Land Mines. These passive defences were overlooked by Trench Works, Gun and Mortar Emplacements, and Pillboxes. In places, entire villages were fortified using Barriers of Admiralty Scaffolding, Sandbagged Positions and Loopholes in existing buildings.
Nodes were designated 'A', 'B' or 'C' depending upon how long they were expected to hold out, Home Guard Troops were largely responsible for the defence of Nodal Points and other centres of resistance, such as towns and defended villages. Category 'A' Nodal Points and Anti-Tank Islands were usually garrisoned by regular Troops. The rate of construction was frenetic, by the end of September 1940, 18,000 Pillboxes and numerous other preparations had been completed. Some existing defences such as Mediaeval Castles and Napoleonic Forts were augmented with modern additions such as Dragon's Teeth and Pillboxes, some Iron Age Forts housed Anti-Aircraft and Observer Positions. About 28,000 Pillboxes and other Hardened Field Fortifications were constructed in the United Kingdom of which about 6,500 still survive. Some defences were disguised and examples are known of Pillboxes constructed to resemble haystacks, logpiles and innocuous buildings such as churches and railway stations.
Sourced from Wikipedia:
en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_anti-invasion_preparation...
This coin may appear to be an Eisenhower silver dollar, but it is really a concealment device. It was used to hide messages or film so they could be sent secretly. Because it looks like ordinary pocket change, it is almost undetectable.
For more information on CIA history and this artifact please visit www.cia.gov
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
NAe São Paulo is a Clemenceau-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Brazilian Navy. São Paulo was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as Foch and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. In December 2014 it was announced that São Paulo will be expected to continue active service until 2039, at which time the vessel will be nearly 80 years old.
From this carrier, the Marinha do Brasil operates its only fixed-wing aircraft, and these were initially A-4 Skyhawks. In 1997 Brazil negotiated a $70 million contract for purchase of 20 A-4KU and three TA-4KU Skyhawks from Kuwait. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks, modified A-4Ms and TA-4Js delivered in 1977, were among the last of those models built by Douglas. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks were selected by Brazil because of low flight time, excellent physical condition, and a favorable price tag. The Brazilian Navy Re-designated AF-1 and AF-1A Falcões (Hawks), the ex-Kuwaiti Skyhawks arrived in Arraial do Cabo on 5 September 1998.
Anyway, the Skyhawks' life span was limited and in 2005 the Brazilian Navy started looking for a potential replacement, while the AF-1s were to kept operational due to limited military budgets. On 14 April 2009, Brazlian aircraft manufacturer EMBRAER signed a contract to modernize 12 Skyhawks, nine AF-1s (single-seat) and three AF-1As (two-seat). This upgrade will restore the operating capacity of the Navy 1st Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron (VF-1). The program includes restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar, power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. The first of the 12 modified Skyhawks was delivered on 27 May 2015. EMBRAER stated that the modifications would allow the aircraft to remain operational until 2025, by which time a successor was to be fully operational.
Several replacement candidates were evaluated under Brazil's F-X2 fighter program together with the Air Force which was looking to replace its Northrop F‐5EM and Dassault Mirage 2000C aircraft. In October 2008, Brazil selected three finalists: the Dassault Rafale, the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, and the SAAB JAS 39 Gripen. The Brazilian Air Force initially planned to procure at least 36 and possibly up to 120 aircraft later, while the Brazilian Navy was looking for 24 aircraft (20 single seater and 4 two-seaters with dual controls) until 2025.
In February 2009, SAAB submitted a tender, and on 5 January 2010, reports claimed that the final evaluation report placed the Gripen ahead of other contenders; the decisive factor was reportedly lower unit and operational costs, the most compact size and the Swedish manufacturer's willingness to accept EMBRAER as a technological partner for the aircraft's further development, especially for the navalized version.
Amid delays due to financial constraints, President Dilma Rousseff announced in December 2011 the Gripen NG's selection and the start of a joint Swedish-Brazilian joint venture called SABRA. Argentina and Ecuador were interested in procuring Gripens from or through Brazil, and Mexico and Argenitina were potential export targets for SABRA's navalized Gripen derivative that was tailored to the Marinha do Brasil's needs.
The respective SABRA aircraft was appropriately christened "Grifo" and the development of thei 4th generation fighter started immediately after closing the cooperation deal in 2011. While based on the SAAB 39, the Grifo became a very different aircraft, due to several factors. The major influence was the carrier operation capability, which called for major structural modifications and enforcements as well as special equipment like foldable wings, a strengthened landing gear, an arrester hook and a new engine that would better cope with the naval environment than the Swedish RM 12 engine, a derivative of the General Electric F404-400.
Additionally, the mission focus of air superiority with additional attack capabilities was reversed, and the need for excellent low speed handling for carrier approaches was requested.
This led to a complelety different aircraft layout, with the SAAB 39's instable canard design being changed into a conservative aircraft with conventional tailplanes. The nose section was shortened in order to provide the pilot with a better field of view, while the more powerful F414-EPE afterburning turbofan was moved slightly forward due to CG reasons, resulting in a slightly shortened rear fuselage.
A mock-up of the new aircraft for the Brazlian Navy was presented and approved in early 2012, and the government placed an official order for two prototypes. Even though the Grifo appeared like a completely different aircraft, it shared a lot of elements with the SAAB 39, so that development time and costs could be reduced to a minimum - and the first prototype, internally designated EMB 391-001, made its maiden flight in early 2013. The second aircraft followed 3 months later.
The Grifo's equipment includes an AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA), capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles, and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles, which include the AIM-9 Sidewinder for close range and the AIM-120 AMRAAM for medium range.
The Grifo features, like the Gripen fighter, an advanced and integrated electronic warfare suite, capable of operating in an undetectable passive mode or to actively jam hostile radar; a missile approach warning system passively detects and tracks incoming missiles.
The Grifo can be tailored to specific missions through external sensor pods, e .g. for reconnaissance and target designation. These include Rafael's LITENING targeting pod, Saab's Modular Reconnaissance Pod System or Thales' Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod. On the Brazilian Navy's request the Grifo is also designed that it can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role.
The two prototypes completed a thorough test program until summer 2015 and subsequently went on a sales tour in South America and Asia. In the meantime, serial production started at EMBRAER's Gavião Peixoto in November 2015. The first serial machines, now officially designated AF-2A, arrived at the Brazilian Navy's São Pedro da Aldeia air base where a new Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron, VF-2 'Arquieros' (Archers) was founded. The squadron became operational in April 2016 and Grifos embarked on NAe São Paulo for the first time in September 2016, serving alongside the venerable AF-1.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Payload: 5,300 kg (11,700 lb)
Length: 13,54 m (44 ft 4 in)
Wingspan (incl. wing tip launch rails): 8.32 m (27 ft 2 in)
Height: 4.25 m (13 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 30.0 m² (323 ft²)
Empty weight: 6,800 kg[330] (14,990 lb)
Loaded weight: 8,500 kg (18,700 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)
Wheel track: 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
Powerplant:
1 × General Electric F414-EPE afterburning turbofan with
a dry thrust of 54 kN (12,100 lbf) and 85 kN (19,100 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: Mach 2 (2,204 km/h (1,190 kn; 1,370 mph) at high altitude
Combat radius: 800 km (497 mi, 432 nmi)
Ferry range: 3,200 km (1,983 mi) with drop tanks
Service ceiling: 15,240 m (50,000 ft)
Wing loading: 283 kg/m² (58 lb/ft²)
Thrust/weight: 0.97
Maximum g-load: +9 g
Armament:
1× 27 mm Mauser BK-27 Revolver cannon with 120 rounds
Eight hardpoints (three on each wing and two under fuselage)
for a wide range of guide and unguided ordnance of up to 14,330 lb (6.5 t)
The kit and its assembly:
The fictional Grifo is the result of a generic idea of converting a canard layout aircraft like the Saab Viggen into a conventional design. The Viggen was actually a serious candidate, but then I found an Italeri Gripen in the stash without a real purpose (it had been cheap, though), and with Brazil's real world procurement as background, the more conservative Grifo was born.
I wanted to use as many OOB Gripen parts as possible, and there are actually only a few external donations involved – with the outlook of converting further Gripens this way. You never know… ;)
Work started with the wings, which were cut off of the fuselage shell. Having the landing gear retract into the fuselage (much like the X-29) is a convenient detail of the Gripen, making the wing transplantation easier than on a Viggen where the wells have to be moved, too.
The original canard attachment points were faired over/hidden. The pointed Gripen nose with its pitot was cut off and replaced by a shorter, more stocky nose tip - from an F-4 Phantom II IIRC. Once the fuselage was completed, the wings were mounted, closer to the air intakes. This went smoothly, only some gaps on the undersides had to be filled.
Once the wings were in place I had to make a decision concerning the stabilizers. Despite the plan to use as many OOB parts as possible I found the OOB canards to be too sharply swept and considered several donation options.
I eventually settled for the most unique option: the stabilizers are actually main wings from a (rather malformed) Italeri/Dragon 1:200 F-117 that comes as a set with the B-2 bomber. A part of the F-117’s fuselage flank was cut off and taken over to the Grifo, too, so that these create ‘muscular’ bulges.
The stabilizers were mounted on scratched consoles/trailing wing root extensions that were somewhat inspired by the F-16’s tail design – putting the stabilizers directly onto the fuselage would have looked awkward, and with this solution I was able to extend the Gripen’s BWB-design all along the fuselage. As a side effect these consoles also offered a plausible place for rearward chaff dispensers.
The rear fuselage was shortened by 3mm, too – through the shorter nose and the wings further forward, the rest of the aircraft looked rather tail-heavy. While 3mm does not sound much, it helped with overall proportions.
The cannon fairing and the OOB pylons were taken over, as well as the cockpit interior. For carrier operations, several details were added, though: folding wing mechanism seams were engraved on the wings and an arrester hook with a fairing added under the tail section, flanked by new stabilizer fins.
The landing gear was basically taken OOB, too, but lengthened with styrene inserts for a higher stance: the main struts are now 2mm longer, while the front strut is 3mm taller. The latter was reversed, so that a catapult hook could be added to the front side, and slightly bigger wheels were mounted, too, so that the Grifo now has a rather stalky stance with a nose-up attitude. Simple, but effective!
The Sidewinders were taken OOB while the pair of AGM-84 Harpoon comes from Italeri’s 1:72 NATO weapons set.
Painting and markings:
I used the contemporary AF-1 paint scheme in three shades of grey as benchmark. These are FS 36187 (RAF Ocean Grey), FS 36307 (Flint Grey) and FS 36515 (Canadian Voodoo Grey) - sourced from a painting guide from Brazilian decal manufacturer FCM and backed by other knowledgeable sources from the region, too. And while the Ocean Grey appears a bit dark, I think that overall the colors are authentic. All paints are Modelmaster enamels.
After basic painting a light black ink wash was applied and panels highlighted through dry-brushing with lighter tones.
The cockpit interior was painted in Neutral Grey (FS 36173), while the landing gear became all-white.
The Brazilian Navy markings had to be improvised - there are 1:72 AF-1 decals available, but either not obtainable or prohibitively expensive - or both. Therefore I rather improvised, with basic Brazilian Navy markings from a vintage FCM Decal sheet for various Brazilian aircraft.
The respective roundels and codes actually belong to helicopters, and I had to wing it somehow. Unfortunately, the old FCM decals turned out to be ...old. Brittle and very delicate, application was already messy and they did not adhere well to the model. To make matters worse the acrylic varnish turned cloudy, so that a lot of paintwork repair had to be done - not helping much with a satisfactory kit finish. :(
Another interesting conversion – I am amazed how purposeful the Grifo looks. It reminds me with its high stance of a modern A-4 Skyhawk (what it somehow is), and there’s also some Super Étendard in it, esp. in the profile? At some point before painting it also had a somewhat Chinese look - maybe because the top view and the wing planform reminds of the classic MiG-21…? The wings might have been placed 3-4mm further backwards, since it is always difficult to judge proportions while work is still, but the Grifo looks convincingly like a real aircraft (model).
Aeronaves bonita! :D
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
NAe São Paulo is a Clemenceau-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Brazilian Navy. São Paulo was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as Foch and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. In December 2014 it was announced that São Paulo will be expected to continue active service until 2039, at which time the vessel will be nearly 80 years old.
From this carrier, the Marinha do Brasil operates its only fixed-wing aircraft, and these were initially A-4 Skyhawks. In 1997 Brazil negotiated a $70 million contract for purchase of 20 A-4KU and three TA-4KU Skyhawks from Kuwait. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks, modified A-4Ms and TA-4Js delivered in 1977, were among the last of those models built by Douglas. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks were selected by Brazil because of low flight time, excellent physical condition, and a favorable price tag. The Brazilian Navy Re-designated AF-1 and AF-1A Falcões (Hawks), the ex-Kuwaiti Skyhawks arrived in Arraial do Cabo on 5 September 1998.
Anyway, the Skyhawks' life span was limited and in 2005 the Brazilian Navy started looking for a potential replacement, while the AF-1s were to kept operational due to limited military budgets. On 14 April 2009, Brazlian aircraft manufacturer EMBRAER signed a contract to modernize 12 Skyhawks, nine AF-1s (single-seat) and three AF-1As (two-seat). This upgrade will restore the operating capacity of the Navy 1st Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron (VF-1). The program includes restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar, power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. The first of the 12 modified Skyhawks was delivered on 27 May 2015. EMBRAER stated that the modifications would allow the aircraft to remain operational until 2025, by which time a successor was to be fully operational.
Several replacement candidates were evaluated under Brazil's F-X2 fighter program together with the Air Force which was looking to replace its Northrop F‐5EM and Dassault Mirage 2000C aircraft. In October 2008, Brazil selected three finalists: the Dassault Rafale, the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, and the SAAB JAS 39 Gripen. The Brazilian Air Force initially planned to procure at least 36 and possibly up to 120 aircraft later, while the Brazilian Navy was looking for 24 aircraft (20 single seater and 4 two-seaters with dual controls) until 2025.
In February 2009, SAAB submitted a tender, and on 5 January 2010, reports claimed that the final evaluation report placed the Gripen ahead of other contenders; the decisive factor was reportedly lower unit and operational costs, the most compact size and the Swedish manufacturer's willingness to accept EMBRAER as a technological partner for the aircraft's further development, especially for the navalized version.
Amid delays due to financial constraints, President Dilma Rousseff announced in December 2011 the Gripen NG's selection and the start of a joint Swedish-Brazilian joint venture called SABRA. Argentina and Ecuador were interested in procuring Gripens from or through Brazil, and Mexico and Argenitina were potential export targets for SABRA's navalized Gripen derivative that was tailored to the Marinha do Brasil's needs.
The respective SABRA aircraft was appropriately christened "Grifo" and the development of thei 4th generation fighter started immediately after closing the cooperation deal in 2011. While based on the SAAB 39, the Grifo became a very different aircraft, due to several factors. The major influence was the carrier operation capability, which called for major structural modifications and enforcements as well as special equipment like foldable wings, a strengthened landing gear, an arrester hook and a new engine that would better cope with the naval environment than the Swedish RM 12 engine, a derivative of the General Electric F404-400.
Additionally, the mission focus of air superiority with additional attack capabilities was reversed, and the need for excellent low speed handling for carrier approaches was requested.
This led to a complelety different aircraft layout, with the SAAB 39's instable canard design being changed into a conservative aircraft with conventional tailplanes. The nose section was shortened in order to provide the pilot with a better field of view, while the more powerful F414-EPE afterburning turbofan was moved slightly forward due to CG reasons, resulting in a slightly shortened rear fuselage.
A mock-up of the new aircraft for the Brazlian Navy was presented and approved in early 2012, and the government placed an official order for two prototypes. Even though the Grifo appeared like a completely different aircraft, it shared a lot of elements with the SAAB 39, so that development time and costs could be reduced to a minimum - and the first prototype, internally designated EMB 391-001, made its maiden flight in early 2013. The second aircraft followed 3 months later.
The Grifo's equipment includes an AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA), capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles, and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles, which include the AIM-9 Sidewinder for close range and the AIM-120 AMRAAM for medium range.
The Grifo features, like the Gripen fighter, an advanced and integrated electronic warfare suite, capable of operating in an undetectable passive mode or to actively jam hostile radar; a missile approach warning system passively detects and tracks incoming missiles.
The Grifo can be tailored to specific missions through external sensor pods, e .g. for reconnaissance and target designation. These include Rafael's LITENING targeting pod, Saab's Modular Reconnaissance Pod System or Thales' Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod. On the Brazilian Navy's request the Grifo is also designed that it can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role.
The two prototypes completed a thorough test program until summer 2015 and subsequently went on a sales tour in South America and Asia. In the meantime, serial production started at EMBRAER's Gavião Peixoto in November 2015. The first serial machines, now officially designated AF-2A, arrived at the Brazilian Navy's São Pedro da Aldeia air base where a new Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron, VF-2 'Arquieros' (Archers) was founded. The squadron became operational in April 2016 and Grifos embarked on NAe São Paulo for the first time in September 2016, serving alongside the venerable AF-1.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Payload: 5,300 kg (11,700 lb)
Length: 13,54 m (44 ft 4 in)
Wingspan (incl. wing tip launch rails): 8.32 m (27 ft 2 in)
Height: 4.25 m (13 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 30.0 m² (323 ft²)
Empty weight: 6,800 kg[330] (14,990 lb)
Loaded weight: 8,500 kg (18,700 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)
Wheel track: 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
Powerplant:
1 × General Electric F414-EPE afterburning turbofan with
a dry thrust of 54 kN (12,100 lbf) and 85 kN (19,100 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: Mach 2 (2,204 km/h (1,190 kn; 1,370 mph) at high altitude
Combat radius: 800 km (497 mi, 432 nmi)
Ferry range: 3,200 km (1,983 mi) with drop tanks
Service ceiling: 15,240 m (50,000 ft)
Wing loading: 283 kg/m² (58 lb/ft²)
Thrust/weight: 0.97
Maximum g-load: +9 g
Armament:
1× 27 mm Mauser BK-27 Revolver cannon with 120 rounds
Eight hardpoints (three on each wing and two under fuselage)
for a wide range of guide and unguided ordnance of up to 14,330 lb (6.5 t)
The kit and its assembly:
The fictional Grifo is the result of a generic idea of converting a canard layout aircraft like the Saab Viggen into a conventional design. The Viggen was actually a serious candidate, but then I found an Italeri Gripen in the stash without a real purpose (it had been cheap, though), and with Brazil's real world procurement as background, the more conservative Grifo was born.
I wanted to use as many OOB Gripen parts as possible, and there are actually only a few external donations involved – with the outlook of converting further Gripens this way. You never know… ;)
Work started with the wings, which were cut off of the fuselage shell. Having the landing gear retract into the fuselage (much like the X-29) is a convenient detail of the Gripen, making the wing transplantation easier than on a Viggen where the wells have to be moved, too.
The original canard attachment points were faired over/hidden. The pointed Gripen nose with its pitot was cut off and replaced by a shorter, more stocky nose tip - from an F-4 Phantom II IIRC. Once the fuselage was completed, the wings were mounted, closer to the air intakes. This went smoothly, only some gaps on the undersides had to be filled.
Once the wings were in place I had to make a decision concerning the stabilizers. Despite the plan to use as many OOB parts as possible I found the OOB canards to be too sharply swept and considered several donation options.
I eventually settled for the most unique option: the stabilizers are actually main wings from a (rather malformed) Italeri/Dragon 1:200 F-117 that comes as a set with the B-2 bomber. A part of the F-117’s fuselage flank was cut off and taken over to the Grifo, too, so that these create ‘muscular’ bulges.
The stabilizers were mounted on scratched consoles/trailing wing root extensions that were somewhat inspired by the F-16’s tail design – putting the stabilizers directly onto the fuselage would have looked awkward, and with this solution I was able to extend the Gripen’s BWB-design all along the fuselage. As a side effect these consoles also offered a plausible place for rearward chaff dispensers.
The rear fuselage was shortened by 3mm, too – through the shorter nose and the wings further forward, the rest of the aircraft looked rather tail-heavy. While 3mm does not sound much, it helped with overall proportions.
The cannon fairing and the OOB pylons were taken over, as well as the cockpit interior. For carrier operations, several details were added, though: folding wing mechanism seams were engraved on the wings and an arrester hook with a fairing added under the tail section, flanked by new stabilizer fins.
The landing gear was basically taken OOB, too, but lengthened with styrene inserts for a higher stance: the main struts are now 2mm longer, while the front strut is 3mm taller. The latter was reversed, so that a catapult hook could be added to the front side, and slightly bigger wheels were mounted, too, so that the Grifo now has a rather stalky stance with a nose-up attitude. Simple, but effective!
