Poor Char, so patient with me even when I keep on killing...

Visit this location at USS Reprisal rez zone in Second Life

(bring your own weapons)

The reason for the executions, in cases where the Germans had some alleged reason, was mostly due to illegal work or attempting to leave the country. This involved 136 Norwegians. Their sentences were carried out publicly. The other 37 Norwegian citizens executed in Trandumskogen were made without judgment. Two Gestapo soldiers were shot in Telavåg while trying to stop an attempted escape to England. This was followed by reprisals in the form of mass destruction and executions. Others were taken to Grini for so-called "Flower Picking" and shot because sabotage bombers blew up a military transport train in Mjøndalen.

 

Most of the Russians who were shot were prisoners of war who had escaped from a prison transport.

Five of the six Englishmen were commando soldiers from one of the glider aircraft that had to make an emergency landing during the preparations for the action against the Rjukan heavy water facility. The last one, R. P. Evans, was with Shetlands-Larsen on the unsuccessful mission against the Tirpitz in November 1942. He was badly injured when the guys were on their way to Sweden. His comrades didn't think he would survive the journey, and because he was in English uniform, he was left without shooting him as the rule was. The Germans they had fought with took him prisoner and sent him to a hospital where he was until he recovered. Then they drove him out into Trandum forest and shot him with the other captured commando soldiers. They violated all international conventions, as both Russians and Englishmen were shot in uniform.

 

In the forest, an execution platoon with Hauptstürmbannführer Oscar Hans as leader, were waiting. This platoon, apart from Oscar Hans, consisted of volunteer German soldiers who saw it as a great honour to shoot Norwegian patriots. The graves were already dug. Those who were to be shot were led to the grave edge and shot with coarse calibre projectiles. The excavations and autopsies later showed that those who were bound together did not always dead when the graves were filled again. During the autopsy, a body was found that had a lot of sand in the lungs. They had obviously been breathing when the graves were filled in.

 

After the execution, a layer of lime was thrown over the bodies. The lime should dissolve and burn the bodies so that it would be impossible to identify them. Most of the graves were filled right away, but some were open as the executions took place over several days. After the tombs were filled again, all traces were cleared away. Empty cartridge sleeves were collected etc. The purpose was obviously to hide everything. But one thing they did worked against them. They dug up bushes and small trees from nearby and planted them on the graves. They died of course and made it easier for the investigation commission to find them after the liberation.

 

In 1946 a memorial was raised. A cross of stripped birch was set up by the road East of the tank shooting range.

On October 10th, 1954, this memorial was unveiled by H. K. H. Crown Prince Olav. Professor Per Palle Storm, had performed the artistic part of the work. The memorial is crowned by light Iddefjord granite. Towards the South is an inscription written in Norwegian. The same text translated into Russian is on the East and in English to the West. The memorial is located south of the grave field.

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Afghan History In Northwest Queensland:

 

The area around Bulonga and Ballara, North West Queensland, was once dotted with small going concerns of copper mining early in the 1900s. However, only a couple of smelters were available to process ore, namely Bulonga and Kuridala. Afghan camel drivers came to Australia with camels and proved critical to the transport of the ore from the small mines to the processing smelters. They left their mark through small sets of remains across the district and the herds of wild camels that can still be seen in the area today.

 

Source: Cloncurry Trails, & Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)

Castle Stalker – in the Gaelic, Stalcaire, meaning Hunter or Falconer – is believed originally to have been the site of a Fortalice (a small fortified building) belonging to the MacDougalls when they were Lords of Lorn, and built around 1320. The MacDougalls lost their title after their defeat by King Bruce at Brander Pass in 1308 but regained it for a period after 1328. In about 1388 the Lordship of Lorn passed to the Stewarts, the lands including Castle Stalker.

 

It is believed that Castle Stalker, much in its present form, was built by the then Lord of Lorn, Sir John Stewart, who had an illegitimate son in 1446, and it is reasonable to suppose that he built and occupied the Castle about that time. In 1463 Sir John Stewart was keen to legitimise his son by getting married to his Mother, a MacLaren, at Dunstaffnage when he was murdered outside the church by Alan MacCoul, a renegade MacDougall, although he survived long enough to complete the marriage and legitimise his son, Dugald, who became the First Chief of Appin. The Stewarts had their revenge on MacCoul at the Battle of Stalc in 1468 opposite the Castle when the Stewarts and MacLaren together defeated the MacDougalls, and Alan MacCoul was killed by Dugald himself. The site of this Battle is marked by a memorial stone in the Churchyard in Portnacroish.

 

In 1497 the Stewarts and MacLarens carried out a combined raid against MacDonald of Keppoch as a reprisal for cattle reiving, but Dugald Stewart was killed and succeeded as Chief of Appin by his son Duncan. King James IV of Scotland, born in 1473, was a cousin of the Stewarts of Appin and when he came of age made frequent hunting journeys to the Highlands. It is understood that he stayed quite often at Castle Stalker, using it as a base for hunting and hawking for which he had a passion. It is thought that further improvements were made to the Castle at this time including the possible addition of what is now the top floor and roof, and that the Coat of Arms over the front door may be the Royal Arms of that time.

 

Duncan Stewart was murdered by the McLeans at Duart Castle in 1512 and succeeded by his younger brother Alan Stewart as the third Chief. In 1513 the Stewarts of Appin supported King James IV at the Battle of Flodden. The Stewart Chief and is five sons were all present at the Battle but all managed to survive what was otherwise a massive defeat in which the King was killed.

 

In 1520 Sir Alexander Stewart of Invernahyle was fishing off the small island next to Castle Stalker when he was surprised and murdered by a party of Campbells. Tradition has it that the nurse of his baby son, Donald Stewart, hid the baby in the Castle and when the Campbells left the nurse returned, found the baby still alive and took refuge in Morven.

 

Young Donald became renowned for his strength and was known as “Donald of the Hammers” – in the Gaelic “Donald nan Ord” – as he could wield a blacksmith’s hammer in each hand with ease. In 1544 he raised the Stewarts of Appin and went to Dunstaffnage where they killed nine Campbells in revenge for the murder of his Father. Donald nan Ord also led the Stewarts at the Battle of Pinkie on the 10th September 1547. He died in 1607 and is buried on Lismore where his faithful henchman, a Carmichael, also lies buried.

 

In around 1620 the Castle passed into the hands of the Campbells of Airds as a result of a drunken wager by the 7th Stewart Chief, Duncan, in exchange for an eight-oared wherry.

 

The Stewarts of Appin, under Stewart if Ardsheal, regained the Castle in 1689 when they came out with King James VII (otherwise James II) against King William but after defeat at the battle of Dunkeld the Castle was again forfeited to the Campbells. The Stewarts under Ardsheal refused to hand it over when it was then besieged by the Campbells for several months until Ardsheal was granted an honourable surrender in 1690.

 

At the time of the 1745 Rising Castle Stalker was held by the Campbells with a Garrison of about 59 Government troops. Although the Stewarts of Appin were solidly behind Prince Charles, and raised a regiment of 300, the Castle was too strong for them to take and their 2lb cannon-balls merely bounced off the walls. The Castle formed an important link during the rising with ships calling frequently with men and supplies as they sailed between Inverary in the South and Fort William in the North. After the Battle of Culloden in 1746 the Castle was used by the Government forces as a local centre where the Clansmen had to surrender their arms. Six prisoners are recorded as being held in the Prisoners’ Hole for about a fortnight before being taken to Edinburgh for trial.

 

The last Campbell was born in the Castle in 1775 and Campbells continued to reside in it until about 1800 when they built a new house on the mainland at Airds, which still exists today, and the Castle remained merely as a storehouse. In about 1840 the roof either fell in or was perhaps removed to avoid roof-tax and the Castle was abandoned.

 

In 1908 the Castle was regained from the Campbells by Charles Stewart of Achara who purchased it and carried out some basic preservation work to stem its decay.

 

In 1947 his successor, Duncan Stewart, who was Governor of Sarawak, was murdered by a Dyak and the Castle devolved on his widow. In 1965 Lt. Col. D. R. Stewart Allward negotiated terms for the purchase of the Castle and spent the next ten years rebuilding and restoring it as it is today. It is now fully habitable. Contractors and builders in the normal sense were not employed in the restoration which was carried out by Lt. Col. Stewart Allward personally with the help of his wife, family and many friends who were willing to spend holidays and long weekends helping with the task.

 

Lt. Col. Stewart Allward died suddenly whilst out walking on the 5th February 1991. His wife Marion, always of great support to him, died on the 7th July 2005. They are survived by their four children, Sine, Ross, Alasdair and Morag, six grandchildren and nine great-grandchildren.

English:

"Sunny location in the middle of the castle park, surrounded by lakes and forests, 10 minutes from the city center" - said a married doctor couple in the early thirties in a promotional brochure for their sanatorium. They had acquired the manor in 1931.

 

But the castle park area was originally not to be built on, in any case, the Grand Dukes did not want to privatize the area, they were afraid of the scenic beauty of the surroundings of the castle will be destroyed. Ultimately, however, they allowed the development of the upper area.

The first and best situated property was given to countess Marie von Schwichelt. She commissioned a Munich architect to build a beautiful manor house there. It was built in 1907, and the countess lived in the splendid manor until 1924.

 

Due to lack of money, the villa was sold to a doctor. After a reconstruction, it reopened in 1925 under the name "Schlosspark-Sanatorium" as a mental hospital.

Six years later he sold the mental hospital to a married doctor couple. They treated not only nervous disorders, but also patients with cardiovascular diseases and gastrointestinal disorders. The house was modern and comfortable, for example had phone in several rooms, X-ray laboratory and central heating. Above all, mostly private patients were treated here.

 

From 1935 the Jewish doctor couple were subjected to more and more reprisals by the Nazis. In 1935 the couple fled with their 3 children to the United States.

 

After the house was empty for a while, it was used from 1938 by the Secret State Police (Gestapo) as a service building, including prison cells in the basement, 58 officials and employees worked there. In 1945 it was a officers' home of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SMAD).

 

A year later, the Soviet fuel administration moved into the house, and in December 1947, the Generatorkraft company took over the property.

From 1953 to 1957, the district leadership of the Free German Youth (FDJ) had its seat in the manor. After moving out, the villa was first thoroughly rebuilt and modernized, so it could be used again for medical purposes. In May 1958 the district hospital opened a children's clinic there. It had sixty beds and two doctors and eighteen nurses.

 

Shortly after the reunification, it was in use as a refugee asylum until the end of 1992.

In the same year the villa was transferred back to the daughter and heir of the married doctors couple, the house is abandoned since that.

  

Deutsch:

"Sonnige Lage inmitten des Schlossparks, umgeben von Seen und Wäldern, 10 Minuten vom Stadtzentrum entfernt" - schrieb ein Ärztepaar Anfang der dreißiger Jahre in einer Werbebroschüre für ihr Sanatorium. Sie hatten das Herrenhaus 1931 erworben.

 

Ursprünglich sollte der Schlosspark jedoch nicht bebaut werden, jedenfalls wollten die Großherzöge das Gebiet nicht privatisieren, sie hatten Angst, die landschaftliche Schönheit der Umgebung des Schloß werde zerstört. Letztendlich erlaubten sie jedoch die Bebauung des oberen Bereichs.

Das erste und am besten gelegene Anwesen wurde der Gräfin Marie von Schwichelt übergeben. Sie beauftragte einen Münchner Architekten dort ein schönes Herrenhaus zu bauen. Es wurde 1907 erbaut und die Gräfin lebte bis 1924 in dem prächtigen Herrenhaus.

 

Wegen Mangel an Geld wurde die Villa an einen Arzt verkauft. Nach einer Sanierung wurde es 1925 unter dem Namen "Schlosspark-Sanatorium" als Nervenheilanstalt wiedereröffnet.

Sechs Jahre später verkaufte er die Nervenheilanstalt an ein jüdisches Ärztepaar. Sie behandelten nicht nur nervöse Störungen, sondern auch Patienten mit Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen und Magen-Darm-Erkrankungen. Das Haus war modern und gemütlich, hatte zB Telefon in mehreren Zimmern, ein Röntgenlabor und Zentralheizung. Vor allem Privatpatienten wurden hier behandelt.

 

Ab 1935 war das jüdischen Ehepaare von den Nazis immer mehr Repressalien ausgesetzt. Im Jahr 1935 floh das Ehepaar mit seinen drei Kindern in die Vereinigten Staaten.

 

Nachdem das Haus für eine Weile leer stand, wurde es ab 1938 von der Geheimen Staatspolizei (Gestapo) als Dienstgebäude genutzt, es hatte Gefängniszellen im Keller, 58 Beamte und Angestellte arbeiteten dort. Ab 1945 war es ein Offiziershaus der sowjetischen Militärverwaltung in Deutschland (SMAD).

 

Ein Jahr später zog die sowjetische Brennstoffverwaltung in das Haus ein, und im Dezember 1947 übernahm die Generatorkraft das Grundstück.

Von 1953 bis 1957 hatte die Bezirksleitung der Freien Deutschen Jugend (FDJ) ihren Sitz im Herrenhaus. Nach dem Auszug wurde die Villa zunächst gründlich umgebaut und modernisiert, so dass sie wieder für medizinische Zwecke genutzt werden konnte. Im Mai 1958 eröffnete das Bezirkskrankenhaus dort eine Kinderklinik. Sie hatte sechzig Betten, zwei Ärzte und achtzehn Krankenschwestern.

 

Kurz nach der Wiedervereinigung wurde es bis Ende 1992 als Flüchtlingsheim genutzt.

Im selben Jahr wurde die Villa an die Tochter und Erbin des Ärztepaares zurückgeführt. Die Villa steht seit dem leer und ist dem Verfall ausgesetzt.

 

St. Peter and St. Paul's Church is a Roman Catholic church located in the Antakalnis neighbourhood of Vilnius, Lithuania.

 

Construction was begun in 1688 and the decorative works were completed in 1704.

 

It is the centerpiece of a former monastery complex of the Canons Regular of the Lateran.

 

Its interior has masterful compositions of some 2,000 stucco figures by Giovanni Pietro Perti and ornamentation by Giovanni Maria Galli and is unique in Europe.

 

The church is considered a masterpiece of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Baroque.

 

The interior of the church changed relatively little since that time.

 

The major change was the loss of the main altar. The wooden altar was moved to the Catholic church in Daugai in 1766.[4]

 

The altar is now dominated by the Farewell of St. Peter and St. Paul, a large painting by Franciszek Smuglewicz, installed there in 1805.

 

The interior was restored by Giovanni Beretti and Nicolae Piano from Milan in 1801–04.[11]

 

At the same time, a new pulpit imitating the ship of Saint Peter was installed.

 

In 1864, as reprisal for the failed January Uprising, Mikhail Muravyov-Vilensky closed the monastery and converted its buildings into military barracks.[11]

 

There were plans to turn the church into an Eastern Orthodox church, but they never materialized.[11] In 1901–05, the interior was restored again. The church acquired the boat-shaped chandelier and the new pipe organ with two manuals and 23 organ stops.[12]

 

The dome was damaged during World War II bombings, but was rebuilt true to its original design.[12]

 

When in 1956 Vilnius Cathedral was converted into an art museum by Soviet authorities, the silver sarcophagus with sacred relics of Saint Casimir was moved to the St. Peter and St. Paul's Church.[13] The sarcophagus was returned to its place in 1989.

 

Despite religious persecutions in the Soviet Union, extensive interior restoration was carried out in 1976–87.[11]

About the Decorative Scheme

 

St. Peter and St. Paul's is one of the most studied churches in Lithuania.[19]

 

Its interior has over 2,000 different decor elements that creates a stunning atmosphere.[20]

 

The main author of the decor plan is not known. It could be the founder Pac, monks of the Lateran, or Italian artists.

No documents survive to explain the ideas behind the decorations, therefore various art historians attempted to find one central theme: Pac's life and Polish–Lithuanian relations, teachings of Saint Augustine, Baroque theater, etc.[19]

 

Art historian Birutė Rūta Vitkauskienė identified several main themes of the decor: structure of the Church as proclaimed at the Council of Trent with Saint Peter as the founding rock, early Christian martyrs representing Pac's interest in knighthood and ladyship, themes relevant to the Canons Regular of the Lateran, and themes inherited from previous churches (painting of Blessed Virgin Mary of Mercy and altar of Five Wounds of Christ).[21]

 

The decor combines a great variety of symbols, from local (patron of Vilnius Saint Christopher) to Italian saints (Fidelis of Como),[22] from specific saints to allegories of virtues.

 

There are many decorative elements – floral (acanthus, sunflowers, rues, fruits), various objects (military weapons, household tools, liturgical implements, shells, ribbons), figures (puttos, angels, soldiers), fantastical creatures (demons, dragons, centaurs), Pac's coat of arms, masks making various expressions – but they are individualized, rarely repeating.[23]

 

The architects and sculptors borrowed ideas from other churches in Poland (Saints Peter and Paul Church, Kraków, Sigismund's Chapel of Wawel Cathedral) and Italy (St. Peter's Basilica, Church of the Gesù).[22]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St._Peter_and_St._Paul,_V...

========================================================

From the Church's Brochure

The church was erected after the Russian invasion that devastated Vilnius in the mid-17th century.

 

Barely a dozen years passed, and the capital of Lithuania began to recover.

 

In 1668 Mykolas Kazimieras Pacas, Hetman of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and wojewode of Vilnius, embarked upon the Antakalnis.

 

The church is decorated by the stucco mouldings of two excellent Italian sculptors, Giovanni Pietro Petri and Giovanni Maria Galli.

 

The interior of the church consists of the main nave, six chapels on both sides, and the transept.

Constructed as a stand-off weapons platform focused around superluminal missiles, the Reprisal-class Guided Missile Destroyer fills both a fleet defense and long-range strike roll in the Solaris Confederation Navy. The main criticism of the class is the reliance on physical munitions and the lack of directed energy weapons as a secondary alternative once its supply of missiles have been expended.

 

Class: Reprisal Class Guided Missile Destroyer

 

Affiliation: Solaris Confederation Navy

 

Namesake: Concepts and attributes starting with the letter R.

 

Ships Constructed: Reprisal, Relentless, Repulse, Renown, Ravager, Redoubt, Resolute, Retribution

 

Armaments:

12x Superluminal Missile Vertical Launch System

2x Close-In Weapon System Point Defense

 

Drive Systems:

FTL: Space Fold Drive

Main: 2x Confined Plasma Thrusters

Secondary: 2x Conventional Plasma Thrusters

 

Stealth System: Plasma Wake Suppression

 

Defensive Systems:

Graviton Deflector Shields

Composite Armor Plating

ONE OF THE WAY TO TRAIN THE "THE AWARENESS MUSCLE

 

is the critical run

and other emergency art format

 

CRITICAL RUN / Debate Format

 

Critical Run is an Art Format created by Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel

debate while running .

Debate and Run together,Now,before it is too late.

 

www.emergencyroomscanvas todo .org/criticalrun.html

 

The Art Format Critical Run has been activated in 30 differents countries with 120 different burning debates

New York,Cairo,London,Istanbul,Athens,Hanoi,Paris,Munich,Amsterdam Siberia,Copenhagen,Johanesburg,Moskow,Napoli,Sydney,

Wroclaw,Bruxelles,Rotterdam,Barcelona,Venice,Virginia,Stockholm,Århus,Kassel,Lyon,Trondheim, Berlin ,Toronto,Hannover ...

 

CRITICAL RUN happened on invitation from institution like Moma/PS1, Moderna Muset Stockholm ,Witte de With Rotterdam,ZKM Karlsruhe,Liverpool Biennale;Sprengel Museum etc..or have just happened on the spot because

a debate was necessary here and now.

 

In 2020 the Energy Room was an installation of 40 Critical Run at Museum Villa Stuck /Munich

part of Colonel solo show : The Awareness Muscle Training Center

 

----

 

Interesting publication for researches on running and art

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

 

14 Performances. Relation Work (1976 - 1980). Filmed by Paolo Cardazzo. Marina Abramović/ Ulay. Neuer Berliner Kunstverein, Berlin, Germany.

 

Abramović, Marina. Student Body: Workshops 1979 - 2003: Performances 1993 - 2003. Milano: ed. Charta, 2003.

 

Bergson, Henri. Creative Evolution. London: Macmillan and Co., 1911.

Bergson, Henri. Key Writings. Edited by Keith Ansell-Pearson and John Mullarkey. New York:

 

Continuum, 2002.

Bergson, Henri. Matter and Memory. New York: Zone Books, 1988.

 

Blaikie, William. “Common Sense Physical Training.” In Athletics and Health: Modern Achievement: Advice and Instruction upon the Conduct of Life, Principles of Business, Care of Health, Duties of Citizenship, etc. Edited by Edward Everett Hale. New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1902.

 

Blaikie, William. How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1883.

 

Cunningham, Merce. Changes: Notes on Choreography. New York: Something Else Press, 1969.

 

de Balzac, Honoré. The Human Comedy. EBook: Project Gutenberg, 2010. de Balzac, Honoré. Théorie de la démarche. 1833, 1853.

 

de Biran, Maine. “Opposition du principe de Descartes avec celui d’une science de l’homme. Première base d’une division des faits psychologiques et physiologiques. Perception et sensation animale.” In Maine de Biran. Librairie Philosophique J. VRIN, 1990.

 

de Tocqueville, Alexis. The Old Regime and the Revolution. New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1856.

 

Delaumosne, M. L’Abbe. “The Delsarte System.” Translated by Frances A. Shaw. In Delsarte System of Oratory, 4th Ed. New York: Edgar S. Werner, 1893.

 

Descartes, René. Méditations metaphysiques. 1641.

 

Gropius, Walter, and Arthur S. Wensinger, eds. The Theater of the Bauhaus: Oskar Schlemmer, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Farkas Molnár. Translated by Arthur S. Wensinger. Middleton, Conn.: Wesleyan University, 1961.

 

Hahn, Archibald. How to Sprint: The Theory of Spring Racing. New York: American Sports Publishing Company, 1923.

 

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Phenomenology of Spirit. Translated by A.V. Miller. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.

 

Helmholtz, Hermann. “On the Facts Underlying Geometry.” In Epistemological Writings: Hermann von Helmholtz. Edited by R.S. Cohen and Y. Elkana. Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1977.

 

Helmholtz, Hermann. Théorie physiologique de la musique fondée sur l’étude des sensations auditives. Paris: Masson, 1868.

 

Helmholtz, Hermann. Treatise of Physiological Optics (Handbuch der physiologischen Optik) 1856. 3 Volumes. Translated by James P.C. Southall. Milwaukee, 1924.

 

Holmes, Oliver Wendall. Soundings from the Atlantic. Boston: Tickknor and Fields, 1864. James, William. The Principles of Psychology. New York: Henry Holt & Co, 1890, 1918.

 

James, William. Writings 1902 - 1910. Edited by Bruce Kuklick. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 1987.

 

Kandinsky, Vasily. Über Das Geistige in der Kunst. Dritte Auflage. München: R. Piper&Co, 1912.

 

Kant, Immanuel. “Was ist Aufklärung?” 1784.

 

Laban, Rudolf. A Life for Dance: Reminiscences. Translated by Lisa Ullmann. London: Macdonald & Evans, 1975.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Choreographie. Jena: E. Diederichs, 1926.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Choreutics. Edited by Lisa Ullmann. London: Macdonald & Evans, 1939, 1966.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Effort: Economy in Body Movement. 2nd Edition. Boston: Plays, 1947, 1974.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Principles of Dance and Movement Notation. New York: A Dance Horizons Republication, 1956, 1970.

 

Laban, Rudolf. The Language of Movement: A Guidebook to Choreutics. Edited by Lisa Ullmann. Boston: Plays, Inc., 1974.

  

MacKaye, Percy. “Steele Mackaye, Dynamic Artist of the American Theatre; An Outline of his Life Work,” in The Drama. Edited by William Norman Guthrie and Charles Hubbard Sergel. Chicago: The Dramatic Publishing Company, 1911.

 

Marey, Étienne-Jules. La Machine Animale: Locomotion Terrestre et Aérienne. Paris: Librairie Germer Baillière, 1873.

 

Marey, Étienne-Jules. Le Vol des Oiseaux. Paris: Libraire de l’académie de médecine, 1890. Marey, Étienne-Jules. Movement. Translated by Eric Pritchard. New York: D. Appleton and

 

Company, 1895.

 

Michelet, Jules. The History of France. Volume I. Translated by Walter K. Kelly. London: Chapman and Hall, 1844.

 

Morgan, Anna. An Hour with Delsarte: A Study of Expression. New York: Edgar S. Werner Publisher, 1891.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. Animal Locomotion: An Electro-photographic Investigation of Consecutive Phases of Animal Movements. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania and J. B. Lippincott Company, 1887.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. Descriptive Zoopraxography, or the Science of Animal Locomotion. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1893.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. The Attitudes of Animals in Motion: A Series of Photographs Illustrating the Consecutive Positions assumed by Animals in Performing Various Movements; Executed at Palo Alto, California, in 1878 and 1879 (1881). Albumen, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., Library of Congress.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. The Human Figure in Motion. New York: Dover Publications, 1955. Ramsaye, Terry. A Million and One Nights: A History of the Motion Picture. U.K.: Simon and

 

Schuster, Inc., 1926, 1954.

Richer, Paul. Physiologie Artistique: De l’Homme en Mouvement. Paris: Aulanier et Cie, 1896.

 

Sanburn, Frederic. Delsartean Scrap-book: Health, Personality, Beauty, House-Decoration, Dress, etc. New York: United States Book Company, c. 1890.

 

Schlemmer, Oskar. Briefe und Tagebücher: The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer. Edited by Tut Schlemmer. Translated by Krishna Winston. Middletown, Conn: Wesleyan University Press, 1972.

  

Schlemmer, Oskar, and Heimo Kuchling. Der Mensch, Unterricht am Bauhaus. Nachgelassene Aufzeichnungen. Mainz: F. Kupferberg, 1969.

 

Schuftan, Werner. Handbuch des Tanzes. Preface by Rudolf von Laban. Mannheim: Verlag Deutscher Chorsänger Verband und Tänzerbund, 1928.

 

Shearman, Sir Montague. Athletics and Football. London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1888. Smith, Shawn Michelle. At the Edge of Sight: Photography and the Unseen. Durham: Duke

 

University Press, 2013.

 

Stebbins, Genevieve. Delsarte System of Expression, 5th Edition. New York: Edgar S. Werner, 1894; orig. 1885.

 

Talbot, Frederick A. Practical Cinematography and its Applications. London: William Heinemann, 1913.

 

Wigman, Mary. The Mary Wigman Book: Her Writings. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1975.

 

Abramović, Marina, et al. Marina Abramović: Seven Easy Pieces. New York: Charta 2007. Acconci, Vito. Language to Cover a Page: The Early Writings of Vito Acconci. Edited by Craig

 

Dworkin. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006.

Adolphs, Volker, and Philip Norten. Gehen Bleiben: Bewegung, Körper, Ort in der Kunst der

 

Gegenwart. Bonn: Kunstmuseum Bonn, 2007.

Agamben, Giorgio. “Movement.” In Dance: Documents of Contemporary Art. Edited André

 

Lepecki. London: MIT Press and WhiteChapel Gallery, 2012.

Alberro, Alexander, and Blake Stimson, eds. Institutional Critique: An Anthology of Artists’

 

Writings. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2009.

Albers, Kate Palmer. “Abundant Images and the Collective Sublime.” Exposure. Volume 46,

 

Issue 2 (Fall 2013).

 

Allen, Beverly. Rape Warfare: The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996.

 

Alloway, Lawrence. The Venice Biennale 1895 - 1968: from salon to goldfish bowl. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society LTD., 1968.

Anderson, Ben. “Affect and Biopower: Towards a Politics of Life.” Transactions - Institute of British Geographers, Issue 1 (2011).

 

Andras, Edit, and Bojana Pejic, eds. Gender Check: Femininity and Masculinity in the Art of Eastern Europe. Cologne: Buchhandlung Walther König, 2009.

 

Antliff, Mark. Inventing Bergson: Cultural Politics and the Parisian Avant-Garde. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.

 

Arendt, Hannah. The Human Condition, Second Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958, 1998.

 

Arendt, Hannah. On Violence. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1969.

Atkins, Dawn, ed. Looking Queer: Body Image and Identity in Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay, and

 

Transgender Communities. New York: The Haworth Press, 1998.

Ault, Julie, ed. Alternative Art, New York, 1965-1985: A Cultural Politics Book for the Social

 

Text Collective. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.

Auslander, Philip. “Going with the Flow: Performance Art and Mass Culture.” TDR. Volume 33,

 

Number 2 (Summer 1989).

Auslander, Philip. “The Performativity of Performance Documentation.” PAJ 84 (2006).

 

Backstein, Joseph, and Daniel Birnbaum, Sven-Olov Wallenstein. Thinking Worlds - The Moscow Conference on Philosophy, Politics, and Art. Berlin: Sternberg Press, 2008.

 

Badovinac, Zdenka. Body and the East: From the 1960s to the Present. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999.

 

Baer, Ulrich. Spectral Evidence: The Photography of Trauma. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002. Baker, George. “Entr’acte.” October. Volume 105 (Summer 2003).

 

Bale, John. Imagined Olympians: Body Culture and Colonial Representations in Rwanda. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.

 

Bale, John. Running Cultures: Racing in Time and Space. London: Frank Cass, 2004. Banes, Sally. Democracy’s Body: Judson Dance Theatre, 1962 - 1964. Durham, NC: Duke

 

University Press, 1993.

 

Banes, Sally. Terpsichore in Sneakers: Post-Modern Dance, 2nd edition. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1987.

  

Bartenieff, Irmgard. Body Movement: Coping with the Environment. New York: Routledge, 2002.

 

Barthes, Roland. Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography. Translated by Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 198, 2010.

 

Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. Translated by Annette Lavers. New York: Hill and Wang, 1972. Batchen, Geoffrey. Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography. Cambridge: MIT

 

Press, 1997.

 

Baudelaire, Charles. The Parisian Prowler, Le Spleen de Paris Petits Poèmes en Prose. Translated by Edward K. Kaplan. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1989.

 

Bauer, M. W. and G. Gaskell. Biotechnology — the Making of a Global Controversy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

 

Bayat, Asef. Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010, 2015.

 

Belaief, Lynne. “Meanings of the Body.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. Volume 4, Issue 1 (1977).

 

Bell, Catherine. Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

 

Benjamin, Walter. Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism. Translated by Harry Zohn. London: Verso, 1997.

 

Benjamin, Walter. Selected Writings, Volumes 1 - 4. Edited by Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003 - 2006.

 

Benjamin, Walter. “The Storyteller: Reflections on the Works of Nikolai Leskov.” In Illuminations. Edited by Hannah Arendt. Translated by Harry Zohn. New York: Schocken Books, 2007.

 

Bennett, Jill. Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art. Stanford, CA; Stanford University Press, 2005.

 

Berger, John. About Looking. New York: Pantheon Books, 1980.

 

Bergson, Henri. Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic. Translated by Cloudesley Brereton and Fred Rothwell. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1914.

  

Bishop, Claire, and Marta Dziewańska, eds. 1968 - 1989: Political Upheaval and Artistic Change. Warsaw: Museum of Modern Art, 2009.

 

Bishop, Claire. Artificial Hells: Participatory Art and the Politics of Spectatorship. London: Verso, 2012.

 

Bishop, Claire. Radical Museology: or, What’s ‘Contemporary’ in Museums of Contemporary Art? London: Koenig Books, 2013.

 

Black, Graham. Transforming Museums in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Routledge, 2011.

 

Blaive, Muriel, and Christian Gerbel, Thomas Lindenberger, eds. Clashes in European Memory: The Case of Communist Repression and the Holocaust. Innsbruck: Studienverlag, 2011.

 

Blassnigg, Martha. Time, Memory, Consciousness and the Cinema Experience: Revisiting Ideas on Matter and Spirit. New York: Rodopi, 2009.

 

Bloomer, Kent C., and Charles Willard Moore. Body, Memory, and Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977.

 

Boecker, Henning, et. al. “The Runner’s High: Opioidergic Mechanisms in the Human Brain.” Cerebral Cortex. Volume 18, Number 11 (2008).

 

Bougarel, Xavier, and Elissa Helms, Ger Duijzings, eds. The New Bosnian Mosaic: Identities, Memories and Moral Claims in a Post-War Society. Hampshire, England: Ashgate, 2007.

 

Bourdieu, Pierre. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

 

Bourriaud, Nicolas. Relational Aesthetics. Dijon: Les Presses du réel, 1998, 2002.

 

Brandstetter, Gabriele. Poetics of Dance: Body, Image and Space in the Historical Avant- Gardes. Translated by Elena Polzer and Mark Franko. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, 2015.

 

Braudy, Leo, and Marshall Cohen, eds. Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. New York: Oxford UP, 1999.

 

Braun, Marta. Eadweard Muybridge. London: Reaktion, 2010.

Braun, Marta. Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830 - 1904). Chicago:

 

University of Chicago Press, 1992, 1994.

 

Brettell, Richard R. Modern Art, 1851 - 1929: Capitalism and Representation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

  

Brooke, J.D., and H.T.A. Whiting, eds. Human Movement - A Field of Study. London: Henry Kimpton Publishers, 1973.

 

Brown, Keith S., and Yannis Hamilakis, eds. The Usable Past: Greek Metahistories. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2003.

 

Brunnbauer, Ulf, and Konrad Clewing, eds. Südost-Forschungen. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 2008.

 

Bruno, Giuliana. Atlas of Emotion: Journeys in Art, Architecture, and Film. New York: Verso, 2002.

 

Bryzgel, Amy. Performing the East: Performance Art in Russia, Latvia, and Poland since 1980. London: I.B. Tauris, 2012.