The Sidewinders were taken OOB while the pair of AGM-84 Harpoon comes from Italeri’s 1:72 NATO weapons set.
Painting and markings:
I used the contemporary AF-1 paint scheme in three shades of grey as benchmark. These are FS 36187 (RAF Ocean Grey), FS 36307 (Flint Grey) and FS 36515 (Canadian Voodoo Grey) - sourced from a painting guide from Brazilian decal manufacturer FCM and backed by other knowledgeable sources from the region, too. And while the Ocean Grey appears a bit dark, I think that overall the colors are authentic. All paints are Modelmaster enamels.
After basic painting a light black ink wash was applied and panels highlighted through dry-brushing with lighter tones.
The cockpit interior was painted in Neutral Grey (FS 36173), while the landing gear became all-white.
The Brazilian Navy markings had to be improvised - there are 1:72 AF-1 decals available, but either not obtainable or prohibitively expensive - or both. Therefore I rather improvised, with basic Brazilian Navy markings from a vintage FCM Decal sheet for various Brazilian aircraft.
The respective roundels and codes actually belong to helicopters, and I had to wing it somehow. Unfortunately, the old FCM decals turned out to be ...old. Brittle and very delicate, application was already messy and they did not adhere well to the model. To make matters worse the acrylic varnish turned cloudy, so that a lot of paintwork repair had to be done - not helping much with a satisfactory kit finish. :(
Another interesting conversion – I am amazed how purposeful the Grifo looks. It reminds me with its high stance of a modern A-4 Skyhawk (what it somehow is), and there’s also some Super Étendard in it, esp. in the profile? At some point before painting it also had a somewhat Chinese look - maybe because the top view and the wing planform reminds of the classic MiG-21…? The wings might have been placed 3-4mm further backwards, since it is always difficult to judge proportions while work is still, but the Grifo looks convincingly like a real aircraft (model).
Aeronaves bonita! :D
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
NAe São Paulo is a Clemenceau-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Brazilian Navy. São Paulo was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as Foch and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. In December 2014 it was announced that São Paulo will be expected to continue active service until 2039, at which time the vessel will be nearly 80 years old.
From this carrier, the Marinha do Brasil operates its only fixed-wing aircraft, and these were initially A-4 Skyhawks. In 1997 Brazil negotiated a $70 million contract for purchase of 20 A-4KU and three TA-4KU Skyhawks from Kuwait. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks, modified A-4Ms and TA-4Js delivered in 1977, were among the last of those models built by Douglas. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks were selected by Brazil because of low flight time, excellent physical condition, and a favorable price tag. The Brazilian Navy Re-designated AF-1 and AF-1A Falcões (Hawks), the ex-Kuwaiti Skyhawks arrived in Arraial do Cabo on 5 September 1998.
Anyway, the Skyhawks' life span was limited and in 2005 the Brazilian Navy started looking for a potential replacement, while the AF-1s were to kept operational due to limited military budgets. On 14 April 2009, Brazlian aircraft manufacturer EMBRAER signed a contract to modernize 12 Skyhawks, nine AF-1s (single-seat) and three AF-1As (two-seat). This upgrade will restore the operating capacity of the Navy 1st Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron (VF-1). The program includes restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar, power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. The first of the 12 modified Skyhawks was delivered on 27 May 2015. EMBRAER stated that the modifications would allow the aircraft to remain operational until 2025, by which time a successor was to be fully operational.
Several replacement candidates were evaluated under Brazil's F-X2 fighter program together with the Air Force which was looking to replace its Northrop F‐5EM and Dassault Mirage 2000C aircraft. In October 2008, Brazil selected three finalists: the Dassault Rafale, the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, and the SAAB JAS 39 Gripen. The Brazilian Air Force initially planned to procure at least 36 and possibly up to 120 aircraft later, while the Brazilian Navy was looking for 24 aircraft (20 single seater and 4 two-seaters with dual controls) until 2025.
In February 2009, SAAB submitted a tender, and on 5 January 2010, reports claimed that the final evaluation report placed the Gripen ahead of other contenders; the decisive factor was reportedly lower unit and operational costs, the most compact size and the Swedish manufacturer's willingness to accept EMBRAER as a technological partner for the aircraft's further development, especially for the navalized version.
Amid delays due to financial constraints, President Dilma Rousseff announced in December 2011 the Gripen NG's selection and the start of a joint Swedish-Brazilian joint venture called SABRA. Argentina and Ecuador were interested in procuring Gripens from or through Brazil, and Mexico and Argenitina were potential export targets for SABRA's navalized Gripen derivative that was tailored to the Marinha do Brasil's needs.
The respective SABRA aircraft was appropriately christened "Grifo" and the development of thei 4th generation fighter started immediately after closing the cooperation deal in 2011. While based on the SAAB 39, the Grifo became a very different aircraft, due to several factors. The major influence was the carrier operation capability, which called for major structural modifications and enforcements as well as special equipment like foldable wings, a strengthened landing gear, an arrester hook and a new engine that would better cope with the naval environment than the Swedish RM 12 engine, a derivative of the General Electric F404-400.
Additionally, the mission focus of air superiority with additional attack capabilities was reversed, and the need for excellent low speed handling for carrier approaches was requested.
This led to a complelety different aircraft layout, with the SAAB 39's instable canard design being changed into a conservative aircraft with conventional tailplanes. The nose section was shortened in order to provide the pilot with a better field of view, while the more powerful F414-EPE afterburning turbofan was moved slightly forward due to CG reasons, resulting in a slightly shortened rear fuselage.
A mock-up of the new aircraft for the Brazlian Navy was presented and approved in early 2012, and the government placed an official order for two prototypes. Even though the Grifo appeared like a completely different aircraft, it shared a lot of elements with the SAAB 39, so that development time and costs could be reduced to a minimum - and the first prototype, internally designated EMB 391-001, made its maiden flight in early 2013. The second aircraft followed 3 months later.
The Grifo's equipment includes an AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA), capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles, and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles, which include the AIM-9 Sidewinder for close range and the AIM-120 AMRAAM for medium range.
The Grifo features, like the Gripen fighter, an advanced and integrated electronic warfare suite, capable of operating in an undetectable passive mode or to actively jam hostile radar; a missile approach warning system passively detects and tracks incoming missiles.
The Grifo can be tailored to specific missions through external sensor pods, e .g. for reconnaissance and target designation. These include Rafael's LITENING targeting pod, Saab's Modular Reconnaissance Pod System or Thales' Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod. On the Brazilian Navy's request the Grifo is also designed that it can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role.
The two prototypes completed a thorough test program until summer 2015 and subsequently went on a sales tour in South America and Asia. In the meantime, serial production started at EMBRAER's Gavião Peixoto in November 2015. The first serial machines, now officially designated AF-2A, arrived at the Brazilian Navy's São Pedro da Aldeia air base where a new Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron, VF-2 'Arquieros' (Archers) was founded. The squadron became operational in April 2016 and Grifos embarked on NAe São Paulo for the first time in September 2016, serving alongside the venerable AF-1.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Payload: 5,300 kg (11,700 lb)
Length: 13,54 m (44 ft 4 in)
Wingspan (incl. wing tip launch rails): 8.32 m (27 ft 2 in)
Height: 4.25 m (13 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 30.0 m² (323 ft²)
Empty weight: 6,800 kg[330] (14,990 lb)
Loaded weight: 8,500 kg (18,700 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)
Wheel track: 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
Powerplant:
1 × General Electric F414-EPE afterburning turbofan with
a dry thrust of 54 kN (12,100 lbf) and 85 kN (19,100 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: Mach 2 (2,204 km/h (1,190 kn; 1,370 mph) at high altitude
Combat radius: 800 km (497 mi, 432 nmi)
Ferry range: 3,200 km (1,983 mi) with drop tanks
Service ceiling: 15,240 m (50,000 ft)
Wing loading: 283 kg/m² (58 lb/ft²)
Thrust/weight: 0.97
Maximum g-load: +9 g
Armament:
1× 27 mm Mauser BK-27 Revolver cannon with 120 rounds
Eight hardpoints (three on each wing and two under fuselage)
for a wide range of guide and unguided ordnance of up to 14,330 lb (6.5 t)
The kit and its assembly:
The fictional Grifo is the result of a generic idea of converting a canard layout aircraft like the Saab Viggen into a conventional design. The Viggen was actually a serious candidate, but then I found an Italeri Gripen in the stash without a real purpose (it had been cheap, though), and with Brazil's real world procurement as background, the more conservative Grifo was born.
I wanted to use as many OOB Gripen parts as possible, and there are actually only a few external donations involved – with the outlook of converting further Gripens this way. You never know… ;)
Work started with the wings, which were cut off of the fuselage shell. Having the landing gear retract into the fuselage (much like the X-29) is a convenient detail of the Gripen, making the wing transplantation easier than on a Viggen where the wells have to be moved, too.
The original canard attachment points were faired over/hidden. The pointed Gripen nose with its pitot was cut off and replaced by a shorter, more stocky nose tip - from an F-4 Phantom II IIRC. Once the fuselage was completed, the wings were mounted, closer to the air intakes. This went smoothly, only some gaps on the undersides had to be filled.
Once the wings were in place I had to make a decision concerning the stabilizers. Despite the plan to use as many OOB parts as possible I found the OOB canards to be too sharply swept and considered several donation options.
I eventually settled for the most unique option: the stabilizers are actually main wings from a (rather malformed) Italeri/Dragon 1:200 F-117 that comes as a set with the B-2 bomber. A part of the F-117’s fuselage flank was cut off and taken over to the Grifo, too, so that these create ‘muscular’ bulges.
The stabilizers were mounted on scratched consoles/trailing wing root extensions that were somewhat inspired by the F-16’s tail design – putting the stabilizers directly onto the fuselage would have looked awkward, and with this solution I was able to extend the Gripen’s BWB-design all along the fuselage. As a side effect these consoles also offered a plausible place for rearward chaff dispensers.
The rear fuselage was shortened by 3mm, too – through the shorter nose and the wings further forward, the rest of the aircraft looked rather tail-heavy. While 3mm does not sound much, it helped with overall proportions.
The cannon fairing and the OOB pylons were taken over, as well as the cockpit interior. For carrier operations, several details were added, though: folding wing mechanism seams were engraved on the wings and an arrester hook with a fairing added under the tail section, flanked by new stabilizer fins.
The landing gear was basically taken OOB, too, but lengthened with styrene inserts for a higher stance: the main struts are now 2mm longer, while the front strut is 3mm taller. The latter was reversed, so that a catapult hook could be added to the front side, and slightly bigger wheels were mounted, too, so that the Grifo now has a rather stalky stance with a nose-up attitude. Simple, but effective!
The Sidewinders were taken OOB while the pair of AGM-84 Harpoon comes from Italeri’s 1:72 NATO weapons set.
Painting and markings:
I used the contemporary AF-1 paint scheme in three shades of grey as benchmark. These are FS 36187 (RAF Ocean Grey), FS 36307 (Flint Grey) and FS 36515 (Canadian Voodoo Grey) - sourced from a painting guide from Brazilian decal manufacturer FCM and backed by other knowledgeable sources from the region, too. And while the Ocean Grey appears a bit dark, I think that overall the colors are authentic. All paints are Modelmaster enamels.
After basic painting a light black ink wash was applied and panels highlighted through dry-brushing with lighter tones.
The cockpit interior was painted in Neutral Grey (FS 36173), while the landing gear became all-white.
The Brazilian Navy markings had to be improvised - there are 1:72 AF-1 decals available, but either not obtainable or prohibitively expensive - or both. Therefore I rather improvised, with basic Brazilian Navy markings from a vintage FCM Decal sheet for various Brazilian aircraft.
The respective roundels and codes actually belong to helicopters, and I had to wing it somehow. Unfortunately, the old FCM decals turned out to be ...old. Brittle and very delicate, application was already messy and they did not adhere well to the model. To make matters worse the acrylic varnish turned cloudy, so that a lot of paintwork repair had to be done - not helping much with a satisfactory kit finish. :(
Another interesting conversion – I am amazed how purposeful the Grifo looks. It reminds me with its high stance of a modern A-4 Skyhawk (what it somehow is), and there’s also some Super Étendard in it, esp. in the profile? At some point before painting it also had a somewhat Chinese look - maybe because the top view and the wing planform reminds of the classic MiG-21…? The wings might have been placed 3-4mm further backwards, since it is always difficult to judge proportions while work is still, but the Grifo looks convincingly like a real aircraft (model).
Aeronaves bonita! :D
Hill Aerospace Museum
History of the F-117 "Nighthawk"
The F-117 "Nighthawk" is a single-seat, twin-engine strike-fighter built by Lockheed's Skunk Works. Designed as a stealth aircraft undetectable by enemy radar, the F-117 made its first flight in 1981. The Nighthawk was the first operational aircraft designed to exploit low-observable stealth technology to evade detection by radar or sensors, allowing it to carry out its mission and return home undetected.
The U.S. Air Force used the F-117 in the U.S. Invasion of Panama, the Gulf War, and Kosovo. It also flew missions over Afghanistan and in Operation Iraqi Freedom. The U.S. Air Force retired these aircraft from active service in 2008 as the more advanced F-22 "Raptor" assumed the role once held by the F-117. Lockheed built 64 Nighthawks total.
The F-117 "Nighthawk" at Hill Air Force Base
On 15 December 1998, Hill Air Force Base's Ogden Air Logistics Center was assigned the responsibility of F-117 battle/crash damage repair and depot field team support by way of Expeditionary Depot Maintenance expertise through the 649th Combat Logistics Support Squadron (CLSS). This new mission required the deployment of military teams worldwide to perform heavy maintenance and aircraft modifications on Nighthawks wherever necessary. The 649th performed this mission until 2008 when the F-117 retired from service.
The F-117 on display at the Hill Aerospace Museum made its first flight on 22 September 1983. It flew 5,234 flight hours and 54 combined combat sorties in Desert Storm, Allied Force, and Operation Iraqi Freedom with the 4450th Tactical Group (TG). In fact, #799 flew the most combat sorties out of all F-117s in Operation Iraqi Freedom. When in service, Airmen of the 4450 TG nicknamed this airframe "Midnight Rider." It was acquired by the museum for display in 2020.
Specifications
S/N 82-799
Manufacturer: Lockheed Aeronautical Systems Co.
Crew: One
Engine: Two General Electric F404 non-afterburning engines
Wingspant 43 ft 4 in
Length: 63 ft 9 in
Height: 12 ft 9.5 in
Weight: 52,500 pounds
Speed High subsonic
Range: Unlimited with air refueling
Service Ceiling: 45,000 ft
Armaments Internal weapons carriage; various ordinance
Cost: $45 million
bit.ly/13Zxbo1 - Cell Phone Tracking Software 5 Tips Parents Need To Know for Cell Phone Spy Smartphone Monitoring Mobile phone spy monitoring and tracking software can help inform parents of their children's activities, and help businesses protect sensitive data. mSpy provides undetectable features across an array of communication options on target user smartphones and tablets. No doubt cell phones have played a crucial role in enabling parents to keep in a better touch with teens, but threats like 'sexting' and 'cyber bullying' have many parents concerned where most are wondering if it is worth it. Teens rarely pursue cell phone privileges these days. Rather they tend to share personal details with strangers in form of talking and texting in the wee hours of morning. They can also start neglecting their school assignments which leads them to feel embarrassed and fear the loss of their cell phone use. In such a set-up, teens won't share the root cause of their issues with parents because their cell phone privileges are at stake. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 In the scenario like above, parents need to know the secrets of smart parenting! Below are some useful tips to monitor your teens' safety while using cell phone. 1) Spare some time to teach them to the pitfalls of sexting and other internet dangers that surface due to inappropriate use of a cell phone. 2) Take some interest in their social life, start keeping an eye on certain things like who they are calling and texting and at what time. Monitor their calls, no one will know they are being monitored. 3) Instruct your teens not to share any personal information with strangers. 4) In case your teens have gone too far abusing the cell phone privileges, installing mobile monitoring software onto their cell phone would be the next best step. To protect and monitor your children 24/7 even when they're away. 5) Protect them from cyber-bulling and online threats. Safeguard your family. mSpy is a customizable phone spy app for smartphones and tablets which provides advanced mobile phone spy tracking and monitoring options between devices. Home and Business solutions from mSpy offer specific features designed for each environment. The mSpy phone spy home version gives parents the option of listening to incoming or outgoing phone calls, logging and tracking SMS messages, viewing photos and browser history, and tracking GPS location and viewing history. A newly provided feature allows tracking of Skype and Whatsapp activity. A complete list of features for the home version of mSpy can be found by going to Mobile Phone Spy. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 Subsribe to our channel to receive more info about: cell phone spy software cell phone spy software free download cell phone spy software reviews cell phone spy software remote installation cell phone spy software iphone cell phone spy software free trial cheating spouse cell phone iphone spy software spybubble mSpy mobistealth Samsung SGH-T959 Vibrant Samsung Galaxy S II SGH-T989 HTC myTouch 4G (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit II 4G SGH-T679 LG T-Mobile myTouch E739 LG P999 G2x (T-Mobie) LG LG Optimus T (T-Mobile) Nokia Nuron 5230 (unlocked) HTC G2 A6161 (T-Mobile) LG P509 Motorola DROID A855 (VZW) Samsung Gravity SMART SGH-T589 Samsung Highlight T749 (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit 4G SGH-T759 Samsung Behold T919 (T-Mobile) LG Doubleplay C729 Samsung Gravity T T669 (T-Mobile) HTC Amaze 4G Samsung Dart SGH-T499 Samsung Memoir T929 (T-Mobile) Samsung A777 (AT&T) Samsung Evergreen A667 (ATT) Samsung Rugby II A847 (AT&T) Pantech Ease P2020 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson Xperia X10a (AT&T) Pantech Pursuit P9020 (AT&T) Huawei U2800 ZTE R225 (unlocked) Samsung A237 (AT&T) Nokia 6350 (AT&T) Nokia 2330 (AT&T) Samsung Captivate I897 (AT&T) Nokia 6085 Pantech Breeze C520 (AT&T) Motorola BACKFLIP MB300 (AT&T) Samsung A437 (AT&T) Nokia 2600 (AT&T) Nokia 2720 (AT&T) ZTE F160 (ATT) Pantech Breeze II P2000 (AT&T) Nokia 6030 Nokia 2610 (AT&T) LG P505 Motorola Flipside MB508 (ATT) Samsung A117 (AT&T) Pantech P5000 BlackBerry Curve 3G 9300 (ATT) LG CU515 (AT&T) BlackBerry Bold 9700 (AT&T) BlackBerry Curve 8520 (AT&T) Samsung Jack i637 (AT&T) Pantech P6010 Motorola ROKR EM330 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson W580i Nokia 6126 (AT&T) Nokia 6102i bit.ly/18qjFxo
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
NAe São Paulo is a Clemenceau-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Brazilian Navy. São Paulo was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as Foch and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. In December 2014 it was announced that São Paulo will be expected to continue active service until 2039, at which time the vessel will be nearly 80 years old.
From this carrier, the Marinha do Brasil operates its only fixed-wing aircraft, and these were initially A-4 Skyhawks. In 1997 Brazil negotiated a $70 million contract for purchase of 20 A-4KU and three TA-4KU Skyhawks from Kuwait. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks, modified A-4Ms and TA-4Js delivered in 1977, were among the last of those models built by Douglas. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks were selected by Brazil because of low flight time, excellent physical condition, and a favorable price tag. The Brazilian Navy Re-designated AF-1 and AF-1A Falcões (Hawks), the ex-Kuwaiti Skyhawks arrived in Arraial do Cabo on 5 September 1998.
Anyway, the Skyhawks' life span was limited and in 2005 the Brazilian Navy started looking for a potential replacement, while the AF-1s were to kept operational due to limited military budgets. On 14 April 2009, Brazlian aircraft manufacturer EMBRAER signed a contract to modernize 12 Skyhawks, nine AF-1s (single-seat) and three AF-1As (two-seat). This upgrade will restore the operating capacity of the Navy 1st Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron (VF-1). The program includes restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar, power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. The first of the 12 modified Skyhawks was delivered on 27 May 2015. EMBRAER stated that the modifications would allow the aircraft to remain operational until 2025, by which time a successor was to be fully operational.
Several replacement candidates were evaluated under Brazil's F-X2 fighter program together with the Air Force which was looking to replace its Northrop F‐5EM and Dassault Mirage 2000C aircraft. In October 2008, Brazil selected three finalists: the Dassault Rafale, the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, and the SAAB JAS 39 Gripen. The Brazilian Air Force initially planned to procure at least 36 and possibly up to 120 aircraft later, while the Brazilian Navy was looking for 24 aircraft (20 single seater and 4 two-seaters with dual controls) until 2025.
In February 2009, SAAB submitted a tender, and on 5 January 2010, reports claimed that the final evaluation report placed the Gripen ahead of other contenders; the decisive factor was reportedly lower unit and operational costs, the most compact size and the Swedish manufacturer's willingness to accept EMBRAER as a technological partner for the aircraft's further development, especially for the navalized version.
Amid delays due to financial constraints, President Dilma Rousseff announced in December 2011 the Gripen NG's selection and the start of a joint Swedish-Brazilian joint venture called SABRA. Argentina and Ecuador were interested in procuring Gripens from or through Brazil, and Mexico and Argenitina were potential export targets for SABRA's navalized Gripen derivative that was tailored to the Marinha do Brasil's needs.
The respective SABRA aircraft was appropriately christened "Grifo" and the development of thei 4th generation fighter started immediately after closing the cooperation deal in 2011. While based on the SAAB 39, the Grifo became a very different aircraft, due to several factors. The major influence was the carrier operation capability, which called for major structural modifications and enforcements as well as special equipment like foldable wings, a strengthened landing gear, an arrester hook and a new engine that would better cope with the naval environment than the Swedish RM 12 engine, a derivative of the General Electric F404-400.
Additionally, the mission focus of air superiority with additional attack capabilities was reversed, and the need for excellent low speed handling for carrier approaches was requested.
This led to a complelety different aircraft layout, with the SAAB 39's instable canard design being changed into a conservative aircraft with conventional tailplanes. The nose section was shortened in order to provide the pilot with a better field of view, while the more powerful F414-EPE afterburning turbofan was moved slightly forward due to CG reasons, resulting in a slightly shortened rear fuselage.
A mock-up of the new aircraft for the Brazlian Navy was presented and approved in early 2012, and the government placed an official order for two prototypes. Even though the Grifo appeared like a completely different aircraft, it shared a lot of elements with the SAAB 39, so that development time and costs could be reduced to a minimum - and the first prototype, internally designated EMB 391-001, made its maiden flight in early 2013. The second aircraft followed 3 months later.
The Grifo's equipment includes an AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA), capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles, and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles, which include the AIM-9 Sidewinder for close range and the AIM-120 AMRAAM for medium range.
The Grifo features, like the Gripen fighter, an advanced and integrated electronic warfare suite, capable of operating in an undetectable passive mode or to actively jam hostile radar; a missile approach warning system passively detects and tracks incoming missiles.
The Grifo can be tailored to specific missions through external sensor pods, e .g. for reconnaissance and target designation. These include Rafael's LITENING targeting pod, Saab's Modular Reconnaissance Pod System or Thales' Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod. On the Brazilian Navy's request the Grifo is also designed that it can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role.
The two prototypes completed a thorough test program until summer 2015 and subsequently went on a sales tour in South America and Asia. In the meantime, serial production started at EMBRAER's Gavião Peixoto in November 2015. The first serial machines, now officially designated AF-2A, arrived at the Brazilian Navy's São Pedro da Aldeia air base where a new Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron, VF-2 'Arquieros' (Archers) was founded. The squadron became operational in April 2016 and Grifos embarked on NAe São Paulo for the first time in September 2016, serving alongside the venerable AF-1.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Payload: 5,300 kg (11,700 lb)
Length: 13,54 m (44 ft 4 in)
Wingspan (incl. wing tip launch rails): 8.32 m (27 ft 2 in)
Height: 4.25 m (13 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 30.0 m² (323 ft²)
Empty weight: 6,800 kg[330] (14,990 lb)
Loaded weight: 8,500 kg (18,700 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)
Wheel track: 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
Powerplant:
1 × General Electric F414-EPE afterburning turbofan with
a dry thrust of 54 kN (12,100 lbf) and 85 kN (19,100 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: Mach 2 (2,204 km/h (1,190 kn; 1,370 mph) at high altitude
Combat radius: 800 km (497 mi, 432 nmi)
Ferry range: 3,200 km (1,983 mi) with drop tanks
Service ceiling: 15,240 m (50,000 ft)
Wing loading: 283 kg/m² (58 lb/ft²)
Thrust/weight: 0.97
Maximum g-load: +9 g
Armament:
1× 27 mm Mauser BK-27 Revolver cannon with 120 rounds
Eight hardpoints (three on each wing and two under fuselage)
for a wide range of guide and unguided ordnance of up to 14,330 lb (6.5 t)
The kit and its assembly:
The fictional Grifo is the result of a generic idea of converting a canard layout aircraft like the Saab Viggen into a conventional design. The Viggen was actually a serious candidate, but then I found an Italeri Gripen in the stash without a real purpose (it had been cheap, though), and with Brazil's real world procurement as background, the more conservative Grifo was born.
I wanted to use as many OOB Gripen parts as possible, and there are actually only a few external donations involved – with the outlook of converting further Gripens this way. You never know… ;)
Work started with the wings, which were cut off of the fuselage shell. Having the landing gear retract into the fuselage (much like the X-29) is a convenient detail of the Gripen, making the wing transplantation easier than on a Viggen where the wells have to be moved, too.
The original canard attachment points were faired over/hidden. The pointed Gripen nose with its pitot was cut off and replaced by a shorter, more stocky nose tip - from an F-4 Phantom II IIRC. Once the fuselage was completed, the wings were mounted, closer to the air intakes. This went smoothly, only some gaps on the undersides had to be filled.
Once the wings were in place I had to make a decision concerning the stabilizers. Despite the plan to use as many OOB parts as possible I found the OOB canards to be too sharply swept and considered several donation options.
I eventually settled for the most unique option: the stabilizers are actually main wings from a (rather malformed) Italeri/Dragon 1:200 F-117 that comes as a set with the B-2 bomber. A part of the F-117’s fuselage flank was cut off and taken over to the Grifo, too, so that these create ‘muscular’ bulges.
The stabilizers were mounted on scratched consoles/trailing wing root extensions that were somewhat inspired by the F-16’s tail design – putting the stabilizers directly onto the fuselage would have looked awkward, and with this solution I was able to extend the Gripen’s BWB-design all along the fuselage. As a side effect these consoles also offered a plausible place for rearward chaff dispensers.
The rear fuselage was shortened by 3mm, too – through the shorter nose and the wings further forward, the rest of the aircraft looked rather tail-heavy. While 3mm does not sound much, it helped with overall proportions.
The cannon fairing and the OOB pylons were taken over, as well as the cockpit interior. For carrier operations, several details were added, though: folding wing mechanism seams were engraved on the wings and an arrester hook with a fairing added under the tail section, flanked by new stabilizer fins.
The landing gear was basically taken OOB, too, but lengthened with styrene inserts for a higher stance: the main struts are now 2mm longer, while the front strut is 3mm taller. The latter was reversed, so that a catapult hook could be added to the front side, and slightly bigger wheels were mounted, too, so that the Grifo now has a rather stalky stance with a nose-up attitude. Simple, but effective!
The Sidewinders were taken OOB while the pair of AGM-84 Harpoon comes from Italeri’s 1:72 NATO weapons set.
Painting and markings:
I used the contemporary AF-1 paint scheme in three shades of grey as benchmark. These are FS 36187 (RAF Ocean Grey), FS 36307 (Flint Grey) and FS 36515 (Canadian Voodoo Grey) - sourced from a painting guide from Brazilian decal manufacturer FCM and backed by other knowledgeable sources from the region, too. And while the Ocean Grey appears a bit dark, I think that overall the colors are authentic. All paints are Modelmaster enamels.
After basic painting a light black ink wash was applied and panels highlighted through dry-brushing with lighter tones.
The cockpit interior was painted in Neutral Grey (FS 36173), while the landing gear became all-white.
The Brazilian Navy markings had to be improvised - there are 1:72 AF-1 decals available, but either not obtainable or prohibitively expensive - or both. Therefore I rather improvised, with basic Brazilian Navy markings from a vintage FCM Decal sheet for various Brazilian aircraft.
The respective roundels and codes actually belong to helicopters, and I had to wing it somehow. Unfortunately, the old FCM decals turned out to be ...old. Brittle and very delicate, application was already messy and they did not adhere well to the model. To make matters worse the acrylic varnish turned cloudy, so that a lot of paintwork repair had to be done - not helping much with a satisfactory kit finish. :(
Another interesting conversion – I am amazed how purposeful the Grifo looks. It reminds me with its high stance of a modern A-4 Skyhawk (what it somehow is), and there’s also some Super Étendard in it, esp. in the profile? At some point before painting it also had a somewhat Chinese look - maybe because the top view and the wing planform reminds of the classic MiG-21…? The wings might have been placed 3-4mm further backwards, since it is always difficult to judge proportions while work is still, but the Grifo looks convincingly like a real aircraft (model).
Aeronaves bonita! :D
Thailand is famous for it's population of (nearly) undetectable "ladyboys," or transgendered men. Every once in while, you'll be out shopping and think "that lady has an awful lot of makeup on" or "does that woman have a 5 o'clock shadow?" and you will realize just how huge the population of "ladyboys" really is.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
NAe São Paulo is a Clemenceau-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Brazilian Navy. São Paulo was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as Foch and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. In December 2014 it was announced that São Paulo will be expected to continue active service until 2039, at which time the vessel will be nearly 80 years old.
From this carrier, the Marinha do Brasil operates its only fixed-wing aircraft, and these were initially A-4 Skyhawks. In 1997 Brazil negotiated a $70 million contract for purchase of 20 A-4KU and three TA-4KU Skyhawks from Kuwait. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks, modified A-4Ms and TA-4Js delivered in 1977, were among the last of those models built by Douglas. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks were selected by Brazil because of low flight time, excellent physical condition, and a favorable price tag. The Brazilian Navy Re-designated AF-1 and AF-1A Falcões (Hawks), the ex-Kuwaiti Skyhawks arrived in Arraial do Cabo on 5 September 1998.
Anyway, the Skyhawks' life span was limited and in 2005 the Brazilian Navy started looking for a potential replacement, while the AF-1s were to kept operational due to limited military budgets. On 14 April 2009, Brazlian aircraft manufacturer EMBRAER signed a contract to modernize 12 Skyhawks, nine AF-1s (single-seat) and three AF-1As (two-seat). This upgrade will restore the operating capacity of the Navy 1st Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron (VF-1). The program includes restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar, power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. The first of the 12 modified Skyhawks was delivered on 27 May 2015. EMBRAER stated that the modifications would allow the aircraft to remain operational until 2025, by which time a successor was to be fully operational.
Several replacement candidates were evaluated under Brazil's F-X2 fighter program together with the Air Force which was looking to replace its Northrop F‐5EM and Dassault Mirage 2000C aircraft. In October 2008, Brazil selected three finalists: the Dassault Rafale, the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, and the SAAB JAS 39 Gripen. The Brazilian Air Force initially planned to procure at least 36 and possibly up to 120 aircraft later, while the Brazilian Navy was looking for 24 aircraft (20 single seater and 4 two-seaters with dual controls) until 2025.
In February 2009, SAAB submitted a tender, and on 5 January 2010, reports claimed that the final evaluation report placed the Gripen ahead of other contenders; the decisive factor was reportedly lower unit and operational costs, the most compact size and the Swedish manufacturer's willingness to accept EMBRAER as a technological partner for the aircraft's further development, especially for the navalized version.
Amid delays due to financial constraints, President Dilma Rousseff announced in December 2011 the Gripen NG's selection and the start of a joint Swedish-Brazilian joint venture called SABRA. Argentina and Ecuador were interested in procuring Gripens from or through Brazil, and Mexico and Argenitina were potential export targets for SABRA's navalized Gripen derivative that was tailored to the Marinha do Brasil's needs.
The respective SABRA aircraft was appropriately christened "Grifo" and the development of thei 4th generation fighter started immediately after closing the cooperation deal in 2011. While based on the SAAB 39, the Grifo became a very different aircraft, due to several factors. The major influence was the carrier operation capability, which called for major structural modifications and enforcements as well as special equipment like foldable wings, a strengthened landing gear, an arrester hook and a new engine that would better cope with the naval environment than the Swedish RM 12 engine, a derivative of the General Electric F404-400.
Additionally, the mission focus of air superiority with additional attack capabilities was reversed, and the need for excellent low speed handling for carrier approaches was requested.
This led to a complelety different aircraft layout, with the SAAB 39's instable canard design being changed into a conservative aircraft with conventional tailplanes. The nose section was shortened in order to provide the pilot with a better field of view, while the more powerful F414-EPE afterburning turbofan was moved slightly forward due to CG reasons, resulting in a slightly shortened rear fuselage.
A mock-up of the new aircraft for the Brazlian Navy was presented and approved in early 2012, and the government placed an official order for two prototypes. Even though the Grifo appeared like a completely different aircraft, it shared a lot of elements with the SAAB 39, so that development time and costs could be reduced to a minimum - and the first prototype, internally designated EMB 391-001, made its maiden flight in early 2013. The second aircraft followed 3 months later.
The Grifo's equipment includes an AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA), capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles, and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles, which include the AIM-9 Sidewinder for close range and the AIM-120 AMRAAM for medium range.
The Grifo features, like the Gripen fighter, an advanced and integrated electronic warfare suite, capable of operating in an undetectable passive mode or to actively jam hostile radar; a missile approach warning system passively detects and tracks incoming missiles.
The Grifo can be tailored to specific missions through external sensor pods, e .g. for reconnaissance and target designation. These include Rafael's LITENING targeting pod, Saab's Modular Reconnaissance Pod System or Thales' Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod. On the Brazilian Navy's request the Grifo is also designed that it can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role.
The two prototypes completed a thorough test program until summer 2015 and subsequently went on a sales tour in South America and Asia. In the meantime, serial production started at EMBRAER's Gavião Peixoto in November 2015. The first serial machines, now officially designated AF-2A, arrived at the Brazilian Navy's São Pedro da Aldeia air base where a new Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron, VF-2 'Arquieros' (Archers) was founded. The squadron became operational in April 2016 and Grifos embarked on NAe São Paulo for the first time in September 2016, serving alongside the venerable AF-1.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Payload: 5,300 kg (11,700 lb)
Length: 13,54 m (44 ft 4 in)
Wingspan (incl. wing tip launch rails): 8.32 m (27 ft 2 in)
Height: 4.25 m (13 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 30.0 m² (323 ft²)
Empty weight: 6,800 kg[330] (14,990 lb)
Loaded weight: 8,500 kg (18,700 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)
Wheel track: 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
Powerplant:
1 × General Electric F414-EPE afterburning turbofan with
a dry thrust of 54 kN (12,100 lbf) and 85 kN (19,100 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: Mach 2 (2,204 km/h (1,190 kn; 1,370 mph) at high altitude
Combat radius: 800 km (497 mi, 432 nmi)
Ferry range: 3,200 km (1,983 mi) with drop tanks
Service ceiling: 15,240 m (50,000 ft)
Wing loading: 283 kg/m² (58 lb/ft²)
Thrust/weight: 0.97
Maximum g-load: +9 g
Armament:
1× 27 mm Mauser BK-27 Revolver cannon with 120 rounds
Eight hardpoints (three on each wing and two under fuselage)
for a wide range of guide and unguided ordnance of up to 14,330 lb (6.5 t)
The kit and its assembly:
The fictional Grifo is the result of a generic idea of converting a canard layout aircraft like the Saab Viggen into a conventional design. The Viggen was actually a serious candidate, but then I found an Italeri Gripen in the stash without a real purpose (it had been cheap, though), and with Brazil's real world procurement as background, the more conservative Grifo was born.
I wanted to use as many OOB Gripen parts as possible, and there are actually only a few external donations involved – with the outlook of converting further Gripens this way. You never know… ;)
Work started with the wings, which were cut off of the fuselage shell. Having the landing gear retract into the fuselage (much like the X-29) is a convenient detail of the Gripen, making the wing transplantation easier than on a Viggen where the wells have to be moved, too.
The original canard attachment points were faired over/hidden. The pointed Gripen nose with its pitot was cut off and replaced by a shorter, more stocky nose tip - from an F-4 Phantom II IIRC. Once the fuselage was completed, the wings were mounted, closer to the air intakes. This went smoothly, only some gaps on the undersides had to be filled.
Once the wings were in place I had to make a decision concerning the stabilizers. Despite the plan to use as many OOB parts as possible I found the OOB canards to be too sharply swept and considered several donation options.
I eventually settled for the most unique option: the stabilizers are actually main wings from a (rather malformed) Italeri/Dragon 1:200 F-117 that comes as a set with the B-2 bomber. A part of the F-117’s fuselage flank was cut off and taken over to the Grifo, too, so that these create ‘muscular’ bulges.
The stabilizers were mounted on scratched consoles/trailing wing root extensions that were somewhat inspired by the F-16’s tail design – putting the stabilizers directly onto the fuselage would have looked awkward, and with this solution I was able to extend the Gripen’s BWB-design all along the fuselage. As a side effect these consoles also offered a plausible place for rearward chaff dispensers.
The rear fuselage was shortened by 3mm, too – through the shorter nose and the wings further forward, the rest of the aircraft looked rather tail-heavy. While 3mm does not sound much, it helped with overall proportions.
The cannon fairing and the OOB pylons were taken over, as well as the cockpit interior. For carrier operations, several details were added, though: folding wing mechanism seams were engraved on the wings and an arrester hook with a fairing added under the tail section, flanked by new stabilizer fins.
The landing gear was basically taken OOB, too, but lengthened with styrene inserts for a higher stance: the main struts are now 2mm longer, while the front strut is 3mm taller. The latter was reversed, so that a catapult hook could be added to the front side, and slightly bigger wheels were mounted, too, so that the Grifo now has a rather stalky stance with a nose-up attitude. Simple, but effective!
The Sidewinders were taken OOB while the pair of AGM-84 Harpoon comes from Italeri’s 1:72 NATO weapons set.
Painting and markings:
I used the contemporary AF-1 paint scheme in three shades of grey as benchmark. These are FS 36187 (RAF Ocean Grey), FS 36307 (Flint Grey) and FS 36515 (Canadian Voodoo Grey) - sourced from a painting guide from Brazilian decal manufacturer FCM and backed by other knowledgeable sources from the region, too. And while the Ocean Grey appears a bit dark, I think that overall the colors are authentic. All paints are Modelmaster enamels.
After basic painting a light black ink wash was applied and panels highlighted through dry-brushing with lighter tones.
The cockpit interior was painted in Neutral Grey (FS 36173), while the landing gear became all-white.
The Brazilian Navy markings had to be improvised - there are 1:72 AF-1 decals available, but either not obtainable or prohibitively expensive - or both. Therefore I rather improvised, with basic Brazilian Navy markings from a vintage FCM Decal sheet for various Brazilian aircraft.
The respective roundels and codes actually belong to helicopters, and I had to wing it somehow. Unfortunately, the old FCM decals turned out to be ...old. Brittle and very delicate, application was already messy and they did not adhere well to the model. To make matters worse the acrylic varnish turned cloudy, so that a lot of paintwork repair had to be done - not helping much with a satisfactory kit finish. :(
Another interesting conversion – I am amazed how purposeful the Grifo looks. It reminds me with its high stance of a modern A-4 Skyhawk (what it somehow is), and there’s also some Super Étendard in it, esp. in the profile? At some point before painting it also had a somewhat Chinese look - maybe because the top view and the wing planform reminds of the classic MiG-21…? The wings might have been placed 3-4mm further backwards, since it is always difficult to judge proportions while work is still, but the Grifo looks convincingly like a real aircraft (model).
Aeronaves bonita! :D
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
NAe São Paulo is a Clemenceau-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Brazilian Navy. São Paulo was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as Foch and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. In December 2014 it was announced that São Paulo will be expected to continue active service until 2039, at which time the vessel will be nearly 80 years old.
From this carrier, the Marinha do Brasil operates its only fixed-wing aircraft, and these were initially A-4 Skyhawks. In 1997 Brazil negotiated a $70 million contract for purchase of 20 A-4KU and three TA-4KU Skyhawks from Kuwait. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks, modified A-4Ms and TA-4Js delivered in 1977, were among the last of those models built by Douglas. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks were selected by Brazil because of low flight time, excellent physical condition, and a favorable price tag. The Brazilian Navy Re-designated AF-1 and AF-1A Falcões (Hawks), the ex-Kuwaiti Skyhawks arrived in Arraial do Cabo on 5 September 1998.