 

Buchloh, Benjamin H. D. Neo-Avantgarde and Culture Industry: Essays on European and American Art from 1955 to 1975. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001, 2003.

 

Buck-Morss, Susan. The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

 

Burchell, Graham, and Colin Gordon, Peter Miller, eds. The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.

 

Bürger, Peter. Theory of the Avant-Garde. Translated by Michael Shaw. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press and Manchester University Press, 1974, 1984.

 

Butler, Judith. Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York: Routledge, 1993. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge,

 

2006.

 

Butler, Samuel. Unconscious Memory: A Comparison between the Theory of Dr. Ewald Hering and the ‘Philosophy of the Unconscious’ of Dr. Edward von Hartmann. London: David Bogue, 1880.

 

Cage, John. Silence: Lectures and Writings. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1961. Campany, David, ed. The Cinematic: Documents of Contemporary Art. Cambridge: MIT Press,

 

2007.

Canales, Jimena. A Tenth of a Second: A History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.

 

Careri, Francesco. Walkscapes: Walking as an Aesthetic Practice. Translated by Steve Piccolo and Paul Hammond. Barcelona: Editorial Gusavo Gili, 2002.

  

Carroll, Noël. Theorizing the Moving Image. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Cetinić, Ljiljana, and Ana Panić, eds. Štafete: Titova Štafeta - Štafeta Mladosti, 1945 - 1987.

 

Belgrade: Tipografik plus, 2008.

Chase, Stuart. Men and Machines. New York: Macmillan Co, 1929.

 

Christesen, Paul. Sport and Democracy in the Ancient and Modern Worlds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

 

Christian, Mary. Marina Abramović: The Artist is Present. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2010.

 

Clark, Kenneth. The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form. New York: Pantheon Books, 1956. Coleman, Simon, and John Eade, eds. Reframing Pilgrimage: Cultures in Motion. London:

 

Routledge, 2004.

 

Connerton, Paul. The Spirit of Mourning: History, Memory and the Body. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

 

Cosgrove, Denis. Geography and Vision: Seeing, Imagining and Representing the World. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2008.

 

Cottington, David. Cubism in the Shadow of War: The Avant-Garde and Politics in Paris 1905- 1914. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.

 

Crane, Susan, ed. Museums and Memory. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000. Crary, Jonathan. Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth

 

Century. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990.

Crow, Thomas. The Rise of the Sixties: American and European Art in the Era of Dissent.

 

London: Laurence King Publishing, 1996.

 

Csiksgentmihalyi, Mihaly. Creativity! Flow and psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper Collins, 1996.

 

Cumming, John. Runners & Walkers: A Nineteenth Century Sports Chronicle. Chicago: Regency Gateway, 1981.

 

Cvejić, Bojana, and Ana Vujanović. Public Sphere by Performance. Belgrade: b_books, TkH, 2012.

  

Dagg, Anne Innis. Running, Walking, and Jumping: The Science of Locomotion. New York: Crane, Russak & Company, Inc, 1977.

 

de Certeau, Michel. The Practice of Everyday Life. Translated by Steven Rendall. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984, 1988.

 

de Certeau, Michel. The Writing of History. Translated by Tom Conley. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975, 1988.

 

de Groote, Pascale. Ballets Suédois: Jean Börlin. Ghent: University of Ghent, 2002.

de Waal, Frans. The Age of Empathy: Nature’s Lessons for a Kinder Society. New York:

 

Harmony Books, 2009.

 

Deleuze, Gilles. Cinema 1: The Movement-Image. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986.

 

Deleuze, Gilles, and Félix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus. London: Continuum, 1980, 2008. Dewey, John. The Public and its Problems: An Essay in Political Inquiry. Edited by Melvin L.

 

Rogers. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, 2012.

di Giovanni, Janine. Madness Visible: A Memoir of War. London: Bloomsbury, 2005.

 

Djetelić, Pera, and Dragan Maršičević. Narodna Omladina i Jugoslovenski Kongres za Fizičku Kulturu. Beograd: Mladost, 1959.

 

Djurić, Dubravka, and Miško Šuvaković, eds. Impossible Histories: Historical Avant-gardes, Neo-avant-gardes, and Post-avant-gardes in Yugoslavia, 1918 - 1991. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

 

Donawerth, Jane, ed. Rhetorical Theory by Women before 1900: An Anthology. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2002.

 

Dörr, Evelyn. Rudolf Laban: The Dancer of the Crystal. Lanham, Maryland: The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc., 2008.

 

Drakulić, Slavenka. Balkan Express: Fragments from the Other Side of War. London: Hutchinson, 1993.

 

Drakulić, Slavenka. They Would Never Hurt a Fly: War Criminals on Trial in the Hague. New York: Penguin, 2005.

 

Drapag, Vesna. Constructing Yugoslavia: A Transnational History. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

Duncan, Carol. Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums. Abingdon: Routledge, 1995. Eamon, Christopher. Rearview Mirror: New Art from Central and Eastern Europe. Edmonton:

 

Art Gallery of Alberta, 2011.

 

Eichberg, Henning, ed. Body Cultures: Essays on Sport, Space, and Identity. London, New York: Routledge, 1998.

 

Elias, Norbert. The Civilizing Process. Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations. Oxford: Blackwell, 1939, 2000.

 

Elias, Norbert, and Eric Dunning. Quest for Excitement: Sport and Leisure in the Civilising Process. Dublin: University of College Dublin Press, 2008.

 

Enwezor, Okwui. Archive Fever: Uses of the Document in Contemporary Art. Göttingen: Steidl Publishers, 2008.

 

Erjavec, Aleš, ed. Postmodernism and the Postsocialist Condition: Politicized Art under Late Socialism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.

 

Fer, Briony, and David Batchelor, Paul Wood. Realism, Rationalism, Surrealism: Art Between the Wars. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993.

 

Finn, David. How to Visit A Museum. New York: Abrams, 1985.

Fleming, Bruce. Running is Life: Transcending the Crisis of Modernity. Lanham: University

 

Press of America, Inc, 2010.

 

Forrester, Sibelan E.S., and Magdalena J. Zaborowska, Elena Gapova, eds. Over the Wall/After the Fall: Post-Communist Cultures Through an East-West Gaze. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.

 

Foster, Hal. The Return of the Real: The Avant-Garde at the End of the Century. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996.

 

Foster, Hal. “What’s Neo about the Neo-Avant-Garde?” October. Volume 70, The Duchamp Effect (Autumn, 1994), 5 - 32.

 

Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books, Random House, Inc, 1977, 1995.

 

Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality Volume 1. Translated by Robert Hurley. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.

 

Foucault, Michel. Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews & Other Writings, 1972 - 1977. Edited by Colin Gordon. New York: Pantheon Books,1972, 1980.

  

Fraleigh, Sondra Horton. Dance and the Lived Body: A Descriptive Aesthetics. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987.

 

Frampton, Hollis. “Eadweard Muybridge: Fragments of a Tesseract.” In On the Camera Arts and Consecutive Matters: The Writings of Hollis Frampton. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2009.

 

Fried, Michael. Four Honest Outlaws: Sala, Ray, Marioni, Gordon. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011.

 

Gallagher, Catherine, and Thomas Laqueur, eds. The Making of the Modern Body: Sexuality and Society in the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.

 

Gamwell, Lynn, ed. Dreams Nineteen Hundred to Two Thousand: Science, Art, and the Unconscious Mind. Binghamton: State University of New York at Binghamton, 2000.

 

Gay, Peter. Savage Reprisals: Bleak House, Madame Bovary, Buddenbrooks. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2002.

 

Gehm, Sabine, and Pirkko Husemann, Katharina von Wilke, eds. Knowledge in Motion: Perspectives of Artistic and Scientific Research in Dance. Translated by Bettina von Arps- Aubert. Bielefeld: Transcript, 2007.

 

Genoways, Hugh H., ed. Museum Philosophy for the Twenty-First Century. Oxford: AltaMira Press, 2006.

 

Geoghegan, Bernard Dionysius. “After Kittler: On the Cultural Techniques of Recent German Media Theory.” Theory Culture Society (August 2013).

 

Gidal, Peter. Materialist Film. London: Routledge, 1989.

Giedion, Siegfried. Space, Time, and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition. Cambridge:

 

Harvard University Press, 1974.

 

Godard, Jean-Luc. Godard on Godard. Edited by Jean Narboni and Tom Milne. New York: The Viking Press, 1968, 1972.

 

Gödl, Doris. “Challenging the Past: Serbian and Croatian Aggressor-Victim Narratives.” International Journal of Sociology 37. No. 1 (2007).

 

Goldberg, Roselee. Performance: Live Art Since the ‘60s. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004.

 

Goldberg, Roselee. Performance Art: From Futurism to the Present. London: Thames & Hudson, 2001.

  

Goldberg, Vicki, ed. Photography in Print: Writings from 1816 to the Present. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981.

 

Golding, Sue, ed. The Eight Technologies of Otherness. London: Routledge, 1997. Gotaas, Thor. Running: A Global History. London: Reaktion Books, 2009.

 

Grau, Andrée, and Stephanie Jordan. Europe Dancing: Perspectives on Theatre, Dance, and Cultural Identity. New York: Routledge, 2000.

 

Grigorov, Dimitar. “‘Рачунајте на нас.’ ‘Oдломак’ о Титовој штафети или Штафети младости.” In Друштвену историју. Belgrade: 2008.

 

Grimes, Ronald L. Beginnings in Ritual Studies. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995.

 

Groys, Boris. Introduction to Antiphilosophy. Translated by David Fernbach. London: Verso, 2012.

 

Groys, Boris. The Communist Postscript. Translated by Thomas Ford. London: Verso, 2010. Groys, Boris, and Ann von der Heiden, Peter Weibel, eds. Zurück aus der Zukunft.

 

Osteuropäische Kulturen im Zeitalter des Postkommunismus. Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2005.

Gržinić, Marina, and Günther Heeg, Veronika Darian. Mind the Map! History is not a Given: A

 

th th

Critical Anthology Based on the Symposium [Leipzig, 13 -16 October 2005]. Frankfurt:

 

Revolver, 2006.

 

Guttman, Allen. “Sport, Politics, and the Engaged Historian.” Journal of Contemporary History. Volume 38, Number 3 (2003).

 

Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Empire. Boston, Harvard University Press, 2001. Hargreaves, Jennifer, and Patricia Anne Vertinsky, eds. Physical Culture, Power, and the Body.

 

New York: Routledge, 2007.

 

Harris, Mary Emma. The Arts at Black Mountain College. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987, 2002.

 

Harte, Jane L., et. al. “The effects of running and meditation on beta-endorphin, corticotropin- releasing hormone and cortisol in plasma, and on mood.” Biological Psychology. Volume 40, Issue 3 (June 1995).

 

Harte, Jane L., and Georg H. Eifert. “The effects of running, environment, and attentional focus on athletes’ catecholamine and cortisol levels and moods.” Psychophysiology. Volume 32, Issue 1 (January 1995).

  

Havránek, Vít, ed. Jiří Kovanda: Actions and Installations, 2005-1976. Zurich: Tranzit & JRP|Ringier, 2006.

 

Helme, Sirje. PopKunst Forever: Estonian Pop Art at the Turn of the 1960s and 1970s. Tallinn: Art Museum of Estonia - Kumu Art Museu, 2010.

 

Hemmings, Frederick William John, ed. The Age of Realism. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1974. Hendricks, Gordon. Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture. New York:

 

Grossman Publishers, of Viking Press, 1975.

 

Henning, Michelle. Museums, Media, and Cultural Theory. New York: Open University Press, 2006.

 

Hewitt, Andrew. Social Choreography: Ideology as Performance in Dance and Everyday Movement. Durham: Duke University Press, 2005.

 

Higgins, Steven. Still Moving: The Film and Media Collections of the Museum of Modern Art. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2006.

 

Hoberman, John M. “Sport and Political Ideology.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues. Volume 1, Number 2 (1977).

 

Hodgson, John. Mastering Movement: The Life and Work of Rudolf Laban. New York: Routledge, 2001.

 

Hoelzl, Ingrid, and Friedrich Tietjen, eds. Images in Motion. Burges: Die Keure, 2012. Husserl, Edmund. The Phenomenology of Internal Time-Consciousness. Edited by Martin

 

Heidegger. Translated by James S. Churchill. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1964.

 

IRWIN, ed. East Art Map: Contemporary Art and Eastern Europe. London: Afterall and MIT Press, 2006.

 

Ivey, Paul Eli. Radiance from Halcyon: A Utopian Experiment in Religion and Science. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013.

 

Jameson, Frederic. Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham: Duke University Press,1991.

 

Janevski, Ana, ed. As Soon as I Open My Eyes I See a Film: Experiment in the Art of Yugoslavia in the 1960s and 1970s. Warsaw: Museum of Modern Art, 2010.

 

Jarausch, Konrad H., and Michael Geyer. Shattered Past: Reconstructing German Histories. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.

  

Jones, Amelia. Body Art/Performing the Subject. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998.

 

Jones, Amelia, and Adrian Heathfield. Perform, Repeat, Record: Live Art in History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.

 

Jones, Amelia. “The Body and Technology.” Art Journal. Volume 60, Number 1 (Spring, 2001). Joseph, Brandon W. Random Order: Robert Rauschenberg and the Neo-avant-garde.

 

Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

Joy, Jenn. The Choreographic. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2014.

 

Jünger, Ernst. “War and Photography.” Translated by Anthony Nassar. New German Critique. Number 59 (Spring-Summer, 1993).

 

Kater, Michael H. Hitler Youth. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004. Kebo, Ozren. Sarajevo za početnike. Sarajevo: Dani, 1996.

 

Kelley, Jeff, ed. Essays on the Blurring of Art and Life. Berkley: University of California Press, 1993, 2003.

 

Kern, Stephen. The Culture of Time and Space. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1983.

 

Kester, Grant H. Conversation Pieces: Community and Communication in Modern Art. Berkley: University of California Press, 2004.

 

Kholeif, Omar. Moving Image. London: Whitechapel, 2015.

Kirkpatrick, Sidney. The Revenge of Thomas Eakins. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.

 

Kirn, Gal, and Dubravka Sekulić, Žiga Testen, eds. Surfing the Black: Yugoslav Black Wave Cinema and its Transgressive Moments. Maastricht: Jan van Eyck Academie, 2012.

 

Kittler, Friedrich A. Gramophone, Film, Typewriter. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. Klinger, Cornelia, and Bartomeu Mari. Modernologies: Contemporary Artists Researching

 

Modernity and Modernism. Barcelona: Museu d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona, 2009.

Knell, Simon J., et al., eds. National Museums: New Studies from around the World. New York:

 

Routledge, 2011.

Knudson, Duane. Fundamentals of Biomechanics, Second Edition. New York: Springer, 2007.

  

Knust, Albrecht. Handbook of Kinetography Laban: Examples. Hamburg: Das Tanzarchiv, 1958. Koch, Sabine, et al. Body Memory, Metaphor, and Movement. Philadelphia: John Benjamins

 

Publishing Company, 2012.

Krauss, Rosalind E. “Sculpture in the Expanded Field.” October. Volume 8 (Spring 1979).

 

Krauss, Rosalind E. The Originality of the Avant-Garde and Other Modernist Myths. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985.

 

Kuligowski, Waldemar. “A Relay of Youth of the 21st Century. A Re-enactment of Ritual or a Grotesque Performance?” Cargo. Volume 10, Number 1 - 2 (2012).

 

Kwon, Miwon. One Place After Another: Site-Specific Art and Locational Identity. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002.

 

LaBelle, Brandon. Background Noise: Perspectives on Sound Art. London and New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006.

 

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.

 

Landsberg, Alison. Prosthetic Memory: The Transformation of American Remembrance in the Age of Mass Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.

 

Laws, Kenneth, and Francia Russell. Physics and the Art of Dance: Understanding Movement. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

 

le Blanc, Guillaume. Courir: Méditations Physiques. Paris: Éditions Flammarion, 2012.

Leahy, Helen Rees. Museum Bodies: The Politics of Practices of Visiting and Viewing. Surrey,

 

England: Ashgate, 2012.

Lederman, Gail. Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the

 

United States, 1880 - 1917. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995. Lefebvre, Henri. The Production of Space. Oxford: Blackwell, 1991.

 

Lehman, Arnold L., and Brenda Richardson, eds. Oskar Schlemmer. Baltimore: The Baltimore Museum of Art, 1986.

 

Lemke, Thomas. Bio-Politics: An Advanced Introduction. Translated by Eric Frederick Trump. New York: New York University Press, 2011.

 

Lepage, Jean-Denis G.G. Hitler Youth, 1922 - 1945: An Illustrated History. London: McFarland & Company, Inc.,2009.

  

Lepecki, André, ed. Dance: Documents of Contemporary Art. London: MIT Press and WhiteChapel Gallery, 2012.

 

Leposavić, Radonja. vlasTito iskustvo. Belgrade: Publikum, 2005.

Licht, Alan. Sound Art: Beyond Music, Between Categories. New York: Rizzoli International

 

Publications, 2007.

 

Lippard, Lucy. Six Years: The Dematerialization of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972. Berkley: University of California Press, 1973.

 

Loland, Sigmund, and Berit Skirstad, Ivan Waddington. Pain and Injury in Sport: Social and Ethical Analysis. New York: Routledge, 2006.

 

Luthar, Breda, and Maruša Pušnik, eds. Remembering Utopia: The Culture of Everyday Life in Socialist Yugoslavia. Washington, D.C.: New Academia Publishers, 2010.

 

Mackay, Robin, and Armen Avanessian, eds. #Accelerate: The Accelerationist Reader. Falmouth, UK: Urbanomic, 2014.

 

Malcolm, Noel. Bosnia: A Short Story. London: MacMillan, 1994.

Maletic, Vera. Body - Space - Expression: The Development of Rudolf Laban’s Movement and

 

Dance Concepts. Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter, 1987.

Marie, Michel. The French New Wave: An Artistic School. Translated by Richard Neupert.

 

Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1997.

 

Marien, Mary Warner. Photography: A Cultural History. 2nd Edition. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2002, 2006.

 

Marks, Laura. Touch: Sensuous Theory and Multisensory Media. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.

 

Marvin, Carolyn. When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking about Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.

 

Mathews, Nancy Mowll. “The Body in Motion.” In Moving Pictures: American Art and Early Film, 1880 - 1910. Manchester, Vermont: Hudson Hills Press, 2005.

 

Mauss, Marcel. “Techniques of the Body” (1934). In Incorporations, Zone 6. Edited by Jonathan Crary and Sanford Kwinter. New York: Zone, 1992.

 

Mazower, Mark. Dark Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century. New York: A.A. Knopf, 1999.

  

McGinnis, Peter M. Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise, Third Edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2013.

 

McSorley, Kevin, ed. War and the Body: Militarisation, Practice and Experience. New York: Routledge, 2013.

 

Meltzer, Eve. Systems We Have Loved: Conceptual Art, Affect, and the Antihumanist Turn. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 2013.

 

Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. The Phenomenology of Perception. Translated by Colin Smith. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962, 1989.

 

Metz, Christian. Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema. Translated by Michael Taylor. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.

 

Metz, Christian. “Photography and Fetish.” October. Volume 34 (Autumn, 1985).

Meyer, James. Minimalism: Art and Polemics in the Sixties. New Haven: Yale University Press,

 

Michelson, Annette, ed. Kino-Eye: The Writings of Dziga Vertov. Translated by Kevin O’Brien. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.

 

Mirzoeff, Nicholas, ed. The Visual Culture Reader, Second Edition. New York: Routledge, 1998, 2002.

 

Mishima, Yukio. Sun and Steel: His Personal Testament on Art, Action, and Ritual Death. New York: Kodansha, 1970.

 

Mondloch, Kate. Screens: Viewing Media Installation Art. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 2010.

 

Moore, Sarah J. Empire on Display: San Francisco’s Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013.

 

Morgan, William P. “Affective beneficence of vigorous physical activity.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Volume 17, Number 1 (February 1985).

 

Morse, Meredith. Soft is Fast: Simone Forti in the 1960s and After. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2016.

 

Mosse, George L. The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

 

Motherwell, Robert, ed. Dada Painters and Poets. New Haven: Harvard University Press, 1981.

  

Mozley, Anita Ventura, ed. Eadweard Muybridge: The Stanford Years, 1872 - 1882. San Francisco: Stanford University, 1972.

 

Mulvey, Laura. Death 24x a Second: Stillness and the Moving Image. London: Reaction books, 2006.

 

Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul LTD, 1934, 1955.

 

Muñoz, José Esteban. Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1999.

 

Musolff, Andreas. Metaphor, Nation, and the Holocaust: The Concept of the Body Politic. New York: Routledge, 2010.

 

New Collectivism, ed. Neue Slowenische Kunst. Translated by Marjan Golobič. Hong Kong: Paramount Printing, 1991.

 

Newman, Michael, and Jon Bird, eds. Rewriting Conceptual Art. London: Reaction Books, 1999. O’Doherty, Brian. Inside the White Cube: The Ideology of the Gallery Space. Berkley:

 

University of California Press, 1986.

 

O’Rourke, Karen. Walking and Mapping: Artists as Cartographers. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2013.

 

Obrist, Hans Ulrich. Do It: The Compendium. New York: Independent Curators International/D.A.P., 2013.

 

Partsch-Bergsohn, Isa. Modern Dance in Germany and the Untied States: Crosscurrents and Influences. Chur: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1994.

 

Passerini, Luisa, ed. Memory and Totalitarianism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Pavković, Aleksandar. The Fragmentation of Yugoslavia: Nationalism and War in the Balkans,

 

Second Edition. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.

 

Pegrum, Mark A. Challenging Modernity: Dada Between Modern and Postmodern. Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2000.

 

Peiffer, Lorenz. Sport im Nationalsozialismus: Zum aktuellen Stand der sporthistorischen Forschung. Göttingen: Verlag Die Werkstaat, 2004, 2015.

 

Pejić, Bojana, and David Elliot. After the Wall: Art and Culture in Post-Communist Europe. Stockholm: Moderna Museet, 1999.

  

Penz, Otto. “Sport and Speed.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport. Volume 25, Number 2 (June 1990).

 

Peoples, Crocker. “A Psychological Analysis of the ‘Runner’s High’ (Human Performance).” Physical Educator. Volume 40, Number 1 (March 1, 1983).

 

Perica, Vjekoslav. Balkan Idols: Religion and Nationalism in Yugoslav States. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

 

Petrov, Ana. “Telesni projekti i regulacija normativnog tela: uloga fizičke kulture u Jugoslaviji.” Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku. Issue 51, Number 2 (2014).

 

Pfister, Gertrud, ed. Gymnastics, A Transatlantic Movement: From Europe to America. New York: Routledge, 2011.

 

Phelan, Peggy. Unmarked: The Politics of Performance. New York: Routledge, 1993. Phillips, Christopher, ed. Photography in the Modern Era: European Documents and Critical

 

Writings, 1913 - 1940. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Aperature, 1990. Phillips, Murray G. Deconstructing Sport History: A Postmodern Analysis. Albany: State

 

University of New York Press, 2006.

 

Pissaro, Joachim, et al. Martin Creed: What’s the Point of It? London: Hayward Publishing, 2014.

 

Piotrowski, Piotr. In the Shadow of Yalta: Art and the Avant-Garde in Eastern Europe, 1945 - 1989. London: Reaktion, 2009.

 

Preston-Dunlop, Valerie. Rudolf Laban: An Extraordinary Life. London, Dance Books, 1998. Preziosi, Donald. Art Religion Amnesia: The Enchantments of Credulity. New York: Routledge,

  

Pursell, Caroll. White Heat: People and Technology. Berkley: University of California Press, 1994.

 

Quercetani, R. L. A World History of Track and Field Athletics 1864-1964. London: Oxford University Press, 1964.

 

Rabinbach, Anson. The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity. New York: Basic Books, 1990.

 

Rabinow, Paul, ed. The Foucault Reader. New York: Random House, 1984.

  

Radstone, Susannah, and Bill Schwarz, Memory: Histories, Theories, Debates. New York: Fordham University Press, 2010.

 

Rancière, Jacques. Aesthetics and its Discontents. Malden: Polity Press, 2004.

Rancière, Jacques. The Emancipated Spectator. Translated by Gregory Elliot. London: Verso,

 

Rancière, Jacques. The Politics of Aesthetics: The Distribution of the Sensible. London: Continuum, 2006.

 

Rees, A.L., and Duncan White, Steven Ball, David Curtis, eds. Expanded Cinema: Art, Performance, Film. London: Tate Publishing, 2011.

 

Rempel, Gerhard. Hitler’s Children: The Hitler Youth and the SS. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989.

 

Richards, Mary. Marina Abramović. New York: Routledge, 2010.

Ricoeur, Paul. Oneself as Another. Translated by Kathleen Blamey. Chicago: University of

 

Chicago Press, 1992.

Rosa, Hartmut. Beschleunigung und Entfremdung: Entwurf einer Kritischen Theorie

 

spätmoderner Zeitlichkeit. Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2013.

Rosa, Hartmut, and William E. Scheuerman. High-Speed: Social Acceleration, Power, and

 

Modernity. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, 2009.

Rosati, Lauren, and Mary Anne Staniszewski, eds. Alternative Histories: New York Art Spaces,

 

1960-2010. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2012.

 

Rosenstone, Robert A., “History in Images/History in Words: Reflections on the Possibility of Really Putting History onto Film.” The American Historical Review. Volume 93. Number 5 (December 1988).

 

Rossol, Nadine. Performing the Nation in Interwar Germany: Sport, Spectacle, and Political Symbolism, 1926 - 1936. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

 

Roxby-Maude, Alice, On Camera: Performance and Photography. Southampton: John Hansard Gallery, 2007.

 

Ruyter, Nancy Lee Chalfa. The Cultivation of Body and Mind in Nineteenth-Century American Delsartism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.

 

Salazar, James B. Bodies of Reform The Rhetoric of Character in Gilded Age America. New York: New York University Press, 2010.

  

Schechner, Richard. Essays on Performance Theory 1970 - 1976. New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1973, 1977.

 

Scheerder, Jeroen, and Koen Breedveld, eds. Running Across Europe: The Rise and Size of One of the Largest Sport Markets. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

 

Seckinelgin, H., and Billy Wong, eds. Global Civil Society 2011: Globally and the Absence of Justice. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

 

Sekula, Allan. “The Body and the Archive.” October. Volume 39 (Winter, 1986). Semon, Richard. Die mnemischen Empmfindungen in ihren Beziehungen zu den

 

Originalempfindungen. Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1909.

Shawn, Ted. Every Little Movement: A Book About François Delsarte. Pittsfield, MA: The Eagle

 

Printing and Binding Company, 1954.

Shayt, David H. “Stairway to Redemption: America’s Encounter with the British Prison

 

Treadmill.” Technology and Culture, Volume 30, Number 4 (Oct. 1989).

Sheridan, Heather, and Leslie Howe, and Keith Thompson, eds. Sporting Reflections: Some

 

Philosophical Perspectives. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer Verlag, 2007.

 

Siegmund, Gerald, and Stefan Hölscher, eds. Dance, Politics, and Co-Immunity: Thinking Resistances, Current Perspectives on Politics and Communities in the Arts. Volume 1. Zürich- Berlin: Diaphanes, 2013.

 

Sileo, Diego, and Eugenio Viola, PAC (Milano), eds. Marina Abramović: The Abramović Method. 2 Volumes. Milan: 24 ORE Cultura, 2012.

 

Silverman, Kaja. The Subject of Semiotics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.

Slevin, Tom. Vision of the Human: Art, World War One and the Modernist Subject. London: I.B.

 

Tauris, 2015.

 

Solnit, Rebecca. River of Shadows: Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West. New York: Viking, 2003.

 

Solnit, Rebecca. Wanderlust: A History of Walking. London: Verso, 2001.

Sontag, Susan. Against Interpretation and Other Essays. New York: Picador, 1966, 2001. Sontag, Susan. “Fascinating Fascism.” The New York Review of Books (6 February 1975). Sontag, Susan. On Photography. New York: Picador, 1977.

  

Spieker, Sven. The Big Archive: Art from Bureaucracy. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2008. Stepišnik, Drago. Oris Zgodovine Telesne Kulture na Slovenskem. Ljubljana: Dražavna založba

 

Slovenija, 1968.

 

Stipančić, Branka. “‘Zame je resničnost umetnost,’ Intervju s Tomislavom Gotovcem.” Vijenac, Number 123/VI (8 Oct. 1998).

 

Stoddart, Tom. Sarajevo. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998.

Stošić, Mirjana. “Body-name — The Brotherhood Chronotype and Social Choreography.”

 

Култура/Culture (2015).

Suljagić, Emir. Postcards from the Grave. Translated by Lejla Haverić. London: The Bosnian

 

Institute, 2005.

 

Susovski, Marijan, ed. The New Art Practice in Yugoslavia, 1966 - 1978. Zagreb: Gallery of Contemporary Art, 1978.

 

Sutil, Nicolás Salazar. Motion and Representation: The Language of Human Movement. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2015.

 

Swenson, Kirsten. Irrational Judgements: Eva Hesse, Sol Lewitt, and 1960s New York. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015.

 

Szeemann, Harold. Zum freien Tanz, zu reiner Kunst. Rolandseck: Stiftung Hans Arp und Sophie Taeuber-Arp, 1991.

 

Tagg, John. The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988.

 

Tilmans, Karin, and Frank van Vree, Jay Winter, eds. Performing the Past: Memory, History, and Identity in Modern Europe. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010.

 

Tumarkin, Maria M. Traumascapes: The Power and Fate of Places Transformed by Tragedies. Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 2005.

 

Udall, Sharyn R. Dance and American Art: A Long Embrace. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012.

 

Vacche, Angela Dalle. Film, Art, New Media: Museum without Walls? New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.

 

Vertinsky, Patricia Anne. The Eternally Wounded Woman: Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989.

  

Virilio, Paul. The Art of the Motor. Translated Julie Rose. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.

 

Weibel, Peter. Beyond Art: A Third Culture. Vienna: Ambra Verlag, 2005.

 

Wells, Liz, ed. Photography: A Critical Introduction. New York: Rutledge, 1996/2015.

 

Westcott, James. When Marina Abramović Dies: A Biography. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2010.

 

White, Hayden. “Historiography and Historiophoty.” The American Historical Review. Volume 93. Number 5 (December 1988).

 

White, Hayden V. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.

 

Wiehager, Renate, ed. Moving Pictures: Photography and Film in Contemporary Art. Ostfildern- Ruit, Germany: Hate Cantz Publishers, 2001.

 

Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society, 1780 - 1950. New York: Columbia University Press, 1958/1983.

 

Wood, Catherine. Yvonne Rainer: The Mind is a Muscle. London: Afterall, 2007. Wood, Denis. The Power of Maps. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

 

Woodward, Susan L. Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1995.

 

Young, Kevin. Deviance and Social Control in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008. Youngblood, Gene. Expanded Cinema. New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., 1970.

 

Zelizer, Barbie, ed. Visual Culture and the Holocaust. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001.

 

Zidić, Igor, and Ana Dević, Antonio Gotovac Lauer a.k.a. Tomislav Gotovac. Antonio Gotovac Lauer: Čelična mreža. Zagreb: Moderna Galerija and Studio Josip Račič, 2006.

 

Zorn, John W., ed. The Essential Delsarte. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc, 1968.

 

Žižek, Slavoj. The Indivisible Remainder: An Essay on Schelling and Related Matters. London: Verso, 1996.