Anyway, the Skyhawks' life span was limited and in 2005 the Brazilian Navy started looking for a potential replacement, while the AF-1s were to kept operational due to limited military budgets. On 14 April 2009, Brazlian aircraft manufacturer EMBRAER signed a contract to modernize 12 Skyhawks, nine AF-1s (single-seat) and three AF-1As (two-seat). This upgrade will restore the operating capacity of the Navy 1st Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron (VF-1). The program includes restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar, power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. The first of the 12 modified Skyhawks was delivered on 27 May 2015. EMBRAER stated that the modifications would allow the aircraft to remain operational until 2025, by which time a successor was to be fully operational.
Several replacement candidates were evaluated under Brazil's F-X2 fighter program together with the Air Force which was looking to replace its Northrop F‐5EM and Dassault Mirage 2000C aircraft. In October 2008, Brazil selected three finalists: the Dassault Rafale, the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, and the SAAB JAS 39 Gripen. The Brazilian Air Force initially planned to procure at least 36 and possibly up to 120 aircraft later, while the Brazilian Navy was looking for 24 aircraft (20 single seater and 4 two-seaters with dual controls) until 2025.
In February 2009, SAAB submitted a tender, and on 5 January 2010, reports claimed that the final evaluation report placed the Gripen ahead of other contenders; the decisive factor was reportedly lower unit and operational costs, the most compact size and the Swedish manufacturer's willingness to accept EMBRAER as a technological partner for the aircraft's further development, especially for the navalized version.
Amid delays due to financial constraints, President Dilma Rousseff announced in December 2011 the Gripen NG's selection and the start of a joint Swedish-Brazilian joint venture called SABRA. Argentina and Ecuador were interested in procuring Gripens from or through Brazil, and Mexico and Argenitina were potential export targets for SABRA's navalized Gripen derivative that was tailored to the Marinha do Brasil's needs.
The respective SABRA aircraft was appropriately christened "Grifo" and the development of thei 4th generation fighter started immediately after closing the cooperation deal in 2011. While based on the SAAB 39, the Grifo became a very different aircraft, due to several factors. The major influence was the carrier operation capability, which called for major structural modifications and enforcements as well as special equipment like foldable wings, a strengthened landing gear, an arrester hook and a new engine that would better cope with the naval environment than the Swedish RM 12 engine, a derivative of the General Electric F404-400.
Additionally, the mission focus of air superiority with additional attack capabilities was reversed, and the need for excellent low speed handling for carrier approaches was requested.
This led to a complelety different aircraft layout, with the SAAB 39's instable canard design being changed into a conservative aircraft with conventional tailplanes. The nose section was shortened in order to provide the pilot with a better field of view, while the more powerful F414-EPE afterburning turbofan was moved slightly forward due to CG reasons, resulting in a slightly shortened rear fuselage.
A mock-up of the new aircraft for the Brazlian Navy was presented and approved in early 2012, and the government placed an official order for two prototypes. Even though the Grifo appeared like a completely different aircraft, it shared a lot of elements with the SAAB 39, so that development time and costs could be reduced to a minimum - and the first prototype, internally designated EMB 391-001, made its maiden flight in early 2013. The second aircraft followed 3 months later.
The Grifo's equipment includes an AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA), capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles, and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles, which include the AIM-9 Sidewinder for close range and the AIM-120 AMRAAM for medium range.
The Grifo features, like the Gripen fighter, an advanced and integrated electronic warfare suite, capable of operating in an undetectable passive mode or to actively jam hostile radar; a missile approach warning system passively detects and tracks incoming missiles.
The Grifo can be tailored to specific missions through external sensor pods, e .g. for reconnaissance and target designation. These include Rafael's LITENING targeting pod, Saab's Modular Reconnaissance Pod System or Thales' Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod. On the Brazilian Navy's request the Grifo is also designed that it can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role.
The two prototypes completed a thorough test program until summer 2015 and subsequently went on a sales tour in South America and Asia. In the meantime, serial production started at EMBRAER's Gavião Peixoto in November 2015. The first serial machines, now officially designated AF-2A, arrived at the Brazilian Navy's São Pedro da Aldeia air base where a new Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron, VF-2 'Arquieros' (Archers) was founded. The squadron became operational in April 2016 and Grifos embarked on NAe São Paulo for the first time in September 2016, serving alongside the venerable AF-1.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Payload: 5,300 kg (11,700 lb)
Length: 13,54 m (44 ft 4 in)
Wingspan (incl. wing tip launch rails): 8.32 m (27 ft 2 in)
Height: 4.25 m (13 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 30.0 m² (323 ft²)
Empty weight: 6,800 kg[330] (14,990 lb)
Loaded weight: 8,500 kg (18,700 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)
Wheel track: 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
Powerplant:
1 × General Electric F414-EPE afterburning turbofan with
a dry thrust of 54 kN (12,100 lbf) and 85 kN (19,100 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: Mach 2 (2,204 km/h (1,190 kn; 1,370 mph) at high altitude
Combat radius: 800 km (497 mi, 432 nmi)
Ferry range: 3,200 km (1,983 mi) with drop tanks
Service ceiling: 15,240 m (50,000 ft)
Wing loading: 283 kg/m² (58 lb/ft²)
Thrust/weight: 0.97
Maximum g-load: +9 g
Armament:
1× 27 mm Mauser BK-27 Revolver cannon with 120 rounds
Eight hardpoints (three on each wing and two under fuselage)
for a wide range of guide and unguided ordnance of up to 14,330 lb (6.5 t)
The kit and its assembly:
The fictional Grifo is the result of a generic idea of converting a canard layout aircraft like the Saab Viggen into a conventional design. The Viggen was actually a serious candidate, but then I found an Italeri Gripen in the stash without a real purpose (it had been cheap, though), and with Brazil's real world procurement as background, the more conservative Grifo was born.
I wanted to use as many OOB Gripen parts as possible, and there are actually only a few external donations involved – with the outlook of converting further Gripens this way. You never know… ;)
Work started with the wings, which were cut off of the fuselage shell. Having the landing gear retract into the fuselage (much like the X-29) is a convenient detail of the Gripen, making the wing transplantation easier than on a Viggen where the wells have to be moved, too.
The original canard attachment points were faired over/hidden. The pointed Gripen nose with its pitot was cut off and replaced by a shorter, more stocky nose tip - from an F-4 Phantom II IIRC. Once the fuselage was completed, the wings were mounted, closer to the air intakes. This went smoothly, only some gaps on the undersides had to be filled.
Once the wings were in place I had to make a decision concerning the stabilizers. Despite the plan to use as many OOB parts as possible I found the OOB canards to be too sharply swept and considered several donation options.
I eventually settled for the most unique option: the stabilizers are actually main wings from a (rather malformed) Italeri/Dragon 1:200 F-117 that comes as a set with the B-2 bomber. A part of the F-117’s fuselage flank was cut off and taken over to the Grifo, too, so that these create ‘muscular’ bulges.
The stabilizers were mounted on scratched consoles/trailing wing root extensions that were somewhat inspired by the F-16’s tail design – putting the stabilizers directly onto the fuselage would have looked awkward, and with this solution I was able to extend the Gripen’s BWB-design all along the fuselage. As a side effect these consoles also offered a plausible place for rearward chaff dispensers.
The rear fuselage was shortened by 3mm, too – through the shorter nose and the wings further forward, the rest of the aircraft looked rather tail-heavy. While 3mm does not sound much, it helped with overall proportions.
The cannon fairing and the OOB pylons were taken over, as well as the cockpit interior. For carrier operations, several details were added, though: folding wing mechanism seams were engraved on the wings and an arrester hook with a fairing added under the tail section, flanked by new stabilizer fins.
The landing gear was basically taken OOB, too, but lengthened with styrene inserts for a higher stance: the main struts are now 2mm longer, while the front strut is 3mm taller. The latter was reversed, so that a catapult hook could be added to the front side, and slightly bigger wheels were mounted, too, so that the Grifo now has a rather stalky stance with a nose-up attitude. Simple, but effective!
The Sidewinders were taken OOB while the pair of AGM-84 Harpoon comes from Italeri’s 1:72 NATO weapons set.
Painting and markings:
I used the contemporary AF-1 paint scheme in three shades of grey as benchmark. These are FS 36187 (RAF Ocean Grey), FS 36307 (Flint Grey) and FS 36515 (Canadian Voodoo Grey) - sourced from a painting guide from Brazilian decal manufacturer FCM and backed by other knowledgeable sources from the region, too. And while the Ocean Grey appears a bit dark, I think that overall the colors are authentic. All paints are Modelmaster enamels.
After basic painting a light black ink wash was applied and panels highlighted through dry-brushing with lighter tones.
The cockpit interior was painted in Neutral Grey (FS 36173), while the landing gear became all-white.
The Brazilian Navy markings had to be improvised - there are 1:72 AF-1 decals available, but either not obtainable or prohibitively expensive - or both. Therefore I rather improvised, with basic Brazilian Navy markings from a vintage FCM Decal sheet for various Brazilian aircraft.
The respective roundels and codes actually belong to helicopters, and I had to wing it somehow. Unfortunately, the old FCM decals turned out to be ...old. Brittle and very delicate, application was already messy and they did not adhere well to the model. To make matters worse the acrylic varnish turned cloudy, so that a lot of paintwork repair had to be done - not helping much with a satisfactory kit finish. :(
Another interesting conversion – I am amazed how purposeful the Grifo looks. It reminds me with its high stance of a modern A-4 Skyhawk (what it somehow is), and there’s also some Super Étendard in it, esp. in the profile? At some point before painting it also had a somewhat Chinese look - maybe because the top view and the wing planform reminds of the classic MiG-21…? The wings might have been placed 3-4mm further backwards, since it is always difficult to judge proportions while work is still, but the Grifo looks convincingly like a real aircraft (model).
Aeronaves bonita! :D
The chili pepper (also chile pepper, chilli pepper, or simply chilli) from Nahuatl chīlli Nahuatl pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃiːli] (About this sound listen)) is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae. They are widely used in many cuisines to add spiciness to dishes. The substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin and related compounds known as capsaicinoids.
Chili peppers originated in Mexico. After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, used for both food and traditional medicine.
Worldwide in 2014, 32.3 million tonnes of green chili peppers and 3.8 million tonnes of dried chili peppers were produced. China is the world's largest producer of green chillies, providing half of the global total.
HISTORY
Chili peppers have been a part of the human diet in the Americas since at least 7500 BCE. The most recent research shows that chili peppers were domesticated more than 6000 years ago in Mexico, in the region that extends across southern Puebla and northern Oaxaca to southeastern Veracruz, and were one of the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in Mexico, Central and parts of South America.
Peru is considered the country with the highest cultivated Capsicum diversity because it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times. Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers are consumed. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits including C. eximium, C. cardenasii, C. eshbaughii, and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties.
Christopher Columbus was one of the first Europeans to encounter them (in the Caribbean), and called them "peppers" because they, like black pepper of the Piper genus known in Europe, have a spicy, hot taste unlike other foodstuffs. Upon their introduction into Europe, chilies were grown as botanical curiosities in the gardens of Spanish and Portuguese monasteries. Christian monks experimented with the culinary potential of chili and discovered that their pungency offered a substitute for black peppercorns, which at the time were so costly that they were used as legal currency in some countries.
Chilies were cultivated around the globe after Indigenous people shared them with travelers. Diego Álvarez Chanca, a physician on Columbus' second voyage to the West Indies in 1493, brought the first chili peppers to Spain and first wrote about their medicinal effects in 1494.
The spread of chili peppers to Asia was most likely a natural consequence of its introduction to Portuguese traders (Lisbon was a common port of call for Spanish ships sailing to and from the Americas) who, aware of its trade value, would have likely promoted its commerce in the Asian spice trade routes then dominated by Portuguese and Arab traders. It was introduced in India by the Portuguese towards the end of 15th century. Today chilies are an integral part of South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines.
The chili pepper features heavily in the cuisine of the Goan region of India, which was the site of a Portuguese colony (e.g., vindaloo, an Indian interpretation of a Portuguese dish). Chili peppers journeyed from India, through Central Asia and Turkey, to Hungary, where they became the national spice in the form of paprika.
An alternate, although not so plausible account (no obvious correlation between its dissemination in Asia and Spanish presence or trade routes), defended mostly by Spanish historians, was that from Mexico, at the time a Spanish colony, chili peppers spread into their other colony the Philippines and from there to India, China, Indonesia. To Japan, it was brought by the Portuguese missionaries in 1542, and then later, it was brought to Korea.
In 1995 archaeobotanist Hakon Hjelmqvist published an article in Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift claiming there was evidence for the presence of chili peppers in Europe in pre-Columbian times. According to Hjelmqvist, archaeologists at a dig in St Botulf in Lund found a Capsicum frutescens in a layer from the 13th century. Hjelmqvist thought it came from Asia. Hjelmqvist also said that Capsicum was described by the Greek Theophrastus (370–286 BCE) in his Historia Plantarum, and in other sources. Around the first century CE, the Roman poet Martialis (Martial) mentioned "Piperve crudum" (raw pepper) in Liber XI, XVIII, allegedly describing them as long and containing seeds (a description which seems to fit chili peppers - but could also fit the long pepper, which was well known to ancient Romans).
PRODUCTION
In 2014, world production of fresh green chillies and peppers was 33.2 million tonnes, led by China with 48% of the global total. Global production of dried chillies and peppers was about nine times less than for fresh production, led by India with 32% of the world total.
SPECIES AND CULTIVARS
The five domesticated species of chili peppers are as follows:
Capsicum annuum, which includes many common varieties such as bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeños, chiltepin, and all forms of New Mexico chile.
Capsicum frutescens, which includes malagueta, tabasco and Thai peppers, piri piri, and Malawian Kambuzi
Capsicum chinense, which includes the hottest peppers such as the naga, habanero, Datil and Scotch bonnet
Capsicum pubescens, which includes the South American rocoto peppers
Capsicum baccatum, which includes the South American aji peppers
Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of C. annuum, immature peppers being green. In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which when dried is referred to as ancho), New Mexico, serrano, and other cultivars.
Peppers are commonly broken down into three groupings: bell peppers, sweet peppers, and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or as a cross between them.
INTENSITY
The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids. The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and on growing conditions. Water stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, for example low water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.
When peppers are consumed, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU). Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating. The modern method is a quantitative analysis of SHU using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to directly measure the capsaicinoid content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.
USE
CULINARY USES
Chili pepper pods, which are berries, are used fresh or dried. Chilies are dried to preserve them for long periods of time, which may also be done by pickling.
Dried chilies are often ground into powders, although many Mexican dishes including variations on chiles rellenos use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle is the smoked, dried, ripe jalapeño.
Many fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.
The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all other Solanaceous crops have toxins in their leaves, chili peppers do not. The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruit, are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola. In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi. In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and also cooked in tsukudani style for preservation.
Chili is by far the most important fruit in Bhutan. Local markets are never without chilies in different colors and sizes, in fresh and dried form. Bhutanese call this crop ema (in Dzongkha) or solo (in Sharchop). Chili is a staple fruit in Bhutan; the ema datsi recipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese. Chili is also an important ingredient in almost all curries and food recipes in the country.
In India, most households always keep a stack of fresh hot green chilies at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes. It is typically lightly fried with oil in the initial stages of preparation of the dish. Some states in India, such as Rajasthan, make entire dishes only by using spices and chilies.
Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable dishes other than the ones mentioned elsewhere in this article include:
Arrabbiata sauce from Italy is a tomato-based sauce for pasta always including dried hot chilies.
Puttanesca sauce is tomato-based with olives, capers, anchovy and, sometimes, chilies.
Paprikash from Hungary uses significant amounts of mild, ground, dried chilies, known as paprika, in a braised chicken dish.
Chiles en nogada from the Puebla region of Mexico uses fresh mild chilies stuffed with meat and covered with a creamy nut-thickened sauce.
Curry dishes usually contain fresh or dried chillies.
Kung pao chicken (Mandarin Chinese: 宫保鸡丁 gōng bǎo jī dīng) from the Sichuan region of China uses small hot dried chilies briefly fried in oil to add spice to the oil then used for frying.
Mole poblano from the city of Puebla in Mexico uses several varieties of dried chilies, nuts, spices, and fruits to produce a thick, dark sauce for poultry or other meats.
Nam phrik are traditional Thai chili pastes and sauces, prepared with chopped fresh or dry chilies, and additional ingredients such as fish sauce, lime juice, and herbs, but also fruit, meat or seafood.
'Nduja, a more typical example of Italian spicy specialty, from the region of Calabria, is a soft pork sausage made "hot" by the addition of the locally grown variety of jalapeño chili.
Paprykarz szczeciński is a Polish fish paste with rice, onion, tomato concentrate, vegetable oil, chili pepper powder and other spices.
Sambal terasi or sambal belacan is a traditional Indonesian and Malay hot condiment made by frying a mixture of mainly pounded dried chillies, with garlic, shallots, and fermented shrimp paste. It is customarily served with rice dishes and is especially popular when mixed with crunchy pan-roasted ikan teri or ikan bilis (sun-dried anchovies), when it is known as sambal teri or sambal ikan bilis. Various sambal variants existed in Indonesian archipelago, among others are sambal badjak, sambal oelek, sambal pete (prepared with green stinky beans) and sambal pencit (prepared with unripe green mango).
Som tam, a green papaya salad from Thai and Lao cuisine, traditionally has, as a key ingredient, a fistful of chopped fresh hot Thai chili, pounded in a mortar.
Fresh or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment - usually bottled when commercially available - that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa from North Africa, chili oil from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha from Thailand.
Capsaicin is also the primary component in pepper spray, a less-than-lethal weapon.
PSYCHOLOGY
Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any risk of bodily harm.
MEDICINAL
Capsaicin, the chemical in chili peppers that makes them hot, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain.
PEPPER SPRAY
Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper spray as an irritant, a form of less-lethal weapon.
CROP DEFENSE
Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin, the chemical in chilies that makes them hot. Because the elephants have a large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system, the smell of the chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the pungent fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chilly-Dung Bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.
FOOD DEFENSE
Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a specific pain receptor in mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
While red chilies contain large amounts of vitamin C (table), other species contain significant amounts of provitamin A beta-carotene. In addition, peppers are a rich source of vitamin B6
SPELLING AND USAGE
The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all of which are recognized by dictionaries.
Chili is widely used in historically Anglophone regions of the United States and Canada. However, it is also commonly used as a short name for chili con carne (literally "chili with meat"). Most versions are seasoned with chili powder, which can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a mixture containing other spices.
Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries, as well as some parts of the United States and Canada, which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United States (particularly New Mexico), chile also denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce made from this fruit, available in red and green varieties, and served over the local food, while chili denotes the meat dish. The plural is chile or chiles.
Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chīlli) and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary, although it also lists chile and chili as variants. Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore and South Africa.
The name of the plant is almost certainly unrelated to that of Chile, the country, which has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names. Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are some of the Spanish-speaking countries where chilies are known as ají, a word of Taíno origin. Though pepper originally referred to the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the latter usage is included in English dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary (sense 2b of pepper) and Merriam-Webster. The word pepper is also commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of chili plants and their fruits.
WIKIPEDIA
But for another photographer (thanks, Gregory), I'd never have spotted her. Her camouflage is superb. She looks rather obvious here, but in the field she's almost undetectable, even when you're looking right at her.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
NAe São Paulo is a Clemenceau-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Brazilian Navy. São Paulo was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as Foch and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. In December 2014 it was announced that São Paulo will be expected to continue active service until 2039, at which time the vessel will be nearly 80 years old.
From this carrier, the Marinha do Brasil operates its only fixed-wing aircraft, and these were initially A-4 Skyhawks. In 1997 Brazil negotiated a $70 million contract for purchase of 20 A-4KU and three TA-4KU Skyhawks from Kuwait. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks, modified A-4Ms and TA-4Js delivered in 1977, were among the last of those models built by Douglas. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks were selected by Brazil because of low flight time, excellent physical condition, and a favorable price tag. The Brazilian Navy Re-designated AF-1 and AF-1A Falcões (Hawks), the ex-Kuwaiti Skyhawks arrived in Arraial do Cabo on 5 September 1998.
Anyway, the Skyhawks' life span was limited and in 2005 the Brazilian Navy started looking for a potential replacement, while the AF-1s were to kept operational due to limited military budgets. On 14 April 2009, Brazlian aircraft manufacturer EMBRAER signed a contract to modernize 12 Skyhawks, nine AF-1s (single-seat) and three AF-1As (two-seat). This upgrade will restore the operating capacity of the Navy 1st Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron (VF-1). The program includes restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar, power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. The first of the 12 modified Skyhawks was delivered on 27 May 2015. EMBRAER stated that the modifications would allow the aircraft to remain operational until 2025, by which time a successor was to be fully operational.