 

----

  

------------about Venice Biennale history from wikipedia ---------

curators previous

* 1948 – Rodolfo Pallucchini

* 1966 – Gian Alberto Dell'Acqua

* 1968 – Maurizio Calvesi and Guido Ballo

* 1970 – Umbro Apollonio

* 1972 – Mario Penelope

* 1974 – Vittorio Gregotti

* 1978 – Luigi Scarpa

* 1980 – Luigi Carluccio

* 1982 – Sisto Dalla Palma

* 1984 – Maurizio Calvesi

* 1986 – Maurizio Calvesi

* 1988 – Giovanni Carandente

* 1990 – Giovanni Carandente

* 1993 – Achille Bonito Oliva

* 1995 – Jean Clair

* 1997 – Germano Celant

* 1999 – Harald Szeemann

* 2001 – Harald Szeemann

* 2003 – Francesco Bonami

* 2005 – María de Corral and Rosa Martinez

* 2007 – Robert Storr

* 2009 – Daniel Birnbaum

* 2011 – Bice Curiger

* 2013 – Massimiliano Gioni

* 2015 – Okwui Enwezor

* 2017 – Christine Macel[19]

* 2019 – Ralph Rugoff[20]

  

----------

 

#art #artist #artistic #artists #arte #artwork

 

Pavilion at the Venice Biennale #artcontemporain contemporary art Giardini arsenal

 

venice Veneziako VenecijaVenècia Venedig Venetië Veneetsia Venetsia Venise Venecia VenedigΒενετία( Venetía Hungarian Velence Feneyjar Venice Venezia Venēcija Venezja Venezia Wenecja Veneza VenețiaVenetsiya BenátkyBenetke Venecia Fenisוועניס Վենետիկ ভেনি স威尼斯 (wēinísī) 威尼斯 ვენეციისવે નિસवेनिसヴェネツィアವೆನಿಸ್베니스வெனிஸ்వెనిస్เวนิซوینس Venetsiya

 

art umjetnost umění kunst taide τέχνη művészetList ealaín arte māksla menasarti Kunst sztuka artă umenie umetnost konstcelfקונסטարվեստincəsənətশিল্প艺术(yìshù)藝術 (yìshù)ხელოვნებაकलाkos duabアートಕಲೆសិល្បៈ미술(misul)ສິນລະປະകലकलाအတတ်ပညာकलाකලාවகலைఆర్ట్ศิลปะ آرٹsan'atnghệ thuậtفن (fan)אומנותهنرsanat artist

 

other Biennale :(Biennials ) :

Venice Biennial , Documenta Havana Biennial,Istanbul Biennial ( Istanbuli),Biennale de Lyon ,Dak'Art Berlin Biennial,Mercosul Visual Arts Biennial ,Bienal do Mercosul Porto Alegre.,Berlin Biennial ,Echigo-Tsumari Triennial .Yokohama Triennial Aichi Triennale,manifesta ,Copenhagen Biennale,Aichi Triennale .Yokohama Triennial,Echigo-Tsumari Triennial.Sharjah Biennial ,Biennale of Sydney, Liverpool , São Paulo Biennial ; Athens Biennale , Bienal do Mercosul ,Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art ,DOCUMENTA KASSEL ATHENS

* Dakar

  

kritik [edit] kritikaria kritičar crític kritiker criticus kriitik kriitikko critique crítico Kritiker κριτικός(kritikós) kritikus Gagnrýnandi léirmheastóir critico kritiķis kritikas kritiku krytyk crítico critic crítico krytyk beirniad קריטיקער

 

Basque Veneziako Venecija [edit] Catalan Venècia Venedig Venetië Veneetsia Venetsia Venise Venecia Venedig Βενετία(Venetía) Hungarian Velence Feneyjar Venice Venezia Latvian Venēcija Venezja Venezia Wenecja Portuguese Veneza Veneția Venetsiya Benátky Benetke Venecia Fenis וועניס Վենետիկ ভেনিস 威尼斯 (wēinísī) 威尼斯 Georgian ვენეციის વેનિસ वेनिस ヴェネツィア ವೆನಿಸ್ 베니스 வெனிஸ் వెనిస్ เวนิซ وینس Venetsiya

 

Thierry Geoffroy / Colonel

#thierrygeoffroy #geoffroycolonel #thierrygeoffroycololonel #lecolonel #biennalist

 

#artformat #formatart

#emergencyart #urgencyart #urgentart #artofthenow #nowart

emergency art emergency art urgency artist de garde vagt alarm emergency room necessityart artistrole exigencyart predicament prediction pressureart

 

#InstitutionalCritique

 

#venicebiennale #venicebiennale2017 #venicebiennale2015

#venicebiennale2019

#venice #biennale #venicebiennale #venezia #italy

#venezia #venice #veniceitaly #venicebiennale

 

#pastlife #memory #venicebiennale #venice #Venezia #italy #hotelveniceitalia #artexhibit #artshow #internationalart #contemporaryart #themundane #summerday

 

#biennalevenice

 

Institutional Critique

 

Identity Politics Post-War Consumerism, Engagement with Mass Media, Performance Art, The Body, Film/Video, Political, Collage, , Cultural Commentary, Self as Subject, Color Photography, Related to Fashion, Digital Culture, Photography, Human Figure, Technology

 

Racial and Ethnic Identity, Neo-Conceptualism, Diaristic

 

Contemporary Re-creations, Popular Culture, Appropriation, Contemporary Sculpture,

 

Culture, Collective History, Group of Portraits, Photographic Source

 

, Endurance Art, Film/Video,, Conceptual Art and Contemporary Conceptualism, Color Photography, Human Figure, Cultural Commentary

 

War and Military, Political Figures, Social Action, Racial and Ethnic Identity, Conflict

 

Personal Histories, Alter Egos and Avatars

 

Use of Common Materials, Found Objects, Related to Literature, Installation, Mixed-Media, Engagement with Mass Media, Collage,, Outdoor Art, Work on Paper, Text

  

Appropriation (art) Art intervention Classificatory disputes about art Conceptual art Environmental sculpture Found object Interactive art Modern art Neo-conceptual art Performance art Sound art Sound installation Street installations Video installation Conceptual art Art movements Postmodern art Contemporary art Art media Aesthetics Conceptualism

 

Post-conceptualism Anti-anti-art Body art Conceptual architecture Contemporary art Experiments in Art and Technology Found object Happening Fluxus Information art Installation art Intermedia Land art Modern art Neo-conceptual art Net art Postmodern art Generative Art Street installation Systems art Video art Visual arts ART/MEDIA conceptual artis

 

—-

 

CRITICAL RUN is an art format developed by Thierry Geoffroy / COLONEL, It follows the spirit of ULTRACONTEMPORARY and EMERGENCY ART as well as aims to train the AWARENESS MUSCLE.​

Critical Run has been activated on invitation from institutions such as Moderna Muset Stockholm, Moma PS1 ,Witte de With Rotterdam, ZKM Karlsruhe, Liverpool Biennale, Manifesta Biennial ,Sprengel Museum,Venice Biennale but have also just happened on the spot because a debate was necessary here and now.

 

It has been activated in Beijing, Cairo, London, Istanbul, Athens, Kassel, Sao Paolo, Hanoi, Istanbul, Paris, Copenhagen, Moskow, Napoli, Sydney, Wroclaw, Bruxelles, Rotterdam, Siberia, Karlsruhe, Barcelona, Aalborg, Venice, Virginia, Stockholm, Aarhus, Rio de Janeiro, Budapest, Washington, Lyon, Caracas, Trondheim, Berlin, Toronto, Hannover, Haage, Newtown, Cartagena, Tallinn, Herning, Roskilde;Mannheim ;Munich etc...

 

The run debates are about emergency topics like Climate Change , Xenophobia , Wars , Hyppocrisie , Apathy ,etc ...

 

Participants have been very various from Sweddish art critics , German police , American climate activist , Chinese Gallerists , Brasilian students , etc ...

 

Critical Run is an art format , like Emergency Room or Biennalist and is part of Emergency Art ULTRACONTEMPORARY and AWARENESS MUSCLE .

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/criticalrun.html

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

-------

In 2020 a large exhibition will show 40 of the Critical Run at the Museum Villa Stuck in Munich / part of the Awareness Muscle Training Center

------

for activating the format or for inviting the installation

please contact 1@colonel.dk

 

www.colonel.dk/

 

-----

 

critical,run,art,format,debate ,artformat,formatart,moment,clarity,emergency,kunst,

 

Sport,effort,curator,artist,urgency,urgence,criticalrun,emergencies,ultracontemporary

,rundebate,sport,art,activism, critic,laufen,Thierry Geoffroy , Colonel,kunstformat

 

,now art,copenhagen,denmark

 

Post-apocalyptic visuals...

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Source: Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)

Galinoporni (Greek: Γαληνόπορνη; Turkish: Kaleburnu) is a village in Cyprus, located on the southern side of the Karpas Peninsula. Galinoporni is under the de facto control of Northern Cyprus. As of 2011, it had a population of 333.

 

The village has always been exclusively populated by Turkish Cypriots. It has a permanent population but is also inhabited in the summer months by villagers who emigrated to the United Kingdom as a result of the Cyprus Dispute.Cypriot Turkish is the most commonly spoken dialect, though most elderly inhabitants can speak and understand both Turkish and Greek, with some speaking Greek as a first language.

 

The surroundings of the village host two Bronze Age sites: in Kraltepe the remains of a palace have been excavated, whose dwellers had trade contacts with the eastern coast of the Mediterranean sea around 1200 BC.[5] In Nitovikla there is a fortress dating back to 1500 BC, whose citadel has been erected in the style of the Hittitian fortress of Hattusa in Anatolia. Moreover, in Avtepe there is an important group of caves.

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

Koro, cyborg Special Operator for the Kawashita Group, tracks a scientists called Dr. Markham who has been accused by many of his colleagues. The crime? Selling secrets to rival Octan Corporation. Markham runs half out of imagined fear, but half because the reputation of Kawashita means that someone will be coming, sooner or later, and didn't Markham think he saw a figure hopping between the Torii?

The double broken pediment on the main facade has a relief of Mary standing on a cannon, flags, and other military attributes.

 

Below the relief, Latin inscription reads REGINA PACIS FUNDA NOS IN PACE (Queen of Peace, protect us in peace) and reflects the intentions of the founder Pac and is a word play on his last name.

========================================================

From Wikipedia:

 

St. Peter and St. Paul's Church is a Roman Catholic church located in the Antakalnis neighbourhood of Vilnius, Lithuania.

 

Construction was begun in 1688 and the decorative works were completed in 1704.

 

It is the centerpiece of a former monastery complex of the Canons Regular of the Lateran.

 

Its interior has masterful compositions of some 2,000 stucco figures by Giovanni Pietro Perti and ornamentation by Giovanni Maria Galli and is unique in Europe.

 

The church is considered a masterpiece of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Baroque.

 

The interior of the church changed relatively little since that time.

 

The major change was the loss of the main altar. The wooden altar was moved to the Catholic church in Daugai in 1766.[4]

 

The altar is now dominated by the Farewell of St. Peter and St. Paul, a large painting by Franciszek Smuglewicz, installed there in 1805.

 

The interior was restored by Giovanni Beretti and Nicolae Piano from Milan in 1801–04.[11]

 

At the same time, a new pulpit imitating the ship of Saint Peter was installed.

 

In 1864, as reprisal for the failed January Uprising, Mikhail Muravyov-Vilensky closed the monastery and converted its buildings into military barracks.[11]

 

There were plans to turn the church into an Eastern Orthodox church, but they never materialized.[11] In 1901–05, the interior was restored again. The church acquired the boat-shaped chandelier and the new pipe organ with two manuals and 23 organ stops.[12]

 

The dome was damaged during World War II bombings, but was rebuilt true to its original design.[12]

 

When in 1956 Vilnius Cathedral was converted into an art museum by Soviet authorities, the silver sarcophagus with sacred relics of Saint Casimir was moved to the St. Peter and St. Paul's Church.[13] The sarcophagus was returned to its place in 1989.

 

Despite religious persecutions in the Soviet Union, extensive interior restoration was carried out in 1976–87.[11]

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St._Peter_and_St._Paul,_V...

========================================================

From the Church's Brochure

The church was erected after the Russian invasion that devastated Vilnius in the mid-17th century.

 

Barely a dozen years passed, and the capital of Lithuania began to recover.

 

In 1668 Mykolas Kazimieras Pacas, Hetman of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and wojewode of Vilnius, embarked upon the Antakalnis.

 

The church is decorated by the stucco mouldings of two excellent Italian sculptors, Giovanni Pietro Petri and Giovanni Maria Galli.

 

The interior of the church consists of the main nave, six chapels on both sides, and the transept.

During the summer of 1867 three clever Romualdo Roccatani, a Roman archpriestDo1 José Maroto Conde de Fresno y Landres, a Spanish grandee, and Colonel Don Antonio Jimenez de la Rosa, a Neapolitan chevalier. The possessors of these sonorous names had a secret process for turning silver into gold. They were shrewd enough to realize that Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria was, by dynastic tradition at least, keenly interested in alchemy. ues met in Paris: Arriving in Vienna they cleverly obtained an audience with the monarch and offered him the most momentous discovery of all time. In Mariposa, California, they told His Majesty, were natural deposits of white nuggets which contained gold formed from silver by the action of mercury and the heat of the sun. They continued: “This same process of transmutation may be brought about much more quickly by artificial methods, through giving the amalgam a specific gravity of 15.47. Thereby a process of nature is imitated when the silver amalgam is exposed to a greatly increased temperature." Francis Joseph made an initial payment of $10,000 for the secret, and assigned Professor Schrötter, discoverer of red phosphorus, to supervise a small-scale experiment in the laboratory of the Polytechnic. On October 17, 1867, two iron pots and two glass retorts were filled with silver amalgam and heated for four months. The vessels then cracked. No gold was found. Then, opportunely, the adventurers disappeared, thus cheating the gibbet of three distinguished victims. In the New World, too, soon after the founding of the Republic, alchemy had its adepts. “Father" George Rapp, a Pietist priest, in 1804 brought over five hundred of his followers from Württemberg, Germany, in search of religious freedom. They first settled in western Pennsylvania and later in the village of Harmonie, called Economy, which they founded on the Ohio River, 18 miles from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. They shared their work and possessions and at first the sect prospered. When Rapp died in 1847 the Utopian Society weakened and finally dissolved in 1905. Rapp conducted a secret school of alchemy consisting of a few disciples including three women. They worked in a well-equipped alchemical laboratory which even included a fume hood. Rapp was searching not for gold even though he used large quantities of cinnabar, the chief ore of mercury. Influenced by the writings of Paracelsus and Jacob Boehme, an alchemical mystic, Rapp invoked the aid of God in his religious quest for an elixir that would bring its adepts ultimate purity of mind. Old Economy is now a Pennsylvania State Museum. About the time that the Harmony Society was dissolved, a more venturesome alchemical enterprise was started by a Dr. Stephen H. Emmens. This English poet, novelist, logician, chemist, and metallurgist claimed to have discovered "argentaurum," a modern philosopher's stone which could augment the amount of gold in an alloy of gold and silver. Many fanciful stories about this undertaking appeared in the press, even though Dr. Emmens tried earnestly to surround his experiments with strictest secrecy. Much of what appeared in print was deceptive, but this we know the syndicate formed by the English adventurer sold to the United States Assay Office six ingots of an alloy weighing ten pounds which upon analysis showed the presence of gold and silver. The government paid him the sum of $954 for the metals, and Dr. Emmens straightway advanced this payment as proof of his astonishing success. For a moment the affair seemed to promise a recrudescence of alchemy.

 

The first dividends were paid, and Emmens even promised a public demonstration at the World Fair in 1900, which, however, never materialized. The whole scheme was a fraud and before long the name of Dr. Emmens was added to that long list of men and women who have gone down in the limbo of the past among the spectacular failures of history. Emperor Franz need after his political break a lot of money and go to The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 (German: Ausgleich, Hungarian: Kiegyezés) established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The compromise put an end to the 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary, which was introduced by Francis Joseph after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The Compromise partially re-established[1] the former sovereignty of the Kingdom of Hungary, however being separate from, but no longer subject to the Austrian Empire. The agreement also restored the old historic constitution of the Kingdom of Hungary.

 

The Hungarian political leaders had two main goals during the negotiations. One was to regain the traditional status (both legal and political) of the Hungarian state, which was lost after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The other was to restore the series of reform laws of the revolutionary parliament of 1848, which were based on the 12 points that established modern civil and political rights, economic and societal reforms in Hungary. Even the April Laws of the Hungarian revolutionary parliament (with the exception of the laws based on the 9th and 10th points) were restored by Francis Joseph. Under the Compromise, the lands of the House of Habsburg were reorganized as a real union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, headed by a single monarch who reigned as Emperor of Austria in the Austrian half of the empire, and as King of Hungary in Kingdom of Hungary. The Cisleithanian (Austrian) and Transleithanian (Hungarian) states were governed by separate parliaments and prime ministers. The two countries conducted unified foreign diplomatic and defense policies. For these purposes, "common" ministries of foreign affairs and defence were maintained under the monarch's direct authority, as was a third ministry responsible only for financing the two "common" portfolios. The compromise remained bitterly unpopular among the ethnic Hungarian voters, because ethnic Hungarians did not vote for the ruling pro-compromise parties in the Hungarian parliamentary elections. Therefore the political maintenance of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise (thus Austria-Hungary itself) was mostly a result of the popularity of pro-compromise ruling Liberal Party among the ethnic minority voters in Kingdom of Hungary.

 

According to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, "There were three of us who made the agreement: Deák, Andrássy and myself."

 

In the failed Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Magyars came close to regaining independence and were defeated by the Austrian Empire only by the military intervention of the Russian Empire. After the restoration of Habsburg power, Hungary was placed under martial law.[ A military dictatorship was created in Hungary. Every aspect of Hungarian life was put under close scrutiny and governmental control. Prime Minister Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg and his government, operating from November 1848, pursued a radically new imperial policy. It wanted to develop a uniform empire in the spirit of the imperial constitution issued by Franz Joseph I in Olmütz on 4 March 1849, and as a result, Hungary's constitution and territorial integrity were abolished. The centralist March Constitution of Austria introduced the neo-absolutism in Habsburg ruled territories, and it provided absolute power for the monarch. The Austrian constitution was accepted by the Imperial Diet of Austria, in which Hungary had no representation and traditionally had no legislative power in the territory of Kingdom of Hungary; still, it also tried to abolish the Diet of Hungary, which existed as the legislative power in Hungary since the late 12th century. The new Austrian constitution also went against the historical constitution of Hungary and tried to nullify it.

 

German became the official language of public administration. An edict issued on 9 October 1849 placed education under state control, the curriculum was prescribed and controlled by the state, the teaching of national history was restricted and history was taught from a Habsburg viewpoint. Even the bastion of Hungarian culture, the Academy, was kept under control: the institution was staffed with foreigners, mostly Germans, and the institution was practically defunct until[clarification needed] the end of 1858.Hungarians responded with passive resistance. Anti-Habsburg and anti-German sentiments were strong. In the following years, the empire instituted several reforms but failed to resolve problems.

 

After the Hungarian revolution of 1848–49, the independent customs system of Hungary was abolished, and Hungary became part of the unified imperial customs system on 1 October 1851.

 

In 1866, Austria was completely defeated in the Austro-Prussian War. Its position as the leading state of Germany ended, and the remaining German minor states were soon absorbed into the German Empire, created by Prussia. Austria also lost much of its remaining claims and influence in Italy, which had been its chief foreign policy interest.

 

After a period of Greater German ambitions, when Austria tried to establish itself as the leading German power, Austria again needed to redefine itself to maintain unity in the face of nationalism.

 

As a consequence of the Second Italian War of Independence and the Austro-Prussian War, the Habsburg Empire was on the verge of collapse in 1866, as these wars caused monumental state debt and a financial crisis.The Habsburgs were forced to reconcile with Hungary, to save their empire and dynasty. The Habsburgs and part of the Hungarian political elite arranged the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Compromise was arranged and legitimated by a very small part of the Hungarian society (suffrage was very limited: less than 8% of the population had voting rights), and was seen by a very large part of the population as betrayal of the Hungarian cause and the heritage of the 1848–49 War of Independence. This caused deep and lasting cracks in Hungarian society.

 

Hungarian statesman Ferenc Deák is considered the intellectual force behind the Compromise. Deák initially wanted independence for Hungary and supported the 1848 Revolution, but he broke with hardline nationalists and advocated a modified union under the Habsburgs. Deák believed that while Hungary had the right to full internal independence, the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1723 made questions of defence and foreign affairs "common" to both Austria and Hungary. He also felt that Hungary benefited from continued union with wealthier, more industrialized Austria and that the Compromise would end the continual pressures on Austria to choose between the Magyars and the Slavs of the Kingdom of Hungary.[34] Imperial Chancellor Beust quickly negotiated the Compromise with the Hungarian leaders. Beust was particularly eager to renew the conflict with Prussia and thought a quick settlement with Hungary would make that possible. Franz Joseph and Deák signed the Compromise, and it was ratified by the restored Diet of Hungary on 29 May 1867. Beust's revenge against Prussia did not materialize. When, in 1870, Beust wanted Austria–Hungary to support France against Prussia, Hungarian Prime Minister Gyula Andrássy was "vigorously opposed" and effectively vetoed Austrian intervention.

 

The settlement with Hungary consisted then of three parts: the political settlement, which was to be permanent and would remain part of the fundamental constitution of the monarchy; the periodical financial settlement, determining the partition of the common expenses as arranged by the Quota-Deputations and ratified by the parliaments; and the Customs Union and the agreement on currency, a voluntary, reversible arrangement between the two governments and parliaments.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise_of_1867

 

Following the accession of Franz Joseph to the throne in 1848, the political representatives of the Kingdom of Bohemia hoped and insisted that account should be taken of their historical state rights in the upcoming constitution. They felt the position of Bohemia within the Habsburg Monarchy should have been highlighted by a coronation of the new ruler to the king of Bohemia in Prague (the last coronation took place in 1836). However before the 19th century the Habsburgs had ruled Bohemia by hereditary right and a separate coronation was not deemed necessary.

 

His new government installed the system of neoabsolutism in Austrian internal affairs to make the Austrian Empire a unitary, centralised and bureaucratically administered state. When Franz Joseph returned to constitutional rule after the debacles in Italy at Magenta and Solferino and summoned the diets of his lands, the question of his coronation as king of Bohemia again returned to the agenda, as it had not since 1848. On 14 April 1861, Emperor Franz Joseph received a delegation from the Bohemian Diet with his words (in Czech):

 

"I will have myself crowned King of Bohemia in Prague, and I am convinced that a new, indissoluble bond of trust and loyalty between My throne and My Bohemian Kingdom will be strengthened by this holy rite.

 

The main foreign policy goal of Franz Joseph had been the unification of Germany under the House of Habsburg.] This was justified on grounds of precedence; from 1452 to the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, with only one period of interruption under the Wittelsbachs, the Habsburgs had generally held the German crown.However, Franz Joseph's desire to retain the non-German territories of the Habsburg Austrian Empire in the event of German unification proved problematic.If Greater Germany were to prevail, the crown would necessarily have to go to Franz Joseph, who had no desire to cede it in the first place to anyone else.On the other hand, if the idea of a smaller Germany won out, the German crown could of course not possibly go to the Emperor of Austria, but would naturally be offered to the head of the largest and most powerful German state outside of Austria—the King of Prussia. The contest between the two ideas, quickly developed into a contest between Austria and Prussia. After Prussia decisively won the Seven Weeks War, this question was solved; Austria lost no territories to Prussia as long as they remained out of German affairs.Franz Joseph's German identity was made explicitly clear during a meeting in August 1908 between himself and Edward VII when the latter tried to persuade him to abandon Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany for co-operation with England; Franz Joseph replied that he was a "loyal ally" and said "I am a German prince.

 

During the mid-1870s a series of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule broke out in the Balkans, and the Turks responded with equally violent and oppressive reprisals. Tsar Alexander II of Russia, wanting to intervene against the Ottomans, sought and obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary.

 

In 1908, the Russian foreign minister, Alexander Izvolsky, offered Russian support, for the third time, for the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, in exchange for Austrian support for the opening of the Bosporus Strait and the Dardanelles to Russian warships. Austria's foreign minister, Alois von Aehrenthal, pursued this offer vigorously, resulting in the quid pro quo understanding with Izvolsky, reached on 16 September 1908 at the Buchlau Conference. However, Izvolsky made this agreement with Aehrenthal without the knowledge of Tsar Nicholas II or his government in St. Petersburg, or any of the other foreign powers including Britain, France and Serbia. Based upon the assurances of the Buchlau Conference and the treaties that preceded it, Franz Joseph signed the proclamation announcing the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina into the Empire on 6 October 1908. However a diplomatic crisis erupted, as both the Serbs and the Italians demanded compensation for the annexation, which the Austro-Hungarian government refused to entertain. The incident was not resolved until the revision of the Treaty of Berlin in April 1909, exacerbating tensions between Austria-Hungary and the Serbs.

 

On 28 June 1914 Franz Joseph's nephew and heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his morganatic wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Yugoslav nationalist of Serbian ethnicity, during a visit to Sarajevo. When he heard the news of the assassination, Franz Joseph said that "one has not to defy the Almighty. In this manner a superior power has restored that order which I unfortunately was unable to maintain.",While the emperor was shaken, and interrupted his holiday to return to Vienna, he soon resumed his vacation at his imperial villa at Bad Ischl. Initial decision-making during the "July Crisis" fell to Count Leopold Berchtold, the Austrian foreign minister; Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, the chief of staff for the Austro-Hungarian army and the other ministers.The ultimate resolution of deliberations by the Austrian government during the weeks following the assassination of the Archduke was to give Serbia an ultimatum of itemized demands with which it was virtually certain Serbia would be unable or unwilling to comply, thus serving as a "legal basis for war." However, the general movement toward war with Serbia was already in motion prior to assassination of the Archduke as evidenced by a 14 June memo of Berchtold recommending the "elimination of Serbia" as a state, which Franz Joseph expressed agreement with in a letter delivered to Kaiser Wilhelm II in Berlin on 5 July. In that letter, Franz Joseph "...explicitly stated that the decision for war against Serbia had been made before the assassination of the Archduke, and that the events of Sarajevo only confirmed the already pre-existing need for a war.",A week after delivery of the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, on 28 July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Within weeks, the Germans, Russians, French and British had all entered the fray which eventually became known as World War I. On 6 August, Franz Joseph signed the declaration of war against Russia.

  

Franz Joseph died in the Schönbrunn Palace on the evening of 21 November 1916, at the age of 86. His death was a result of developing pneumonia of the right lung several days after catching a cold while walking in Schönbrunn Park with the King of Bavaria. He was succeeded by his grandnephew Charles I, who reigned until the collapse of the Empire following its defeat in 1918.

 

He is buried in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna, where flowers are still left by monarchists

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria

The Biddulph Gate in Famagusta, Turkish Republic of North Cyprus, is a ruined structure named after General Sir Robert Biddulph. It is situated within the walled city of Famagusta but is not part of the defensive wall. The gate's current state is that of a ruin.

 

The history of the Biddulph Gate is closely tied to General Sir Robert Biddulph, a British military officer who served in Cyprus during the late 19th century. It is believed that the gate was named in his honor, possibly due to his contributions or association with the region.

 

The exact origins and architectural details of the Biddulph Gate are unclear due to its ruined state. It is possible that the gate had historical significance and functioned as an entry point or passage within the walled city of Famagusta. However, the lack of available information makes it challenging to provide an in-depth account of its original purpose or design.

 

Over time, the Biddulph Gate fell into disrepair and is now in a ruined state. The specific reasons for its deterioration or the events that led to its current condition remain unclear. The gate's ruinous state adds to its historical intrigue and provides a sense of mystery surrounding its past.

 

Despite its ruined state, the Biddulph Gate holds cultural and historical importance as a tangible reminder of Famagusta's past. It serves as a poignant symbol of the city's history and the passage of time.

 

Preservation and restoration efforts may be necessary to protect the Biddulph Gate and prevent further deterioration. These initiatives could focus on stabilizing the structure, conducting archaeological research, and potentially opening it up to visitors as a cultural and historical attraction.

 

In conclusion, the Biddulph Gate in Famagusta, Turkish Republic of North Cyprus, is a ruined structure named after General Sir Robert Biddulph. While its exact origins and original purpose are unclear due to its current state, the gate's association with General Biddulph and its location within the walled city of Famagusta contribute to its historical significance. Efforts to preserve and understand this cultural heritage site may be necessary to ensure its continued appreciation and exploration.

 

General Sir Robert Biddulph, (26 August 1835 – 18 November 1918) was a senior British Army officer. He served as Quartermaster-General to the Forces in 1893, and was then Governor of Gibraltar until 1900.

 

Military career

Educated at Twyford School and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, Biddulph was commissioned into the Royal Artillery in 1853. He served in the Crimean War and was present at the Siege of Sevastopol in 1854. He then served in the Indian Mutiny, and was Brigade Major during the Siege of Lucknow in 1857.

 

In 1871 he was selected to be Assistant Adjutant-General at the War Office and then in 1879 he succeeded Sir Garnet Wolseley as High Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief of Cyprus. In 1886, he returned to London to be Inspector-General of Recruiting and two years later became Director-General of Military Education. In 1893 he was briefly Quartermaster-General to the Forces. Later that year he became Governor of Gibraltar, serving as such until 1900. He was Colonel Commandant of Royal Artillery, and was placed on retired pay on 26 August 1902.

 

His final appointment, in 1904, was as Army Purchase Commissioner: in that capacity he abolished the purchase of commissions.

 

He was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the 1899 Birthday Honours. Biddulph's Gate in Famagusta in Cyprus is named after him.

 

Famagusta is a city on the east coast of the de facto state Northern Cyprus. It is located east of Nicosia and possesses the deepest harbour of the island. During the Middle Ages (especially under the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice), Famagusta was the island's most important port city and a gateway to trade with the ports of the Levant, from where the Silk Road merchants carried their goods to Western Europe. The old walled city and parts of the modern city are de facto part of Northern Cyprus as the capital of the Gazimağusa District.

 

The city was known as Arsinoe or Arsinoë (Greek: Ἀρσινόη, Arsinóē) in antiquity, after Ptolemy II of Egypt's sister and wife Arsinoe II.

 

By the 3rd century, the city appears as Ammochostos (Greek: Ἀμμόχωστος or Αμμόχωστος, Ammókhōstos, "Hidden in Sand") in the Stadiasmus Maris Magni.[5] This name is still used in modern Greek with the pronunciation [aˈmːoxostos], while it developed into Latin Fama Augusta, French Famagouste, Italian Famagosta, and English Famagusta during the medieval period. Its informal modern Turkish name Mağusa (Turkish pronunciation: [maˈusa]) came from the same source. Since 1974, it has formally been known to Turkey and Northern Cyprus as Gazimağusa ([ɡaːzimaˈusa]), from the addition of the title gazi, meaning "veteran" or "one who has faught in a holy war".

 

In the early medieval period, the city was also known as New Justiniana (Greek: Νέα Ἰουστινιανία, Néa Ioustinianía) in appreciation for the patronage of the Byzantine emperor Justinian, whose wife Theodora was born there.

 

The old town of Famagusta has also been nicknamed "the City of 365 Churches" from the legend that, at its peak, it boasted a church for every day of the year.

 

The city was founded around 274 BC, after the serious damage to Salamis by an earthquake, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus and named "Arsinoe" after his sister.[6] Arsinoe was described as a "fishing town" by Strabo in his Geographica in the first century BC. In essence, Famagusta was the successor of the most famous and most important ancient city of Cyprus, Salamis. According to Greek mythology, Salamis was founded after the end of the Trojan War by Teucros, the son of Telamon and brother of Aedes, from the Greek island of Salamis.

 

The city experienced great prosperity much later, during the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. To honor the city, from which his wife Theodora came, Justinian enriched it with many buildings, while the inhabitants named it New Justiniania to express their gratitude. In AD 647, when the neighboring cities were destroyed by Arab raiding, the inhabitants of these cities moved to Famagusta, as a result of which the city's population increased significantly and the city experienced another boom.

 

Later, when Jerusalem was occupied by the Arabs, the Christian population fled to Famagusta, as a result of which the city became an important Christian center, but also one of the most important commercial centers in the eastern Mediterranean.

 

The turning point for Famagusta was 1192 with the onset of Lusignan rule. It was during this period that Famagusta developed as a fully-fledged town. It increased in importance to the Eastern Mediterranean due to its natural harbour and the walls that protected its inner town. Its population began to increase. This development accelerated in the 13th century as the town became a centre of commerce for both the East and West. An influx of Christian refugees fleeing the downfall of Acre (1291) in Palestine transformed it from a tiny village into one of the richest cities in Christendom.

 

In 1372 the port was seized by Genoa and in 1489 by Venice. This commercial activity turned Famagusta into a place where merchants and ship owners led lives of luxury. By the mid-14th century, Famagusta was said to have the richest citizens in the world. The belief that people's wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches built in varying styles. These churches, which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as "the district of churches". The development of the town focused on the social lives of the wealthy people and was centred upon the Lusignan palace, the cathedral, the Square and the harbour.

 

In 1570–1571, Famagusta was the last stronghold in Venetian Cyprus to hold out against the Turks under Mustafa Pasha. It resisted a siege of thirteen months and a terrible bombardment, until at last the garrison surrendered. The Ottoman forces had lost 50,000 men, including Mustafa Pasha's son. Although the surrender terms had stipulated that the Venetian forces be allowed to return home, the Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadin, was flayed alive, his lieutenant Tiepolo was hanged, and many other Christians were killed.

 

With the advent of the Ottoman rule, Latins lost their privileged status in Famagusta and were expelled from the city. Greek Cypriots natives were at first allowed to own and buy property in the city, but were banished from the walled city in 1573–74 and had to settle outside in the area that later developed into Varosha. Turkish families from Anatolia were resettled in the walled city but could not fill the buildings that previously hosted a population of 10,000. This caused a drastic decrease in the population of Famagusta. Merchants from Famagusta, who mostly consisted of Latins that had been expelled, resettled in Larnaca and as Larnaca flourished, Famagusta lost its importance as a trade centre. Over time, Varosha developed into a prosperous agricultural town thanks to its location away from the marshes, whilst the walled city remained dilapidated.

 

In the walled city, some buildings were repurposed to serve the interests of the Muslim population: the Cathedral of St. Nicholas was converted to a mosque (now known as Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque), a bazaar was developed, public baths, fountains and a theological school were built to accommodate the inhabitants' needs. Dead end streets, an Ottoman urban characteristic, was imported to the city and a communal spirit developed in which a small number of two-storey houses inhabited by the small upper class co-existed with the widespread one-storey houses.

 

With the British takeover, Famagusta regained its significance as a port and an economic centre and its development was specifically targeted in British plans. As soon as the British took over the island, a Famagusta Development Act was passed that aimed at the reconstruction and redevelopment of the city's streets and dilapidated buildings as well as better hygiene. The port was developed and expanded between 1903 and 1906 and Cyprus Government Railway, with its terminus in Famagusta, started construction in 1904. Whilst Larnaca continued to be used as the main port of the island for some time, after Famagusta's use as a military base in World War I trade significantly shifted to Famagusta. The city outside the walls grew at an accelerated rate, with development being centred around Varosha. Varosha became the administrative centre as the British moved their headquarters and residences there and tourism grew significantly in the last years of the British rule. Pottery and production of citrus and potatoes also significantly grew in the city outside the walls, whilst agriculture within the walled city declined to non-existence.

 

New residential areas were built to accommodate the increasing population towards the end of the British rule,[11] and by 1960, Famagusta was a modern port city extending far beyond Varosha and the walled city.

 

The British period saw a significant demographic shift in the city. In 1881, Christians constituted 60% of the city's population while Muslims were at 40%. By 1960, the Turkish Cypriot population had dropped to 17.5% of the overall population, while the Greek Cypriot population had risen to 70%. The city was also the site for one of the British internment camps for nearly 50,000 Jewish survivors of the Holocaust trying to emigrate to Palestine.

 

From independence in 1960 to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus of 1974, Famagusta developed toward the south west of Varosha as a well-known entertainment and tourist centre. The contribution of Famagusta to the country's economic activity by 1974 far exceeded its proportional dimensions within the country. Whilst its population was only about 7% of the total of the country, Famagusta by 1974 accounted for over 10% of the total industrial employment and production of Cyprus, concentrating mainly on light industry compatible with its activity as a tourist resort and turning out high-quality products ranging from food, beverages and tobacco to clothing, footwear, plastics, light machinery and transport equipment. It contributed 19.3% of the business units and employed 21.3% of the total number of persons engaged in commerce on the island. It acted as the main tourist destination of Cyprus, hosting 31.5% of the hotels and 45% of Cyprus' total bed capacity. Varosha acted as the main touristic and business quarters.

 

In this period, the urbanisation of Famagusta slowed down and the development of the rural areas accelerated. Therefore, economic growth was shared between the city of Famagusta and the district, which had a balanced agricultural economy, with citrus, potatoes, tobacco and wheat as main products. Famagusta maintained good communications with this hinterland. The city's port remained the island's main seaport and in 1961, it was expanded to double its capacity in order to accommodate the growing volume of exports and imports. The port handled 42.7% of Cypriot exports, 48.6% of imports and 49% of passenger traffic.

 

There has not been an official census since 1960 but the population of the town in 1974 was estimated to be around 39,000 not counting about 12,000–15,000 persons commuting daily from the surrounding villages and suburbs to work in Famagusta. The number of people staying in the city would swell to about 90,000–100,000 during the peak summer tourist period, with the influx of tourists from numerous European countries, mainly Britain, France, Germany and the Scandinavian countries. The majority of the city population were Greek Cypriots (26,500), with 8,500 Turkish Cypriots and 4,000 people from other ethnic groups.

 

During the second phase of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 14 August 1974 the Mesaoria plain was overrun by Turkish tanks and Famagusta was bombed by Turkish aircraft. It took two days for the Turkish Army to occupy the city, prior to which Famagusta's entire Greek Cypriot population had fled into surrounding fields. As a result of Turkish airstrikes dozens of civilians died, including tourists.

 

Unlike other parts of the Turkish-controlled areas of Cyprus, the Varosha suburb of Famagusta was fenced off by the Turkish army immediately after being captured and remained fenced off until October 2020, when the TRNC reopened some streets to visitors. Some Greek Cypriots who had fled Varosha have been allowed to view the town and journalists have been allowed in.

 

UN Security Council resolution 550 (1984) considers any attempts to settle any part of Famagusta by people other than its inhabitants as inadmissible and calls for the transfer of this area to the administration of the UN. The UN's Security Council resolution 789 (1992) also urges that with a view to the implementation of resolution 550 (1984), the area at present under the control of the United Nations Peace-keeping Force in Cyprus be extended to include Varosha.

 

Famagusta's historic city centre is surrounded by the fortifications of Famagusta, which have a roughly rectangular shape, built mainly by the Venetians in the 15th and 16th centuries, though some sections of the walls have been dated earlier times, as far as 1211.

 

Some important landmarks and visitor attractions in the old city are:

The Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque

The Othello Castle

Palazzo del Provveditore - the Venetian palace of the governor, built on the site of the former Lusignan royal palace

St. Francis' Church

Sinan Pasha Mosque

Church of St. George of the Greeks

Church of St. George of the Latins

Twin Churches

Nestorian Church (of St George the Exiler)

Namık Kemal Dungeon

Agios Ioannis Church

Venetian House

Akkule Masjid

Mustafa Pasha Mosque

Ganchvor monastery

 

In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage, Global Heritage Fund listed Famagusta, a "maritime ancient city of crusader kings", among the 12 sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing insufficient management and development pressures.

 

Famagusta is an important commercial hub of Northern Cyprus. The main economic activities in the city are tourism, education, construction and industrial production. It has a 115-acre free port, which is the most important seaport of Northern Cyprus for travel and commerce. The port is an important source of income and employment for the city, though its volume of trade is restricted by the embargo against Northern Cyprus. Its historical sites, including the walled city, Salamis, the Othello Castle and the St Barnabas Church, as well as the sandy beaches surrounding it make it a tourist attraction; efforts are also underway to make the city more attractive for international congresses. The Eastern Mediterranean University is also an important employer and supplies significant income and activity, as well as opportunities for the construction sector. The university also raises a qualified workforce that stimulates the city's industry and makes communications industry viable. The city has two industrial zones: the Large Industrial Zone and the Little Industrial Zone. The city is also home to a fishing port, but inadequate infrastructure of the port restricts the growth of this sector. The industry in the city has traditionally been concentrated on processing agricultural products.

 

Historically, the port was the primary source of income and employment for the city, especially right after 1974. However, it gradually lost some of its importance to the economy as the share of its employees in the population of Famagusta diminished due to various reasons. However, it still is the primary port for commerce in Northern Cyprus, with more than half of ships that came to Northern Cyprus in 2013 coming to Famagusta. It is the second most popular seaport for passengers, after Kyrenia, with around 20,000 passengers using the port in 2013.

 

The mayor-in-exile of Famagusta is Simos Ioannou. Süleyman Uluçay heads the Turkish Cypriot municipal administration of Famagusta, which remains legal as a communal-based body under the constitutional system of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Since 1974, Greek Cypriots submitted a number of proposals within the context of bicommunal discussions for the return of Varosha to UN administration, allowing the return of its previous inhabitants, requesting also the opening of Famagusta harbour for use by both communities. Varosha would have been returned to Greek Cypriot control as part of the 2004 Annan Plan but the plan had been rejected by a majority(3/4) of Greek Cypriot voters.

 

The walled city of Famagusta contains many unique buildings. Famagusta has a walled city popular with tourists.

 

Every year, the International Famagusta Art and Culture Festival is organized in Famagusta. Concerts, dance shows and theater plays take place during the festival.

 

A growth in tourism and the city's university have fueled the development of Famagusta's vibrant nightlife. Nightlife in the city is especially active on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday nights and in the hotter months of the year, starting from April. Larger hotels in the city have casinos that cater to their customers. Salamis Road is an area of Famagusta with a heavy concentration of bars frequented by students and locals.

 

Famagusta's Othello Castle is the setting for Shakespeare's play Othello. The city was also the setting for Victoria Hislop's 2015 novel The Sunrise, and Michael Paraskos's 2016 novel In Search of Sixpence. The city is the birthplace of the eponymous hero of the Renaissance proto-novel Fortunatus.

 

Famagusta was home to many Greek Cypriot sport teams that left the city because of the Turkish invasion and still bear their original names. Most notable football clubs originally from the city are Anorthosis Famagusta FC and Nea Salamis Famagusta FC, both of the Cypriot First Division, which are now based in Larnaca. Usually Anorthosis Famagusta fans are politically right wing where Nea Salamis fans are left wing.

 

Famagusta is represented by Mağusa Türk Gücü in the Turkish Cypriot First Division. Dr. Fazıl Küçük Stadium is the largest football stadium in Famagusta. Many Turkish Cypriot sport teams that left Southern Cyprus because of the Cypriot intercommunal violence are based in Famagusta.

 

Famagusta is represented by DAÜ Sports Club and Magem Sports Club in North Cyprus First Volleyball Division. Gazimağusa Türk Maarif Koleji represents Famagusta in the North Cyprus High School Volleyball League.

 

Famagusta has a modern volleyball stadium called the Mağusa Arena.

 

The Eastern Mediterranean University was founded in the city in 1979. The Istanbul Technical University founded a campus in the city in 2010.

 

The Cyprus College of Art was founded in Famagusta by the Cypriot artist Stass Paraskos in 1969, before moving to Paphos in 1972 after protests from local hoteliers that the presence of art students in the city was putting off holidaymakers.

 

Famagusta has three general hospitals. Gazimağusa Devlet Hastahanesi, a state hospital, is the biggest hospital in city. Gazimağusa Tıp Merkezi and Gazimağusa Yaşam Hastahanesi are private hospitals.

 

Personalities

Saint Barnabas, born and died in Salamis, Famagusta

Chris Achilleos, illustrator of the book versions on the BBC children's series Doctor Who

Beran Bertuğ, former Governor of Famagusta, first Cypriot woman to hold this position

Marios Constantinou, former international Cypriot football midfielder and current manager.

Eleftheria Eleftheriou, Cypriot singer.

Derviş Eroğlu, former President of Northern Cyprus

Alexis Galanos, 7th President of the House of Representatives and Famagusta mayor-in-exile (2006-2019) (Republic of Cyprus)

Xanthos Hadjisoteriou, Cypriot painter

Oz Karahan, political activist, President of the Union of Cypriots

Oktay Kayalp, former Turkish Cypriot Famagusta mayor (Northern Cyprus)

Harry Luke British diplomat

Angelos Misos, former international footballer

Costas Montis was an influential and prolific Greek Cypriot poet, novelist, and playwright born in Famagusta.

Hal Ozsan, actor (Dawson's Creek, Kyle XY)

Dimitris Papadakis, a Greek Cypriot politician, who served as a Member of the European Parliament.

Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, Persian religious leader, lived and died in exile in Famagusta

Touker Suleyman (born Türker Süleyman), British Turkish Cypriot fashion retail entrepreneur, investor and reality television personality.

Alexia Vassiliou, singer, left here as a refugee when the town was invaded.

George Vasiliou, former President of Cyprus

Vamik Volkan, Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry

Derviş Zaim, film director

 

Famagusta is twinned with:

İzmir, Turkey (since 1974)

Corfu, Greece (since 1994)

Patras, Greece (since 1994)

Antalya, Turkey (since 1997)

Salamina (city), Greece (since 1998)

Struga, North Macedonia

Athens, Greece (since 2005)

Mersin, Turkey

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

Worlds End and Burra Creek.

The surveyed sections at Worlds End were done where Burra Creek exits the ranges. Across the highway was the proposed town of Lapford with its rectangular grid of streets and the small suburban allotments beyond Lapford. The great mystery of Worlds End is why is it so called? The traditional explanation is explained thus: the first pastoralists here looked out and thought this was semi-arid country, (beyond Goyder’s Line) and likely to court disaster and looked like the world’s end. Is this nonsense? Goyder’s Line did not exist in 1851 when the Scottish pastoralist Donald McDonald took out the first lease here. He called his run Worlds End. We think that every pastoralist in SA could have looked at their country and called its world’s end. A far more likely explanation for the name is that Donald McDonald was a good Scot. He would have been thinking about Worlds End Pub in Edinburgh. This pub was built just beyond the original stone walls of the ancient city of Edinburgh. After the English beat the Scots at the Battle of Flodden in 1513 King James of Scotland realised his capital city of Edinburgh was almost defenceless. He hastily had his men build a wall to protect the city. A pub just on the outside edge of the wall was called Worlds End Pub as it was beyond the defences. This pub still exists and you can visit it in Edinburgh. The current one is actually built on the foundations of the wall erected after the Battle of Flodden. Furthermore, Donald McDonald would probably also have known about Worlds End House in Aberdeenshire where McDonald came from. It was built in 1767. He would also have known about the Worlds End pub on Magill Road as it was first licensed in 1845. It was only demolished in 1967 when the new Magill Post Office was erected. Worlds End is a well-known name as there was even a Scottish fable based on the Well of Worlds End. To us it seems that Worlds End was named because of Donald McDonald’s Scottish connections, not his views about the appearance of his sheep run! Poor Donald McDonald came to a sticky end. His body was found on a north Queensland property near Bowen in 1864 where he was working. His body had two Aboriginal spears in it. No one was charged over the incident but reprisals by white stockmen were common. Worlds End on Burra Creek had a school for some years (1888-1944), a Post Office (1876-1971) and a Wesleyan Methodist Church (1889-1975). Worlds End was laid out with less than 20 blocks and it had some buildings but Lapford across the highway had 150 surveyed blocks but nothing was ever built there.

 

  

Date: May 27, 2012

Camera: DSLR-A900

Exposure: 0.016666666666667 sec (1/60) at f/1.8, ISO 800

Lens: 135mm F1.8 ZA

 

© 2012 Benjamin Torode - All Rights Reserved

No Use Without Written Permission

  

Uploaded with PhotoQueue

Lanercost Priory was founded by Robert de Vaux between 1165 and 1174, the most likely date being 1169, to house Augustinian canons. The priory is situated at the village of Lanercost, Cumbria, England, within sight of Naworth Castle, with which it had close connections. The Lanercost Chronicle, a thirteenth-century history of England and the Wars of Scottish Independence, was compiled by the monks of the priory.

 

It is now open to the public and in the guardianship of English Heritage.

 

The foundation date was traditionally 1169, but can only be dated definitely between 1165 and 1174 on the evidence of charters. The dedication is to Mary Magdalene, unusual in the region.

 

It would seem the arrangements for founding the Priory were well advanced by the time of the foundation charter, as opposed to the more gradual process at Wetheral and St Bees priories. Robert de Vaux gave the land of Lanercost "between the ancient wall and the Irthing and between Burth and Poltros, the vill of Walton by stated bounds, the church of that vill with the chapel of 'Treverman,' the churches of Irthington, Brampton, Carlaton and Farlam". The charter of foundation states that the benefaction was made for the sake of Henry II, and for the health of the souls of his father Hubert and his mother Grace.

 

Soon after the foundation of the house, Robert de Vaux granted to the canons the right of free election, so that when the lord prior died the person on whom the choice of the canons or the greater part of them fell should be elected in his place.

 

The bulk of the church building dates from the late 13th century, though there is evidence of earlier work. The Priory buildings were constructed, at least in part, from stones derived from Hadrian's Wall, including a number of Roman inscriptions that were built into its fabric.

 

The proximity to Scotland inevitably had an effect on the fortunes of the priory, and it was a target of Scots attacks in retaliation for English raids. This became acute after the outbreak of the Wars of Scottish Independence. In 1296 the Scottish army encamped at Lanercost after burning Hexham priory and Lambley nunnery. The Scots were interrupted before the damage could become great, and they retreated through Nicolforest, having burnt some houses of the monastery but not the church. Similar depredations under Wallace continued the next year and led to calls for reprisals from the English.

 

Edward I made several visits to the priory in the latter part of his reign. In the autumn of 1280 he visited in the company of Queen Eleanor on his way to Newcastle. The canons met him at the gate in their copes, and although staying only a few days, he found time to take 200 stags and hinds while hunting in Inglewood forest. In 1300, on his way to the siege of Caerlaverock Castle, Edward stayed at Lanercost for a short while.

 

Edward's last visit was in 1306, travelling in a horse litter owing to age and illness, and accompanied by Queen Margaret, his second wife. He arrived at Michaelmas and his stay extended until the following Easter, a duration of 6 months which put a huge burden upon the resources of the priory. It was while Edward was at Lanercost that the brothers of Robert de Brus and other Scottish captives were sent to Carlisle for execution by his order.

 

This last royal visit depleted the reserves of the priory, and the canons begged him for recompense, but a deal to acquire the church of 'Hautwyselle,' worth about 100 marks a year, fell through. However the king granted the appropriation of the churches of Mitford in Northumberland and Carlatton in Cumberland, for the relief of the Priory. In a letter to the Pope, Edward gave his reasons for generosity being the special devotion he felt to St Mary Magdalene, his long stay due to illness, and making good the damage of the Scots. Edward died shortly afterwards at Burgh by Sands in July 1307, whilst still campaigning against the Scots.

 

In August 1311, Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, came with his army and made it his headquarters for three days, "committing infinite evils" and imprisoning some canons, though later letting them free. By contrast in 1328, in fulfilment of the treaty between the Bruce and Edward III, a mutual interchange of good offices took place between the priory of Lanercost and Kelso Abbey in respect of their common revenues out of the church of Lazonby. Later though, in 1346, David II ransacked the conventual buildings and desecrated the church. Fresh from the overthrow of Liddel he "entered the holy place with haughtiness, threw out the vessels of the temple, stole the treasures, broke the doors, took the jewels, and destroyed everything they could lay hands on". As late as 1386, one of the priors was taken prisoner by the Scots and ransomed for a fixed sum of money and four score quarters of corn.

 

The fortunes of the priory were linked to the state of warfare and raids on the border. The priory was in relatively affluent circumstances before the outbreak of the war of Independence in 1296, and the annual revenue of the house was returned at £74 12s 6d in the 1291 valuation of Pope Nicholas IV. But by the taxation of 1318, the value had fallen almost to nothing.

 

Lanercost Priory was dissolved in 1538 by Henry VIII, and the conventual buildings were stripped of their roofs, excepting the church building which continued in use as the parish church. In the late 17th century, as the nave deteriorated, the congregation used just the north aisle which had been re-roofed.

 

In 1747, the nave was re-roofed, but by 1847 the Priory was in a state of disrepair to the extent that the east end roof collapsed. However, by 1849, The church was in use again after a major restoration by Anthony Salvin. In the 1870s, there was further restoration by the Carlisle architect C. J. Ferguson.

 

At the Dissolution, ownership had passed to the Dacre family, and then in the early 18th century to the Howards. In 1929, the Priory ruins were put into public ownership, and today they are managed by English Heritage.

 

The nave has an aisle to the north but a large wall to the south with no aisle, where it abuts the cloister. The impressive ruined chancel and crossing of ca. 1220–1230 are in a good state of preservation; as high as the eaves, and would only require a roof and windows to be restored to the original condition. The oldest masonry is in the south transept, and dates from the late 12th century. The cloister and monastic buildings have been largely dismantled, except for the west range, which was made into a house by Sir Thomas Dacre in the 16th century. The statue of St Mary Magdalene, given by King Edward I, still survives in a niche high up on the west front. A dossal – an embroidered wall hanging – designed by William Morris in 1881, underwent restoration before being replaced behind the priory altar in 2013–14.

 

The priory has an unusual medieval stone carving called the Lanercost Cross with an inscription dating back to 1214. Originally the cross was set just outside the entrance to the church. Today, the stump of the cross remains, but the main shaft is housed inside the priory. In the churchyard is the tomb of Thomas Addison, scientist and physician. In the nave is a memorial to the Reverend Henry Whitehead, former vicar of Lanercost, best known for his pioneering epidemiological work with John Snow on cholera.

 

Humphrey Dacre, 1st Baron Dacre, and his widow Mabel were both buried at the Priory in the 15th century, as is Thomas Dacre, 2nd Baron Dacre.

 

Lanercost is a village in the northern part of Cumbria, England. The settlement is in the civil parish of Burtholme, in the City of Carlisle local government district. Lanercost is known for the presence of Lanercost Priory and its proximity to Hadrian's Wall.

 

History

Lanercost Priory was founded in 1165 as an Augustinian house of Canons.

 

Robert de Vaux, also known as Robert de Vallibus, (died c.1195), Baron of Gilsland, was a prominent 12th-century English noble, who served as Sheriff of Cumberland in 1175 and 1176.

 

Biography

Vaux was the eldest son of Hubert I de Vaux, Lord of Gilsland and his wife Grace. Robert succeeded his father in 1165, as a confirmation of Gilsland was given to him by King Henry II of England. He founded the Augustinian Lanercost Priory in c.1169. Robert was required to pay forty shillings for scutage, for not participating in the Norman invasion of Ireland by Henry II. Robert was appointed in Michelmas 1174 as the Sheriff of Cumberland and also served his last term from Michelmas 1183. In 1186 he was fined a hundred marks for a variety of offences including allowing prisoners to escape. He held Carlisle against the Scottish invasion of Cumberland in 1173 and 1174 by King William I of Scotland, surrendering the castle after a second siege in 1174. Robert was heir to his uncle Randolph, who died without issue.

 

Robert, married Ada, widow of Simon de Morville, the daughter and heiress of William de Engaine, died without surviving issue. Robert's son William died during his father's lifetime. Robert died circa 1195 and was succeeded by his brother Ranulf.

 

Augustinians are members of several religious orders that follow the Rule of Saint Augustine, written in about 400 AD by Augustine of Hippo. There are two distinct types of Augustinians in Catholic religious orders dating back to the 12th–13th centuries:

 

Various congregations of Canons Regular also follow the Rule of Saint Augustine, embrace the evangelical counsels and lead a semi-monastic life, while remaining committed to pastoral care appropriate to their primary vocation as priests. They generally form one large community which might serve parishes in the vicinity, and are organized into autonomous congregations.

 

Several orders of friars who live a mixed religious life of contemplation and apostolic ministry. The largest and most familiar is the Order of Saint Augustine (OSA), founded in 1244 and originally known as the Hermits of Saint Augustine (OESA). They are commonly known as the Austin Friars in England. Two other orders, the Order of Augustinian Recollects and the Discalced Augustinians, were once part of the OSA under a single prior general. The Recollects, founded in 1588 as a reform movement in Spain, became autonomous in 1612. The Discalceds became an independent congregation in 1592, and were raised to the status of a separate mendicant order in 1610.

 

There are also some Anglican religious orders created in the 19th century that follow Augustine's rule. These are composed only of women in several different communities of Augustinian nuns.

 

Canon (Greek: κανονικός, romanized: kanonikós) is a Christian title usually used to refer to a member of certain bodies in subject to an ecclesiastical rule.

 

Originally, a canon was a cleric living with others in a clergy house or, later, in one of the houses within the precinct of or close to a cathedral or other major church and conducting his life according to the customary discipline or rules of the church. This way of life grew common (and is first documented) in the 8th century AD. In the 11th century, some churches required clergy thus living together to adopt the rule first proposed by Saint Augustine that they renounce private wealth. Those who embraced this change were known as Augustinians or Canons Regular, whilst those who did not were known as secular canons.

 

English Heritage (officially the English Heritage Trust) is a charity that manages over 400 historic monuments, buildings and places. These include prehistoric sites, medieval castles, Roman forts and country houses.

 

The charity states that it uses these properties to "bring the story of England to life for over 10 million people each year". Within its portfolio are Stonehenge, Dover Castle, Tintagel Castle and the best preserved parts of Hadrian's Wall. English Heritage also manages the London blue plaque scheme, which links influential historical figures to particular buildings.

 

When originally formed in 1983, English Heritage was the operating name of an executive non-departmental public body of the British Government, officially titled the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England, that ran the national system of heritage protection and managed a range of historic properties. It was created to combine the roles of existing bodies that had emerged from a long period of state involvement in heritage protection. In 1999, the organisation merged with the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England and the National Monuments Record, bringing together resources for the identification and survey of England's historic environment.

 

On 1 April 2015, English Heritage was divided into two parts: Historic England, which inherited the statutory and protection functions of the old organisation, and the new English Heritage Trust, a charity that would operate the historic properties, and which took on the English Heritage operating name and logo. The British government gave the new charity an £80 million grant to help establish it as an independent trust, although the historic properties remain in the ownership of the state.

 

History

Non-departmental public body

Over the centuries, what is now called "heritage" has been the responsibility of a series of state departments. There was the "Kings Works" after the Norman Conquest, the Office of Works (1378–1832), the Office of Woods, Forests, Land Revenues and Works (1832–1851), and the Ministry of Works (1851–1962). Responsibility subsequently transferred to the Ministry of Public Building and Works (1962–1970), then to the Department of the Environment (1970–1997), and it is now with the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS). The state's legal responsibility for the historic environment goes back to the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882. The central government subsequently developed several systems of heritage protection for different types of assets, introducing listing for buildings after World War II, and for conservation areas in the 1960s.

 

In 1983, Secretary of State for the Environment Michael Heseltine gave national responsibility for the historic environment to a semi‑autonomous agency (or "quango") to operate under ministerial guidelines and to government policy. The Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission was formed under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983 on 1 April 1984. The 1983 Act also dissolved the bodies that had previously provided independent advice – the Ancient Monuments Board for England and the Historic Buildings Council for England – and incorporated those functions into the new body. Soon after, the commission was given the operating name of English Heritage by its first chairman, Lord Montagu of Beaulieu.

 

A national register of historic parks and gardens, (e.g. Rangers House, Greenwich) was set up in 1984, and a register for historic battlefields (e.g. the Battle of Tewkesbury) was created in March 1995. 'Registration' is a material consideration in the planning process. In April 1999 English Heritage merged with the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England (RCHME) and the National Monuments Record (NMR), bringing together resources for the identification and survey of England's historic environment. By adoption, that included responsibility for the national record of archaeological sites from the Ordnance Survey, the National Library of Aerial Photographs, and two million RAF and Ordnance Survey aerial photographs. Those, together with other nationally important external acquisitions, meant that English Heritage was one of the largest publicly accessible archives in the UK: 2.53 million records are available online, including more than 426,000 images. In 2010–11, it recorded 4.3 million unique online user sessions and over 110,000 people visited NMR exhibitions held around the country in 2009–10. In 2012, the section responsible for archive collections was renamed the English Heritage Archive.

 

As a result of the National Heritage Act 2002, English Heritage acquired administrative responsibility for historic wrecks and submerged landscapes within 12 miles (19 km) of the English coast. The administration of the listed building system was transferred from DCMS to English Heritage in 2006. However, actual listing decisions still remained the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, who was required by the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 to approve a list of buildings of special architectural or historic interest.

 

Following the Public Bodies Reform in 2010, English Heritage was confirmed as the government's statutory adviser on the historic environment, and the largest source of non-lottery grant funding for heritage assets. It was retained on grounds of "performing a technical function which should remain independent from Government". However, the department also suffered from budget cuts during the recession of the 2010s, resulting in a repairs deficit of £100 million

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Source: Monument Australia & Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)

Arsos (Greek: Άρσος; Turkish: Yiğitler) is a village in Cyprus, about 32 km (20 mi) east of Nicosia. De facto, it is under the control of Northern Cyprus.

 

The construction of a road from Arsos to Pyla is one of the conditions that Northern Cyprus requested from Republic of Cyprus in return for the opening of the Limnitis crossing. A golden necklace was found in the village.

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Source: Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)

Corella Valley Geoscience:

 

Rocks typically seen in the creekbeds of the Corella Valley are dark grey calcsilicates of the Corella Formation, often intruded by a pink fine-grained rock composed of pink feldspar and subordinate hornblende, which contain numerous fragments of dark-green to black metadolerite and some calc-silicates. This is a part of the Mount Philp Breccia. Typically mixed in with these creekbeds is pegmatite that seems to intrude the breccia.

 

Pegmatite are intrusive rocks with extreme coarse grained texture that are developed at the final stages of magma crystallization. As huge amount of time has been granted to pegmatite rocks so it has extremely large crystals and sometimes rare minerals are associated with it which are not found in other rocks. Pegmatite contains crystals that are atleast one centimetre long in diameter.

Pegmatite have composition similar to that of granite with abundant quartz, feldspar and mica. These are sometimes also called as granite pegmatites.

 

The mineralogy of a pegmatite is in most cases dominated by some form of feldspar, often with mica and usually with quartz, being altogether "granitic" in character. Beyond that, pegmatite may include most minerals associated with granite and granite-associated hydrothermal systems, granite-associated mineralisation styles, for example greisens, and somewhat with skarn associated mineralisation.

 

The Kalkadoon People:

 

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Source: Rocks and Landscapes of Northwest Queensland by Laurie Hutton & Ian Withnall, Learning Geology (geologylearn.blogspot.com), &

Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au).

Three of the schoolgirls who managed to escape when Boko Haram abducted 276 of their classmates from the Government Secondary School in Chibok, NE Nigeria, now studing at the American University of Nigeria in Yola, 30 April, 2015. Left to right Blessing, 17, Mary, 17 and Deborah, 17, said they had tried to forgive the insurgents, who they said were illiterate and uneployed. "Even though they have done so much destruction, to me punishing them will not be the best answer," said Deborah. The girls identified themselves by middle names, for fear that their parents in Chibok might face reprisals from the insurgents.

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Source: Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)

We will never forget him or the thousands of others murdered in Egypt for their passion for freedom and Justice.

 

On 2 February 2018, about fifty people gathered outside the Egyptian Embassy in London for a vigil to mark the second anniversary of the discovery of the horrificly mutilated corpse of Cambridge university student, Giulio Regeni, at the edge of the Cairo-Alexandria desert road in Egypt.

 

Within hours of the discovery of his body, his family knew that he must have been the victim of the most appalling sustained violence. His corpse was so terribly disfigured that his mother explained he was virtually unrecognisable. She could only identiy him from the tip of his nose.

 

But what was equally striking was the location where the body had been dumped, on one of Egypt's busiest highways close to the watchtowers of a security services base.

 

On 25th January 2016, the fifth anniversary of Egypt's 2011 uprising, a thirty year old Italian national Giulio Regeni disappeared from the streets of Cairo.

 

He was a student of one of Britain's most prestigious universities - Cambridge and was researching the crucial role of trade unions in relation to Egyptian political power and workers' rights.

 

During his research he managed to cultivate contacts with numerous key individuals within several Independent trade unions which the Egyptian government planned to make illegal. He often expressed fear to his friends that he might be detained by Egyptian authorities.

 

It was not until 3 February 2016, nine days after his disappearance, that Regeni's half-naked and battered corpse was found dumped by the roadside. His mother remarked that Giulio's disfigured face carried "all the evils of the world."

 

A senior Egyptian police official, who it was later discovered had a prior criminal record for both torture and murder, announced that Regeni had been the victim of a road traffic accident.

 

However an Italian autopsy indicated that he had been tortured to death over a period of approximately one week and had suffered over 24 bone fractures, multiple stab wounds, numerous cigarette burns and sharp razor cuts and that all his finger and toe nails had been yanked out.

 

On 21 April a Reuters correspondent reported that he had received confirmation of Regeni's arrest and detention by Egyptian security services in January from no fewer than six sources in Egypt's police and intelligence services but Egypt's Interior Minister angrily denied the report as having "no basis in truth."

 

The Regeni case is not an isolated incident - every month dozens of Egyptians, from among those who either dare to criticize the government or dare in anyway not to conform, are forcibly disappeared from their homes or from the streets and many of them either die in detention or eventually appear months later in court charged with offences, such as protesting without a license or spreading false information against the state.

 

Recent estimates put the number of political detainees in Egypt's prisons at approximately 60,000.

 

The Italian government have been infuriated by the lack of any honest attempt by the Egyptian authorities to discover and punish those responsible for Regeni's murder. Although some Italians have been disappointed by the very limited scale of Italian diplomatic and economic reprisals - they have at least gone further than the British government - withdrawing their ambassador in April 2016 for consultations and on 30 June the Italian senate voted to halt aviation supplies for Egyptian military aircraft including F-16s.

 

Meanwhile the British government has done virtually nothing - except issue a brief statement after it was embarrassed into action by an online parliamentary petition - prior to which I'm unaware of any statement on the issue by British diplomats who appear to wish to prioritize profit and trade over human rights.

 

More information about the Regeni case and the human rights crisis in Egypt can be found from

 

The Egypt Solidarity Initiative at

 

egyptsolidarityinitiative.org/

 

and also on Facebook or from Amnesty International at

 

www.amnesty.org.uk/blogs/press-release-me-let-me-go/truth...

 

Update April 2020 -. If anyone is interested in the forgotten history of British imperialism and how it impacted the lives of millions of people around the world including Egypt from the 1700s until today - I've posted over 600 short articles on the following website. roguenation.org/ including the following page where you can select from over 600 pages according to country - roguenation.org/choose-by-country

Coolangatta/Tweed Heads. Population 72,000.

In 1846 the schooner called the Coolangatta from Alexander Berry’s estate of Coolangatta near Nowra was shipwrecked on the coast here. The name was adopted for the tiny holiday town which was surveyed here in 1883 by the Queensland government. As the town grew in the early 20th century it developed as the first town along the Gold Coast. Meanwhile across the border its twin town, Tweed Heads emerged. Few people settled here except for timber cutters up the Tweed River valley. In 1859 the border placed the Tweed in NSW. A few sugar cane farmers moved into the Tweed in the 1860s and a border customs house was built by NSW in 1871. Tweed Heads emerged as a town with the 1871 customs house, the 1875 telegraph station and the first local school in 1876. Holiday makers started visited the town in the 1880s and a formal town was surveyed and gazetted in 1886. By 1892 there were still only 100 residents in the town. The railway from Casino reached here in 1903 and banana plantations were established beside the sugar plantations in 1909. But the small town only began rapid growth in the 1960s when the Gold Coast became popular. As it is in NSW Tweed Heads differs by an hour a day with Coolangatta when NSW goes onto summertime. Tweeds Heads currently has a population of about 20,000 people but it is part of the Coolangatta Gold Coast region which has a population of 625,000. Coolangatta has a population of about 6,000 people.

 

The Tweed River Valley.

The northern edge of the Tweed River valley- the McPherson Ranges, marks the border between Queensland and New South Wales and in the middle of the valley is the majestic volcanic peak of Mount Warning which was named by Captain Cook in 1770. Mt Warning is 1,157 metres high (just shy of 4,000 feet).The rich fertile volcanic soils, the year round rainfall and mild climate produce magnificent sub-tropical rainforest where it has not been cleared. The first Europeans into the valley came after the trees especially the Australian red cedar but also rosewood, box, sassafras, tulip wood, hoop pine, mahogany etc. Beneath the trees were ferns, palms, orchids and Elkhorn etc. In past geological times the volcanoes spewed lava which travelled down the valleys till it reached water on the coast at Fingal Heads where it produced hexagonal basalt columns. In other places crystallization formed semi-precious stones- beryl, amethysts and agates. The valley around Mt Warning is in fact a giant volcanic caldera.