Several replacement candidates were evaluated under Brazil's F-X2 fighter program together with the Air Force which was looking to replace its Northrop F‐5EM and Dassault Mirage 2000C aircraft. In October 2008, Brazil selected three finalists: the Dassault Rafale, the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, and the SAAB JAS 39 Gripen. The Brazilian Air Force initially planned to procure at least 36 and possibly up to 120 aircraft later, while the Brazilian Navy was looking for 24 aircraft (20 single seater and 4 two-seaters with dual controls) until 2025.
In February 2009, SAAB submitted a tender, and on 5 January 2010, reports claimed that the final evaluation report placed the Gripen ahead of other contenders; the decisive factor was reportedly lower unit and operational costs, the most compact size and the Swedish manufacturer's willingness to accept EMBRAER as a technological partner for the aircraft's further development, especially for the navalized version.
Amid delays due to financial constraints, President Dilma Rousseff announced in December 2011 the Gripen NG's selection and the start of a joint Swedish-Brazilian joint venture called SABRA. Argentina and Ecuador were interested in procuring Gripens from or through Brazil, and Mexico and Argenitina were potential export targets for SABRA's navalized Gripen derivative that was tailored to the Marinha do Brasil's needs.
The respective SABRA aircraft was appropriately christened "Grifo" and the development of thei 4th generation fighter started immediately after closing the cooperation deal in 2011. While based on the SAAB 39, the Grifo became a very different aircraft, due to several factors. The major influence was the carrier operation capability, which called for major structural modifications and enforcements as well as special equipment like foldable wings, a strengthened landing gear, an arrester hook and a new engine that would better cope with the naval environment than the Swedish RM 12 engine, a derivative of the General Electric F404-400.
Additionally, the mission focus of air superiority with additional attack capabilities was reversed, and the need for excellent low speed handling for carrier approaches was requested.
This led to a complelety different aircraft layout, with the SAAB 39's instable canard design being changed into a conservative aircraft with conventional tailplanes. The nose section was shortened in order to provide the pilot with a better field of view, while the more powerful F414-EPE afterburning turbofan was moved slightly forward due to CG reasons, resulting in a slightly shortened rear fuselage.
A mock-up of the new aircraft for the Brazlian Navy was presented and approved in early 2012, and the government placed an official order for two prototypes. Even though the Grifo appeared like a completely different aircraft, it shared a lot of elements with the SAAB 39, so that development time and costs could be reduced to a minimum - and the first prototype, internally designated EMB 391-001, made its maiden flight in early 2013. The second aircraft followed 3 months later.
The Grifo's equipment includes an AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA), capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles, and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles, which include the AIM-9 Sidewinder for close range and the AIM-120 AMRAAM for medium range.
The Grifo features, like the Gripen fighter, an advanced and integrated electronic warfare suite, capable of operating in an undetectable passive mode or to actively jam hostile radar; a missile approach warning system passively detects and tracks incoming missiles.
The Grifo can be tailored to specific missions through external sensor pods, e .g. for reconnaissance and target designation. These include Rafael's LITENING targeting pod, Saab's Modular Reconnaissance Pod System or Thales' Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod. On the Brazilian Navy's request the Grifo is also designed that it can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role.
The two prototypes completed a thorough test program until summer 2015 and subsequently went on a sales tour in South America and Asia. In the meantime, serial production started at EMBRAER's Gavião Peixoto in November 2015. The first serial machines, now officially designated AF-2A, arrived at the Brazilian Navy's São Pedro da Aldeia air base where a new Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron, VF-2 'Arquieros' (Archers) was founded. The squadron became operational in April 2016 and Grifos embarked on NAe São Paulo for the first time in September 2016, serving alongside the venerable AF-1.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Payload: 5,300 kg (11,700 lb)
Length: 13,54 m (44 ft 4 in)
Wingspan (incl. wing tip launch rails): 8.32 m (27 ft 2 in)
Height: 4.25 m (13 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 30.0 m² (323 ft²)
Empty weight: 6,800 kg[330] (14,990 lb)
Loaded weight: 8,500 kg (18,700 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)
Wheel track: 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
Powerplant:
1 × General Electric F414-EPE afterburning turbofan with
a dry thrust of 54 kN (12,100 lbf) and 85 kN (19,100 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: Mach 2 (2,204 km/h (1,190 kn; 1,370 mph) at high altitude
Combat radius: 800 km (497 mi, 432 nmi)
Ferry range: 3,200 km (1,983 mi) with drop tanks
Service ceiling: 15,240 m (50,000 ft)
Wing loading: 283 kg/m² (58 lb/ft²)
Thrust/weight: 0.97
Maximum g-load: +9 g
Armament:
1× 27 mm Mauser BK-27 Revolver cannon with 120 rounds
Eight hardpoints (three on each wing and two under fuselage)
for a wide range of guide and unguided ordnance of up to 14,330 lb (6.5 t)
The kit and its assembly:
The fictional Grifo is the result of a generic idea of converting a canard layout aircraft like the Saab Viggen into a conventional design. The Viggen was actually a serious candidate, but then I found an Italeri Gripen in the stash without a real purpose (it had been cheap, though), and with Brazil's real world procurement as background, the more conservative Grifo was born.
I wanted to use as many OOB Gripen parts as possible, and there are actually only a few external donations involved – with the outlook of converting further Gripens this way. You never know… ;)
Work started with the wings, which were cut off of the fuselage shell. Having the landing gear retract into the fuselage (much like the X-29) is a convenient detail of the Gripen, making the wing transplantation easier than on a Viggen where the wells have to be moved, too.
The original canard attachment points were faired over/hidden. The pointed Gripen nose with its pitot was cut off and replaced by a shorter, more stocky nose tip - from an F-4 Phantom II IIRC. Once the fuselage was completed, the wings were mounted, closer to the air intakes. This went smoothly, only some gaps on the undersides had to be filled.
Once the wings were in place I had to make a decision concerning the stabilizers. Despite the plan to use as many OOB parts as possible I found the OOB canards to be too sharply swept and considered several donation options.
I eventually settled for the most unique option: the stabilizers are actually main wings from a (rather malformed) Italeri/Dragon 1:200 F-117 that comes as a set with the B-2 bomber. A part of the F-117’s fuselage flank was cut off and taken over to the Grifo, too, so that these create ‘muscular’ bulges.
The stabilizers were mounted on scratched consoles/trailing wing root extensions that were somewhat inspired by the F-16’s tail design – putting the stabilizers directly onto the fuselage would have looked awkward, and with this solution I was able to extend the Gripen’s BWB-design all along the fuselage. As a side effect these consoles also offered a plausible place for rearward chaff dispensers.
The rear fuselage was shortened by 3mm, too – through the shorter nose and the wings further forward, the rest of the aircraft looked rather tail-heavy. While 3mm does not sound much, it helped with overall proportions.
The cannon fairing and the OOB pylons were taken over, as well as the cockpit interior. For carrier operations, several details were added, though: folding wing mechanism seams were engraved on the wings and an arrester hook with a fairing added under the tail section, flanked by new stabilizer fins.
The landing gear was basically taken OOB, too, but lengthened with styrene inserts for a higher stance: the main struts are now 2mm longer, while the front strut is 3mm taller. The latter was reversed, so that a catapult hook could be added to the front side, and slightly bigger wheels were mounted, too, so that the Grifo now has a rather stalky stance with a nose-up attitude. Simple, but effective!
The Sidewinders were taken OOB while the pair of AGM-84 Harpoon comes from Italeri’s 1:72 NATO weapons set.
Painting and markings:
I used the contemporary AF-1 paint scheme in three shades of grey as benchmark. These are FS 36187 (RAF Ocean Grey), FS 36307 (Flint Grey) and FS 36515 (Canadian Voodoo Grey) - sourced from a painting guide from Brazilian decal manufacturer FCM and backed by other knowledgeable sources from the region, too. And while the Ocean Grey appears a bit dark, I think that overall the colors are authentic. All paints are Modelmaster enamels.
After basic painting a light black ink wash was applied and panels highlighted through dry-brushing with lighter tones.
The cockpit interior was painted in Neutral Grey (FS 36173), while the landing gear became all-white.
The Brazilian Navy markings had to be improvised - there are 1:72 AF-1 decals available, but either not obtainable or prohibitively expensive - or both. Therefore I rather improvised, with basic Brazilian Navy markings from a vintage FCM Decal sheet for various Brazilian aircraft.
The respective roundels and codes actually belong to helicopters, and I had to wing it somehow. Unfortunately, the old FCM decals turned out to be ...old. Brittle and very delicate, application was already messy and they did not adhere well to the model. To make matters worse the acrylic varnish turned cloudy, so that a lot of paintwork repair had to be done - not helping much with a satisfactory kit finish. :(
Another interesting conversion – I am amazed how purposeful the Grifo looks. It reminds me with its high stance of a modern A-4 Skyhawk (what it somehow is), and there’s also some Super Étendard in it, esp. in the profile? At some point before painting it also had a somewhat Chinese look - maybe because the top view and the wing planform reminds of the classic MiG-21…? The wings might have been placed 3-4mm further backwards, since it is always difficult to judge proportions while work is still, but the Grifo looks convincingly like a real aircraft (model).
Aeronaves bonita! :D
NASA image acquired April 5, 2010.
A large fire in central Chile scorched thousands of acres of natural woodlands, pastures, and pine plantations in early April, and on April 6, 2010, thick brownish smoke hung over the Bío Bío and northern Araucanía provinces. In this image, which was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite at 10:45 a.m. local time, the locations of actively burning fires are outlined in red. (Other “hot spots” may be undetectable beneath the thick smoke.) According to news reports, the cause of the fire was unknown.
NASA image by Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC. Caption by Rebecca Lindsey.
Instrument: Aqua - MODIS
To learn more about this image go to: earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=43454
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center is home to the nation's largest organization of combined scientists, engineers and technologists that build spacecraft, instruments and new technology to study the Earth, the sun, our solar system, and the universe.
Here comes the great rescuer for those with bite and dental issues. One of the most well-known medical procedures in the entire globe is wearing braces. Braces are used to treat orthodontic problems in children and adolescents of all ages. You could wonder why they're so well-known, and the answer is that they function flawlessly. We are one of the leading Dental Clinic in Gurgaon. Our Orthodontist will provide all the necessary information related to braces. Generally, braces are required if you have crooked teeth or other forms of bite problems. An underbite, overbite, or even a crossbite may be one of these (link for bite issues). Your teeth will deteriorate faster if they are crooked, and they will also suffer from gum disease, jaw pain, and possibly speech difficulties. It can also change the way your face is built.
Bite problems, although modest, are generally manageable and don't significantly interfere with your regular activities. A severe underbite or overbite, for example, might wreck your social life and make dining a possible nightmare. In order to prevent the issue from getting worse over time, it is necessary to act quickly. As we can see from the potential outcomes, braces can practically rescue your daily life by allowing you to eat and speak with confidence. However, you must keep in mind that they might not always be the answer. Braces cannot cure a severe overbite or underbite that has already developed. For it, surgery is required.
HOW DO THEY FUNCTION?
Braces function in a fairly simple way. Your teeth get constant pressure from them. Your teeth will eventually return to their original positions as a result of the steady pressure, and your jaw will alter shape and resume having a normal bite. Although we refer to the jaw as moving, it is actually the gum tissue behind our gums that holds our teeth in place. By applying pressure to this membrane, braces can move the teeth back to their original position. Naturally, this also affects how we bite and eliminates potential over- or underbites.
DOES IT HURT ?
Your membrane being compressed and your teeth shifting positions may not sit well with you. Despite the fact that it "looks" like it could hurt you, it can't. It is a pretty small surgery in terms of dentistry treatments and takes anywhere from 2 hours to complete, depending on the dentist. After the installation, the only thing you might experience is a little soreness. This emotion will pass eventually. This soreness may briefly return after adjustments, but this is anticipated. Get in touch with your dentist right away if you believe you are in persistent discomfort. There could be a problem with the adjustment or the braces could be too tiny.
TYPES OF BRACES:
Braces are custom-made and adjusted to each patient's needs. Your situation will determine the kind you require. Most people are only familiar with traditional braces. These are made of metal and are plain to see from the outside. With the aid of its string, they are held together by their teeth and exert pressure on the jaw. There are additional types of braces you can purchase;
Discrete braces are most prevalent in adults. Since they are translucent, it is difficult to identify them. You may also remove them whenever you like. They are a wonderful choice for elderly users because of these qualities.
There is also the option of ceramic braces. They are less noticeable because they are not made of metal. In comparison to metal braces, they also appear more beautiful.
Linguel braces: They are entirely undetectable. Because of where they stay rather than their colour or material. These braces sit on the back of your teeth rather than the front. They are virtually invisible as a result.
Your teeth and membrane are under strain from braces. This pressure aids in tooth realignment and the treatment of patients' biting problems. The treatment is painless and lasts roughly two hours. Depending on the state of the patient, the course of treatment can last one to three years.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
NAe São Paulo is a Clemenceau-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Brazilian Navy. São Paulo was first commissioned in 1963 by the French Navy as Foch and was transferred in 2000 to Brazil, where she became the new flagship of the Brazilian Navy. In December 2014 it was announced that São Paulo will be expected to continue active service until 2039, at which time the vessel will be nearly 80 years old.
From this carrier, the Marinha do Brasil operates its only fixed-wing aircraft, and these were initially A-4 Skyhawks. In 1997 Brazil negotiated a $70 million contract for purchase of 20 A-4KU and three TA-4KU Skyhawks from Kuwait. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks, modified A-4Ms and TA-4Js delivered in 1977, were among the last of those models built by Douglas. The Kuwaiti Skyhawks were selected by Brazil because of low flight time, excellent physical condition, and a favorable price tag. The Brazilian Navy Re-designated AF-1 and AF-1A Falcões (Hawks), the ex-Kuwaiti Skyhawks arrived in Arraial do Cabo on 5 September 1998.
Anyway, the Skyhawks' life span was limited and in 2005 the Brazilian Navy started looking for a potential replacement, while the AF-1s were to kept operational due to limited military budgets. On 14 April 2009, Brazlian aircraft manufacturer EMBRAER signed a contract to modernize 12 Skyhawks, nine AF-1s (single-seat) and three AF-1As (two-seat). This upgrade will restore the operating capacity of the Navy 1st Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron (VF-1). The program includes restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar, power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. The first of the 12 modified Skyhawks was delivered on 27 May 2015. EMBRAER stated that the modifications would allow the aircraft to remain operational until 2025, by which time a successor was to be fully operational.
Several replacement candidates were evaluated under Brazil's F-X2 fighter program together with the Air Force which was looking to replace its Northrop F‐5EM and Dassault Mirage 2000C aircraft. In October 2008, Brazil selected three finalists: the Dassault Rafale, the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet, and the SAAB JAS 39 Gripen. The Brazilian Air Force initially planned to procure at least 36 and possibly up to 120 aircraft later, while the Brazilian Navy was looking for 24 aircraft (20 single seater and 4 two-seaters with dual controls) until 2025.
In February 2009, SAAB submitted a tender, and on 5 January 2010, reports claimed that the final evaluation report placed the Gripen ahead of other contenders; the decisive factor was reportedly lower unit and operational costs, the most compact size and the Swedish manufacturer's willingness to accept EMBRAER as a technological partner for the aircraft's further development, especially for the navalized version.
Amid delays due to financial constraints, President Dilma Rousseff announced in December 2011 the Gripen NG's selection and the start of a joint Swedish-Brazilian joint venture called SABRA. Argentina and Ecuador were interested in procuring Gripens from or through Brazil, and Mexico and Argenitina were potential export targets for SABRA's navalized Gripen derivative that was tailored to the Marinha do Brasil's needs.
The respective SABRA aircraft was appropriately christened "Grifo" and the development of thei 4th generation fighter started immediately after closing the cooperation deal in 2011. While based on the SAAB 39, the Grifo became a very different aircraft, due to several factors. The major influence was the carrier operation capability, which called for major structural modifications and enforcements as well as special equipment like foldable wings, a strengthened landing gear, an arrester hook and a new engine that would better cope with the naval environment than the Swedish RM 12 engine, a derivative of the General Electric F404-400.
Additionally, the mission focus of air superiority with additional attack capabilities was reversed, and the need for excellent low speed handling for carrier approaches was requested.
This led to a complelety different aircraft layout, with the SAAB 39's instable canard design being changed into a conservative aircraft with conventional tailplanes. The nose section was shortened in order to provide the pilot with a better field of view, while the more powerful F414-EPE afterburning turbofan was moved slightly forward due to CG reasons, resulting in a slightly shortened rear fuselage.
A mock-up of the new aircraft for the Brazlian Navy was presented and approved in early 2012, and the government placed an official order for two prototypes. Even though the Grifo appeared like a completely different aircraft, it shared a lot of elements with the SAAB 39, so that development time and costs could be reduced to a minimum - and the first prototype, internally designated EMB 391-001, made its maiden flight in early 2013. The second aircraft followed 3 months later.
The Grifo's equipment includes an AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA), capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles, and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles, which include the AIM-9 Sidewinder for close range and the AIM-120 AMRAAM for medium range.
The Grifo features, like the Gripen fighter, an advanced and integrated electronic warfare suite, capable of operating in an undetectable passive mode or to actively jam hostile radar; a missile approach warning system passively detects and tracks incoming missiles.
The Grifo can be tailored to specific missions through external sensor pods, e .g. for reconnaissance and target designation. These include Rafael's LITENING targeting pod, Saab's Modular Reconnaissance Pod System or Thales' Digital Joint Reconnaissance Pod. On the Brazilian Navy's request the Grifo is also designed that it can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role.
The two prototypes completed a thorough test program until summer 2015 and subsequently went on a sales tour in South America and Asia. In the meantime, serial production started at EMBRAER's Gavião Peixoto in November 2015. The first serial machines, now officially designated AF-2A, arrived at the Brazilian Navy's São Pedro da Aldeia air base where a new Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron, VF-2 'Arquieros' (Archers) was founded. The squadron became operational in April 2016 and Grifos embarked on NAe São Paulo for the first time in September 2016, serving alongside the venerable AF-1.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Payload: 5,300 kg (11,700 lb)
Length: 13,54 m (44 ft 4 in)
Wingspan (incl. wing tip launch rails): 8.32 m (27 ft 2 in)
Height: 4.25 m (13 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 30.0 m² (323 ft²)
Empty weight: 6,800 kg[330] (14,990 lb)
Loaded weight: 8,500 kg (18,700 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)
Wheel track: 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
Powerplant:
1 × General Electric F414-EPE afterburning turbofan with
a dry thrust of 54 kN (12,100 lbf) and 85 kN (19,100 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: Mach 2 (2,204 km/h (1,190 kn; 1,370 mph) at high altitude
Combat radius: 800 km (497 mi, 432 nmi)
Ferry range: 3,200 km (1,983 mi) with drop tanks
Service ceiling: 15,240 m (50,000 ft)
Wing loading: 283 kg/m² (58 lb/ft²)
Thrust/weight: 0.97
Maximum g-load: +9 g
Armament:
1× 27 mm Mauser BK-27 Revolver cannon with 120 rounds
Eight hardpoints (three on each wing and two under fuselage)
for a wide range of guide and unguided ordnance of up to 14,330 lb (6.5 t)
The kit and its assembly:
The fictional Grifo is the result of a generic idea of converting a canard layout aircraft like the Saab Viggen into a conventional design. The Viggen was actually a serious candidate, but then I found an Italeri Gripen in the stash without a real purpose (it had been cheap, though), and with Brazil's real world procurement as background, the more conservative Grifo was born.
I wanted to use as many OOB Gripen parts as possible, and there are actually only a few external donations involved – with the outlook of converting further Gripens this way. You never know… ;)
Work started with the wings, which were cut off of the fuselage shell. Having the landing gear retract into the fuselage (much like the X-29) is a convenient detail of the Gripen, making the wing transplantation easier than on a Viggen where the wells have to be moved, too.
The original canard attachment points were faired over/hidden. The pointed Gripen nose with its pitot was cut off and replaced by a shorter, more stocky nose tip - from an F-4 Phantom II IIRC. Once the fuselage was completed, the wings were mounted, closer to the air intakes. This went smoothly, only some gaps on the undersides had to be filled.