 

Captain Cook named Cape Byron in 1770 and some Dutch explorers might have sighted the area (Abel Tasman went down to Tasmania in 1642) but it was John Oxley who first explored this coast line in 1823 when Governor Brisbane sent him to select a site for a new convict settlement. Oxley chose Moreton Bay but he did name the Tweed River after a river in Scotland. The first land explorer of the region was Henry Rous the second son of the Viscount of Dunwich who sailed north in the frigate the Rainbow in 1828. He discovered the mouth of the Tweed River and set off to explore it with a party of men. He erroneously named it the Clarence River. Rous next discovered the Richmond River which he sailed up for about 20 miles. He named it after the Duke of Richmond. It enters the sea near Ballina after flowing down through Casino, Coraki etc. The Richmond River was the site of an Aboriginal massacre in 1842 near the site of Coraki. Red cedar cutters moved into the district around 1840 and five Europeans were killed here where they were guarding a supplies depot. A reprisal massacre by the Europeans took place shortly afterwards at Evans Heads where according to Bundjalung oral traditions about 100 people were killed. In these early years with few Europeans in the region no press reports or government enquiry seems to have occurred. However, a few years later in 1853-54 another massacre of Aboriginal people occurred near where Ballina is sited under very different circumstances. A Native Police force was established in NSW in the very early 1840s to work with European police troopers. It is believed that some Tweed River Aborigines fled south to the Richmond River after murdering some white workers on the Tweed. The Aboriginal/Native and white police officers surrounded an Aboriginal camp of Bundjalung people and opened fire killing around 30 people. The incident was reported to the NSW government but no action was taken according to a 1922 reminiscence of an early white settler.

  

Coolangatta/Tweed Heads. Population 72,000.

In 1846 the schooner called the Coolangatta from Alexander Berry’s estate of Coolangatta near Nowra was shipwrecked on the coast here. The name was adopted for the tiny holiday town which was surveyed here in 1883 by the Queensland government. As the town grew in the early 20th century it developed as the first town along the Gold Coast. Meanwhile across the border its twin town, Tweed Heads emerged. Few people settled here except for timber cutters up the Tweed River valley. In 1859 the border placed the Tweed in NSW. A few sugar cane farmers moved into the Tweed in the 1860s and a border customs house was built by NSW in 1871. Tweed Heads emerged as a town with the 1871 customs house, the 1875 telegraph station and the first local school in 1876. Holiday makers started visited the town in the 1880s and a formal town was surveyed and gazetted in 1886. By 1892 there were still only 100 residents in the town. The railway from Casino reached here in 1903 and banana plantations were established beside the sugar plantations in 1909. But the small town only began rapid growth in the 1960s when the Gold Coast became popular. As it is in NSW Tweed Heads differs by an hour a day with Coolangatta when NSW goes onto summertime. Tweeds Heads currently has a population of about 20,000 people but it is part of the Coolangatta Gold Coast region which has a population of 625,000. Coolangatta has a population of about 6,000 people.

 

The Tweed River Valley.

The northern edge of the Tweed River valley- the McPherson Ranges, marks the border between Queensland and New South Wales and in the middle of the valley is the majestic volcanic peak of Mount Warning which was named by Captain Cook in 1770. Mt Warning is 1,157 metres high (just shy of 4,000 feet).The rich fertile volcanic soils, the year round rainfall and mild climate produce magnificent sub-tropical rainforest where it has not been cleared. The first Europeans into the valley came after the trees especially the Australian red cedar but also rosewood, box, sassafras, tulip wood, hoop pine, mahogany etc. Beneath the trees were ferns, palms, orchids and Elkhorn etc. In past geological times the volcanoes spewed lava which travelled down the valleys till it reached water on the coast at Fingal Heads where it produced hexagonal basalt columns. In other places crystallization formed semi-precious stones- beryl, amethysts and agates. The valley around Mt Warning is in fact a giant volcanic caldera.

 

Captain Cook named Cape Byron in 1770 and some Dutch explorers might have sighted the area (Abel Tasman went down to Tasmania in 1642) but it was John Oxley who first explored this coast line in 1823 when Governor Brisbane sent him to select a site for a new convict settlement. Oxley chose Moreton Bay but he did name the Tweed River after a river in Scotland. The first land explorer of the region was Henry Rous the second son of the Viscount of Dunwich who sailed north in the frigate the Rainbow in 1828. He discovered the mouth of the Tweed River and set off to explore it with a party of men. He erroneously named it the Clarence River. Rous next discovered the Richmond River which he sailed up for about 20 miles. He named it after the Duke of Richmond. It enters the sea near Ballina after flowing down through Casino, Coraki etc. The Richmond River was the site of an Aboriginal massacre in 1842 near the site of Coraki. Red cedar cutters moved into the district around 1840 and five Europeans were killed here where they were guarding a supplies depot. A reprisal massacre by the Europeans took place shortly afterwards at Evans Heads where according to Bundjalung oral traditions about 100 people were killed. In these early years with few Europeans in the region no press reports or government enquiry seems to have occurred. However, a few years later in 1853-54 another massacre of Aboriginal people occurred near where Ballina is sited under very different circumstances. A Native Police force was established in NSW in the very early 1840s to work with European police troopers. It is believed that some Tweed River Aborigines fled south to the Richmond River after murdering some white workers on the Tweed. The Aboriginal/Native and white police officers surrounded an Aboriginal camp of Bundjalung people and opened fire killing around 30 people. The incident was reported to the NSW government but no action was taken according to a 1922 reminiscence of an early white settler.

 

The Northern rivers.

This fertile region of NSW has a combined population of 300,000. It is a fertile sub-tropical region with the major cities being Tweed Heads, Lismore, Ballina and Byron Bay. The region has one university which has headquarters in Lismore- Southern Cross University. It also has campuses in Tweed Heads, Coffs Harbour and the Gold Coast. Mount Warning volcano last erupted about 23 million years ago. Its ancient volcanic plug is surrounded by a high ridge of mountains which from a caldera around it. The fertile soils and sub-tropical climate allows the growing of sugar cane, coffee, bananas, avocadoes nuts like macadamia and vegetables and other tropical fruits. Much of the mountainous part of the region is wilderness or National Park if it has not already been cleared. It was anti- logging protests in 1929 at Terania Creek which put Nimbin on the international map and led to the creation of Nightcap National Park in 1983. The group of national parks in this region including Mount Warning, Nightcap, Border Ranges are all part of the United Nations World Heritage listed Gondwana Rainforests parks. These parks were listed by the UN in 1986. This parks were added to the Australian Heritage list in 2007.

 

The Tweed. It rises on the eastern cups of the Great Dividing Range. Part of its course is used as the border between NSW and Queensland. It is just 78 kilometres long and descends 173 metres over its length. It enters the sea with a coastal barrier at Tweed Heads. The main towns on it are Murwillumbah and Tweed Heads. It drains the region around Mount Warning an old volcano cone. The region is and was covered with tropical rainforest with fertile volcanic soils. It has eight tributaries. It has a catchment area of 1,000 square kilometres.

The Brunswick River. It is just 48 kilometres long but it descends 142 metres over this distance. It rises on Mount Jerusalem and passes through Mullumbimby. It enters the sea at Brunswick Heads.

The Richmond. It rises near Mount Lindesay in the Great Dividing Range. It is 237 kilometres long and descends 256 metres over this length. It has 12 major tributaries including the Wilson River. The main towns on it are Kyogle, Casino, Coraki, and Woodburn. We will visit them all. It enters the sea at Ballina. It has a catchment area of nearly 7,000 square kilometres which is the sixth largest in NSW. It is a major river of NSW.

The Evans River. It rises near Woodburn and is just 17 kilometres long. It was named after the explorer Evans. It enters the sea at Evans Heads.

Wilsons River. It rises near Mount Jerusalem in the Nightcap Ranges National Park. It is 131 kilometres long and descends 359 metres. It passes through Lismore and joins the Richmond River of which it is a tributary at Coraki.

The Clarence River. Further south where we do not visit is the Clarence River. It rises in the Great Diving Range and flows 394 kilometres to the sea. It falls 256 metres and has 24 tributaries. It passes through Tabulam (which we visit), Grafton, Ulmarra and Maclean. It has a catchment area of nearly 23,000 square kilometres.

 

The Hill of the Three Crosses from the Upper Castle. Vilnius, Lituania

According to popular tradition, it’s here that Jogaila erected three crosses in memory of the seven Franciscan monks executed on this spot by his grandfather, Grand Duke Algirdas. Whatever their origins, a trio of crosses did exist here until Russian Governor General Muravyev’s decision to remove them – a reprisal for the 1863–64 uprising. Vilnius town council celebrated the departure of the Russians in 1915 by building three new crosses in gleaming white stone, a much-loved landmark on the city’s eastern skyline

until the Soviets dynamited them in 1950. The replicas erected after 1990 have quickly re-established themselves as popular targets for weekend strollers.

English:

"Sunny location in the middle of the castle park, surrounded by lakes and forests, 10 minutes from the city center" - said a married doctor couple in the early thirties in a promotional brochure for their sanatorium. They had acquired the manor in 1931.

 

But the castle park area was originally not to be built on, in any case, the Grand Dukes did not want to privatize the area, they were afraid of the scenic beauty of the surroundings of the castle will be destroyed. Ultimately, however, they allowed the development of the upper area.

The first and best situated property was given to countess Marie von Schwichelt. She commissioned a Munich architect to build a beautiful manor house there. It was built in 1907, and the countess lived in the splendid manor until 1924.

 

Due to lack of money, the villa was sold to a doctor. After a reconstruction, it reopened in 1925 under the name "Schlosspark-Sanatorium" as a mental hospital.

Six years later he sold the mental hospital to a married doctor couple. They treated not only nervous disorders, but also patients with cardiovascular diseases and gastrointestinal disorders. The house was modern and comfortable, for example had phone in several rooms, X-ray laboratory and central heating. Above all, mostly private patients were treated here.

 

From 1935 the Jewish doctor couple were subjected to more and more reprisals by the Nazis. In 1935 the couple fled with their 3 children to the United States.

 

After the house was empty for a while, it was used from 1938 by the Secret State Police (Gestapo) as a service building, including prison cells in the basement, 58 officials and employees worked there. In 1945 it was a officers' home of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SMAD).

 

A year later, the Soviet fuel administration moved into the house, and in December 1947, the Generatorkraft company took over the property.

From 1953 to 1957, the district leadership of the Free German Youth (FDJ) had its seat in the manor. After moving out, the villa was first thoroughly rebuilt and modernized, so it could be used again for medical purposes. In May 1958 the district hospital opened a children's clinic there. It had sixty beds and two doctors and eighteen nurses.

 

Shortly after the reunification, it was in use as a refugee asylum until the end of 1992.

In the same year the villa was transferred back to the daughter and heir of the married doctors couple, the house is abandoned since that.

  

Deutsch:

"Sonnige Lage inmitten des Schlossparks, umgeben von Seen und Wäldern, 10 Minuten vom Stadtzentrum entfernt" - schrieb ein Ärztepaar Anfang der dreißiger Jahre in einer Werbebroschüre für ihr Sanatorium. Sie hatten das Herrenhaus 1931 erworben.

 

Ursprünglich sollte der Schlosspark jedoch nicht bebaut werden, jedenfalls wollten die Großherzöge das Gebiet nicht privatisieren, sie hatten Angst, die landschaftliche Schönheit der Umgebung des Schloß werde zerstört. Letztendlich erlaubten sie jedoch die Bebauung des oberen Bereichs.

Das erste und am besten gelegene Anwesen wurde der Gräfin Marie von Schwichelt übergeben. Sie beauftragte einen Münchner Architekten dort ein schönes Herrenhaus zu bauen. Es wurde 1907 erbaut und die Gräfin lebte bis 1924 in dem prächtigen Herrenhaus.

 

Wegen Mangel an Geld wurde die Villa an einen Arzt verkauft. Nach einer Sanierung wurde es 1925 unter dem Namen "Schlosspark-Sanatorium" als Nervenheilanstalt wiedereröffnet.

Sechs Jahre später verkaufte er die Nervenheilanstalt an ein jüdisches Ärztepaar. Sie behandelten nicht nur nervöse Störungen, sondern auch Patienten mit Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen und Magen-Darm-Erkrankungen. Das Haus war modern und gemütlich, hatte zB Telefon in mehreren Zimmern, ein Röntgenlabor und Zentralheizung. Vor allem Privatpatienten wurden hier behandelt.

 

Ab 1935 war das jüdischen Ehepaare von den Nazis immer mehr Repressalien ausgesetzt. Im Jahr 1935 floh das Ehepaar mit seinen drei Kindern in die Vereinigten Staaten.

 

Nachdem das Haus für eine Weile leer stand, wurde es ab 1938 von der Geheimen Staatspolizei (Gestapo) als Dienstgebäude genutzt, es hatte Gefängniszellen im Keller, 58 Beamte und Angestellte arbeiteten dort. Ab 1945 war es ein Offiziershaus der sowjetischen Militärverwaltung in Deutschland (SMAD).

 

Ein Jahr später zog die sowjetische Brennstoffverwaltung in das Haus ein, und im Dezember 1947 übernahm die Generatorkraft das Grundstück.

Von 1953 bis 1957 hatte die Bezirksleitung der Freien Deutschen Jugend (FDJ) ihren Sitz im Herrenhaus. Nach dem Auszug wurde die Villa zunächst gründlich umgebaut und modernisiert, so dass sie wieder für medizinische Zwecke genutzt werden konnte. Im Mai 1958 eröffnete das Bezirkskrankenhaus dort eine Kinderklinik. Sie hatte sechzig Betten, zwei Ärzte und achtzehn Krankenschwestern.

 

Kurz nach der Wiedervereinigung wurde es bis Ende 1992 als Flüchtlingsheim genutzt.

Im selben Jahr wurde die Villa an die Tochter und Erbin des Ärztepaares zurückgeführt. Die Villa steht seit dem leer und ist dem Verfall ausgesetzt.

 

In 1497 the Stewarts and MacLarens carried out a combined raid against MacDonald of Keppoch as a reprisal for cattle reiving, but Dugald Stewart was killed and succeeded as Chief of Appin by his son Duncan. King James IV of Scotland, born in 1473, was a cousin of the Stewarts of Appin and when he came of age made frequent hunting journeys to the Highlands. It is understood that he stayed quite often at Castle Stalker, using it as a base for hunting and hawking for which he had a passion. It is thought that further improvements were made to the Castle at this time including the possible addition of what is now the top floor and roof, and that the Coat of Arms over the front door may be the Royal Arms of that time.

 

Duncan Stewart was murdered by the McLeans at Duart Castle in 1512 and succeeded by his younger brother Alan Stewart as the third Chief. In 1513 the Stewarts of Appin supported King James IV at the Battle of Flodden. The Stewart Chief and is five sons were all present at the Battle but all managed to survive what was otherwise a massive defeat in which the King was killed.

 

In 1520 Sir Alexander Stewart of Invernahyle was fishing off the small island next to Castle Stalker when he was surprised and murdered by a party of Campbells. Tradition has it that the nurse of his baby son, Donald Stewart, hid the baby in the Castle and when the Campbells left the nurse returned, found the baby still alive and took refuge in Morven.Young Donald became renowned for his strength and was known as “Donald of the Hammers” – in the Gaelic “Donald nan Ord” – as he could wield a blacksmith’s hammer in each hand with ease. In 1544 he raised the Stewarts of Appin and went to Dunstaffnage where they killed nine Campbells in revenge for the murder of his Father. Donald nan Ord also led the Stewarts at the Battle of Pinkie on the 10th September 1547. He died in 1607 and is buried on Lismore where his faithful henchman, a Carmichael, also lies buried.

 

In around 1620 the Castle passed into the hands of the Campbells of Airds as a result of a drunken wager by the 7th Stewart Chief, Duncan, in exchange for an eight-oared wherry.

 

The Stewarts of Appin, under Stewart if Ardsheal, regained the Castle in 1689 when they came out with King James VII (otherwise James II) against King William but after defeat at the battle of Dunkeld the Castle was again forfeited to the Campbells. The Stewarts under Ardsheal refused to hand it over when it was then besieged by the Campbells for several months until Ardsheal was granted an honourable surrender in 1690.

 

At the time of the 1745 Rising Castle Stalker was held by the Campbells with a Garrison of about 59 Government troops. Although the Stewarts of Appin were solidly behind Prince Charles, and raised a regiment of 300, the Castle was too strong for them to take and their 2lb cannon-balls merely bounced off the walls. The Castle formed an important link during the rising with ships calling frequently with men and supplies as they sailed between Inverary in the South and Fort William in the North. After the Battle of Culloden in 1746 the Castle was used by the Government forces as a local centre where the Clansmen had to surrender their arms. Six prisoners are recorded as being held in the Prisoners’ Hole for about a fortnight before being taken to Edinburgh for trial.

 

The last Campbell was born in the Castle in 1775 and Campbells continued to reside in it until about 1800 when they built a new house on the mainland at Airds, which still exists today, and the Castle remained merely as a storehouse. In about 1840 the roof either fell in or was perhaps removed to avoid roof-tax and the Castle was abandoned.

 

In 1908 the Castle was regained from the Campbells by Charles Stewart of Achara who purchased it and carried out some basic preservation work to stem its decay.

 

In 1947 his successor, Duncan Stewart, who was Governor of Sarawak, was murdered by a Dyak and the Castle devolved on his widow. In 1965 Lt. Col. D. R. Stewart Allward negotiated terms for the purchase of the Castle and spent the next ten years rebuilding and restoring it as it is today. It is now fully habitable. Contractors and builders in the normal sense were not employed in the restoration which was carried out by Lt. Col. Stewart Allward personally with the help of his wife, family and many friends who were willing to spend holidays and long weekends helping with the task.

 

Lt. Col. Stewart Allward died suddenly whilst out walking on the 5th February 1991. His wife Marion, always of great support to him, died on the 7th July 2005. They are survived by their four children, Sine, Ross, Alasdair and Morag, six grandchildren and nine great-grandchildren.

The Kyrenia Mountains is a long, narrow mountain range that runs for approximately 160 km (100 mi) along the northern coast of the island of Cyprus. It is primarily made of limestone, with some marble. Its highest peak is Mount Selvili, at 1,024 m (3,360 ft).

 

The Kyrenian mountains are named after the Kyrenian mountains in Achaia, Greece, which are well known from mythology because of the connection with one of the 12 labours of Hercules, the capture of the Kerynitis deer that lived there. This sacred deer of Artemis with golden horns and bronze legs ran so fast that no one could reach it. Hercules, however, after pursuing it for a whole year, managed to catch it and transport it alive to Mycenae.

 

A devastating fire in July 1995 burned large portions of the Kyrenia Mountains, resulting in the loss of significant forest land and natural habitat.

 

The only other mountain range in Cyprus is the Troodos Mountains.

 

These mountains are a series of sedimentary formations from the Permian to the Middle Miocene pushed up by a collision of the African and Eurasian plates. Though only half the height of the Troodos Mountains, the Kyrenia Mountains are rugged and rise abruptly from the Mesaoria plain.

 

The location of the mountains near the sea made them desirable locations for watch towers and castles overlooking the northern Cyprus coast, as well as the central plain. These castles generally date from the 10th through the 15th centuries, primarily constructed by the Byzantines and Lusignans. The castles of St. Hilarion, Buffavento, and Kantara sit astride peaks and were of strategic importance during much of the history of Cyprus during the Middle Ages.

 

A flag of Northern Cyprus is painted on the southern slope of the Kyrenia Mountains. It is reportedly 425 metres wide and 250 metres high, and is illuminated at night.

 

The flag is considered controversial as evidenced in the Parliamentary Question put to the European Parliament by Antigoni Papadopoulou on 22 October 2009, "How can it permit the existence of such a flag which, apart from the catastrophic environmental damage it causes, the use of chemical substances and the brutal abuse of the environment, involves an absurd waste of electricity at a time of economic crisis? Does Turkey show sufficient respect towards the environment to justify its desire to open the relevant chapter of accession negotiations?".

 

There are many legends about the Pentadactylos mountains. One tells the story of a conceited villager who fell in love with the local queen and asked for her hand in marriage. The queen wished to be rid of the impertinent young man and requested that he bring her some water from the spring of Apostolos Andreas monastery in the Karpas, a perilous journey in those days. The man set off and after several weeks returned with a skin full of that precious water. The queen was most dismayed to see that he had succeeded, but still refused to marry him. In a fit of rage, he poured the water on to the earth, seized a handful of the resulting mud and threw it at the queens head. She ducked and the lump of mud sailed far across the plain to land on top of the Kyrenia mountain range, where it is to this day, still showing the impression of the thwarted villager’s five fingers.

 

Another famous one is of the Byzantine hero Digenis Akritas. Tradition has it that Digenis Akritas's hand gripped the mountain to get out of the sea when he came to free Cyprus from its Saracen invaders, and this is his handprint. He also threw a large rock across Cyprus to get at the Saracen ships. That rock landed in Paphos at the site of the birthplace of Aphrodite, thus known to this day as Petra Tou Romiou or "Rock of the Greek".

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

I started this drawing about 2 years ago, just added some colour to it.

 

Here is what some people have said about it..

 

Anonymous Orangen Zaft said...

 

As a Buddhist I find this insulting, Prepare for Religious reprisals, the enlightened version.

 

19 August 2010 23:01

 

Blogger Sam Derounian said...

 

as an agnostic I find this entirely inoffensive. get over yourself, monk man

 

4 September 2010 18:44

 

Anonymous Anonymous said...

 

I think this is obscene.

 

6 March 2011 23:28

 

Anonymous Anonymous said...

 

hey u bastard.........

why mocking others GOD....respect evry religion

 

8 April 2012 11:32

Delete

Anonymous Anonymous said...

 

I am a Buddhist and This is a insult. we are not like white people. we respect our religions. and we don't make fun of it. remove this if you understand.

god bless you.

 

5 June 2012 10:29

 

Blogger valay moon said...

 

you bastard "remove that photo"

 

respect every religion...

 

16 June 2012 17:18

Each statue tells its own story. The little ones are scared and confused, the older children look like they've lost all hope

The youngest child was only 1 year and six days old

The oldest boys were under the age of 15, girls were under the age of 16

Of the 105 children of Lidice only 17 survived.

 

From Wikipedia: "Lidice is a village in the Czech Republic just north-west of Prague. It is built on the site of a previous village of the same name which, as part of the Nazi created Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, was, as per orders directly from Heinrich Himmler, completely destroyed by German forces in reprisal for the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich in the late spring of 1942. On June 10, 1942, all 192 men over 16 years of age from the village were murdered on the spot by the Germans in a much publicised atrocity. The rest of the population were sent to Nazi concentration camps where many women and nearly all the children were killed."

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Afghan History In Northwest Queensland:

 

The area around Bulonga and Ballara, North West Queensland, was once dotted with small going concerns of copper mining early in the 1900s. However, only a couple of smelters were available to process ore, namely Bulonga and Kuridala. Afghan camel drivers came to Australia with camels and proved critical to the transport of the ore from the small mines to the processing smelters. They left their mark through small sets of remains across the district and the herds of wild camels that can still be seen in the area today.

 

Source: Cloncurry Trails, & Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)

Corella Valley Geoscience:

 

Rocks typically seen in the creekbeds of the Corella Valley are dark grey calcsilicates of the Corella Formation, often intruded by a pink fine-grained rock composed of pink feldspar and subordinate honrblende, which contain numerous fragments of dark-green to black metadolerite and some calc-silicates. This is a part of the Mount Philp Breccia. Typically mixed in with these creekbeds is pegmatite that seems to intrude the breccia.

 

Pegmatite are intrusive rocks with extreme coarse grained texture that are developed at the final stages of magma crystallization. As huge amount of time has been granted to pegmatite rocks so it has extremely large crystals and sometimes rare minerals are associated with it which are not found in other rocks. Pegmatite contains crystals that are atleast one centimetre long in diameter.

Pegmatite have composition similar to that of granite with abundant quartz, feldspar and mica. These are sometimes also called as granite pegmatites.

 

The mineralogy of a pegmatite is in most cases dominated by some form of feldspar, often with mica and usually with quartz, being altogether "granitic" in character. Beyond that, pegmatite may include most minerals associated with granite and granite-associated hydrothermal systems, granite-associated mineralisation styles, for example greisens, and somewhat with skarn associated mineralisation.

 

The Kalkadoon People:

 

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Source: Rocks and Landscapes of Northwest Queensland by Laurie Hutton & Ian Withnall, Learning Geology (geologylearn.blogspot.com), &

Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au).

During the so called communist era, the victims of the reprisals following the 1956 revolution were buried in plots 300 and 301, in a disgraceful and secret manner.

Corella Valley Geoscience:

 

Rocks typically seen in the creekbeds of the Corella Valley are dark grey calcsilicates of the Corella Formation, often intruded by a pink fine-grained rock composed of pink feldspar and subordinate honrblende, which contain numerous fragments of dark-green to black metadolerite and some calc-silicates. This is a part of the Mount Philp Breccia. Typically mixed in with these creekbeds is pegmatite that seems to intrude the breccia.

 

Pegmatite are intrusive rocks with extreme coarse grained texture that are developed at the final stages of magma crystallization. As huge amount of time has been granted to pegmatite rocks so it has extremely large crystals and sometimes rare minerals are associated with it which are not found in other rocks. Pegmatite contains crystals that are atleast one centimetre long in diameter.

Pegmatite have composition similar to that of granite with abundant quartz, feldspar and mica. These are sometimes also called as granite pegmatites.

 

The mineralogy of a pegmatite is in most cases dominated by some form of feldspar, often with mica and usually with quartz, being altogether "granitic" in character. Beyond that, pegmatite may include most minerals associated with granite and granite-associated hydrothermal systems, granite-associated mineralisation styles, for example greisens, and somewhat with skarn associated mineralisation.

 

The Kalkadoon People:

 

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Source: Rocks and Landscapes of Northwest Queensland by Laurie Hutton & Ian Withnall, Learning Geology (geologylearn.blogspot.com), &

Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au).

The Battle of Culloden, fought on April 16, 1746, was the final and bloody clash of the Jacobite Rising, marking the end of the Highland clans' hopes to restore the Stuart monarchy to the British throne. Taking place on the windswept Culloden Moor near Inverness, the battle saw the Jacobite forces of Charles Edward Stuart better known as Bonnie Prince Charlie decisively defeated by the government army led by the Duke of Cumberland. The aftermath was brutal: hundreds of Highlanders were killed, and severe reprisals were carried out to suppress Highland culture and dismantle the clan system. Today, Culloden Battlefield stands as a solemn and powerful reminder of a turning point in Scottish history.

  

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Afghan History In Northwest Queensland:

 

The area around Bulonga and Ballara, North West Queensland, was once dotted with small going concerns of copper mining early in the 1900s. However, only a couple of smelters were available to process ore, namely Bulonga and Kuridala. Afghan camel drivers came to Australia with camels and proved critical to the transport of the ore from the small mines to the processing smelters. They left their mark through small sets of remains across the district and the herds of wild camels that can still be seen in the area today.

 

Source: Cloncurry Trails, & Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)

Trikomo is a town in Cyprus. It is under the de facto control of Northern Cyprus and is the administrative center of the Iskele District of Northern Cyprus, which mainly extends into the Karpas Peninsula , while de jure it belongs to the Famagusta District of the Republic of Cyprus . It gained municipality status in 1998. Before 1974 Trikomo was a mixed village with a Greek Cypriot majority.

 

In 2011 Trikomo had 1948 inhabitants.

 

Trikomo is located in the north-eastern part of the Messaria plain , 9 km south of the village of Ardana , about two kilometers from the Bay of Famagusta and four kilometers north-west of the village of Sygkrasi .

 

In Greek Trikomo means "three houses". In 1975 the Turkish Cypriots renamed it Yeni İskele to commemorate the origins of the town's current inhabitants. In Larnaca before 1974 Turkish Cypriots resided in the neighborhood called Skala ("İskele" in Turkish), so that when they settled in the village they renamed it with the same name (lit. "new İskele", later shortened to İskele ). Yeni means "new", so Yeni İskele literally means "New Scale/İskele".

 

Before the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus , the population of Trikomo consisted almost entirely of Greek Cypriots , most of whom fled during the conflict while the rest were subsequently deported to the south. Among these, worthy of mention is Georgios Grivas (1898-1974), general of the Greek army , leader of the guerrilla organization EOKA, protagonist of the liberation struggle against the English and of the paramilitary organization EOKA B.

 

The Turkish Cypriot municipality of Larnaca which had been established in 1958 moved to Trikomo in 1974, soon after the Turkish invasion of the island .

 

In Trikomo is the Church of the Panagia Theotokos , deconsecrated and home to an icon museum displaying rare examples of medieval iconography in Cyprus. The church is divided into two sections, one Orthodox and one Catholic. The first is the oldest, dating back to the Byzantine era , while the second was built in the 12th century, during the period in which the island was ruled by the Lusignans

 

Before 1974 Trikomo was a mixed village with a Greek Cypriot majority. In the 1831 Ottoman census, Muslims made up approximately 18.4% of the population. However, by 1891 this percentage dropped significantly to 3.4%. In the first half of the 20th century the population of the village increased steadily, from 1,247 inhabitants in 1901 to 2,195 in 1960.

 

Most of Trikomo's Greek Cypriots were displaced in August 1974, although some remained in the town after the Turkish army took control. In October 1975 there were still 92 Greek Cypriots in the city, but in 1978 they were moved to the south side of the Green Line . Currently, like the rest of the displaced Greek Cypriots, Trikomo Greek Cypriots are scattered across the south of the island, especially in the cities. The number of Greek Cypriots from Trikomo displaced in 1974-78 was approximately 2,330 (2,323 in the 1960 census).

 

Today the village is inhabited mainly by displaced Turkish Cypriots from the south of the island, especially from the city of Larnaca and its district . In 1976-77, some families from Turkey, especially from the province of Adana , also settled in the village . Since the 2000s, many wealthy Europeans, Turks and Turkish Cypriots from other areas of the north of the island (including returnees from abroad) have purchased properties, built houses and settled in the vicinity of the city. According to the 2006 Turkish Cypriot census, the population of Trikomo/İskele was 3,657.

 

The city annually hosts the Iskele Festival , which takes place for ten days in summer, and is the oldest annual festival in Cyprus, having first been held in Larnaca in 1968. In 1974, the event was moved to Trikomo together to the Turkish Cypriot inhabitants of Larnaca who had moved there. The program includes an international folk dance festival, concerts by Turkish Cypriot and mainland Turkish musicians, various sports tournaments, stalls offering food and various competitions, along with other performances and competitions highlighting the city's cultural heritage.

 

The current mayor of the city is Hasan Sadıkoğlu, who was first elected in 2014 as an independent candidate. It was re-elected in 2018 as the candidate of the right-wing National Unity Party (UBP), winning with 54.6% of the vote. In the 2018 local elections, four members of the UBP, two members of the pro-settler Renaissance Party (YDP), and two members of the left-wing Turkish Republican Party (CTP) were elected to the eight-member city council .

 

Trikomo is twinned with:

Flag of Türkiye Beykoz, Istanbul

Flag of Türkiye Büyükçekmece, Istanbul

Flag of Türkiye Finike, Antalya , since 2015

Flag of Türkiye Mamak, Ankara

Flag of Türkiye Pendik, Istanbul

Flag of Türkiye Samsung , since 2006

 

Turkish Cypriot sports club Larnaka Gençler Birliği (also called İskele Gençlerbirliği ) was founded in 1934 in Larnaca, and was playing in the Süper Lig of the Northern Cyprus Football Federation in the 2018–19 season

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

ONE OF THE WAY TO TRAIN THE "THE AWARENESS MUSCLE

 

is the critical run

and other emergency art format

 

CRITICAL RUN / Debate Format

 

Critical Run is an Art Format created by Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel

debate while running .

Debate and Run together,Now,before it is too late.

 

www.emergencyroomscanvas todo .org/criticalrun.html

 

The Art Format Critical Run has been activated in 30 differents countries with 120 different burning debates

New York,Cairo,London,Istanbul,Athens,Hanoi,Paris,Munich,Amsterdam Siberia,Copenhagen,Johanesburg,Moskow,Napoli,Sydney,

Wroclaw,Bruxelles,Rotterdam,Barcelona,Venice,Virginia,Stockholm,Århus,Kassel,Lyon,Trondheim, Berlin ,Toronto,Hannover ...

 

CRITICAL RUN happened on invitation from institution like Moma/PS1, Moderna Muset Stockholm ,Witte de With Rotterdam,ZKM Karlsruhe,Liverpool Biennale;Sprengel Museum etc..or have just happened on the spot because

a debate was necessary here and now.

 

In 2020 the Energy Room was an installation of 40 Critical Run at Museum Villa Stuck /Munich

part of Colonel solo show : The Awareness Muscle Training Center

 

----

 

Interesting publication for researches on running and art

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

 

14 Performances. Relation Work (1976 - 1980). Filmed by Paolo Cardazzo. Marina Abramović/ Ulay. Neuer Berliner Kunstverein, Berlin, Germany.

 

Abramović, Marina. Student Body: Workshops 1979 - 2003: Performances 1993 - 2003. Milano: ed. Charta, 2003.

 

Bergson, Henri. Creative Evolution. London: Macmillan and Co., 1911.

Bergson, Henri. Key Writings. Edited by Keith Ansell-Pearson and John Mullarkey. New York:

 

Continuum, 2002.

Bergson, Henri. Matter and Memory. New York: Zone Books, 1988.

 

Blaikie, William. “Common Sense Physical Training.” In Athletics and Health: Modern Achievement: Advice and Instruction upon the Conduct of Life, Principles of Business, Care of Health, Duties of Citizenship, etc. Edited by Edward Everett Hale. New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1902.

 

Blaikie, William. How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1883.

 

Cunningham, Merce. Changes: Notes on Choreography. New York: Something Else Press, 1969.

 

de Balzac, Honoré. The Human Comedy. EBook: Project Gutenberg, 2010. de Balzac, Honoré. Théorie de la démarche. 1833, 1853.

 

de Biran, Maine. “Opposition du principe de Descartes avec celui d’une science de l’homme. Première base d’une division des faits psychologiques et physiologiques. Perception et sensation animale.” In Maine de Biran. Librairie Philosophique J. VRIN, 1990.

 

de Tocqueville, Alexis. The Old Regime and the Revolution. New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1856.

 

Delaumosne, M. L’Abbe. “The Delsarte System.” Translated by Frances A. Shaw. In Delsarte System of Oratory, 4th Ed. New York: Edgar S. Werner, 1893.

 

Descartes, René. Méditations metaphysiques. 1641.

 

Gropius, Walter, and Arthur S. Wensinger, eds. The Theater of the Bauhaus: Oskar Schlemmer, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Farkas Molnár. Translated by Arthur S. Wensinger. Middleton, Conn.: Wesleyan University, 1961.

 

Hahn, Archibald. How to Sprint: The Theory of Spring Racing. New York: American Sports Publishing Company, 1923.

 

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Phenomenology of Spirit. Translated by A.V. Miller. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.

 

Helmholtz, Hermann. “On the Facts Underlying Geometry.” In Epistemological Writings: Hermann von Helmholtz. Edited by R.S. Cohen and Y. Elkana. Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1977.

 

Helmholtz, Hermann. Théorie physiologique de la musique fondée sur l’étude des sensations auditives. Paris: Masson, 1868.

 

Helmholtz, Hermann. Treatise of Physiological Optics (Handbuch der physiologischen Optik) 1856. 3 Volumes. Translated by James P.C. Southall. Milwaukee, 1924.

 

Holmes, Oliver Wendall. Soundings from the Atlantic. Boston: Tickknor and Fields, 1864. James, William. The Principles of Psychology. New York: Henry Holt & Co, 1890, 1918.

 

James, William. Writings 1902 - 1910. Edited by Bruce Kuklick. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 1987.

 

Kandinsky, Vasily. Über Das Geistige in der Kunst. Dritte Auflage. München: R. Piper&Co, 1912.

 

Kant, Immanuel. “Was ist Aufklärung?” 1784.

 

Laban, Rudolf. A Life for Dance: Reminiscences. Translated by Lisa Ullmann. London: Macdonald & Evans, 1975.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Choreographie. Jena: E. Diederichs, 1926.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Choreutics. Edited by Lisa Ullmann. London: Macdonald & Evans, 1939, 1966.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Effort: Economy in Body Movement. 2nd Edition. Boston: Plays, 1947, 1974.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Principles of Dance and Movement Notation. New York: A Dance Horizons Republication, 1956, 1970.

 

Laban, Rudolf. The Language of Movement: A Guidebook to Choreutics. Edited by Lisa Ullmann. Boston: Plays, Inc., 1974.

  

MacKaye, Percy. “Steele Mackaye, Dynamic Artist of the American Theatre; An Outline of his Life Work,” in The Drama. Edited by William Norman Guthrie and Charles Hubbard Sergel. Chicago: The Dramatic Publishing Company, 1911.

 

Marey, Étienne-Jules. La Machine Animale: Locomotion Terrestre et Aérienne. Paris: Librairie Germer Baillière, 1873.

 

Marey, Étienne-Jules. Le Vol des Oiseaux. Paris: Libraire de l’académie de médecine, 1890. Marey, Étienne-Jules. Movement. Translated by Eric Pritchard. New York: D. Appleton and

 

Company, 1895.

 

Michelet, Jules. The History of France. Volume I. Translated by Walter K. Kelly. London: Chapman and Hall, 1844.

 

Morgan, Anna. An Hour with Delsarte: A Study of Expression. New York: Edgar S. Werner Publisher, 1891.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. Animal Locomotion: An Electro-photographic Investigation of Consecutive Phases of Animal Movements. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania and J. B. Lippincott Company, 1887.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. Descriptive Zoopraxography, or the Science of Animal Locomotion. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1893.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. The Attitudes of Animals in Motion: A Series of Photographs Illustrating the Consecutive Positions assumed by Animals in Performing Various Movements; Executed at Palo Alto, California, in 1878 and 1879 (1881). Albumen, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., Library of Congress.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. The Human Figure in Motion. New York: Dover Publications, 1955. Ramsaye, Terry. A Million and One Nights: A History of the Motion Picture. U.K.: Simon and

 

Schuster, Inc., 1926, 1954.

Richer, Paul. Physiologie Artistique: De l’Homme en Mouvement. Paris: Aulanier et Cie, 1896.

 

Sanburn, Frederic. Delsartean Scrap-book: Health, Personality, Beauty, House-Decoration, Dress, etc. New York: United States Book Company, c. 1890.

 

Schlemmer, Oskar. Briefe und Tagebücher: The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer. Edited by Tut Schlemmer. Translated by Krishna Winston. Middletown, Conn: Wesleyan University Press, 1972.

  

Schlemmer, Oskar, and Heimo Kuchling. Der Mensch, Unterricht am Bauhaus. Nachgelassene Aufzeichnungen. Mainz: F. Kupferberg, 1969.

 

Schuftan, Werner. Handbuch des Tanzes. Preface by Rudolf von Laban. Mannheim: Verlag Deutscher Chorsänger Verband und Tänzerbund, 1928.

 

Shearman, Sir Montague. Athletics and Football. London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1888. Smith, Shawn Michelle. At the Edge of Sight: Photography and the Unseen. Durham: Duke

 

University Press, 2013.

 

Stebbins, Genevieve. Delsarte System of Expression, 5th Edition. New York: Edgar S. Werner, 1894; orig. 1885.

 

Talbot, Frederick A. Practical Cinematography and its Applications. London: William Heinemann, 1913.

 

Wigman, Mary. The Mary Wigman Book: Her Writings. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1975.

 

Abramović, Marina, et al. Marina Abramović: Seven Easy Pieces. New York: Charta 2007. Acconci, Vito. Language to Cover a Page: The Early Writings of Vito Acconci. Edited by Craig

 

Dworkin. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006.

Adolphs, Volker, and Philip Norten. Gehen Bleiben: Bewegung, Körper, Ort in der Kunst der

 

Gegenwart. Bonn: Kunstmuseum Bonn, 2007.

Agamben, Giorgio. “Movement.” In Dance: Documents of Contemporary Art. Edited André

 

Lepecki. London: MIT Press and WhiteChapel Gallery, 2012.

Alberro, Alexander, and Blake Stimson, eds. Institutional Critique: An Anthology of Artists’

 

Writings. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2009.

Albers, Kate Palmer. “Abundant Images and the Collective Sublime.” Exposure. Volume 46,

 

Issue 2 (Fall 2013).

 

Allen, Beverly. Rape Warfare: The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996.

 

Alloway, Lawrence. The Venice Biennale 1895 - 1968: from salon to goldfish bowl. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society LTD., 1968.

Anderson, Ben. “Affect and Biopower: Towards a Politics of Life.” Transactions - Institute of British Geographers, Issue 1 (2011).

 

Andras, Edit, and Bojana Pejic, eds. Gender Check: Femininity and Masculinity in the Art of Eastern Europe. Cologne: Buchhandlung Walther König, 2009.

 

Antliff, Mark. Inventing Bergson: Cultural Politics and the Parisian Avant-Garde. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.

 

Arendt, Hannah. The Human Condition, Second Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958, 1998.

 

Arendt, Hannah. On Violence. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1969.

Atkins, Dawn, ed. Looking Queer: Body Image and Identity in Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay, and

 

Transgender Communities. New York: The Haworth Press, 1998.

Ault, Julie, ed. Alternative Art, New York, 1965-1985: A Cultural Politics Book for the Social

 

Text Collective. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.

Auslander, Philip. “Going with the Flow: Performance Art and Mass Culture.” TDR. Volume 33,

 

Number 2 (Summer 1989).

Auslander, Philip. “The Performativity of Performance Documentation.” PAJ 84 (2006).

 

Backstein, Joseph, and Daniel Birnbaum, Sven-Olov Wallenstein. Thinking Worlds - The Moscow Conference on Philosophy, Politics, and Art. Berlin: Sternberg Press, 2008.

 

Badovinac, Zdenka. Body and the East: From the 1960s to the Present. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999.

 

Baer, Ulrich. Spectral Evidence: The Photography of Trauma. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002. Baker, George. “Entr’acte.” October. Volume 105 (Summer 2003).

 

Bale, John. Imagined Olympians: Body Culture and Colonial Representations in Rwanda. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.

 

Bale, John. Running Cultures: Racing in Time and Space. London: Frank Cass, 2004. Banes, Sally. Democracy’s Body: Judson Dance Theatre, 1962 - 1964. Durham, NC: Duke

 

University Press, 1993.

 

Banes, Sally. Terpsichore in Sneakers: Post-Modern Dance, 2nd edition. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1987.

  

Bartenieff, Irmgard. Body Movement: Coping with the Environment. New York: Routledge, 2002.

 

Barthes, Roland. Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography. Translated by Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 198, 2010.

 

Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. Translated by Annette Lavers. New York: Hill and Wang, 1972. Batchen, Geoffrey. Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography. Cambridge: MIT

 

Press, 1997.

 

Baudelaire, Charles. The Parisian Prowler, Le Spleen de Paris Petits Poèmes en Prose. Translated by Edward K. Kaplan. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1989.

 

Bauer, M. W. and G. Gaskell. Biotechnology — the Making of a Global Controversy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

 

Bayat, Asef. Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010, 2015.

 

Belaief, Lynne. “Meanings of the Body.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. Volume 4, Issue 1 (1977).

 

Bell, Catherine. Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

 

Benjamin, Walter. Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism. Translated by Harry Zohn. London: Verso, 1997.

 

Benjamin, Walter. Selected Writings, Volumes 1 - 4. Edited by Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003 - 2006.

 

Benjamin, Walter. “The Storyteller: Reflections on the Works of Nikolai Leskov.” In Illuminations. Edited by Hannah Arendt. Translated by Harry Zohn. New York: Schocken Books, 2007.

 

Bennett, Jill. Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art. Stanford, CA; Stanford University Press, 2005.

 

Berger, John. About Looking. New York: Pantheon Books, 1980.

 

Bergson, Henri. Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic. Translated by Cloudesley Brereton and Fred Rothwell. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1914.

  

Bishop, Claire, and Marta Dziewańska, eds. 1968 - 1989: Political Upheaval and Artistic Change. Warsaw: Museum of Modern Art, 2009.

 

Bishop, Claire. Artificial Hells: Participatory Art and the Politics of Spectatorship. London: Verso, 2012.

 

Bishop, Claire. Radical Museology: or, What’s ‘Contemporary’ in Museums of Contemporary Art? London: Koenig Books, 2013.

 

Black, Graham. Transforming Museums in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Routledge, 2011.

 

Blaive, Muriel, and Christian Gerbel, Thomas Lindenberger, eds. Clashes in European Memory: The Case of Communist Repression and the Holocaust. Innsbruck: Studienverlag, 2011.

 

Blassnigg, Martha. Time, Memory, Consciousness and the Cinema Experience: Revisiting Ideas on Matter and Spirit. New York: Rodopi, 2009.

 

Bloomer, Kent C., and Charles Willard Moore. Body, Memory, and Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977.

 

Boecker, Henning, et. al. “The Runner’s High: Opioidergic Mechanisms in the Human Brain.” Cerebral Cortex. Volume 18, Number 11 (2008).

 

Bougarel, Xavier, and Elissa Helms, Ger Duijzings, eds. The New Bosnian Mosaic: Identities, Memories and Moral Claims in a Post-War Society. Hampshire, England: Ashgate, 2007.

 

Bourdieu, Pierre. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

 

Bourriaud, Nicolas. Relational Aesthetics. Dijon: Les Presses du réel, 1998, 2002.

 

Brandstetter, Gabriele. Poetics of Dance: Body, Image and Space in the Historical Avant- Gardes. Translated by Elena Polzer and Mark Franko. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, 2015.

 

Braudy, Leo, and Marshall Cohen, eds. Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. New York: Oxford UP, 1999.

 

Braun, Marta. Eadweard Muybridge. London: Reaktion, 2010.

Braun, Marta. Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830 - 1904). Chicago:

 

University of Chicago Press, 1992, 1994.

 

Brettell, Richard R. Modern Art, 1851 - 1929: Capitalism and Representation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

  

Brooke, J.D., and H.T.A. Whiting, eds. Human Movement - A Field of Study. London: Henry Kimpton Publishers, 1973.

 

Brown, Keith S., and Yannis Hamilakis, eds. The Usable Past: Greek Metahistories. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2003.

 

Brunnbauer, Ulf, and Konrad Clewing, eds. Südost-Forschungen. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 2008.

 

Bruno, Giuliana. Atlas of Emotion: Journeys in Art, Architecture, and Film. New York: Verso, 2002.

 

Bryzgel, Amy. Performing the East: Performance Art in Russia, Latvia, and Poland since 1980. London: I.B. Tauris, 2012.

 

Buchloh, Benjamin H. D. Neo-Avantgarde and Culture Industry: Essays on European and American Art from 1955 to 1975. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001, 2003.

 

Buck-Morss, Susan. The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

 

Burchell, Graham, and Colin Gordon, Peter Miller, eds. The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.

 

Bürger, Peter. Theory of the Avant-Garde. Translated by Michael Shaw. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press and Manchester University Press, 1974, 1984.

 

Butler, Judith. Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York: Routledge, 1993. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge,

 

2006.

 

Butler, Samuel. Unconscious Memory: A Comparison between the Theory of Dr. Ewald Hering and the ‘Philosophy of the Unconscious’ of Dr. Edward von Hartmann. London: David Bogue, 1880.

 

Cage, John. Silence: Lectures and Writings. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1961. Campany, David, ed. The Cinematic: Documents of Contemporary Art. Cambridge: MIT Press,

 

2007.

Canales, Jimena. A Tenth of a Second: A History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.

 

Careri, Francesco. Walkscapes: Walking as an Aesthetic Practice. Translated by Steve Piccolo and Paul Hammond. Barcelona: Editorial Gusavo Gili, 2002.

  

Carroll, Noël. Theorizing the Moving Image. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Cetinić, Ljiljana, and Ana Panić, eds. Štafete: Titova Štafeta - Štafeta Mladosti, 1945 - 1987.

 

Belgrade: Tipografik plus, 2008.

Chase, Stuart. Men and Machines. New York: Macmillan Co, 1929.

 

Christesen, Paul. Sport and Democracy in the Ancient and Modern Worlds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

 

Christian, Mary. Marina Abramović: The Artist is Present. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2010.

 

Clark, Kenneth. The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form. New York: Pantheon Books, 1956. Coleman, Simon, and John Eade, eds. Reframing Pilgrimage: Cultures in Motion. London:

 

Routledge, 2004.

 

Connerton, Paul. The Spirit of Mourning: History, Memory and the Body. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

 

Cosgrove, Denis. Geography and Vision: Seeing, Imagining and Representing the World. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2008.

 

Cottington, David. Cubism in the Shadow of War: The Avant-Garde and Politics in Paris 1905- 1914. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.

 

Crane, Susan, ed. Museums and Memory. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000. Crary, Jonathan. Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth

 

Century. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990.

Crow, Thomas. The Rise of the Sixties: American and European Art in the Era of Dissent.

 

London: Laurence King Publishing, 1996.

 

Csiksgentmihalyi, Mihaly. Creativity! Flow and psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper Collins, 1996.

 

Cumming, John. Runners & Walkers: A Nineteenth Century Sports Chronicle. Chicago: Regency Gateway, 1981.

 

Cvejić, Bojana, and Ana Vujanović. Public Sphere by Performance. Belgrade: b_books, TkH, 2012.

  

Dagg, Anne Innis. Running, Walking, and Jumping: The Science of Locomotion. New York: Crane, Russak & Company, Inc, 1977.

 

de Certeau, Michel. The Practice of Everyday Life. Translated by Steven Rendall. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984, 1988.

 

de Certeau, Michel. The Writing of History. Translated by Tom Conley. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975, 1988.

 

de Groote, Pascale. Ballets Suédois: Jean Börlin. Ghent: University of Ghent, 2002.

de Waal, Frans. The Age of Empathy: Nature’s Lessons for a Kinder Society. New York:

 

Harmony Books, 2009.

 

Deleuze, Gilles. Cinema 1: The Movement-Image. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986.

 

Deleuze, Gilles, and Félix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus. London: Continuum, 1980, 2008. Dewey, John. The Public and its Problems: An Essay in Political Inquiry. Edited by Melvin L.

 

Rogers. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, 2012.

di Giovanni, Janine. Madness Visible: A Memoir of War. London: Bloomsbury, 2005.

 

Djetelić, Pera, and Dragan Maršičević. Narodna Omladina i Jugoslovenski Kongres za Fizičku Kulturu. Beograd: Mladost, 1959.

 

Djurić, Dubravka, and Miško Šuvaković, eds. Impossible Histories: Historical Avant-gardes, Neo-avant-gardes, and Post-avant-gardes in Yugoslavia, 1918 - 1991. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

 

Donawerth, Jane, ed. Rhetorical Theory by Women before 1900: An Anthology. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2002.

 

Dörr, Evelyn. Rudolf Laban: The Dancer of the Crystal. Lanham, Maryland: The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc., 2008.

 

Drakulić, Slavenka. Balkan Express: Fragments from the Other Side of War. London: Hutchinson, 1993.

 

Drakulić, Slavenka. They Would Never Hurt a Fly: War Criminals on Trial in the Hague. New York: Penguin, 2005.

 

Drapag, Vesna. Constructing Yugoslavia: A Transnational History. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

Duncan, Carol. Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums. Abingdon: Routledge, 1995. Eamon, Christopher. Rearview Mirror: New Art from Central and Eastern Europe. Edmonton:

 

Art Gallery of Alberta, 2011.

 

Eichberg, Henning, ed. Body Cultures: Essays on Sport, Space, and Identity. London, New York: Routledge, 1998.

 

Elias, Norbert. The Civilizing Process. Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations. Oxford: Blackwell, 1939, 2000.

 

Elias, Norbert, and Eric Dunning. Quest for Excitement: Sport and Leisure in the Civilising Process. Dublin: University of College Dublin Press, 2008.

 

Enwezor, Okwui. Archive Fever: Uses of the Document in Contemporary Art. Göttingen: Steidl Publishers, 2008.

 

Erjavec, Aleš, ed. Postmodernism and the Postsocialist Condition: Politicized Art under Late Socialism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.

 

Fer, Briony, and David Batchelor, Paul Wood. Realism, Rationalism, Surrealism: Art Between the Wars. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993.

 

Finn, David. How to Visit A Museum. New York: Abrams, 1985.

Fleming, Bruce. Running is Life: Transcending the Crisis of Modernity. Lanham: University

 

Press of America, Inc, 2010.

 

Forrester, Sibelan E.S., and Magdalena J. Zaborowska, Elena Gapova, eds. Over the Wall/After the Fall: Post-Communist Cultures Through an East-West Gaze. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.

 

Foster, Hal. The Return of the Real: The Avant-Garde at the End of the Century. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996.

 

Foster, Hal. “What’s Neo about the Neo-Avant-Garde?” October. Volume 70, The Duchamp Effect (Autumn, 1994), 5 - 32.

 

Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books, Random House, Inc, 1977, 1995.

 

Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality Volume 1. Translated by Robert Hurley. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.

 

Foucault, Michel. Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews & Other Writings, 1972 - 1977. Edited by Colin Gordon. New York: Pantheon Books,1972, 1980.

  

Fraleigh, Sondra Horton. Dance and the Lived Body: A Descriptive Aesthetics. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987.

 

Frampton, Hollis. “Eadweard Muybridge: Fragments of a Tesseract.” In On the Camera Arts and Consecutive Matters: The Writings of Hollis Frampton. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2009.

 

Fried, Michael. Four Honest Outlaws: Sala, Ray, Marioni, Gordon. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011.

 

Gallagher, Catherine, and Thomas Laqueur, eds. The Making of the Modern Body: Sexuality and Society in the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.

 

Gamwell, Lynn, ed. Dreams Nineteen Hundred to Two Thousand: Science, Art, and the Unconscious Mind. Binghamton: State University of New York at Binghamton, 2000.

 

Gay, Peter. Savage Reprisals: Bleak House, Madame Bovary, Buddenbrooks. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2002.

 

Gehm, Sabine, and Pirkko Husemann, Katharina von Wilke, eds. Knowledge in Motion: Perspectives of Artistic and Scientific Research in Dance. Translated by Bettina von Arps- Aubert. Bielefeld: Transcript, 2007.

 

Genoways, Hugh H., ed. Museum Philosophy for the Twenty-First Century. Oxford: AltaMira Press, 2006.

 

Geoghegan, Bernard Dionysius. “After Kittler: On the Cultural Techniques of Recent German Media Theory.” Theory Culture Society (August 2013).

 

Gidal, Peter. Materialist Film. London: Routledge, 1989.

Giedion, Siegfried. Space, Time, and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition. Cambridge:

 

Harvard University Press, 1974.

 

Godard, Jean-Luc. Godard on Godard. Edited by Jean Narboni and Tom Milne. New York: The Viking Press, 1968, 1972.

 

Gödl, Doris. “Challenging the Past: Serbian and Croatian Aggressor-Victim Narratives.” International Journal of Sociology 37. No. 1 (2007).

 

Goldberg, Roselee. Performance: Live Art Since the ‘60s. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004.

 

Goldberg, Roselee. Performance Art: From Futurism to the Present. London: Thames & Hudson, 2001.

  

Goldberg, Vicki, ed. Photography in Print: Writings from 1816 to the Present. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981.

 

Golding, Sue, ed. The Eight Technologies of Otherness. London: Routledge, 1997. Gotaas, Thor. Running: A Global History. London: Reaktion Books, 2009.

 

Grau, Andrée, and Stephanie Jordan. Europe Dancing: Perspectives on Theatre, Dance, and Cultural Identity. New York: Routledge, 2000.

 

Grigorov, Dimitar. “‘Рачунајте на нас.’ ‘Oдломак’ о Титовој штафети или Штафети младости.” In Друштвену историју. Belgrade: 2008.

 

Grimes, Ronald L. Beginnings in Ritual Studies. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995.

 

Groys, Boris. Introduction to Antiphilosophy. Translated by David Fernbach. London: Verso, 2012.

 

Groys, Boris. The Communist Postscript. Translated by Thomas Ford. London: Verso, 2010. Groys, Boris, and Ann von der Heiden, Peter Weibel, eds. Zurück aus der Zukunft.

 

Osteuropäische Kulturen im Zeitalter des Postkommunismus. Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2005.

Gržinić, Marina, and Günther Heeg, Veronika Darian. Mind the Map! History is not a Given: A

 

th th

Critical Anthology Based on the Symposium [Leipzig, 13 -16 October 2005]. Frankfurt:

 

Revolver, 2006.

 

Guttman, Allen. “Sport, Politics, and the Engaged Historian.” Journal of Contemporary History. Volume 38, Number 3 (2003).

 

Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Empire. Boston, Harvard University Press, 2001. Hargreaves, Jennifer, and Patricia Anne Vertinsky, eds. Physical Culture, Power, and the Body.

 

New York: Routledge, 2007.

 

Harris, Mary Emma. The Arts at Black Mountain College. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987, 2002.

 

Harte, Jane L., et. al. “The effects of running and meditation on beta-endorphin, corticotropin- releasing hormone and cortisol in plasma, and on mood.” Biological Psychology. Volume 40, Issue 3 (June 1995).

 

Harte, Jane L., and Georg H. Eifert. “The effects of running, environment, and attentional focus on athletes’ catecholamine and cortisol levels and moods.” Psychophysiology. Volume 32, Issue 1 (January 1995).

  

Havránek, Vít, ed. Jiří Kovanda: Actions and Installations, 2005-1976. Zurich: Tranzit & JRP|Ringier, 2006.

 

Helme, Sirje. PopKunst Forever: Estonian Pop Art at the Turn of the 1960s and 1970s. Tallinn: Art Museum of Estonia - Kumu Art Museu, 2010.

 

Hemmings, Frederick William John, ed. The Age of Realism. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1974. Hendricks, Gordon. Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture. New York:

 

Grossman Publishers, of Viking Press, 1975.

 

Henning, Michelle. Museums, Media, and Cultural Theory. New York: Open University Press, 2006.

 

Hewitt, Andrew. Social Choreography: Ideology as Performance in Dance and Everyday Movement. Durham: Duke University Press, 2005.

 

Higgins, Steven. Still Moving: The Film and Media Collections of the Museum of Modern Art. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2006.

 

Hoberman, John M. “Sport and Political Ideology.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues. Volume 1, Number 2 (1977).

 

Hodgson, John. Mastering Movement: The Life and Work of Rudolf Laban. New York: Routledge, 2001.

 

Hoelzl, Ingrid, and Friedrich Tietjen, eds. Images in Motion. Burges: Die Keure, 2012. Husserl, Edmund. The Phenomenology of Internal Time-Consciousness. Edited by Martin

 

Heidegger. Translated by James S. Churchill. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1964.

 

IRWIN, ed. East Art Map: Contemporary Art and Eastern Europe. London: Afterall and MIT Press, 2006.

 

Ivey, Paul Eli. Radiance from Halcyon: A Utopian Experiment in Religion and Science. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013.

 

Jameson, Frederic. Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham: Duke University Press,1991.

 

Janevski, Ana, ed. As Soon as I Open My Eyes I See a Film: Experiment in the Art of Yugoslavia in the 1960s and 1970s. Warsaw: Museum of Modern Art, 2010.

 

Jarausch, Konrad H., and Michael Geyer. Shattered Past: Reconstructing German Histories. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.

  

Jones, Amelia. Body Art/Performing the Subject. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998.

 

Jones, Amelia, and Adrian Heathfield. Perform, Repeat, Record: Live Art in History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.

 

Jones, Amelia. “The Body and Technology.” Art Journal. Volume 60, Number 1 (Spring, 2001). Joseph, Brandon W. Random Order: Robert Rauschenberg and the Neo-avant-garde.

 

Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

Joy, Jenn. The Choreographic. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2014.

 

Jünger, Ernst. “War and Photography.” Translated by Anthony Nassar. New German Critique. Number 59 (Spring-Summer, 1993).

 

Kater, Michael H. Hitler Youth. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004. Kebo, Ozren. Sarajevo za početnike. Sarajevo: Dani, 1996.

 

Kelley, Jeff, ed. Essays on the Blurring of Art and Life. Berkley: University of California Press, 1993, 2003.

 

Kern, Stephen. The Culture of Time and Space. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1983.

 

Kester, Grant H. Conversation Pieces: Community and Communication in Modern Art. Berkley: University of California Press, 2004.

 

Kholeif, Omar. Moving Image. London: Whitechapel, 2015.

Kirkpatrick, Sidney. The Revenge of Thomas Eakins. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.

 

Kirn, Gal, and Dubravka Sekulić, Žiga Testen, eds. Surfing the Black: Yugoslav Black Wave Cinema and its Transgressive Moments. Maastricht: Jan van Eyck Academie, 2012.

 

Kittler, Friedrich A. Gramophone, Film, Typewriter. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. Klinger, Cornelia, and Bartomeu Mari. Modernologies: Contemporary Artists Researching

 

Modernity and Modernism. Barcelona: Museu d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona, 2009.

Knell, Simon J., et al., eds. National Museums: New Studies from around the World. New York:

 

Routledge, 2011.

Knudson, Duane. Fundamentals of Biomechanics, Second Edition. New York: Springer, 2007.

  

Knust, Albrecht. Handbook of Kinetography Laban: Examples. Hamburg: Das Tanzarchiv, 1958. Koch, Sabine, et al. Body Memory, Metaphor, and Movement. Philadelphia: John Benjamins

 

Publishing Company, 2012.

Krauss, Rosalind E. “Sculpture in the Expanded Field.” October. Volume 8 (Spring 1979).

 

Krauss, Rosalind E. The Originality of the Avant-Garde and Other Modernist Myths. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985.

 

Kuligowski, Waldemar. “A Relay of Youth of the 21st Century. A Re-enactment of Ritual or a Grotesque Performance?” Cargo. Volume 10, Number 1 - 2 (2012).

 

Kwon, Miwon. One Place After Another: Site-Specific Art and Locational Identity. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002.

 

LaBelle, Brandon. Background Noise: Perspectives on Sound Art. London and New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006.

 

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.

 

Landsberg, Alison. Prosthetic Memory: The Transformation of American Remembrance in the Age of Mass Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.

 

Laws, Kenneth, and Francia Russell. Physics and the Art of Dance: Understanding Movement. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

 

le Blanc, Guillaume. Courir: Méditations Physiques. Paris: Éditions Flammarion, 2012.

Leahy, Helen Rees. Museum Bodies: The Politics of Practices of Visiting and Viewing. Surrey,

 

England: Ashgate, 2012.

Lederman, Gail. Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the

 

United States, 1880 - 1917. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995. Lefebvre, Henri. The Production of Space. Oxford: Blackwell, 1991.

 

Lehman, Arnold L., and Brenda Richardson, eds. Oskar Schlemmer. Baltimore: The Baltimore Museum of Art, 1986.

 

Lemke, Thomas. Bio-Politics: An Advanced Introduction. Translated by Eric Frederick Trump. New York: New York University Press, 2011.

 

Lepage, Jean-Denis G.G. Hitler Youth, 1922 - 1945: An Illustrated History. London: McFarland & Company, Inc.,2009.

  

Lepecki, André, ed. Dance: Documents of Contemporary Art. London: MIT Press and WhiteChapel Gallery, 2012.

 

Leposavić, Radonja. vlasTito iskustvo. Belgrade: Publikum, 2005.

Licht, Alan. Sound Art: Beyond Music, Between Categories. New York: Rizzoli International

 

Publications, 2007.

 

Lippard, Lucy. Six Years: The Dematerialization of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972. Berkley: University of California Press, 1973.

 

Loland, Sigmund, and Berit Skirstad, Ivan Waddington. Pain and Injury in Sport: Social and Ethical Analysis. New York: Routledge, 2006.

 

Luthar, Breda, and Maruša Pušnik, eds. Remembering Utopia: The Culture of Everyday Life in Socialist Yugoslavia. Washington, D.C.: New Academia Publishers, 2010.

 

Mackay, Robin, and Armen Avanessian, eds. #Accelerate: The Accelerationist Reader. Falmouth, UK: Urbanomic, 2014.

 

Malcolm, Noel. Bosnia: A Short Story. London: MacMillan, 1994.

Maletic, Vera. Body - Space - Expression: The Development of Rudolf Laban’s Movement and

 

Dance Concepts. Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter, 1987.

Marie, Michel. The French New Wave: An Artistic School. Translated by Richard Neupert.

 

Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1997.

 

Marien, Mary Warner. Photography: A Cultural History. 2nd Edition. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2002, 2006.

 

Marks, Laura. Touch: Sensuous Theory and Multisensory Media. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.

 

Marvin, Carolyn. When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking about Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.

 

Mathews, Nancy Mowll. “The Body in Motion.” In Moving Pictures: American Art and Early Film, 1880 - 1910. Manchester, Vermont: Hudson Hills Press, 2005.

 

Mauss, Marcel. “Techniques of the Body” (1934). In Incorporations, Zone 6. Edited by Jonathan Crary and Sanford Kwinter. New York: Zone, 1992.

 

Mazower, Mark. Dark Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century. New York: A.A. Knopf, 1999.

  

McGinnis, Peter M. Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise, Third Edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2013.

 

McSorley, Kevin, ed. War and the Body: Militarisation, Practice and Experience. New York: Routledge, 2013.

 

Meltzer, Eve. Systems We Have Loved: Conceptual Art, Affect, and the Antihumanist Turn. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 2013.

 

Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. The Phenomenology of Perception. Translated by Colin Smith. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962, 1989.

 

Metz, Christian. Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema. Translated by Michael Taylor. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.

 

Metz, Christian. “Photography and Fetish.” October. Volume 34 (Autumn, 1985).

Meyer, James. Minimalism: Art and Polemics in the Sixties. New Haven: Yale University Press,

 

Michelson, Annette, ed. Kino-Eye: The Writings of Dziga Vertov. Translated by Kevin O’Brien. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.

 

Mirzoeff, Nicholas, ed. The Visual Culture Reader, Second Edition. New York: Routledge, 1998, 2002.

 

Mishima, Yukio. Sun and Steel: His Personal Testament on Art, Action, and Ritual Death. New York: Kodansha, 1970.

 

Mondloch, Kate. Screens: Viewing Media Installation Art. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 2010.

 

Moore, Sarah J. Empire on Display: San Francisco’s Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013.

 

Morgan, William P. “Affective beneficence of vigorous physical activity.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Volume 17, Number 1 (February 1985).

 

Morse, Meredith. Soft is Fast: Simone Forti in the 1960s and After. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2016.

 

Mosse, George L. The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

 

Motherwell, Robert, ed. Dada Painters and Poets. New Haven: Harvard University Press, 1981.

  

Mozley, Anita Ventura, ed. Eadweard Muybridge: The Stanford Years, 1872 - 1882. San Francisco: Stanford University, 1972.

 

Mulvey, Laura. Death 24x a Second: Stillness and the Moving Image. London: Reaction books, 2006.

 

Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul LTD, 1934, 1955.

 

Muñoz, José Esteban. Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1999.

 

Musolff, Andreas. Metaphor, Nation, and the Holocaust: The Concept of the Body Politic. New York: Routledge, 2010.

 

New Collectivism, ed. Neue Slowenische Kunst. Translated by Marjan Golobič. Hong Kong: Paramount Printing, 1991.

 

Newman, Michael, and Jon Bird, eds. Rewriting Conceptual Art. London: Reaction Books, 1999. O’Doherty, Brian. Inside the White Cube: The Ideology of the Gallery Space. Berkley:

 

University of California Press, 1986.

 

O’Rourke, Karen. Walking and Mapping: Artists as Cartographers. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2013.

 

Obrist, Hans Ulrich. Do It: The Compendium. New York: Independent Curators International/D.A.P., 2013.