Once the wings were in place I had to make a decision concerning the stabilizers. Despite the plan to use as many OOB parts as possible I found the OOB canards to be too sharply swept and considered several donation options.
I eventually settled for the most unique option: the stabilizers are actually main wings from a (rather malformed) Italeri/Dragon 1:200 F-117 that comes as a set with the B-2 bomber. A part of the F-117’s fuselage flank was cut off and taken over to the Grifo, too, so that these create ‘muscular’ bulges.
The stabilizers were mounted on scratched consoles/trailing wing root extensions that were somewhat inspired by the F-16’s tail design – putting the stabilizers directly onto the fuselage would have looked awkward, and with this solution I was able to extend the Gripen’s BWB-design all along the fuselage. As a side effect these consoles also offered a plausible place for rearward chaff dispensers.
The rear fuselage was shortened by 3mm, too – through the shorter nose and the wings further forward, the rest of the aircraft looked rather tail-heavy. While 3mm does not sound much, it helped with overall proportions.
The cannon fairing and the OOB pylons were taken over, as well as the cockpit interior. For carrier operations, several details were added, though: folding wing mechanism seams were engraved on the wings and an arrester hook with a fairing added under the tail section, flanked by new stabilizer fins.
The landing gear was basically taken OOB, too, but lengthened with styrene inserts for a higher stance: the main struts are now 2mm longer, while the front strut is 3mm taller. The latter was reversed, so that a catapult hook could be added to the front side, and slightly bigger wheels were mounted, too, so that the Grifo now has a rather stalky stance with a nose-up attitude. Simple, but effective!
The Sidewinders were taken OOB while the pair of AGM-84 Harpoon comes from Italeri’s 1:72 NATO weapons set.
Painting and markings:
I used the contemporary AF-1 paint scheme in three shades of grey as benchmark. These are FS 36187 (RAF Ocean Grey), FS 36307 (Flint Grey) and FS 36515 (Canadian Voodoo Grey) - sourced from a painting guide from Brazilian decal manufacturer FCM and backed by other knowledgeable sources from the region, too. And while the Ocean Grey appears a bit dark, I think that overall the colors are authentic. All paints are Modelmaster enamels.
After basic painting a light black ink wash was applied and panels highlighted through dry-brushing with lighter tones.
The cockpit interior was painted in Neutral Grey (FS 36173), while the landing gear became all-white.
The Brazilian Navy markings had to be improvised - there are 1:72 AF-1 decals available, but either not obtainable or prohibitively expensive - or both. Therefore I rather improvised, with basic Brazilian Navy markings from a vintage FCM Decal sheet for various Brazilian aircraft.
The respective roundels and codes actually belong to helicopters, and I had to wing it somehow. Unfortunately, the old FCM decals turned out to be ...old. Brittle and very delicate, application was already messy and they did not adhere well to the model. To make matters worse the acrylic varnish turned cloudy, so that a lot of paintwork repair had to be done - not helping much with a satisfactory kit finish. :(
Another interesting conversion – I am amazed how purposeful the Grifo looks. It reminds me with its high stance of a modern A-4 Skyhawk (what it somehow is), and there’s also some Super Étendard in it, esp. in the profile? At some point before painting it also had a somewhat Chinese look - maybe because the top view and the wing planform reminds of the classic MiG-21…? The wings might have been placed 3-4mm further backwards, since it is always difficult to judge proportions while work is still, but the Grifo looks convincingly like a real aircraft (model).
Aeronaves bonita! :D
Copyright © 2013 by Ian J MacDonald. Permission required for any use. All rights reserved
The entire set: www.flickr.com/photos/ianmacdonald/sets/72157636356726526/
These illustrations are meant to represent the elements of the periodic table. The drawings are influenced by the Art Deco friezes seen on buildings of the 1920s and 30s - deities were used to represent the essence of the ideas being represented; such as industries, scientific ideas, civic ideals etc...
While the Art Deco style is an influence I did not want to directly copy what has been already been done or hang slavishly onto examples of Art Deco. I am endeavoring to work in the style, imagining creating something new in that moment when Art Deco was current.
Each element is represented by a goddess embedded in a representational background. The deities are purposely done in a sketchy manner - opposite to the solid background - to represent the quantum mechanical nature of atoms and particles. In quantum mechanics particles have no meaning as solid defined units of matter but are statistical entities described by complex (literally and mathematically) wave functions that provide us with the probable positions and energies of particles and systems of particles - an unsettling prospect for many people.
I represent the essence of the elements by goddesses for several reasons. One, they are more interesting, complex, beautiful to draw than males. Secondly it is more challenging to represent the essence of the elements in a feminine rather than a male manner. Unfortunately, science and chemistry has been male dominated and as such so has the naming and descriptions of the elements. These are meant to somewhat challenge the viewer by juxtaposing the female essence with male dominance in science. It would be too simple and cliche to represent iron, for example, as a Mars-like God. Some of the elements are quite dangerous to living creatures and it is far more challenging to express that in a feminine manner.
I was asked if people would get past the nudity. The answer is "No". But that is OK. I want the beauty and vulnerability to attract attention. Science is after all quite beautiful if one takes the time to stop fighting the math and difficulties in understanding, and immerse themselves in it to appreciate just how weird and strange nature really is be - far beyond anything humans could come up with. The nudity somewhat represents the primal, elemental nature of the different atoms. Clothing, such as suit of armor for iron, is a distraction and again too simple and cliche.
But all in all the representation is not direct. Some influence comes from the elements' names - often from properties of the elements, literary references, where they were isolated, political rivalries, honors for discoverers etc... Some influence comes from the bulk properties of the elements such as harness, conductivity, toxicity, density, etc.... Some of the pieces are inspired by the major uses for the element - in industrial processes, in natural biological processes, nuclear reactions, nucleosynthesis, in everyday objects, and so on.
This is a work in progress and my second go at it. I have been tinkering at this for some time and I think these are closer to the vision in my head than what I have done earlier. Enjoy.
bit.ly/13Zxbo1 - Cell Phone Tracking Software 5 Tips Parents Need To Know for Cell Phone Spy Smartphone Monitoring Mobile phone spy monitoring and tracking software can help inform parents of their children's activities, and help businesses protect sensitive data. mSpy provides undetectable features across an array of communication options on target user smartphones and tablets. No doubt cell phones have played a crucial role in enabling parents to keep in a better touch with teens, but threats like 'sexting' and 'cyber bullying' have many parents concerned where most are wondering if it is worth it. Teens rarely pursue cell phone privileges these days. Rather they tend to share personal details with strangers in form of talking and texting in the wee hours of morning. They can also start neglecting their school assignments which leads them to feel embarrassed and fear the loss of their cell phone use. In such a set-up, teens won't share the root cause of their issues with parents because their cell phone privileges are at stake. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 In the scenario like above, parents need to know the secrets of smart parenting! Below are some useful tips to monitor your teens' safety while using cell phone. 1) Spare some time to teach them to the pitfalls of sexting and other internet dangers that surface due to inappropriate use of a cell phone. 2) Take some interest in their social life, start keeping an eye on certain things like who they are calling and texting and at what time. Monitor their calls, no one will know they are being monitored. 3) Instruct your teens not to share any personal information with strangers. 4) In case your teens have gone too far abusing the cell phone privileges, installing mobile monitoring software onto their cell phone would be the next best step. To protect and monitor your children 24/7 even when they're away. 5) Protect them from cyber-bulling and online threats. Safeguard your family. mSpy is a customizable phone spy app for smartphones and tablets which provides advanced mobile phone spy tracking and monitoring options between devices. Home and Business solutions from mSpy offer specific features designed for each environment. The mSpy phone spy home version gives parents the option of listening to incoming or outgoing phone calls, logging and tracking SMS messages, viewing photos and browser history, and tracking GPS location and viewing history. A newly provided feature allows tracking of Skype and Whatsapp activity. A complete list of features for the home version of mSpy can be found by going to Mobile Phone Spy. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 Subsribe to our channel to receive more info about: cell phone spy software cell phone spy software free download cell phone spy software reviews cell phone spy software remote installation cell phone spy software iphone cell phone spy software free trial cheating spouse cell phone iphone spy software spybubble mSpy mobistealth Samsung SGH-T959 Vibrant Samsung Galaxy S II SGH-T989 HTC myTouch 4G (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit II 4G SGH-T679 LG T-Mobile myTouch E739 LG P999 G2x (T-Mobie) LG LG Optimus T (T-Mobile) Nokia Nuron 5230 (unlocked) HTC G2 A6161 (T-Mobile) LG P509 Motorola DROID A855 (VZW) Samsung Gravity SMART SGH-T589 Samsung Highlight T749 (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit 4G SGH-T759 Samsung Behold T919 (T-Mobile) LG Doubleplay C729 Samsung Gravity T T669 (T-Mobile) HTC Amaze 4G Samsung Dart SGH-T499 Samsung Memoir T929 (T-Mobile) Samsung A777 (AT&T) Samsung Evergreen A667 (ATT) Samsung Rugby II A847 (AT&T) Pantech Ease P2020 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson Xperia X10a (AT&T) Pantech Pursuit P9020 (AT&T) Huawei U2800 ZTE R225 (unlocked) Samsung A237 (AT&T) Nokia 6350 (AT&T) Nokia 2330 (AT&T) Samsung Captivate I897 (AT&T) Nokia 6085 Pantech Breeze C520 (AT&T) Motorola BACKFLIP MB300 (AT&T) Samsung A437 (AT&T) Nokia 2600 (AT&T) Nokia 2720 (AT&T) ZTE F160 (ATT) Pantech Breeze II P2000 (AT&T) Nokia 6030 Nokia 2610 (AT&T) LG P505 Motorola Flipside MB508 (ATT) Samsung A117 (AT&T) Pantech P5000 BlackBerry Curve 3G 9300 (ATT) LG CU515 (AT&T) BlackBerry Bold 9700 (AT&T) BlackBerry Curve 8520 (AT&T) Samsung Jack i637 (AT&T) Pantech P6010 Motorola ROKR EM330 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson W580i Nokia 6126 (AT&T) Nokia 6102i bit.ly/18qjDFM
In the beginning of space travel, the ranges of FTL travel were limited to the drives themselves. As time went on, drives became more advanced and ships began to rely more on fuel. Captains had to pack their cargo holds with fuel or find somewhere to stop and refill.
Out on the Galactic Rim (where a hold full of cargo is an explosive possibility) independently minded people have been quick to take advantage. Like the hermit crabs of old Earth, purveyors of these refuelling depots find a suitable rock, burrow inside, set up basic life support and open as a going concern.
Captains usually set themselves up in very densely populated asteroid belts and have the ability to shut down all beacons and power and become undetectable at a moment's notice. The threat of fuel pirates are an ever present one and depot captains often contract mercenaries for protection during times of local upheaval.
This model has a long range communication system and is able to store and transmit messages over extra long distances. Entrepreneurial depot captains take a stipend from each message, further augmenting their incomes.
Crew: 2-10
Manufacturer: No standard design, asteroid dependent.
Weaponry: Nil.
Special: Augmented fuel capacity. Long range communication beacon.
Attracted by this beautiful natural alarm clock from Fadtronics' booth last year in a gift show, I met Chris Ng, founder and designer. Our initial conversation was short but later encounters with him gave me a lot of confidence of Hong Kong design's future, talking about the next generation of designers being able to leverage Hong Kong's close proximity to China's factories, add design and packaging values AND successfully reach out to the world market's end users. Not like most of the designers, Chris masters exceptionally well both ends of supply chain yet never stop innovate and listen to customers. You feel like a good old friend with him in just a few minutes' chat.
When I saw his new products this year, I immediately fell in love with them and I'm sure they will sell like hot cakes. One of them is called Music Branch. Function as a splitter for multiple headphones (1 to 3 in this case) it is far more approachable and pleasing than the already top selling Belkin RockStar. I particularly like Chris' signature blue among other similarly tempting colors. Other than music sharing among friends, "imagine AV stores having trouble of all the ugly cables lying around connecting to dozens of demo speakers, this solves a retailer's display problem by adding a pleasant overall look", Chris said.
Another rendition of the same concept but for intimate music sharing is this heart shape splitter, guaranteed to be popular in Xmas and Valentine seasons. As a retailer, my sense immediately inspired some more product ideas stemming from this, which Chris already realized. His clients from Japan already placed orders and we are trying to rush the first batch to our stores during Back To School 2009 promotion.
If you follow this blog, you know I'm not writing here to sell. I just love what Chris does. I remember last year when the natural alarm clocks were delivered to our stores, he insisted to take back all the stocks because he was not satisfied with certain quality issues undetectable to a typical person. Two thumbs up Chris!
More on Scription blog: moleskine.vox.com/library/post/chris-ngs-music-branch.html
bit.ly/13Zxbo1 - Cell Phone Tracking Software 5 Tips Parents Need To Know for Cell Phone Spy Smartphone Monitoring Mobile phone spy monitoring and tracking software can help inform parents of their children's activities, and help businesses protect sensitive data. mSpy provides undetectable features across an array of communication options on target user smartphones and tablets. No doubt cell phones have played a crucial role in enabling parents to keep in a better touch with teens, but threats like 'sexting' and 'cyber bullying' have many parents concerned where most are wondering if it is worth it. Teens rarely pursue cell phone privileges these days. Rather they tend to share personal details with strangers in form of talking and texting in the wee hours of morning. They can also start neglecting their school assignments which leads them to feel embarrassed and fear the loss of their cell phone use. In such a set-up, teens won't share the root cause of their issues with parents because their cell phone privileges are at stake. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 In the scenario like above, parents need to know the secrets of smart parenting! Below are some useful tips to monitor your teens' safety while using cell phone. 1) Spare some time to teach them to the pitfalls of sexting and other internet dangers that surface due to inappropriate use of a cell phone. 2) Take some interest in their social life, start keeping an eye on certain things like who they are calling and texting and at what time. Monitor their calls, no one will know they are being monitored. 3) Instruct your teens not to share any personal information with strangers. 4) In case your teens have gone too far abusing the cell phone privileges, installing mobile monitoring software onto their cell phone would be the next best step. To protect and monitor your children 24/7 even when they're away. 5) Protect them from cyber-bulling and online threats. Safeguard your family. mSpy is a customizable phone spy app for smartphones and tablets which provides advanced mobile phone spy tracking and monitoring options between devices. Home and Business solutions from mSpy offer specific features designed for each environment. The mSpy phone spy home version gives parents the option of listening to incoming or outgoing phone calls, logging and tracking SMS messages, viewing photos and browser history, and tracking GPS location and viewing history. A newly provided feature allows tracking of Skype and Whatsapp activity. A complete list of features for the home version of mSpy can be found by going to Mobile Phone Spy. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 Subsribe to our channel to receive more info about: cell phone spy software cell phone spy software free download cell phone spy software reviews cell phone spy software remote installation cell phone spy software iphone cell phone spy software free trial cheating spouse cell phone iphone spy software spybubble mSpy mobistealth Samsung SGH-T959 Vibrant Samsung Galaxy S II SGH-T989 HTC myTouch 4G (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit II 4G SGH-T679 LG T-Mobile myTouch E739 LG P999 G2x (T-Mobie) LG LG Optimus T (T-Mobile) Nokia Nuron 5230 (unlocked) HTC G2 A6161 (T-Mobile) LG P509 Motorola DROID A855 (VZW) Samsung Gravity SMART SGH-T589 Samsung Highlight T749 (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit 4G SGH-T759 Samsung Behold T919 (T-Mobile) LG Doubleplay C729 Samsung Gravity T T669 (T-Mobile) HTC Amaze 4G Samsung Dart SGH-T499 Samsung Memoir T929 (T-Mobile) Samsung A777 (AT&T) Samsung Evergreen A667 (ATT) Samsung Rugby II A847 (AT&T) Pantech Ease P2020 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson Xperia X10a (AT&T) Pantech Pursuit P9020 (AT&T) Huawei U2800 ZTE R225 (unlocked) Samsung A237 (AT&T) Nokia 6350 (AT&T) Nokia 2330 (AT&T) Samsung Captivate I897 (AT&T) Nokia 6085 Pantech Breeze C520 (AT&T) Motorola BACKFLIP MB300 (AT&T) Samsung A437 (AT&T) Nokia 2600 (AT&T) Nokia 2720 (AT&T) ZTE F160 (ATT) Pantech Breeze II P2000 (AT&T) Nokia 6030 Nokia 2610 (AT&T) LG P505 Motorola Flipside MB508 (ATT) Samsung A117 (AT&T) Pantech P5000 BlackBerry Curve 3G 9300 (ATT) LG CU515 (AT&T) BlackBerry Bold 9700 (AT&T) BlackBerry Curve 8520 (AT&T) Samsung Jack i637 (AT&T) Pantech P6010 Motorola ROKR EM330 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson W580i Nokia 6126 (AT&T) Nokia 6102i bit.ly/13ZxcbD
bit.ly/13Zxbo1 - Cell Phone Tracking Software 5 Tips Parents Need To Know for Cell Phone Spy Smartphone Monitoring Mobile phone spy monitoring and tracking software can help inform parents of their children's activities, and help businesses protect sensitive data. mSpy provides undetectable features across an array of communication options on target user smartphones and tablets. No doubt cell phones have played a crucial role in enabling parents to keep in a better touch with teens, but threats like 'sexting' and 'cyber bullying' have many parents concerned where most are wondering if it is worth it. Teens rarely pursue cell phone privileges these days. Rather they tend to share personal details with strangers in form of talking and texting in the wee hours of morning. They can also start neglecting their school assignments which leads them to feel embarrassed and fear the loss of their cell phone use. In such a set-up, teens won't share the root cause of their issues with parents because their cell phone privileges are at stake. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 In the scenario like above, parents need to know the secrets of smart parenting! Below are some useful tips to monitor your teens' safety while using cell phone. 1) Spare some time to teach them to the pitfalls of sexting and other internet dangers that surface due to inappropriate use of a cell phone. 2) Take some interest in their social life, start keeping an eye on certain things like who they are calling and texting and at what time. Monitor their calls, no one will know they are being monitored. 3) Instruct your teens not to share any personal information with strangers. 4) In case your teens have gone too far abusing the cell phone privileges, installing mobile monitoring software onto their cell phone would be the next best step. To protect and monitor your children 24/7 even when they're away. 5) Protect them from cyber-bulling and online threats. Safeguard your family. mSpy is a customizable phone spy app for smartphones and tablets which provides advanced mobile phone spy tracking and monitoring options between devices. Home and Business solutions from mSpy offer specific features designed for each environment. The mSpy phone spy home version gives parents the option of listening to incoming or outgoing phone calls, logging and tracking SMS messages, viewing photos and browser history, and tracking GPS location and viewing history. A newly provided feature allows tracking of Skype and Whatsapp activity. A complete list of features for the home version of mSpy can be found by going to Mobile Phone Spy. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 Subsribe to our channel to receive more info about: cell phone spy software cell phone spy software free download cell phone spy software reviews cell phone spy software remote installation cell phone spy software iphone cell phone spy software free trial cheating spouse cell phone iphone spy software spybubble mSpy mobistealth Samsung SGH-T959 Vibrant Samsung Galaxy S II SGH-T989 HTC myTouch 4G (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit II 4G SGH-T679 LG T-Mobile myTouch E739 LG P999 G2x (T-Mobie) LG LG Optimus T (T-Mobile) Nokia Nuron 5230 (unlocked) HTC G2 A6161 (T-Mobile) LG P509 Motorola DROID A855 (VZW) Samsung Gravity SMART SGH-T589 Samsung Highlight T749 (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit 4G SGH-T759 Samsung Behold T919 (T-Mobile) LG Doubleplay C729 Samsung Gravity T T669 (T-Mobile) HTC Amaze 4G Samsung Dart SGH-T499 Samsung Memoir T929 (T-Mobile) Samsung A777 (AT&T) Samsung Evergreen A667 (ATT) Samsung Rugby II A847 (AT&T) Pantech Ease P2020 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson Xperia X10a (AT&T) Pantech Pursuit P9020 (AT&T) Huawei U2800 ZTE R225 (unlocked) Samsung A237 (AT&T) Nokia 6350 (AT&T) Nokia 2330 (AT&T) Samsung Captivate I897 (AT&T) Nokia 6085 Pantech Breeze C520 (AT&T) Motorola BACKFLIP MB300 (AT&T) Samsung A437 (AT&T) Nokia 2600 (AT&T) Nokia 2720 (AT&T) ZTE F160 (ATT) Pantech Breeze II P2000 (AT&T) Nokia 6030 Nokia 2610 (AT&T) LG P505 Motorola Flipside MB508 (ATT) Samsung A117 (AT&T) Pantech P5000 BlackBerry Curve 3G 9300 (ATT) LG CU515 (AT&T) BlackBerry Bold 9700 (AT&T) BlackBerry Curve 8520 (AT&T) Samsung Jack i637 (AT&T) Pantech P6010 Motorola ROKR EM330 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson W580i Nokia 6126 (AT&T) Nokia 6102i bit.ly/18qjGBs
Just Pinned to Haircutstyles I like!: Make a dramatic hairstyle change with Irresistible Me 100% human Remy clip-in hair extensions. You can add length and volume in a matter of minutes. Can be colored, cut and heat styled. Great selection of colors. You can choose the length and weight. Free returns and exchanges, worldwide delivery. They work for really short hair too and properly blended they are undetectable! Fill in our fun quiz to get options tailored for your style. www.pinterest.com/pin/57209857743699282
The Devaraja market in Mysore was built during the reign of Chamaraja Wodeyar IX (1868 – 1894). It is said that there was at this place a small weekly market which may have been as old as the origin of the city itself.