 

Partsch-Bergsohn, Isa. Modern Dance in Germany and the Untied States: Crosscurrents and Influences. Chur: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1994.

 

Passerini, Luisa, ed. Memory and Totalitarianism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Pavković, Aleksandar. The Fragmentation of Yugoslavia: Nationalism and War in the Balkans,

 

Second Edition. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.

 

Pegrum, Mark A. Challenging Modernity: Dada Between Modern and Postmodern. Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2000.

 

Peiffer, Lorenz. Sport im Nationalsozialismus: Zum aktuellen Stand der sporthistorischen Forschung. Göttingen: Verlag Die Werkstaat, 2004, 2015.

 

Pejić, Bojana, and David Elliot. After the Wall: Art and Culture in Post-Communist Europe. Stockholm: Moderna Museet, 1999.

  

Penz, Otto. “Sport and Speed.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport. Volume 25, Number 2 (June 1990).

 

Peoples, Crocker. “A Psychological Analysis of the ‘Runner’s High’ (Human Performance).” Physical Educator. Volume 40, Number 1 (March 1, 1983).

 

Perica, Vjekoslav. Balkan Idols: Religion and Nationalism in Yugoslav States. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

 

Petrov, Ana. “Telesni projekti i regulacija normativnog tela: uloga fizičke kulture u Jugoslaviji.” Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku. Issue 51, Number 2 (2014).

 

Pfister, Gertrud, ed. Gymnastics, A Transatlantic Movement: From Europe to America. New York: Routledge, 2011.

 

Phelan, Peggy. Unmarked: The Politics of Performance. New York: Routledge, 1993. Phillips, Christopher, ed. Photography in the Modern Era: European Documents and Critical

 

Writings, 1913 - 1940. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Aperature, 1990. Phillips, Murray G. Deconstructing Sport History: A Postmodern Analysis. Albany: State

 

University of New York Press, 2006.

 

Pissaro, Joachim, et al. Martin Creed: What’s the Point of It? London: Hayward Publishing, 2014.

 

Piotrowski, Piotr. In the Shadow of Yalta: Art and the Avant-Garde in Eastern Europe, 1945 - 1989. London: Reaktion, 2009.

 

Preston-Dunlop, Valerie. Rudolf Laban: An Extraordinary Life. London, Dance Books, 1998. Preziosi, Donald. Art Religion Amnesia: The Enchantments of Credulity. New York: Routledge,

  

Pursell, Caroll. White Heat: People and Technology. Berkley: University of California Press, 1994.

 

Quercetani, R. L. A World History of Track and Field Athletics 1864-1964. London: Oxford University Press, 1964.

 

Rabinbach, Anson. The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity. New York: Basic Books, 1990.

 

Rabinow, Paul, ed. The Foucault Reader. New York: Random House, 1984.

  

Radstone, Susannah, and Bill Schwarz, Memory: Histories, Theories, Debates. New York: Fordham University Press, 2010.

 

Rancière, Jacques. Aesthetics and its Discontents. Malden: Polity Press, 2004.

Rancière, Jacques. The Emancipated Spectator. Translated by Gregory Elliot. London: Verso,

 

Rancière, Jacques. The Politics of Aesthetics: The Distribution of the Sensible. London: Continuum, 2006.

 

Rees, A.L., and Duncan White, Steven Ball, David Curtis, eds. Expanded Cinema: Art, Performance, Film. London: Tate Publishing, 2011.

 

Rempel, Gerhard. Hitler’s Children: The Hitler Youth and the SS. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989.

 

Richards, Mary. Marina Abramović. New York: Routledge, 2010.

Ricoeur, Paul. Oneself as Another. Translated by Kathleen Blamey. Chicago: University of

 

Chicago Press, 1992.

Rosa, Hartmut. Beschleunigung und Entfremdung: Entwurf einer Kritischen Theorie

 

spätmoderner Zeitlichkeit. Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2013.

Rosa, Hartmut, and William E. Scheuerman. High-Speed: Social Acceleration, Power, and

 

Modernity. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, 2009.

Rosati, Lauren, and Mary Anne Staniszewski, eds. Alternative Histories: New York Art Spaces,

 

1960-2010. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2012.

 

Rosenstone, Robert A., “History in Images/History in Words: Reflections on the Possibility of Really Putting History onto Film.” The American Historical Review. Volume 93. Number 5 (December 1988).

 

Rossol, Nadine. Performing the Nation in Interwar Germany: Sport, Spectacle, and Political Symbolism, 1926 - 1936. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

 

Roxby-Maude, Alice, On Camera: Performance and Photography. Southampton: John Hansard Gallery, 2007.

 

Ruyter, Nancy Lee Chalfa. The Cultivation of Body and Mind in Nineteenth-Century American Delsartism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.

 

Salazar, James B. Bodies of Reform The Rhetoric of Character in Gilded Age America. New York: New York University Press, 2010.

  

Schechner, Richard. Essays on Performance Theory 1970 - 1976. New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1973, 1977.

 

Scheerder, Jeroen, and Koen Breedveld, eds. Running Across Europe: The Rise and Size of One of the Largest Sport Markets. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

 

Seckinelgin, H., and Billy Wong, eds. Global Civil Society 2011: Globally and the Absence of Justice. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

 

Sekula, Allan. “The Body and the Archive.” October. Volume 39 (Winter, 1986). Semon, Richard. Die mnemischen Empmfindungen in ihren Beziehungen zu den

 

Originalempfindungen. Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1909.

Shawn, Ted. Every Little Movement: A Book About François Delsarte. Pittsfield, MA: The Eagle

 

Printing and Binding Company, 1954.

Shayt, David H. “Stairway to Redemption: America’s Encounter with the British Prison

 

Treadmill.” Technology and Culture, Volume 30, Number 4 (Oct. 1989).

Sheridan, Heather, and Leslie Howe, and Keith Thompson, eds. Sporting Reflections: Some

 

Philosophical Perspectives. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer Verlag, 2007.

 

Siegmund, Gerald, and Stefan Hölscher, eds. Dance, Politics, and Co-Immunity: Thinking Resistances, Current Perspectives on Politics and Communities in the Arts. Volume 1. Zürich- Berlin: Diaphanes, 2013.

 

Sileo, Diego, and Eugenio Viola, PAC (Milano), eds. Marina Abramović: The Abramović Method. 2 Volumes. Milan: 24 ORE Cultura, 2012.

 

Silverman, Kaja. The Subject of Semiotics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.

Slevin, Tom. Vision of the Human: Art, World War One and the Modernist Subject. London: I.B.

 

Tauris, 2015.

 

Solnit, Rebecca. River of Shadows: Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West. New York: Viking, 2003.

 

Solnit, Rebecca. Wanderlust: A History of Walking. London: Verso, 2001.

Sontag, Susan. Against Interpretation and Other Essays. New York: Picador, 1966, 2001. Sontag, Susan. “Fascinating Fascism.” The New York Review of Books (6 February 1975). Sontag, Susan. On Photography. New York: Picador, 1977.

  

Spieker, Sven. The Big Archive: Art from Bureaucracy. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2008. Stepišnik, Drago. Oris Zgodovine Telesne Kulture na Slovenskem. Ljubljana: Dražavna založba

 

Slovenija, 1968.

 

Stipančić, Branka. “‘Zame je resničnost umetnost,’ Intervju s Tomislavom Gotovcem.” Vijenac, Number 123/VI (8 Oct. 1998).

 

Stoddart, Tom. Sarajevo. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998.

Stošić, Mirjana. “Body-name — The Brotherhood Chronotype and Social Choreography.”

 

Култура/Culture (2015).

Suljagić, Emir. Postcards from the Grave. Translated by Lejla Haverić. London: The Bosnian

 

Institute, 2005.

 

Susovski, Marijan, ed. The New Art Practice in Yugoslavia, 1966 - 1978. Zagreb: Gallery of Contemporary Art, 1978.

 

Sutil, Nicolás Salazar. Motion and Representation: The Language of Human Movement. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2015.

 

Swenson, Kirsten. Irrational Judgements: Eva Hesse, Sol Lewitt, and 1960s New York. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015.

 

Szeemann, Harold. Zum freien Tanz, zu reiner Kunst. Rolandseck: Stiftung Hans Arp und Sophie Taeuber-Arp, 1991.

 

Tagg, John. The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988.

 

Tilmans, Karin, and Frank van Vree, Jay Winter, eds. Performing the Past: Memory, History, and Identity in Modern Europe. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010.

 

Tumarkin, Maria M. Traumascapes: The Power and Fate of Places Transformed by Tragedies. Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 2005.

 

Udall, Sharyn R. Dance and American Art: A Long Embrace. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012.

 

Vacche, Angela Dalle. Film, Art, New Media: Museum without Walls? New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.

 

Vertinsky, Patricia Anne. The Eternally Wounded Woman: Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989.

  

Virilio, Paul. The Art of the Motor. Translated Julie Rose. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.

 

Weibel, Peter. Beyond Art: A Third Culture. Vienna: Ambra Verlag, 2005.

 

Wells, Liz, ed. Photography: A Critical Introduction. New York: Rutledge, 1996/2015.

 

Westcott, James. When Marina Abramović Dies: A Biography. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2010.

 

White, Hayden. “Historiography and Historiophoty.” The American Historical Review. Volume 93. Number 5 (December 1988).

 

White, Hayden V. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.

 

Wiehager, Renate, ed. Moving Pictures: Photography and Film in Contemporary Art. Ostfildern- Ruit, Germany: Hate Cantz Publishers, 2001.

 

Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society, 1780 - 1950. New York: Columbia University Press, 1958/1983.

 

Wood, Catherine. Yvonne Rainer: The Mind is a Muscle. London: Afterall, 2007. Wood, Denis. The Power of Maps. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

 

Woodward, Susan L. Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1995.

 

Young, Kevin. Deviance and Social Control in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008. Youngblood, Gene. Expanded Cinema. New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., 1970.

 

Zelizer, Barbie, ed. Visual Culture and the Holocaust. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001.

 

Zidić, Igor, and Ana Dević, Antonio Gotovac Lauer a.k.a. Tomislav Gotovac. Antonio Gotovac Lauer: Čelična mreža. Zagreb: Moderna Galerija and Studio Josip Račič, 2006.

 

Zorn, John W., ed. The Essential Delsarte. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc, 1968.

 

Žižek, Slavoj. The Indivisible Remainder: An Essay on Schelling and Related Matters. London: Verso, 1996.

 

----

  

------------about Venice Biennale history from wikipedia ---------

curators previous

* 1948 – Rodolfo Pallucchini

* 1966 – Gian Alberto Dell'Acqua

* 1968 – Maurizio Calvesi and Guido Ballo

* 1970 – Umbro Apollonio

* 1972 – Mario Penelope

* 1974 – Vittorio Gregotti

* 1978 – Luigi Scarpa

* 1980 – Luigi Carluccio

* 1982 – Sisto Dalla Palma

* 1984 – Maurizio Calvesi

* 1986 – Maurizio Calvesi

* 1988 – Giovanni Carandente

* 1990 – Giovanni Carandente

* 1993 – Achille Bonito Oliva

* 1995 – Jean Clair

* 1997 – Germano Celant

* 1999 – Harald Szeemann

* 2001 – Harald Szeemann

* 2003 – Francesco Bonami

* 2005 – María de Corral and Rosa Martinez

* 2007 – Robert Storr

* 2009 – Daniel Birnbaum

* 2011 – Bice Curiger

* 2013 – Massimiliano Gioni

* 2015 – Okwui Enwezor

* 2017 – Christine Macel[19]

* 2019 – Ralph Rugoff[20]

  

----------

 

#art #artist #artistic #artists #arte #artwork

 

Pavilion at the Venice Biennale #artcontemporain contemporary art Giardini arsenal

 

venice Veneziako VenecijaVenècia Venedig Venetië Veneetsia Venetsia Venise Venecia VenedigΒενετία( Venetía Hungarian Velence Feneyjar Venice Venezia Venēcija Venezja Venezia Wenecja Veneza VenețiaVenetsiya BenátkyBenetke Venecia Fenisוועניס Վենետիկ ভেনি স威尼斯 (wēinísī) 威尼斯 ვენეციისવે નિસवेनिसヴェネツィアವೆನಿಸ್베니스வெனிஸ்వెనిస్เวนิซوینس Venetsiya

 

art umjetnost umění kunst taide τέχνη művészetList ealaín arte māksla menasarti Kunst sztuka artă umenie umetnost konstcelfקונסטարվեստincəsənətশিল্প艺术(yìshù)藝術 (yìshù)ხელოვნებაकलाkos duabアートಕಲೆសិល្បៈ미술(misul)ສິນລະປະകലकलाအတတ်ပညာकलाකලාවகலைఆర్ట్ศิลปะ آرٹsan'atnghệ thuậtفن (fan)אומנותهنرsanat artist

 

other Biennale :(Biennials ) :

Venice Biennial , Documenta Havana Biennial,Istanbul Biennial ( Istanbuli),Biennale de Lyon ,Dak'Art Berlin Biennial,Mercosul Visual Arts Biennial ,Bienal do Mercosul Porto Alegre.,Berlin Biennial ,Echigo-Tsumari Triennial .Yokohama Triennial Aichi Triennale,manifesta ,Copenhagen Biennale,Aichi Triennale .Yokohama Triennial,Echigo-Tsumari Triennial.Sharjah Biennial ,Biennale of Sydney, Liverpool , São Paulo Biennial ; Athens Biennale , Bienal do Mercosul ,Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art ,DOCUMENTA KASSEL ATHENS

* Dakar

  

kritik [edit] kritikaria kritičar crític kritiker criticus kriitik kriitikko critique crítico Kritiker κριτικός(kritikós) kritikus Gagnrýnandi léirmheastóir critico kritiķis kritikas kritiku krytyk crítico critic crítico krytyk beirniad קריטיקער

 

Basque Veneziako Venecija [edit] Catalan Venècia Venedig Venetië Veneetsia Venetsia Venise Venecia Venedig Βενετία(Venetía) Hungarian Velence Feneyjar Venice Venezia Latvian Venēcija Venezja Venezia Wenecja Portuguese Veneza Veneția Venetsiya Benátky Benetke Venecia Fenis וועניס Վենետիկ ভেনিস 威尼斯 (wēinísī) 威尼斯 Georgian ვენეციის વેનિસ वेनिस ヴェネツィア ವೆನಿಸ್ 베니스 வெனிஸ் వెనిస్ เวนิซ وینس Venetsiya

 

Thierry Geoffroy / Colonel

#thierrygeoffroy #geoffroycolonel #thierrygeoffroycololonel #lecolonel #biennalist

 

#artformat #formatart

#emergencyart #urgencyart #urgentart #artofthenow #nowart

emergency art emergency art urgency artist de garde vagt alarm emergency room necessityart artistrole exigencyart predicament prediction pressureart

 

#InstitutionalCritique

 

#venicebiennale #venicebiennale2017 #venicebiennale2015

#venicebiennale2019

#venice #biennale #venicebiennale #venezia #italy

#venezia #venice #veniceitaly #venicebiennale

 

#pastlife #memory #venicebiennale #venice #Venezia #italy #hotelveniceitalia #artexhibit #artshow #internationalart #contemporaryart #themundane #summerday

 

#biennalevenice

 

Institutional Critique

 

Identity Politics Post-War Consumerism, Engagement with Mass Media, Performance Art, The Body, Film/Video, Political, Collage, , Cultural Commentary, Self as Subject, Color Photography, Related to Fashion, Digital Culture, Photography, Human Figure, Technology

 

Racial and Ethnic Identity, Neo-Conceptualism, Diaristic

 

Contemporary Re-creations, Popular Culture, Appropriation, Contemporary Sculpture,

 

Culture, Collective History, Group of Portraits, Photographic Source

 

, Endurance Art, Film/Video,, Conceptual Art and Contemporary Conceptualism, Color Photography, Human Figure, Cultural Commentary

 

War and Military, Political Figures, Social Action, Racial and Ethnic Identity, Conflict

 

Personal Histories, Alter Egos and Avatars

 

Use of Common Materials, Found Objects, Related to Literature, Installation, Mixed-Media, Engagement with Mass Media, Collage,, Outdoor Art, Work on Paper, Text

  

Appropriation (art) Art intervention Classificatory disputes about art Conceptual art Environmental sculpture Found object Interactive art Modern art Neo-conceptual art Performance art Sound art Sound installation Street installations Video installation Conceptual art Art movements Postmodern art Contemporary art Art media Aesthetics Conceptualism

 

Post-conceptualism Anti-anti-art Body art Conceptual architecture Contemporary art Experiments in Art and Technology Found object Happening Fluxus Information art Installation art Intermedia Land art Modern art Neo-conceptual art Net art Postmodern art Generative Art Street installation Systems art Video art Visual arts ART/MEDIA conceptual artis

 

—-

 

CRITICAL RUN is an art format developed by Thierry Geoffroy / COLONEL, It follows the spirit of ULTRACONTEMPORARY and EMERGENCY ART as well as aims to train the AWARENESS MUSCLE.​

Critical Run has been activated on invitation from institutions such as Moderna Muset Stockholm, Moma PS1 ,Witte de With Rotterdam, ZKM Karlsruhe, Liverpool Biennale, Manifesta Biennial ,Sprengel Museum,Venice Biennale but have also just happened on the spot because a debate was necessary here and now.

 

It has been activated in Beijing, Cairo, London, Istanbul, Athens, Kassel, Sao Paolo, Hanoi, Istanbul, Paris, Copenhagen, Moskow, Napoli, Sydney, Wroclaw, Bruxelles, Rotterdam, Siberia, Karlsruhe, Barcelona, Aalborg, Venice, Virginia, Stockholm, Aarhus, Rio de Janeiro, Budapest, Washington, Lyon, Caracas, Trondheim, Berlin, Toronto, Hannover, Haage, Newtown, Cartagena, Tallinn, Herning, Roskilde;Mannheim ;Munich etc...

 

The run debates are about emergency topics like Climate Change , Xenophobia , Wars , Hyppocrisie , Apathy ,etc ...

 

Participants have been very various from Sweddish art critics , German police , American climate activist , Chinese Gallerists , Brasilian students , etc ...

 

Critical Run is an art format , like Emergency Room or Biennalist and is part of Emergency Art ULTRACONTEMPORARY and AWARENESS MUSCLE .

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/criticalrun.html

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

-------

In 2020 a large exhibition will show 40 of the Critical Run at the Museum Villa Stuck in Munich / part of the Awareness Muscle Training Center

------

for activating the format or for inviting the installation

please contact 1@colonel.dk

 

www.colonel.dk/

 

-----

 

critical,run,art,format,debate ,artformat,formatart,moment,clarity,emergency,kunst,

 

Sport,effort,curator,artist,urgency,urgence,criticalrun,emergencies,ultracontemporary

,rundebate,sport,art,activism, critic,laufen,Thierry Geoffroy , Colonel,kunstformat

 

,now art,copenhagen,denmark

 

ONE OF THE WAY TO TRAIN THE "THE AWARENESS MUSCLE

 

is the critical run

and other emergency art format

 

CRITICAL RUN / Debate Format

 

Critical Run is an Art Format created by Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel

debate while running .

Debate and Run together,Now,before it is too late.

 

www.emergencyroomscanvas todo .org/criticalrun.html

 

The Art Format Critical Run has been activated in 30 differents countries with 120 different burning debates

New York,Cairo,London,Istanbul,Athens,Hanoi,Paris,Munich,Amsterdam Siberia,Copenhagen,Johanesburg,Moskow,Napoli,Sydney,

Wroclaw,Bruxelles,Rotterdam,Barcelona,Venice,Virginia,Stockholm,Århus,Kassel,Lyon,Trondheim, Berlin ,Toronto,Hannover ...

 

CRITICAL RUN happened on invitation from institution like Moma/PS1, Moderna Muset Stockholm ,Witte de With Rotterdam,ZKM Karlsruhe,Liverpool Biennale;Sprengel Museum etc..or have just happened on the spot because

a debate was necessary here and now.

 

In 2020 the Energy Room was an installation of 40 Critical Run at Museum Villa Stuck /Munich

part of Colonel solo show : The Awareness Muscle Training Center

 

----

 

Interesting publication for researches on running and art

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

 

14 Performances. Relation Work (1976 - 1980). Filmed by Paolo Cardazzo. Marina Abramović/ Ulay. Neuer Berliner Kunstverein, Berlin, Germany.

 

Abramović, Marina. Student Body: Workshops 1979 - 2003: Performances 1993 - 2003. Milano: ed. Charta, 2003.

 

Bergson, Henri. Creative Evolution. London: Macmillan and Co., 1911.

Bergson, Henri. Key Writings. Edited by Keith Ansell-Pearson and John Mullarkey. New York:

 

Continuum, 2002.

Bergson, Henri. Matter and Memory. New York: Zone Books, 1988.

 

Blaikie, William. “Common Sense Physical Training.” In Athletics and Health: Modern Achievement: Advice and Instruction upon the Conduct of Life, Principles of Business, Care of Health, Duties of Citizenship, etc. Edited by Edward Everett Hale. New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1902.

 

Blaikie, William. How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1883.

 

Cunningham, Merce. Changes: Notes on Choreography. New York: Something Else Press, 1969.

 

de Balzac, Honoré. The Human Comedy. EBook: Project Gutenberg, 2010. de Balzac, Honoré. Théorie de la démarche. 1833, 1853.

 

de Biran, Maine. “Opposition du principe de Descartes avec celui d’une science de l’homme. Première base d’une division des faits psychologiques et physiologiques. Perception et sensation animale.” In Maine de Biran. Librairie Philosophique J. VRIN, 1990.

 

de Tocqueville, Alexis. The Old Regime and the Revolution. New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1856.

 

Delaumosne, M. L’Abbe. “The Delsarte System.” Translated by Frances A. Shaw. In Delsarte System of Oratory, 4th Ed. New York: Edgar S. Werner, 1893.

 

Descartes, René. Méditations metaphysiques. 1641.

 

Gropius, Walter, and Arthur S. Wensinger, eds. The Theater of the Bauhaus: Oskar Schlemmer, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Farkas Molnár. Translated by Arthur S. Wensinger. Middleton, Conn.: Wesleyan University, 1961.

 

Hahn, Archibald. How to Sprint: The Theory of Spring Racing. New York: American Sports Publishing Company, 1923.

 

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Phenomenology of Spirit. Translated by A.V. Miller. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.

 

Helmholtz, Hermann. “On the Facts Underlying Geometry.” In Epistemological Writings: Hermann von Helmholtz. Edited by R.S. Cohen and Y. Elkana. Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1977.

 

Helmholtz, Hermann. Théorie physiologique de la musique fondée sur l’étude des sensations auditives. Paris: Masson, 1868.

 

Helmholtz, Hermann. Treatise of Physiological Optics (Handbuch der physiologischen Optik) 1856. 3 Volumes. Translated by James P.C. Southall. Milwaukee, 1924.

 

Holmes, Oliver Wendall. Soundings from the Atlantic. Boston: Tickknor and Fields, 1864. James, William. The Principles of Psychology. New York: Henry Holt & Co, 1890, 1918.

 

James, William. Writings 1902 - 1910. Edited by Bruce Kuklick. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 1987.

 

Kandinsky, Vasily. Über Das Geistige in der Kunst. Dritte Auflage. München: R. Piper&Co, 1912.

 

Kant, Immanuel. “Was ist Aufklärung?” 1784.

 

Laban, Rudolf. A Life for Dance: Reminiscences. Translated by Lisa Ullmann. London: Macdonald & Evans, 1975.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Choreographie. Jena: E. Diederichs, 1926.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Choreutics. Edited by Lisa Ullmann. London: Macdonald & Evans, 1939, 1966.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Effort: Economy in Body Movement. 2nd Edition. Boston: Plays, 1947, 1974.

 

Laban, Rudolf. Principles of Dance and Movement Notation. New York: A Dance Horizons Republication, 1956, 1970.

 

Laban, Rudolf. The Language of Movement: A Guidebook to Choreutics. Edited by Lisa Ullmann. Boston: Plays, Inc., 1974.

  

MacKaye, Percy. “Steele Mackaye, Dynamic Artist of the American Theatre; An Outline of his Life Work,” in The Drama. Edited by William Norman Guthrie and Charles Hubbard Sergel. Chicago: The Dramatic Publishing Company, 1911.

 

Marey, Étienne-Jules. La Machine Animale: Locomotion Terrestre et Aérienne. Paris: Librairie Germer Baillière, 1873.

 

Marey, Étienne-Jules. Le Vol des Oiseaux. Paris: Libraire de l’académie de médecine, 1890. Marey, Étienne-Jules. Movement. Translated by Eric Pritchard. New York: D. Appleton and

 

Company, 1895.

 

Michelet, Jules. The History of France. Volume I. Translated by Walter K. Kelly. London: Chapman and Hall, 1844.

 

Morgan, Anna. An Hour with Delsarte: A Study of Expression. New York: Edgar S. Werner Publisher, 1891.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. Animal Locomotion: An Electro-photographic Investigation of Consecutive Phases of Animal Movements. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania and J. B. Lippincott Company, 1887.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. Descriptive Zoopraxography, or the Science of Animal Locomotion. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1893.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. The Attitudes of Animals in Motion: A Series of Photographs Illustrating the Consecutive Positions assumed by Animals in Performing Various Movements; Executed at Palo Alto, California, in 1878 and 1879 (1881). Albumen, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., Library of Congress.

 

Muybridge, Eadweard. The Human Figure in Motion. New York: Dover Publications, 1955. Ramsaye, Terry. A Million and One Nights: A History of the Motion Picture. U.K.: Simon and

 

Schuster, Inc., 1926, 1954.

Richer, Paul. Physiologie Artistique: De l’Homme en Mouvement. Paris: Aulanier et Cie, 1896.

 

Sanburn, Frederic. Delsartean Scrap-book: Health, Personality, Beauty, House-Decoration, Dress, etc. New York: United States Book Company, c. 1890.

 

Schlemmer, Oskar. Briefe und Tagebücher: The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer. Edited by Tut Schlemmer. Translated by Krishna Winston. Middletown, Conn: Wesleyan University Press, 1972.

  

Schlemmer, Oskar, and Heimo Kuchling. Der Mensch, Unterricht am Bauhaus. Nachgelassene Aufzeichnungen. Mainz: F. Kupferberg, 1969.

 

Schuftan, Werner. Handbuch des Tanzes. Preface by Rudolf von Laban. Mannheim: Verlag Deutscher Chorsänger Verband und Tänzerbund, 1928.

 

Shearman, Sir Montague. Athletics and Football. London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1888. Smith, Shawn Michelle. At the Edge of Sight: Photography and the Unseen. Durham: Duke

 

University Press, 2013.

 

Stebbins, Genevieve. Delsarte System of Expression, 5th Edition. New York: Edgar S. Werner, 1894; orig. 1885.

 

Talbot, Frederick A. Practical Cinematography and its Applications. London: William Heinemann, 1913.

 

Wigman, Mary. The Mary Wigman Book: Her Writings. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1975.

 

Abramović, Marina, et al. Marina Abramović: Seven Easy Pieces. New York: Charta 2007. Acconci, Vito. Language to Cover a Page: The Early Writings of Vito Acconci. Edited by Craig

 

Dworkin. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006.

Adolphs, Volker, and Philip Norten. Gehen Bleiben: Bewegung, Körper, Ort in der Kunst der

 

Gegenwart. Bonn: Kunstmuseum Bonn, 2007.

Agamben, Giorgio. “Movement.” In Dance: Documents of Contemporary Art. Edited André

 

Lepecki. London: MIT Press and WhiteChapel Gallery, 2012.

Alberro, Alexander, and Blake Stimson, eds. Institutional Critique: An Anthology of Artists’

 

Writings. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2009.

Albers, Kate Palmer. “Abundant Images and the Collective Sublime.” Exposure. Volume 46,

 

Issue 2 (Fall 2013).

 

Allen, Beverly. Rape Warfare: The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996.

 

Alloway, Lawrence. The Venice Biennale 1895 - 1968: from salon to goldfish bowl. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society LTD., 1968.

Anderson, Ben. “Affect and Biopower: Towards a Politics of Life.” Transactions - Institute of British Geographers, Issue 1 (2011).

 

Andras, Edit, and Bojana Pejic, eds. Gender Check: Femininity and Masculinity in the Art of Eastern Europe. Cologne: Buchhandlung Walther König, 2009.

 

Antliff, Mark. Inventing Bergson: Cultural Politics and the Parisian Avant-Garde. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.

 

Arendt, Hannah. The Human Condition, Second Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958, 1998.

 

Arendt, Hannah. On Violence. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1969.

Atkins, Dawn, ed. Looking Queer: Body Image and Identity in Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay, and

 

Transgender Communities. New York: The Haworth Press, 1998.

Ault, Julie, ed. Alternative Art, New York, 1965-1985: A Cultural Politics Book for the Social

 

Text Collective. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.

Auslander, Philip. “Going with the Flow: Performance Art and Mass Culture.” TDR. Volume 33,

 

Number 2 (Summer 1989).

Auslander, Philip. “The Performativity of Performance Documentation.” PAJ 84 (2006).

 

Backstein, Joseph, and Daniel Birnbaum, Sven-Olov Wallenstein. Thinking Worlds - The Moscow Conference on Philosophy, Politics, and Art. Berlin: Sternberg Press, 2008.

 

Badovinac, Zdenka. Body and the East: From the 1960s to the Present. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999.

 

Baer, Ulrich. Spectral Evidence: The Photography of Trauma. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002. Baker, George. “Entr’acte.” October. Volume 105 (Summer 2003).

 

Bale, John. Imagined Olympians: Body Culture and Colonial Representations in Rwanda. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.

 

Bale, John. Running Cultures: Racing in Time and Space. London: Frank Cass, 2004. Banes, Sally. Democracy’s Body: Judson Dance Theatre, 1962 - 1964. Durham, NC: Duke

 

University Press, 1993.

 

Banes, Sally. Terpsichore in Sneakers: Post-Modern Dance, 2nd edition. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1987.

  

Bartenieff, Irmgard. Body Movement: Coping with the Environment. New York: Routledge, 2002.

 

Barthes, Roland. Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography. Translated by Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 198, 2010.

 

Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. Translated by Annette Lavers. New York: Hill and Wang, 1972. Batchen, Geoffrey. Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography. Cambridge: MIT

 

Press, 1997.

 

Baudelaire, Charles. The Parisian Prowler, Le Spleen de Paris Petits Poèmes en Prose. Translated by Edward K. Kaplan. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1989.

 

Bauer, M. W. and G. Gaskell. Biotechnology — the Making of a Global Controversy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

 

Bayat, Asef. Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010, 2015.

 

Belaief, Lynne. “Meanings of the Body.” Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. Volume 4, Issue 1 (1977).

 

Bell, Catherine. Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

 

Benjamin, Walter. Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism. Translated by Harry Zohn. London: Verso, 1997.

 

Benjamin, Walter. Selected Writings, Volumes 1 - 4. Edited by Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003 - 2006.

 

Benjamin, Walter. “The Storyteller: Reflections on the Works of Nikolai Leskov.” In Illuminations. Edited by Hannah Arendt. Translated by Harry Zohn. New York: Schocken Books, 2007.

 

Bennett, Jill. Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art. Stanford, CA; Stanford University Press, 2005.

 

Berger, John. About Looking. New York: Pantheon Books, 1980.

 

Bergson, Henri. Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic. Translated by Cloudesley Brereton and Fred Rothwell. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1914.

  

Bishop, Claire, and Marta Dziewańska, eds. 1968 - 1989: Political Upheaval and Artistic Change. Warsaw: Museum of Modern Art, 2009.

 

Bishop, Claire. Artificial Hells: Participatory Art and the Politics of Spectatorship. London: Verso, 2012.

 

Bishop, Claire. Radical Museology: or, What’s ‘Contemporary’ in Museums of Contemporary Art? London: Koenig Books, 2013.

 

Black, Graham. Transforming Museums in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Routledge, 2011.

 

Blaive, Muriel, and Christian Gerbel, Thomas Lindenberger, eds. Clashes in European Memory: The Case of Communist Repression and the Holocaust. Innsbruck: Studienverlag, 2011.

 

Blassnigg, Martha. Time, Memory, Consciousness and the Cinema Experience: Revisiting Ideas on Matter and Spirit. New York: Rodopi, 2009.

 

Bloomer, Kent C., and Charles Willard Moore. Body, Memory, and Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977.

 

Boecker, Henning, et. al. “The Runner’s High: Opioidergic Mechanisms in the Human Brain.” Cerebral Cortex. Volume 18, Number 11 (2008).

 

Bougarel, Xavier, and Elissa Helms, Ger Duijzings, eds. The New Bosnian Mosaic: Identities, Memories and Moral Claims in a Post-War Society. Hampshire, England: Ashgate, 2007.

 

Bourdieu, Pierre. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

 

Bourriaud, Nicolas. Relational Aesthetics. Dijon: Les Presses du réel, 1998, 2002.

 

Brandstetter, Gabriele. Poetics of Dance: Body, Image and Space in the Historical Avant- Gardes. Translated by Elena Polzer and Mark Franko. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, 2015.

 

Braudy, Leo, and Marshall Cohen, eds. Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. New York: Oxford UP, 1999.

 

Braun, Marta. Eadweard Muybridge. London: Reaktion, 2010.

Braun, Marta. Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830 - 1904). Chicago:

 

University of Chicago Press, 1992, 1994.

 

Brettell, Richard R. Modern Art, 1851 - 1929: Capitalism and Representation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

  

Brooke, J.D., and H.T.A. Whiting, eds. Human Movement - A Field of Study. London: Henry Kimpton Publishers, 1973.

 

Brown, Keith S., and Yannis Hamilakis, eds. The Usable Past: Greek Metahistories. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2003.