_______________________
The chili pepper (also chile pepper, chilli pepper, or simply chilli) from Nahuatl chīlli Nahuatl pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃiːli] (About this sound listen)) is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae. They are widely used in many cuisines to add spiciness to dishes. The substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin and related compounds known as capsaicinoids.
Chili peppers originated in Mexico. After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, used for both food and traditional medicine.
Worldwide in 2014, 32.3 million tonnes of green chili peppers and 3.8 million tonnes of dried chili peppers were produced. China is the world's largest producer of green chillies, providing half of the global total.
HISTORY
Chili peppers have been a part of the human diet in the Americas since at least 7500 BCE. The most recent research shows that chili peppers were domesticated more than 6000 years ago in Mexico, in the region that extends across southern Puebla and northern Oaxaca to southeastern Veracruz, and were one of the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in Mexico, Central and parts of South America.
Peru is considered the country with the highest cultivated Capsicum diversity because it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times. Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers are consumed. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits including C. eximium, C. cardenasii, C. eshbaughii, and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties.
Christopher Columbus was one of the first Europeans to encounter them (in the Caribbean), and called them "peppers" because they, like black pepper of the Piper genus known in Europe, have a spicy, hot taste unlike other foodstuffs. Upon their introduction into Europe, chilies were grown as botanical curiosities in the gardens of Spanish and Portuguese monasteries. Christian monks experimented with the culinary potential of chili and discovered that their pungency offered a substitute for black peppercorns, which at the time were so costly that they were used as legal currency in some countries.
Chilies were cultivated around the globe after Indigenous people shared them with travelers. Diego Álvarez Chanca, a physician on Columbus' second voyage to the West Indies in 1493, brought the first chili peppers to Spain and first wrote about their medicinal effects in 1494.
The spread of chili peppers to Asia was most likely a natural consequence of its introduction to Portuguese traders (Lisbon was a common port of call for Spanish ships sailing to and from the Americas) who, aware of its trade value, would have likely promoted its commerce in the Asian spice trade routes then dominated by Portuguese and Arab traders. It was introduced in India by the Portuguese towards the end of 15th century. Today chilies are an integral part of South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines.
The chili pepper features heavily in the cuisine of the Goan region of India, which was the site of a Portuguese colony (e.g., vindaloo, an Indian interpretation of a Portuguese dish). Chili peppers journeyed from India, through Central Asia and Turkey, to Hungary, where they became the national spice in the form of paprika.
An alternate, although not so plausible account (no obvious correlation between its dissemination in Asia and Spanish presence or trade routes), defended mostly by Spanish historians, was that from Mexico, at the time a Spanish colony, chili peppers spread into their other colony the Philippines and from there to India, China, Indonesia. To Japan, it was brought by the Portuguese missionaries in 1542, and then later, it was brought to Korea.
In 1995 archaeobotanist Hakon Hjelmqvist published an article in Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift claiming there was evidence for the presence of chili peppers in Europe in pre-Columbian times. According to Hjelmqvist, archaeologists at a dig in St Botulf in Lund found a Capsicum frutescens in a layer from the 13th century. Hjelmqvist thought it came from Asia. Hjelmqvist also said that Capsicum was described by the Greek Theophrastus (370–286 BCE) in his Historia Plantarum, and in other sources. Around the first century CE, the Roman poet Martialis (Martial) mentioned "Piperve crudum" (raw pepper) in Liber XI, XVIII, allegedly describing them as long and containing seeds (a description which seems to fit chili peppers - but could also fit the long pepper, which was well known to ancient Romans).
PRODUCTION
In 2014, world production of fresh green chillies and peppers was 33.2 million tonnes, led by China with 48% of the global total. Global production of dried chillies and peppers was about nine times less than for fresh production, led by India with 32% of the world total.
SPECIES AND CULTIVARS
The five domesticated species of chili peppers are as follows:
Capsicum annuum, which includes many common varieties such as bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeños, chiltepin, and all forms of New Mexico chile.
Capsicum frutescens, which includes malagueta, tabasco and Thai peppers, piri piri, and Malawian Kambuzi
Capsicum chinense, which includes the hottest peppers such as the naga, habanero, Datil and Scotch bonnet
Capsicum pubescens, which includes the South American rocoto peppers
Capsicum baccatum, which includes the South American aji peppers
Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of C. annuum, immature peppers being green. In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which when dried is referred to as ancho), New Mexico, serrano, and other cultivars.
Peppers are commonly broken down into three groupings: bell peppers, sweet peppers, and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or as a cross between them.
INTENSITY
The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids. The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and on growing conditions. Water stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, for example low water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.
When peppers are consumed, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU). Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating. The modern method is a quantitative analysis of SHU using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to directly measure the capsaicinoid content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.
USE
CULINARY USES
Chili pepper pods, which are berries, are used fresh or dried. Chilies are dried to preserve them for long periods of time, which may also be done by pickling.
Dried chilies are often ground into powders, although many Mexican dishes including variations on chiles rellenos use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle is the smoked, dried, ripe jalapeño.
Many fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.
The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all other Solanaceous crops have toxins in their leaves, chili peppers do not. The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruit, are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola. In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi. In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and also cooked in tsukudani style for preservation.
Chili is by far the most important fruit in Bhutan. Local markets are never without chilies in different colors and sizes, in fresh and dried form. Bhutanese call this crop ema (in Dzongkha) or solo (in Sharchop). Chili is a staple fruit in Bhutan; the ema datsi recipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese. Chili is also an important ingredient in almost all curries and food recipes in the country.
In India, most households always keep a stack of fresh hot green chilies at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes. It is typically lightly fried with oil in the initial stages of preparation of the dish. Some states in India, such as Rajasthan, make entire dishes only by using spices and chilies.
Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable dishes other than the ones mentioned elsewhere in this article include:
Arrabbiata sauce from Italy is a tomato-based sauce for pasta always including dried hot chilies.
Puttanesca sauce is tomato-based with olives, capers, anchovy and, sometimes, chilies.
Paprikash from Hungary uses significant amounts of mild, ground, dried chilies, known as paprika, in a braised chicken dish.
Chiles en nogada from the Puebla region of Mexico uses fresh mild chilies stuffed with meat and covered with a creamy nut-thickened sauce.
Curry dishes usually contain fresh or dried chillies.
Kung pao chicken (Mandarin Chinese: 宫保鸡丁 gōng bǎo jī dīng) from the Sichuan region of China uses small hot dried chilies briefly fried in oil to add spice to the oil then used for frying.
Mole poblano from the city of Puebla in Mexico uses several varieties of dried chilies, nuts, spices, and fruits to produce a thick, dark sauce for poultry or other meats.
Nam phrik are traditional Thai chili pastes and sauces, prepared with chopped fresh or dry chilies, and additional ingredients such as fish sauce, lime juice, and herbs, but also fruit, meat or seafood.
'Nduja, a more typical example of Italian spicy specialty, from the region of Calabria, is a soft pork sausage made "hot" by the addition of the locally grown variety of jalapeño chili.
Paprykarz szczeciński is a Polish fish paste with rice, onion, tomato concentrate, vegetable oil, chili pepper powder and other spices.
Sambal terasi or sambal belacan is a traditional Indonesian and Malay hot condiment made by frying a mixture of mainly pounded dried chillies, with garlic, shallots, and fermented shrimp paste. It is customarily served with rice dishes and is especially popular when mixed with crunchy pan-roasted ikan teri or ikan bilis (sun-dried anchovies), when it is known as sambal teri or sambal ikan bilis. Various sambal variants existed in Indonesian archipelago, among others are sambal badjak, sambal oelek, sambal pete (prepared with green stinky beans) and sambal pencit (prepared with unripe green mango).
Som tam, a green papaya salad from Thai and Lao cuisine, traditionally has, as a key ingredient, a fistful of chopped fresh hot Thai chili, pounded in a mortar.
Fresh or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment - usually bottled when commercially available - that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa from North Africa, chili oil from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha from Thailand.
Capsaicin is also the primary component in pepper spray, a less-than-lethal weapon.
PSYCHOLOGY
Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any risk of bodily harm.
MEDICINAL
Capsaicin, the chemical in chili peppers that makes them hot, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain.
PEPPER SPRAY
Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper spray as an irritant, a form of less-lethal weapon.
CROP DEFENSE
Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin, the chemical in chilies that makes them hot. Because the elephants have a large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system, the smell of the chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the pungent fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chilly-Dung Bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.
FOOD DEFENSE
Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a specific pain receptor in mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
While red chilies contain large amounts of vitamin C (table), other species contain significant amounts of provitamin A beta-carotene. In addition, peppers are a rich source of vitamin B6
SPELLING AND USAGE
The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all of which are recognized by dictionaries.
Chili is widely used in historically Anglophone regions of the United States and Canada. However, it is also commonly used as a short name for chili con carne (literally "chili with meat"). Most versions are seasoned with chili powder, which can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a mixture containing other spices.
Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries, as well as some parts of the United States and Canada, which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United States (particularly New Mexico), chile also denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce made from this fruit, available in red and green varieties, and served over the local food, while chili denotes the meat dish. The plural is chile or chiles.
Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chīlli) and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary, although it also lists chile and chili as variants. Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore and South Africa.
The name of the plant is almost certainly unrelated to that of Chile, the country, which has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names. Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are some of the Spanish-speaking countries where chilies are known as ají, a word of Taíno origin. Though pepper originally referred to the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the latter usage is included in English dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary (sense 2b of pepper) and Merriam-Webster. The word pepper is also commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of chili plants and their fruits.
WIKIPEDIA
bit.ly/13Zxbo1 - Cell Phone Tracking Software 5 Tips Parents Need To Know for Cell Phone Spy Smartphone Monitoring Mobile phone spy monitoring and tracking software can help inform parents of their children's activities, and help businesses protect sensitive data. mSpy provides undetectable features across an array of communication options on target user smartphones and tablets. No doubt cell phones have played a crucial role in enabling parents to keep in a better touch with teens, but threats like 'sexting' and 'cyber bullying' have many parents concerned where most are wondering if it is worth it. Teens rarely pursue cell phone privileges these days. Rather they tend to share personal details with strangers in form of talking and texting in the wee hours of morning. They can also start neglecting their school assignments which leads them to feel embarrassed and fear the loss of their cell phone use. In such a set-up, teens won't share the root cause of their issues with parents because their cell phone privileges are at stake. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 In the scenario like above, parents need to know the secrets of smart parenting! Below are some useful tips to monitor your teens' safety while using cell phone. 1) Spare some time to teach them to the pitfalls of sexting and other internet dangers that surface due to inappropriate use of a cell phone. 2) Take some interest in their social life, start keeping an eye on certain things like who they are calling and texting and at what time. Monitor their calls, no one will know they are being monitored. 3) Instruct your teens not to share any personal information with strangers. 4) In case your teens have gone too far abusing the cell phone privileges, installing mobile monitoring software onto their cell phone would be the next best step. To protect and monitor your children 24/7 even when they're away. 5) Protect them from cyber-bulling and online threats. Safeguard your family. mSpy is a customizable phone spy app for smartphones and tablets which provides advanced mobile phone spy tracking and monitoring options between devices. Home and Business solutions from mSpy offer specific features designed for each environment. The mSpy phone spy home version gives parents the option of listening to incoming or outgoing phone calls, logging and tracking SMS messages, viewing photos and browser history, and tracking GPS location and viewing history. A newly provided feature allows tracking of Skype and Whatsapp activity. A complete list of features for the home version of mSpy can be found by going to Mobile Phone Spy. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 Subsribe to our channel to receive more info about: cell phone spy software cell phone spy software free download cell phone spy software reviews cell phone spy software remote installation cell phone spy software iphone cell phone spy software free trial cheating spouse cell phone iphone spy software spybubble mSpy mobistealth Samsung SGH-T959 Vibrant Samsung Galaxy S II SGH-T989 HTC myTouch 4G (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit II 4G SGH-T679 LG T-Mobile myTouch E739 LG P999 G2x (T-Mobie) LG LG Optimus T (T-Mobile) Nokia Nuron 5230 (unlocked) HTC G2 A6161 (T-Mobile) LG P509 Motorola DROID A855 (VZW) Samsung Gravity SMART SGH-T589 Samsung Highlight T749 (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit 4G SGH-T759 Samsung Behold T919 (T-Mobile) LG Doubleplay C729 Samsung Gravity T T669 (T-Mobile) HTC Amaze 4G Samsung Dart SGH-T499 Samsung Memoir T929 (T-Mobile) Samsung A777 (AT&T) Samsung Evergreen A667 (ATT) Samsung Rugby II A847 (AT&T) Pantech Ease P2020 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson Xperia X10a (AT&T) Pantech Pursuit P9020 (AT&T) Huawei U2800 ZTE R225 (unlocked) Samsung A237 (AT&T) Nokia 6350 (AT&T) Nokia 2330 (AT&T) Samsung Captivate I897 (AT&T) Nokia 6085 Pantech Breeze C520 (AT&T) Motorola BACKFLIP MB300 (AT&T) Samsung A437 (AT&T) Nokia 2600 (AT&T) Nokia 2720 (AT&T) ZTE F160 (ATT) Pantech Breeze II P2000 (AT&T) Nokia 6030 Nokia 2610 (AT&T) LG P505 Motorola Flipside MB508 (ATT) Samsung A117 (AT&T) Pantech P5000 BlackBerry Curve 3G 9300 (ATT) LG CU515 (AT&T) BlackBerry Bold 9700 (AT&T) BlackBerry Curve 8520 (AT&T) Samsung Jack i637 (AT&T) Pantech P6010 Motorola ROKR EM330 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson W580i Nokia 6126 (AT&T) Nokia 6102i bit.ly/13ZxbVd
bit.ly/13Zxbo1 - Cell Phone Tracking Software 5 Tips Parents Need To Know for Cell Phone Spy Smartphone Monitoring Mobile phone spy monitoring and tracking software can help inform parents of their children's activities, and help businesses protect sensitive data. mSpy provides undetectable features across an array of communication options on target user smartphones and tablets. No doubt cell phones have played a crucial role in enabling parents to keep in a better touch with teens, but threats like 'sexting' and 'cyber bullying' have many parents concerned where most are wondering if it is worth it. Teens rarely pursue cell phone privileges these days. Rather they tend to share personal details with strangers in form of talking and texting in the wee hours of morning. They can also start neglecting their school assignments which leads them to feel embarrassed and fear the loss of their cell phone use. In such a set-up, teens won't share the root cause of their issues with parents because their cell phone privileges are at stake. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 In the scenario like above, parents need to know the secrets of smart parenting! Below are some useful tips to monitor your teens' safety while using cell phone. 1) Spare some time to teach them to the pitfalls of sexting and other internet dangers that surface due to inappropriate use of a cell phone. 2) Take some interest in their social life, start keeping an eye on certain things like who they are calling and texting and at what time. Monitor their calls, no one will know they are being monitored. 3) Instruct your teens not to share any personal information with strangers. 4) In case your teens have gone too far abusing the cell phone privileges, installing mobile monitoring software onto their cell phone would be the next best step. To protect and monitor your children 24/7 even when they're away. 5) Protect them from cyber-bulling and online threats. Safeguard your family. mSpy is a customizable phone spy app for smartphones and tablets which provides advanced mobile phone spy tracking and monitoring options between devices. Home and Business solutions from mSpy offer specific features designed for each environment. The mSpy phone spy home version gives parents the option of listening to incoming or outgoing phone calls, logging and tracking SMS messages, viewing photos and browser history, and tracking GPS location and viewing history. A newly provided feature allows tracking of Skype and Whatsapp activity. A complete list of features for the home version of mSpy can be found by going to Mobile Phone Spy. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 Subsribe to our channel to receive more info about: cell phone spy software cell phone spy software free download cell phone spy software reviews cell phone spy software remote installation cell phone spy software iphone cell phone spy software free trial cheating spouse cell phone iphone spy software spybubble mSpy mobistealth Samsung SGH-T959 Vibrant Samsung Galaxy S II SGH-T989 HTC myTouch 4G (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit II 4G SGH-T679 LG T-Mobile myTouch E739 LG P999 G2x (T-Mobie) LG LG Optimus T (T-Mobile) Nokia Nuron 5230 (unlocked) HTC G2 A6161 (T-Mobile) LG P509 Motorola DROID A855 (VZW) Samsung Gravity SMART SGH-T589 Samsung Highlight T749 (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit 4G SGH-T759 Samsung Behold T919 (T-Mobile) LG Doubleplay C729 Samsung Gravity T T669 (T-Mobile) HTC Amaze 4G Samsung Dart SGH-T499 Samsung Memoir T929 (T-Mobile) Samsung A777 (AT&T) Samsung Evergreen A667 (ATT) Samsung Rugby II A847 (AT&T) Pantech Ease P2020 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson Xperia X10a (AT&T) Pantech Pursuit P9020 (AT&T) Huawei U2800 ZTE R225 (unlocked) Samsung A237 (AT&T) Nokia 6350 (AT&T) Nokia 2330 (AT&T) Samsung Captivate I897 (AT&T) Nokia 6085 Pantech Breeze C520 (AT&T) Motorola BACKFLIP MB300 (AT&T) Samsung A437 (AT&T) Nokia 2600 (AT&T) Nokia 2720 (AT&T) ZTE F160 (ATT) Pantech Breeze II P2000 (AT&T) Nokia 6030 Nokia 2610 (AT&T) LG P505 Motorola Flipside MB508 (ATT) Samsung A117 (AT&T) Pantech P5000 BlackBerry Curve 3G 9300 (ATT) LG CU515 (AT&T) BlackBerry Bold 9700 (AT&T) BlackBerry Curve 8520 (AT&T) Samsung Jack i637 (AT&T) Pantech P6010 Motorola ROKR EM330 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson W580i Nokia 6126 (AT&T) Nokia 6102i bit.ly/18qjH8s
Features of the Belly Ups Maternity Suspenders:
*Machine washable
*Undetectable under clothing
*One size fits all
*For longer-waisted women attach Belly Ups vertically, for shorter-waisted women attach Belly Ups diagonally
*Won’t damage clothing
*Made from the finest nylon elastic
*Keep low-rise pants snug, secure and in place
*Not just for pregnancy, works for women of all sizes
This one hasn't been cheap, at about $10 million, but like the discovery of the Higgs boson — dubbed the "God particle" by some — earlier this year in Switzerland, the detection of dark matter would be a seismic occurrence in the scientific community. Scientists know dark matter exists by its gravitational pull but, unlike regular matter and antimatter, it's so far been undetectable. Regular matter accounts for about 4 percent of the universe's mass, and dark matter makes up about 25 percent. The rest is dark energy, which is also a mystery.
bit.ly/13Zxbo1 - Cell Phone Tracking Software 5 Tips Parents Need To Know for Cell Phone Spy Smartphone Monitoring Mobile phone spy monitoring and tracking software can help inform parents of their children's activities, and help businesses protect sensitive data. mSpy provides undetectable features across an array of communication options on target user smartphones and tablets. No doubt cell phones have played a crucial role in enabling parents to keep in a better touch with teens, but threats like 'sexting' and 'cyber bullying' have many parents concerned where most are wondering if it is worth it. Teens rarely pursue cell phone privileges these days. Rather they tend to share personal details with strangers in form of talking and texting in the wee hours of morning. They can also start neglecting their school assignments which leads them to feel embarrassed and fear the loss of their cell phone use. In such a set-up, teens won't share the root cause of their issues with parents because their cell phone privileges are at stake. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 In the scenario like above, parents need to know the secrets of smart parenting! Below are some useful tips to monitor your teens' safety while using cell phone. 1) Spare some time to teach them to the pitfalls of sexting and other internet dangers that surface due to inappropriate use of a cell phone. 2) Take some interest in their social life, start keeping an eye on certain things like who they are calling and texting and at what time. Monitor their calls, no one will know they are being monitored. 3) Instruct your teens not to share any personal information with strangers. 4) In case your teens have gone too far abusing the cell phone privileges, installing mobile monitoring software onto their cell phone would be the next best step. To protect and monitor your children 24/7 even when they're away. 5) Protect them from cyber-bulling and online threats. Safeguard your family. mSpy is a customizable phone spy app for smartphones and tablets which provides advanced mobile phone spy tracking and monitoring options between devices. Home and Business solutions from mSpy offer specific features designed for each environment. The mSpy phone spy home version gives parents the option of listening to incoming or outgoing phone calls, logging and tracking SMS messages, viewing photos and browser history, and tracking GPS location and viewing history. A newly provided feature allows tracking of Skype and Whatsapp activity. A complete list of features for the home version of mSpy can be found by going to Mobile Phone Spy. For more Cell Phone Spy Tips Go Here~ bit.ly/13Zxbo1 Subsribe to our channel to receive more info about: cell phone spy software cell phone spy software free download cell phone spy software reviews cell phone spy software remote installation cell phone spy software iphone cell phone spy software free trial cheating spouse cell phone iphone spy software spybubble mSpy mobistealth Samsung SGH-T959 Vibrant Samsung Galaxy S II SGH-T989 HTC myTouch 4G (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit II 4G SGH-T679 LG T-Mobile myTouch E739 LG P999 G2x (T-Mobie) LG LG Optimus T (T-Mobile) Nokia Nuron 5230 (unlocked) HTC G2 A6161 (T-Mobile) LG P509 Motorola DROID A855 (VZW) Samsung Gravity SMART SGH-T589 Samsung Highlight T749 (T-Mobile) Samsung Exhibit 4G SGH-T759 Samsung Behold T919 (T-Mobile) LG Doubleplay C729 Samsung Gravity T T669 (T-Mobile) HTC Amaze 4G Samsung Dart SGH-T499 Samsung Memoir T929 (T-Mobile) Samsung A777 (AT&T) Samsung Evergreen A667 (ATT) Samsung Rugby II A847 (AT&T) Pantech Ease P2020 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson Xperia X10a (AT&T) Pantech Pursuit P9020 (AT&T) Huawei U2800 ZTE R225 (unlocked) Samsung A237 (AT&T) Nokia 6350 (AT&T) Nokia 2330 (AT&T) Samsung Captivate I897 (AT&T) Nokia 6085 Pantech Breeze C520 (AT&T) Motorola BACKFLIP MB300 (AT&T) Samsung A437 (AT&T) Nokia 2600 (AT&T) Nokia 2720 (AT&T) ZTE F160 (ATT) Pantech Breeze II P2000 (AT&T) Nokia 6030 Nokia 2610 (AT&T) LG P505 Motorola Flipside MB508 (ATT) Samsung A117 (AT&T) Pantech P5000 BlackBerry Curve 3G 9300 (ATT) LG CU515 (AT&T) BlackBerry Bold 9700 (AT&T) BlackBerry Curve 8520 (AT&T) Samsung Jack i637 (AT&T) Pantech P6010 Motorola ROKR EM330 (AT&T) Sony Ericsson W580i Nokia 6126 (AT&T) Nokia 6102i bit.ly/18qjFNM
The chili pepper (also chile pepper, chilli pepper, or simply chilli) from Nahuatl chīlli Nahuatl pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃiːli] (About this sound listen)) is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae. They are widely used in many cuisines to add spiciness to dishes. The substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin and related compounds known as capsaicinoids.
Chili peppers originated in Mexico. After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, used for both food and traditional medicine.
Worldwide in 2014, 32.3 million tonnes of green chili peppers and 3.8 million tonnes of dried chili peppers were produced. China is the world's largest producer of green chillies, providing half of the global total.
HISTORY
Chili peppers have been a part of the human diet in the Americas since at least 7500 BCE. The most recent research shows that chili peppers were domesticated more than 6000 years ago in Mexico, in the region that extends across southern Puebla and northern Oaxaca to southeastern Veracruz, and were one of the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in Mexico, Central and parts of South America.
Peru is considered the country with the highest cultivated Capsicum diversity because it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times. Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers are consumed. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits including C. eximium, C. cardenasii, C. eshbaughii, and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties.
Christopher Columbus was one of the first Europeans to encounter them (in the Caribbean), and called them "peppers" because they, like black pepper of the Piper genus known in Europe, have a spicy, hot taste unlike other foodstuffs. Upon their introduction into Europe, chilies were grown as botanical curiosities in the gardens of Spanish and Portuguese monasteries. Christian monks experimented with the culinary potential of chili and discovered that their pungency offered a substitute for black peppercorns, which at the time were so costly that they were used as legal currency in some countries.
Chilies were cultivated around the globe after Indigenous people shared them with travelers. Diego Álvarez Chanca, a physician on Columbus' second voyage to the West Indies in 1493, brought the first chili peppers to Spain and first wrote about their medicinal effects in 1494.
The spread of chili peppers to Asia was most likely a natural consequence of its introduction to Portuguese traders (Lisbon was a common port of call for Spanish ships sailing to and from the Americas) who, aware of its trade value, would have likely promoted its commerce in the Asian spice trade routes then dominated by Portuguese and Arab traders. It was introduced in India by the Portuguese towards the end of 15th century. Today chilies are an integral part of South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines.
The chili pepper features heavily in the cuisine of the Goan region of India, which was the site of a Portuguese colony (e.g., vindaloo, an Indian interpretation of a Portuguese dish). Chili peppers journeyed from India, through Central Asia and Turkey, to Hungary, where they became the national spice in the form of paprika.
An alternate, although not so plausible account (no obvious correlation between its dissemination in Asia and Spanish presence or trade routes), defended mostly by Spanish historians, was that from Mexico, at the time a Spanish colony, chili peppers spread into their other colony the Philippines and from there to India, China, Indonesia. To Japan, it was brought by the Portuguese missionaries in 1542, and then later, it was brought to Korea.
In 1995 archaeobotanist Hakon Hjelmqvist published an article in Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift claiming there was evidence for the presence of chili peppers in Europe in pre-Columbian times. According to Hjelmqvist, archaeologists at a dig in St Botulf in Lund found a Capsicum frutescens in a layer from the 13th century. Hjelmqvist thought it came from Asia. Hjelmqvist also said that Capsicum was described by the Greek Theophrastus (370–286 BCE) in his Historia Plantarum, and in other sources. Around the first century CE, the Roman poet Martialis (Martial) mentioned "Piperve crudum" (raw pepper) in Liber XI, XVIII, allegedly describing them as long and containing seeds (a description which seems to fit chili peppers - but could also fit the long pepper, which was well known to ancient Romans).
PRODUCTION
In 2014, world production of fresh green chillies and peppers was 33.2 million tonnes, led by China with 48% of the global total. Global production of dried chillies and peppers was about nine times less than for fresh production, led by India with 32% of the world total.
SPECIES AND CULTIVARS
The five domesticated species of chili peppers are as follows:
Capsicum annuum, which includes many common varieties such as bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeños, chiltepin, and all forms of New Mexico chile.
Capsicum frutescens, which includes malagueta, tabasco and Thai peppers, piri piri, and Malawian Kambuzi
Capsicum chinense, which includes the hottest peppers such as the naga, habanero, Datil and Scotch bonnet
Capsicum pubescens, which includes the South American rocoto peppers
Capsicum baccatum, which includes the South American aji peppers
Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of C. annuum, immature peppers being green. In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which when dried is referred to as ancho), New Mexico, serrano, and other cultivars.
Peppers are commonly broken down into three groupings: bell peppers, sweet peppers, and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or as a cross between them.
INTENSITY
The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids. The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and on growing conditions. Water stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, for example low water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.
When peppers are consumed, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU). Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating. The modern method is a quantitative analysis of SHU using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to directly measure the capsaicinoid content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.
USE
CULINARY USES
Chili pepper pods, which are berries, are used fresh or dried. Chilies are dried to preserve them for long periods of time, which may also be done by pickling.
Dried chilies are often ground into powders, although many Mexican dishes including variations on chiles rellenos use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle is the smoked, dried, ripe jalapeño.
Many fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.
The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all other Solanaceous crops have toxins in their leaves, chili peppers do not. The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruit, are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola. In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi. In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and also cooked in tsukudani style for preservation.
Chili is by far the most important fruit in Bhutan. Local markets are never without chilies in different colors and sizes, in fresh and dried form. Bhutanese call this crop ema (in Dzongkha) or solo (in Sharchop). Chili is a staple fruit in Bhutan; the ema datsi recipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese. Chili is also an important ingredient in almost all curries and food recipes in the country.
In India, most households always keep a stack of fresh hot green chilies at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes. It is typically lightly fried with oil in the initial stages of preparation of the dish. Some states in India, such as Rajasthan, make entire dishes only by using spices and chilies.
Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable dishes other than the ones mentioned elsewhere in this article include:
Arrabbiata sauce from Italy is a tomato-based sauce for pasta always including dried hot chilies.
Puttanesca sauce is tomato-based with olives, capers, anchovy and, sometimes, chilies.
Paprikash from Hungary uses significant amounts of mild, ground, dried chilies, known as paprika, in a braised chicken dish.
Chiles en nogada from the Puebla region of Mexico uses fresh mild chilies stuffed with meat and covered with a creamy nut-thickened sauce.
Curry dishes usually contain fresh or dried chillies.
Kung pao chicken (Mandarin Chinese: 宫保鸡丁 gōng bǎo jī dīng) from the Sichuan region of China uses small hot dried chilies briefly fried in oil to add spice to the oil then used for frying.
Mole poblano from the city of Puebla in Mexico uses several varieties of dried chilies, nuts, spices, and fruits to produce a thick, dark sauce for poultry or other meats.
Nam phrik are traditional Thai chili pastes and sauces, prepared with chopped fresh or dry chilies, and additional ingredients such as fish sauce, lime juice, and herbs, but also fruit, meat or seafood.
'Nduja, a more typical example of Italian spicy specialty, from the region of Calabria, is a soft pork sausage made "hot" by the addition of the locally grown variety of jalapeño chili.
Paprykarz szczeciński is a Polish fish paste with rice, onion, tomato concentrate, vegetable oil, chili pepper powder and other spices.
Sambal terasi or sambal belacan is a traditional Indonesian and Malay hot condiment made by frying a mixture of mainly pounded dried chillies, with garlic, shallots, and fermented shrimp paste. It is customarily served with rice dishes and is especially popular when mixed with crunchy pan-roasted ikan teri or ikan bilis (sun-dried anchovies), when it is known as sambal teri or sambal ikan bilis. Various sambal variants existed in Indonesian archipelago, among others are sambal badjak, sambal oelek, sambal pete (prepared with green stinky beans) and sambal pencit (prepared with unripe green mango).
Som tam, a green papaya salad from Thai and Lao cuisine, traditionally has, as a key ingredient, a fistful of chopped fresh hot Thai chili, pounded in a mortar.
Fresh or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment - usually bottled when commercially available - that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa from North Africa, chili oil from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha from Thailand.
Capsaicin is also the primary component in pepper spray, a less-than-lethal weapon.
PSYCHOLOGY
Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any risk of bodily harm.
MEDICINAL
Capsaicin, the chemical in chili peppers that makes them hot, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain.
PEPPER SPRAY
Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper spray as an irritant, a form of less-lethal weapon.
CROP DEFENSE
Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin, the chemical in chilies that makes them hot. Because the elephants have a large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system, the smell of the chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the pungent fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chilly-Dung Bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.
FOOD DEFENSE
Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a specific pain receptor in mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
While red chilies contain large amounts of vitamin C (table), other species contain significant amounts of provitamin A beta-carotene. In addition, peppers are a rich source of vitamin B6
SPELLING AND USAGE
The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all of which are recognized by dictionaries.
Chili is widely used in historically Anglophone regions of the United States and Canada. However, it is also commonly used as a short name for chili con carne (literally "chili with meat"). Most versions are seasoned with chili powder, which can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a mixture containing other spices.
Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries, as well as some parts of the United States and Canada, which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United States (particularly New Mexico), chile also denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce made from this fruit, available in red and green varieties, and served over the local food, while chili denotes the meat dish. The plural is chile or chiles.
Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chīlli) and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary, although it also lists chile and chili as variants. Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore and South Africa.
The name of the plant is almost certainly unrelated to that of Chile, the country, which has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names. Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are some of the Spanish-speaking countries where chilies are known as ají, a word of Taíno origin. Though pepper originally referred to the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the latter usage is included in English dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary (sense 2b of pepper) and Merriam-Webster. The word pepper is also commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of chili plants and their fruits.
WIKIPEDIA
Below is an article on this little known coachbuilder from Sausalito, California. I had a chance to visit with Simon Favre at the CSRG seson opener this year at Infineon Raceway. He is quoted below:
Nadeau Bourgeault
I read a message on the Vintage Race web from Simon Favre which that noted he owned a 1958 Bourgeault Formula Jr., "the oldest car trying to run in CSRG's open wheel group". I wrote to him that I have a Frazer Nash web site for the postwar models of these cars. One of the Frazer Nash's brought into the US was a Le Mans Replica owned by Jim Lowe, listed in the Frazer Nash records with the following history:
"Bolt on wheels. Spare wheel in boot. Wire wheel conversion in August 1953. Exported to USA. Rebodied in mid-50's by Nadeau Bouregault (sic)."
Noting the "similarity" of these names, I'm asked if he knew any of the history of his Formula Jr.'s constructor. Mr. Nadeau Bourgeault, I've been told, worked in San Francisco doing custom bodies. Further, I noted my inquiry to him was "a very long shot..."
Mr. Favre replied:
"Not a long shot at all. There was exactly one Bourgeault in the race car business, and Nadeau was the one. He was a body and fender man by trade. He was an absolute artist in aluminum. He rebodied several cars as far as I know, but I don't know what happened to them. My car was his first purpose-built race car, and his only Junior. His shop was actually in Sausalito, CA, north of San Francisco in Marin County. The first shop he had was at Bob Cornish Motors, then he moved elsewhere. Nick Reynolds of the Kingston Trio drove my car, and later went on to take 2nd honors nationally in another Bourgeault running in Formula C.
Bourgeault also worked with Joe Huffaker on the first BMC Juniors, then went off on his own after a falling out. One of the local BMC drivers bought the original body molds from Huffaker. He swears he can see the impressions of rivet heads in the molds. He figures Bourgeault must have done a prototype in Aluminum that Huffaker took the molds off of.
There is a strong similarity in the shape of the hole in the nose. Nadeau passed away in 1974, after a heart attack. 2 or 3 of his other cars and some of the original plans burned up in the Oakland Hills fire some years back. The only other Bourgeaults extant that I know of are one Formula B car that was in Reno for a long time, and a sports racer currently being restored. The B is about ready to make an appearance according to its current owner. For a picture of the Bourgeault Formula Junior, see:
ftp://ftp.team.net/vintage/Images/bfj-svc.jpg
FYI, one of the Bourgeault sports racers was fitted by its owner with a BRM F1 engine! The car was subsequently destroyed. I don't know if the driver survived.
Cheers, Simon"
I thanked Simon for this great slice of history! I corrected the spelling of the special-bodied Lowe Frazer Nash to "Bourgeault" on the Frazer Nash web pages. I can't recall the exact source of my misspelling, but the name appears as "Bourebault" in an old anthology, "Sportscar Specials".
In December 2006, I received further information on this sports racer from Edwin Marshall:
On your website you wrote, "FYI, one of the Bourgeault sports racers was fitted by its owner with a BRM F1 engine! The car was subsequently destroyed. I don't know if the driver survived."
Yes, the driver survived just fine. His name was Alan Ladder (sp?) That particular car was possibly the most beautiful late 60's under 2 liter sports racing car every built. Absolutely stunningly gorgeous.
The F-1 motor was built up by the factory as a 2 liter. At the time they had taken the 1.5 liter F-1 V-8 engine out to 2.2 liter for the Tasman series (off season down under races, 2.5 limit- Jim Clark, Graham Hill, Bruce McLaren, Brabham and locals etc). The 2 liter version was the under 2 liter sports racing class offshoot. No, the owner did not fit the engine.
The car was designed by Bourgeault around the engine using a Hewland F-1 (Gurney type) gearbox. As I remember it had McLaren wheels.
It only raced a few times before being written off in a crash. I do remember at its weight (approx. 950lbs empty?) and with the BRM, it would hold the Can Am cars of the time in a straight line up to well over the 150mph range. It was REALLY FAST, REALLY BEAUTIFUL and unfortunately, really short lived.
Then more in February, 2007 in response to my inquiry about the Bourgeault cars:
Not really a story about the car(s), more about the characters involved in the early days of SCCA racing in the SF Bay Area.
I learned about Jim Lowe, and met him once, through my mentor and best friend, Nadeau Bourgeault. I was a boy on a bike when I first met Nade, he was about 10 years older and 100 years more grown up. Some people thought Nade was born grown up. Heck, he was changing the oil and tuning his father's Packard by age 10!!! I learned the "Lowe" stories when I was a racer myself in the mid-late 60's and Nade and I became best friends.
Anyway, back in the early and mid 50's Bill Breeze owned the Sports Car Center. It was located off of highway 101 just north of Sausalito in some WWII Quonset huts. There were a full cast of characters there starting with Bill who raced Jaguar 120s and C types. Bob Winkleman (Winkleman Formula Fords of the 70's) was an apprentice mechanic fresh out of old England, perhaps 20 years of age. Nadeau Bourgeault had just left his position running the Rolls Royce Body Shop for BMC Motor Car in SF. (Someone had just invented bondo, Nade hated the stuff, "it diminished craftsmanship") Anyway, across the dirt alley from the SCC was Nade's shop in another Quonset hut. That early on he dealt with pretty exotic - for the time - stuff. Nick Reynolds of the Kingston Trio had an old Ferrari sports car, a 166 Milla Miglia I think, that Nade took care of? Nade's famous Fiat powered FJ was being built along with other "projects", including a little coupe he built as a road car and drove until his death in 1972 - it was built out of spare parts from his shop! An MG chassis, Fiat Topolino body with some Bourgeault custom aluminum pieces and Volvo engine (MG at first, replaced by Volvo later). Gorgeous, quick and 30+mpg highway.
One day along comes Jim Lowe. Nade did not know him and was a bit suspicious. It seems Jim's car, which according to Nade "was concourses", had a bit of almost undetectable dust under the lens of the gauges. Jim wanted it removed. Nade took a look and figured it was no small job, but a days work to get everything apart and then back together after a few minutes of dusting. He quoted the daily rate for the time thinking this mad man would go away. Without a blink Jim said "great, when can I pick it up." - and left.
Nade had an in and did a credit check on him thinking he was a bit mad. Following the report he then did the work and thus a friendship was born. Jim had two Frazer Nash's, one for himself and one for his wife of the time, Marian (sp?). They both raced them.
Fast forward to Speed Week, Nassau the Bahamas. I'm not sure exactly what year, but it was the year Colin Chapman first campaigned and offered for sale his 1,100 cc Climax powered Lotus 11. Jim had paid Nadeau to tow both Frazer Nashs from CA to the Bahamas so he and his wife could participate. While there Jim asked Nade "of all the cars here, what would you buy for yourself if you could?" Nade responded he thought Chapman's Lotus 11 was the absolute coolest. Jim and Nade then go over to meet Chapman. They look his car over inside and out and talk for about 40 minutes at which time Lowe asked Chapman "how much"? Chapman gave him a price - I don't remember the number now, I was told, but its just been too long- and then the most amazing thing happened. Jim asked Nade to give Chapman a business card so he would know where to deliver the cars, reached into his pocket and pulled out a huge wad of cash and peeled off the price of one car and handed it to Chapman with the comment, "I'll pay for the second when you deliver them." They shook hands and walked off, that was it! Not a single piece of paper, just cash and a handshake.
So anyway, that's it for my Jim Lowe stories. I could go on and on about Nadeau, but that's another chapter.
See Nadeau for more stories from Ed
The Lowe Frazer Nash (421/200/183) was sold to Jim Firestone. The car was completely destroyed and Mr. Firestone was killed in a crash at a Paramount Ranch race in December, 1957, according to the history I have so far.
I also discussed Mr. Bourgeault with a San Diego-area auto historian. He said the August 1961 issue of "Car & Driver" has a story about him. I'll look for this issue.
Last Update: February 11, 2007