 

Brunnbauer, Ulf, and Konrad Clewing, eds. Südost-Forschungen. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 2008.

 

Bruno, Giuliana. Atlas of Emotion: Journeys in Art, Architecture, and Film. New York: Verso, 2002.

 

Bryzgel, Amy. Performing the East: Performance Art in Russia, Latvia, and Poland since 1980. London: I.B. Tauris, 2012.

 

Buchloh, Benjamin H. D. Neo-Avantgarde and Culture Industry: Essays on European and American Art from 1955 to 1975. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001, 2003.

 

Buck-Morss, Susan. The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.

 

Burchell, Graham, and Colin Gordon, Peter Miller, eds. The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.

 

Bürger, Peter. Theory of the Avant-Garde. Translated by Michael Shaw. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press and Manchester University Press, 1974, 1984.

 

Butler, Judith. Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York: Routledge, 1993. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge,

 

2006.

 

Butler, Samuel. Unconscious Memory: A Comparison between the Theory of Dr. Ewald Hering and the ‘Philosophy of the Unconscious’ of Dr. Edward von Hartmann. London: David Bogue, 1880.

 

Cage, John. Silence: Lectures and Writings. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1961. Campany, David, ed. The Cinematic: Documents of Contemporary Art. Cambridge: MIT Press,

 

2007.

Canales, Jimena. A Tenth of a Second: A History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.

 

Careri, Francesco. Walkscapes: Walking as an Aesthetic Practice. Translated by Steve Piccolo and Paul Hammond. Barcelona: Editorial Gusavo Gili, 2002.

  

Carroll, Noël. Theorizing the Moving Image. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Cetinić, Ljiljana, and Ana Panić, eds. Štafete: Titova Štafeta - Štafeta Mladosti, 1945 - 1987.

 

Belgrade: Tipografik plus, 2008.

Chase, Stuart. Men and Machines. New York: Macmillan Co, 1929.

 

Christesen, Paul. Sport and Democracy in the Ancient and Modern Worlds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

 

Christian, Mary. Marina Abramović: The Artist is Present. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2010.

 

Clark, Kenneth. The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form. New York: Pantheon Books, 1956. Coleman, Simon, and John Eade, eds. Reframing Pilgrimage: Cultures in Motion. London:

 

Routledge, 2004.

 

Connerton, Paul. The Spirit of Mourning: History, Memory and the Body. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

 

Cosgrove, Denis. Geography and Vision: Seeing, Imagining and Representing the World. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2008.

 

Cottington, David. Cubism in the Shadow of War: The Avant-Garde and Politics in Paris 1905- 1914. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.

 

Crane, Susan, ed. Museums and Memory. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000. Crary, Jonathan. Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth

 

Century. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990.

Crow, Thomas. The Rise of the Sixties: American and European Art in the Era of Dissent.

 

London: Laurence King Publishing, 1996.

 

Csiksgentmihalyi, Mihaly. Creativity! Flow and psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper Collins, 1996.

 

Cumming, John. Runners & Walkers: A Nineteenth Century Sports Chronicle. Chicago: Regency Gateway, 1981.

 

Cvejić, Bojana, and Ana Vujanović. Public Sphere by Performance. Belgrade: b_books, TkH, 2012.

  

Dagg, Anne Innis. Running, Walking, and Jumping: The Science of Locomotion. New York: Crane, Russak & Company, Inc, 1977.

 

de Certeau, Michel. The Practice of Everyday Life. Translated by Steven Rendall. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984, 1988.

 

de Certeau, Michel. The Writing of History. Translated by Tom Conley. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975, 1988.

 

de Groote, Pascale. Ballets Suédois: Jean Börlin. Ghent: University of Ghent, 2002.

de Waal, Frans. The Age of Empathy: Nature’s Lessons for a Kinder Society. New York:

 

Harmony Books, 2009.

 

Deleuze, Gilles. Cinema 1: The Movement-Image. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986.

 

Deleuze, Gilles, and Félix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus. London: Continuum, 1980, 2008. Dewey, John. The Public and its Problems: An Essay in Political Inquiry. Edited by Melvin L.

 

Rogers. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, 2012.

di Giovanni, Janine. Madness Visible: A Memoir of War. London: Bloomsbury, 2005.

 

Djetelić, Pera, and Dragan Maršičević. Narodna Omladina i Jugoslovenski Kongres za Fizičku Kulturu. Beograd: Mladost, 1959.

 

Djurić, Dubravka, and Miško Šuvaković, eds. Impossible Histories: Historical Avant-gardes, Neo-avant-gardes, and Post-avant-gardes in Yugoslavia, 1918 - 1991. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

 

Donawerth, Jane, ed. Rhetorical Theory by Women before 1900: An Anthology. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2002.

 

Dörr, Evelyn. Rudolf Laban: The Dancer of the Crystal. Lanham, Maryland: The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc., 2008.

 

Drakulić, Slavenka. Balkan Express: Fragments from the Other Side of War. London: Hutchinson, 1993.

 

Drakulić, Slavenka. They Would Never Hurt a Fly: War Criminals on Trial in the Hague. New York: Penguin, 2005.

 

Drapag, Vesna. Constructing Yugoslavia: A Transnational History. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

Duncan, Carol. Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums. Abingdon: Routledge, 1995. Eamon, Christopher. Rearview Mirror: New Art from Central and Eastern Europe. Edmonton:

 

Art Gallery of Alberta, 2011.

 

Eichberg, Henning, ed. Body Cultures: Essays on Sport, Space, and Identity. London, New York: Routledge, 1998.

 

Elias, Norbert. The Civilizing Process. Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations. Oxford: Blackwell, 1939, 2000.

 

Elias, Norbert, and Eric Dunning. Quest for Excitement: Sport and Leisure in the Civilising Process. Dublin: University of College Dublin Press, 2008.

 

Enwezor, Okwui. Archive Fever: Uses of the Document in Contemporary Art. Göttingen: Steidl Publishers, 2008.

 

Erjavec, Aleš, ed. Postmodernism and the Postsocialist Condition: Politicized Art under Late Socialism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.

 

Fer, Briony, and David Batchelor, Paul Wood. Realism, Rationalism, Surrealism: Art Between the Wars. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993.

 

Finn, David. How to Visit A Museum. New York: Abrams, 1985.

Fleming, Bruce. Running is Life: Transcending the Crisis of Modernity. Lanham: University

 

Press of America, Inc, 2010.

 

Forrester, Sibelan E.S., and Magdalena J. Zaborowska, Elena Gapova, eds. Over the Wall/After the Fall: Post-Communist Cultures Through an East-West Gaze. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.

 

Foster, Hal. The Return of the Real: The Avant-Garde at the End of the Century. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996.

 

Foster, Hal. “What’s Neo about the Neo-Avant-Garde?” October. Volume 70, The Duchamp Effect (Autumn, 1994), 5 - 32.

 

Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books, Random House, Inc, 1977, 1995.

 

Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality Volume 1. Translated by Robert Hurley. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.

 

Foucault, Michel. Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews & Other Writings, 1972 - 1977. Edited by Colin Gordon. New York: Pantheon Books,1972, 1980.

  

Fraleigh, Sondra Horton. Dance and the Lived Body: A Descriptive Aesthetics. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987.

 

Frampton, Hollis. “Eadweard Muybridge: Fragments of a Tesseract.” In On the Camera Arts and Consecutive Matters: The Writings of Hollis Frampton. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2009.

 

Fried, Michael. Four Honest Outlaws: Sala, Ray, Marioni, Gordon. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011.

 

Gallagher, Catherine, and Thomas Laqueur, eds. The Making of the Modern Body: Sexuality and Society in the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.

 

Gamwell, Lynn, ed. Dreams Nineteen Hundred to Two Thousand: Science, Art, and the Unconscious Mind. Binghamton: State University of New York at Binghamton, 2000.

 

Gay, Peter. Savage Reprisals: Bleak House, Madame Bovary, Buddenbrooks. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2002.

 

Gehm, Sabine, and Pirkko Husemann, Katharina von Wilke, eds. Knowledge in Motion: Perspectives of Artistic and Scientific Research in Dance. Translated by Bettina von Arps- Aubert. Bielefeld: Transcript, 2007.

 

Genoways, Hugh H., ed. Museum Philosophy for the Twenty-First Century. Oxford: AltaMira Press, 2006.

 

Geoghegan, Bernard Dionysius. “After Kittler: On the Cultural Techniques of Recent German Media Theory.” Theory Culture Society (August 2013).

 

Gidal, Peter. Materialist Film. London: Routledge, 1989.

Giedion, Siegfried. Space, Time, and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition. Cambridge:

 

Harvard University Press, 1974.

 

Godard, Jean-Luc. Godard on Godard. Edited by Jean Narboni and Tom Milne. New York: The Viking Press, 1968, 1972.

 

Gödl, Doris. “Challenging the Past: Serbian and Croatian Aggressor-Victim Narratives.” International Journal of Sociology 37. No. 1 (2007).

 

Goldberg, Roselee. Performance: Live Art Since the ‘60s. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004.

 

Goldberg, Roselee. Performance Art: From Futurism to the Present. London: Thames & Hudson, 2001.

  

Goldberg, Vicki, ed. Photography in Print: Writings from 1816 to the Present. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981.

 

Golding, Sue, ed. The Eight Technologies of Otherness. London: Routledge, 1997. Gotaas, Thor. Running: A Global History. London: Reaktion Books, 2009.

 

Grau, Andrée, and Stephanie Jordan. Europe Dancing: Perspectives on Theatre, Dance, and Cultural Identity. New York: Routledge, 2000.

 

Grigorov, Dimitar. “‘Рачунајте на нас.’ ‘Oдломак’ о Титовој штафети или Штафети младости.” In Друштвену историју. Belgrade: 2008.

 

Grimes, Ronald L. Beginnings in Ritual Studies. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995.

 

Groys, Boris. Introduction to Antiphilosophy. Translated by David Fernbach. London: Verso, 2012.

 

Groys, Boris. The Communist Postscript. Translated by Thomas Ford. London: Verso, 2010. Groys, Boris, and Ann von der Heiden, Peter Weibel, eds. Zurück aus der Zukunft.

 

Osteuropäische Kulturen im Zeitalter des Postkommunismus. Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2005.

Gržinić, Marina, and Günther Heeg, Veronika Darian. Mind the Map! History is not a Given: A

 

th th

Critical Anthology Based on the Symposium [Leipzig, 13 -16 October 2005]. Frankfurt:

 

Revolver, 2006.

 

Guttman, Allen. “Sport, Politics, and the Engaged Historian.” Journal of Contemporary History. Volume 38, Number 3 (2003).

 

Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Empire. Boston, Harvard University Press, 2001. Hargreaves, Jennifer, and Patricia Anne Vertinsky, eds. Physical Culture, Power, and the Body.

 

New York: Routledge, 2007.

 

Harris, Mary Emma. The Arts at Black Mountain College. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987, 2002.

 

Harte, Jane L., et. al. “The effects of running and meditation on beta-endorphin, corticotropin- releasing hormone and cortisol in plasma, and on mood.” Biological Psychology. Volume 40, Issue 3 (June 1995).

 

Harte, Jane L., and Georg H. Eifert. “The effects of running, environment, and attentional focus on athletes’ catecholamine and cortisol levels and moods.” Psychophysiology. Volume 32, Issue 1 (January 1995).

  

Havránek, Vít, ed. Jiří Kovanda: Actions and Installations, 2005-1976. Zurich: Tranzit & JRP|Ringier, 2006.

 

Helme, Sirje. PopKunst Forever: Estonian Pop Art at the Turn of the 1960s and 1970s. Tallinn: Art Museum of Estonia - Kumu Art Museu, 2010.

 

Hemmings, Frederick William John, ed. The Age of Realism. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1974. Hendricks, Gordon. Eadweard Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture. New York:

 

Grossman Publishers, of Viking Press, 1975.

 

Henning, Michelle. Museums, Media, and Cultural Theory. New York: Open University Press, 2006.

 

Hewitt, Andrew. Social Choreography: Ideology as Performance in Dance and Everyday Movement. Durham: Duke University Press, 2005.

 

Higgins, Steven. Still Moving: The Film and Media Collections of the Museum of Modern Art. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2006.

 

Hoberman, John M. “Sport and Political Ideology.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues. Volume 1, Number 2 (1977).

 

Hodgson, John. Mastering Movement: The Life and Work of Rudolf Laban. New York: Routledge, 2001.

 

Hoelzl, Ingrid, and Friedrich Tietjen, eds. Images in Motion. Burges: Die Keure, 2012. Husserl, Edmund. The Phenomenology of Internal Time-Consciousness. Edited by Martin

 

Heidegger. Translated by James S. Churchill. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1964.

 

IRWIN, ed. East Art Map: Contemporary Art and Eastern Europe. London: Afterall and MIT Press, 2006.

 

Ivey, Paul Eli. Radiance from Halcyon: A Utopian Experiment in Religion and Science. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013.

 

Jameson, Frederic. Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham: Duke University Press,1991.

 

Janevski, Ana, ed. As Soon as I Open My Eyes I See a Film: Experiment in the Art of Yugoslavia in the 1960s and 1970s. Warsaw: Museum of Modern Art, 2010.

 

Jarausch, Konrad H., and Michael Geyer. Shattered Past: Reconstructing German Histories. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.

  

Jones, Amelia. Body Art/Performing the Subject. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998.

 

Jones, Amelia, and Adrian Heathfield. Perform, Repeat, Record: Live Art in History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.

 

Jones, Amelia. “The Body and Technology.” Art Journal. Volume 60, Number 1 (Spring, 2001). Joseph, Brandon W. Random Order: Robert Rauschenberg and the Neo-avant-garde.

 

Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.

Joy, Jenn. The Choreographic. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2014.

 

Jünger, Ernst. “War and Photography.” Translated by Anthony Nassar. New German Critique. Number 59 (Spring-Summer, 1993).

 

Kater, Michael H. Hitler Youth. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004. Kebo, Ozren. Sarajevo za početnike. Sarajevo: Dani, 1996.

 

Kelley, Jeff, ed. Essays on the Blurring of Art and Life. Berkley: University of California Press, 1993, 2003.

 

Kern, Stephen. The Culture of Time and Space. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1983.

 

Kester, Grant H. Conversation Pieces: Community and Communication in Modern Art. Berkley: University of California Press, 2004.

 

Kholeif, Omar. Moving Image. London: Whitechapel, 2015.

Kirkpatrick, Sidney. The Revenge of Thomas Eakins. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.

 

Kirn, Gal, and Dubravka Sekulić, Žiga Testen, eds. Surfing the Black: Yugoslav Black Wave Cinema and its Transgressive Moments. Maastricht: Jan van Eyck Academie, 2012.

 

Kittler, Friedrich A. Gramophone, Film, Typewriter. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. Klinger, Cornelia, and Bartomeu Mari. Modernologies: Contemporary Artists Researching

 

Modernity and Modernism. Barcelona: Museu d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona, 2009.

Knell, Simon J., et al., eds. National Museums: New Studies from around the World. New York:

 

Routledge, 2011.

Knudson, Duane. Fundamentals of Biomechanics, Second Edition. New York: Springer, 2007.

  

Knust, Albrecht. Handbook of Kinetography Laban: Examples. Hamburg: Das Tanzarchiv, 1958. Koch, Sabine, et al. Body Memory, Metaphor, and Movement. Philadelphia: John Benjamins

 

Publishing Company, 2012.

Krauss, Rosalind E. “Sculpture in the Expanded Field.” October. Volume 8 (Spring 1979).

 

Krauss, Rosalind E. The Originality of the Avant-Garde and Other Modernist Myths. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985.

 

Kuligowski, Waldemar. “A Relay of Youth of the 21st Century. A Re-enactment of Ritual or a Grotesque Performance?” Cargo. Volume 10, Number 1 - 2 (2012).

 

Kwon, Miwon. One Place After Another: Site-Specific Art and Locational Identity. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002.

 

LaBelle, Brandon. Background Noise: Perspectives on Sound Art. London and New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006.

 

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.

 

Landsberg, Alison. Prosthetic Memory: The Transformation of American Remembrance in the Age of Mass Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.

 

Laws, Kenneth, and Francia Russell. Physics and the Art of Dance: Understanding Movement. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

 

le Blanc, Guillaume. Courir: Méditations Physiques. Paris: Éditions Flammarion, 2012.

Leahy, Helen Rees. Museum Bodies: The Politics of Practices of Visiting and Viewing. Surrey,

 

England: Ashgate, 2012.

Lederman, Gail. Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the

 

United States, 1880 - 1917. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995. Lefebvre, Henri. The Production of Space. Oxford: Blackwell, 1991.

 

Lehman, Arnold L., and Brenda Richardson, eds. Oskar Schlemmer. Baltimore: The Baltimore Museum of Art, 1986.

 

Lemke, Thomas. Bio-Politics: An Advanced Introduction. Translated by Eric Frederick Trump. New York: New York University Press, 2011.

 

Lepage, Jean-Denis G.G. Hitler Youth, 1922 - 1945: An Illustrated History. London: McFarland & Company, Inc.,2009.

  

Lepecki, André, ed. Dance: Documents of Contemporary Art. London: MIT Press and WhiteChapel Gallery, 2012.

 

Leposavić, Radonja. vlasTito iskustvo. Belgrade: Publikum, 2005.

Licht, Alan. Sound Art: Beyond Music, Between Categories. New York: Rizzoli International

 

Publications, 2007.

 

Lippard, Lucy. Six Years: The Dematerialization of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972. Berkley: University of California Press, 1973.

 

Loland, Sigmund, and Berit Skirstad, Ivan Waddington. Pain and Injury in Sport: Social and Ethical Analysis. New York: Routledge, 2006.

 

Luthar, Breda, and Maruša Pušnik, eds. Remembering Utopia: The Culture of Everyday Life in Socialist Yugoslavia. Washington, D.C.: New Academia Publishers, 2010.

 

Mackay, Robin, and Armen Avanessian, eds. #Accelerate: The Accelerationist Reader. Falmouth, UK: Urbanomic, 2014.

 

Malcolm, Noel. Bosnia: A Short Story. London: MacMillan, 1994.

Maletic, Vera. Body - Space - Expression: The Development of Rudolf Laban’s Movement and

 

Dance Concepts. Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter, 1987.

Marie, Michel. The French New Wave: An Artistic School. Translated by Richard Neupert.

 

Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1997.

 

Marien, Mary Warner. Photography: A Cultural History. 2nd Edition. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2002, 2006.

 

Marks, Laura. Touch: Sensuous Theory and Multisensory Media. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.

 

Marvin, Carolyn. When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking about Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.

 

Mathews, Nancy Mowll. “The Body in Motion.” In Moving Pictures: American Art and Early Film, 1880 - 1910. Manchester, Vermont: Hudson Hills Press, 2005.

 

Mauss, Marcel. “Techniques of the Body” (1934). In Incorporations, Zone 6. Edited by Jonathan Crary and Sanford Kwinter. New York: Zone, 1992.

 

Mazower, Mark. Dark Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century. New York: A.A. Knopf, 1999.

  

McGinnis, Peter M. Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise, Third Edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2013.

 

McSorley, Kevin, ed. War and the Body: Militarisation, Practice and Experience. New York: Routledge, 2013.

 

Meltzer, Eve. Systems We Have Loved: Conceptual Art, Affect, and the Antihumanist Turn. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 2013.

 

Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. The Phenomenology of Perception. Translated by Colin Smith. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962, 1989.

 

Metz, Christian. Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema. Translated by Michael Taylor. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.

 

Metz, Christian. “Photography and Fetish.” October. Volume 34 (Autumn, 1985).

Meyer, James. Minimalism: Art and Polemics in the Sixties. New Haven: Yale University Press,

 

Michelson, Annette, ed. Kino-Eye: The Writings of Dziga Vertov. Translated by Kevin O’Brien. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.

 

Mirzoeff, Nicholas, ed. The Visual Culture Reader, Second Edition. New York: Routledge, 1998, 2002.

 

Mishima, Yukio. Sun and Steel: His Personal Testament on Art, Action, and Ritual Death. New York: Kodansha, 1970.

 

Mondloch, Kate. Screens: Viewing Media Installation Art. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 2010.

 

Moore, Sarah J. Empire on Display: San Francisco’s Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013.

 

Morgan, William P. “Affective beneficence of vigorous physical activity.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Volume 17, Number 1 (February 1985).

 

Morse, Meredith. Soft is Fast: Simone Forti in the 1960s and After. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2016.

 

Mosse, George L. The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

 

Motherwell, Robert, ed. Dada Painters and Poets. New Haven: Harvard University Press, 1981.

  

Mozley, Anita Ventura, ed. Eadweard Muybridge: The Stanford Years, 1872 - 1882. San Francisco: Stanford University, 1972.

 

Mulvey, Laura. Death 24x a Second: Stillness and the Moving Image. London: Reaction books, 2006.

 

Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul LTD, 1934, 1955.

 

Muñoz, José Esteban. Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1999.

 

Musolff, Andreas. Metaphor, Nation, and the Holocaust: The Concept of the Body Politic. New York: Routledge, 2010.

 

New Collectivism, ed. Neue Slowenische Kunst. Translated by Marjan Golobič. Hong Kong: Paramount Printing, 1991.

 

Newman, Michael, and Jon Bird, eds. Rewriting Conceptual Art. London: Reaction Books, 1999. O’Doherty, Brian. Inside the White Cube: The Ideology of the Gallery Space. Berkley:

 

University of California Press, 1986.

 

O’Rourke, Karen. Walking and Mapping: Artists as Cartographers. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2013.

 

Obrist, Hans Ulrich. Do It: The Compendium. New York: Independent Curators International/D.A.P., 2013.

 

Partsch-Bergsohn, Isa. Modern Dance in Germany and the Untied States: Crosscurrents and Influences. Chur: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1994.

 

Passerini, Luisa, ed. Memory and Totalitarianism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Pavković, Aleksandar. The Fragmentation of Yugoslavia: Nationalism and War in the Balkans,

 

Second Edition. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.

 

Pegrum, Mark A. Challenging Modernity: Dada Between Modern and Postmodern. Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2000.

 

Peiffer, Lorenz. Sport im Nationalsozialismus: Zum aktuellen Stand der sporthistorischen Forschung. Göttingen: Verlag Die Werkstaat, 2004, 2015.

 

Pejić, Bojana, and David Elliot. After the Wall: Art and Culture in Post-Communist Europe. Stockholm: Moderna Museet, 1999.

  

Penz, Otto. “Sport and Speed.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport. Volume 25, Number 2 (June 1990).

 

Peoples, Crocker. “A Psychological Analysis of the ‘Runner’s High’ (Human Performance).” Physical Educator. Volume 40, Number 1 (March 1, 1983).

 

Perica, Vjekoslav. Balkan Idols: Religion and Nationalism in Yugoslav States. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

 

Petrov, Ana. “Telesni projekti i regulacija normativnog tela: uloga fizičke kulture u Jugoslaviji.” Institut za etnologiju i folkloristiku. Issue 51, Number 2 (2014).

 

Pfister, Gertrud, ed. Gymnastics, A Transatlantic Movement: From Europe to America. New York: Routledge, 2011.

 

Phelan, Peggy. Unmarked: The Politics of Performance. New York: Routledge, 1993. Phillips, Christopher, ed. Photography in the Modern Era: European Documents and Critical

 

Writings, 1913 - 1940. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Aperature, 1990. Phillips, Murray G. Deconstructing Sport History: A Postmodern Analysis. Albany: State

 

University of New York Press, 2006.

 

Pissaro, Joachim, et al. Martin Creed: What’s the Point of It? London: Hayward Publishing, 2014.

 

Piotrowski, Piotr. In the Shadow of Yalta: Art and the Avant-Garde in Eastern Europe, 1945 - 1989. London: Reaktion, 2009.

 

Preston-Dunlop, Valerie. Rudolf Laban: An Extraordinary Life. London, Dance Books, 1998. Preziosi, Donald. Art Religion Amnesia: The Enchantments of Credulity. New York: Routledge,

  

Pursell, Caroll. White Heat: People and Technology. Berkley: University of California Press, 1994.

 

Quercetani, R. L. A World History of Track and Field Athletics 1864-1964. London: Oxford University Press, 1964.

 

Rabinbach, Anson. The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity. New York: Basic Books, 1990.

 

Rabinow, Paul, ed. The Foucault Reader. New York: Random House, 1984.

  

Radstone, Susannah, and Bill Schwarz, Memory: Histories, Theories, Debates. New York: Fordham University Press, 2010.

 

Rancière, Jacques. Aesthetics and its Discontents. Malden: Polity Press, 2004.

Rancière, Jacques. The Emancipated Spectator. Translated by Gregory Elliot. London: Verso,

 

Rancière, Jacques. The Politics of Aesthetics: The Distribution of the Sensible. London: Continuum, 2006.

 

Rees, A.L., and Duncan White, Steven Ball, David Curtis, eds. Expanded Cinema: Art, Performance, Film. London: Tate Publishing, 2011.

 

Rempel, Gerhard. Hitler’s Children: The Hitler Youth and the SS. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989.

 

Richards, Mary. Marina Abramović. New York: Routledge, 2010.

Ricoeur, Paul. Oneself as Another. Translated by Kathleen Blamey. Chicago: University of

 

Chicago Press, 1992.

Rosa, Hartmut. Beschleunigung und Entfremdung: Entwurf einer Kritischen Theorie

 

spätmoderner Zeitlichkeit. Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2013.

Rosa, Hartmut, and William E. Scheuerman. High-Speed: Social Acceleration, Power, and

 

Modernity. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, 2009.

Rosati, Lauren, and Mary Anne Staniszewski, eds. Alternative Histories: New York Art Spaces,

 

1960-2010. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2012.

 

Rosenstone, Robert A., “History in Images/History in Words: Reflections on the Possibility of Really Putting History onto Film.” The American Historical Review. Volume 93. Number 5 (December 1988).

 

Rossol, Nadine. Performing the Nation in Interwar Germany: Sport, Spectacle, and Political Symbolism, 1926 - 1936. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

 

Roxby-Maude, Alice, On Camera: Performance and Photography. Southampton: John Hansard Gallery, 2007.

 

Ruyter, Nancy Lee Chalfa. The Cultivation of Body and Mind in Nineteenth-Century American Delsartism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.

 

Salazar, James B. Bodies of Reform The Rhetoric of Character in Gilded Age America. New York: New York University Press, 2010.

  

Schechner, Richard. Essays on Performance Theory 1970 - 1976. New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1973, 1977.

 

Scheerder, Jeroen, and Koen Breedveld, eds. Running Across Europe: The Rise and Size of One of the Largest Sport Markets. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

 

Seckinelgin, H., and Billy Wong, eds. Global Civil Society 2011: Globally and the Absence of Justice. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

 

Sekula, Allan. “The Body and the Archive.” October. Volume 39 (Winter, 1986). Semon, Richard. Die mnemischen Empmfindungen in ihren Beziehungen zu den

 

Originalempfindungen. Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1909.

Shawn, Ted. Every Little Movement: A Book About François Delsarte. Pittsfield, MA: The Eagle

 

Printing and Binding Company, 1954.

Shayt, David H. “Stairway to Redemption: America’s Encounter with the British Prison

 

Treadmill.” Technology and Culture, Volume 30, Number 4 (Oct. 1989).

Sheridan, Heather, and Leslie Howe, and Keith Thompson, eds. Sporting Reflections: Some

 

Philosophical Perspectives. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer Verlag, 2007.

 

Siegmund, Gerald, and Stefan Hölscher, eds. Dance, Politics, and Co-Immunity: Thinking Resistances, Current Perspectives on Politics and Communities in the Arts. Volume 1. Zürich- Berlin: Diaphanes, 2013.

 

Sileo, Diego, and Eugenio Viola, PAC (Milano), eds. Marina Abramović: The Abramović Method. 2 Volumes. Milan: 24 ORE Cultura, 2012.

 

Silverman, Kaja. The Subject of Semiotics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.

Slevin, Tom. Vision of the Human: Art, World War One and the Modernist Subject. London: I.B.

 

Tauris, 2015.

 

Solnit, Rebecca. River of Shadows: Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West. New York: Viking, 2003.

 

Solnit, Rebecca. Wanderlust: A History of Walking. London: Verso, 2001.

Sontag, Susan. Against Interpretation and Other Essays. New York: Picador, 1966, 2001. Sontag, Susan. “Fascinating Fascism.” The New York Review of Books (6 February 1975). Sontag, Susan. On Photography. New York: Picador, 1977.

  

Spieker, Sven. The Big Archive: Art from Bureaucracy. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2008. Stepišnik, Drago. Oris Zgodovine Telesne Kulture na Slovenskem. Ljubljana: Dražavna založba

 

Slovenija, 1968.

 

Stipančić, Branka. “‘Zame je resničnost umetnost,’ Intervju s Tomislavom Gotovcem.” Vijenac, Number 123/VI (8 Oct. 1998).

 

Stoddart, Tom. Sarajevo. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998.

Stošić, Mirjana. “Body-name — The Brotherhood Chronotype and Social Choreography.”

 

Култура/Culture (2015).

Suljagić, Emir. Postcards from the Grave. Translated by Lejla Haverić. London: The Bosnian

 

Institute, 2005.

 

Susovski, Marijan, ed. The New Art Practice in Yugoslavia, 1966 - 1978. Zagreb: Gallery of Contemporary Art, 1978.

 

Sutil, Nicolás Salazar. Motion and Representation: The Language of Human Movement. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2015.

 

Swenson, Kirsten. Irrational Judgements: Eva Hesse, Sol Lewitt, and 1960s New York. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015.

 

Szeemann, Harold. Zum freien Tanz, zu reiner Kunst. Rolandseck: Stiftung Hans Arp und Sophie Taeuber-Arp, 1991.

 

Tagg, John. The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988.

 

Tilmans, Karin, and Frank van Vree, Jay Winter, eds. Performing the Past: Memory, History, and Identity in Modern Europe. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010.

 

Tumarkin, Maria M. Traumascapes: The Power and Fate of Places Transformed by Tragedies. Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 2005.

 

Udall, Sharyn R. Dance and American Art: A Long Embrace. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012.

 

Vacche, Angela Dalle. Film, Art, New Media: Museum without Walls? New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.

 

Vertinsky, Patricia Anne. The Eternally Wounded Woman: Women, Doctors, and Exercise in the Late Nineteenth Century. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989.

  

Virilio, Paul. The Art of the Motor. Translated Julie Rose. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.

 

Weibel, Peter. Beyond Art: A Third Culture. Vienna: Ambra Verlag, 2005.

 

Wells, Liz, ed. Photography: A Critical Introduction. New York: Rutledge, 1996/2015.

 

Westcott, James. When Marina Abramović Dies: A Biography. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2010.

 

White, Hayden. “Historiography and Historiophoty.” The American Historical Review. Volume 93. Number 5 (December 1988).

 

White, Hayden V. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.

 

Wiehager, Renate, ed. Moving Pictures: Photography and Film in Contemporary Art. Ostfildern- Ruit, Germany: Hate Cantz Publishers, 2001.

 

Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society, 1780 - 1950. New York: Columbia University Press, 1958/1983.

 

Wood, Catherine. Yvonne Rainer: The Mind is a Muscle. London: Afterall, 2007. Wood, Denis. The Power of Maps. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

 

Woodward, Susan L. Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1995.

 

Young, Kevin. Deviance and Social Control in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008. Youngblood, Gene. Expanded Cinema. New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., 1970.

 

Zelizer, Barbie, ed. Visual Culture and the Holocaust. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001.

 

Zidić, Igor, and Ana Dević, Antonio Gotovac Lauer a.k.a. Tomislav Gotovac. Antonio Gotovac Lauer: Čelična mreža. Zagreb: Moderna Galerija and Studio Josip Račič, 2006.

 

Zorn, John W., ed. The Essential Delsarte. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc, 1968.

 

Žižek, Slavoj. The Indivisible Remainder: An Essay on Schelling and Related Matters. London: Verso, 1996.

 

----

  

------------about Venice Biennale history from wikipedia ---------

curators previous

* 1948 – Rodolfo Pallucchini

* 1966 – Gian Alberto Dell'Acqua

* 1968 – Maurizio Calvesi and Guido Ballo

* 1970 – Umbro Apollonio

* 1972 – Mario Penelope

* 1974 – Vittorio Gregotti

* 1978 – Luigi Scarpa

* 1980 – Luigi Carluccio

* 1982 – Sisto Dalla Palma

* 1984 – Maurizio Calvesi

* 1986 – Maurizio Calvesi

* 1988 – Giovanni Carandente

* 1990 – Giovanni Carandente

* 1993 – Achille Bonito Oliva

* 1995 – Jean Clair

* 1997 – Germano Celant

* 1999 – Harald Szeemann

* 2001 – Harald Szeemann

* 2003 – Francesco Bonami

* 2005 – María de Corral and Rosa Martinez

* 2007 – Robert Storr

* 2009 – Daniel Birnbaum

* 2011 – Bice Curiger

* 2013 – Massimiliano Gioni

* 2015 – Okwui Enwezor

* 2017 – Christine Macel[19]

* 2019 – Ralph Rugoff[20]

  

----------

 

#art #artist #artistic #artists #arte #artwork

 

Pavilion at the Venice Biennale #artcontemporain contemporary art Giardini arsenal

 

venice Veneziako VenecijaVenècia Venedig Venetië Veneetsia Venetsia Venise Venecia VenedigΒενετία( Venetía Hungarian Velence Feneyjar Venice Venezia Venēcija Venezja Venezia Wenecja Veneza VenețiaVenetsiya BenátkyBenetke Venecia Fenisוועניס Վենետիկ ভেনি স威尼斯 (wēinísī) 威尼斯 ვენეციისવે નિસवेनिसヴェネツィアವೆನಿಸ್베니스வெனிஸ்వెనిస్เวนิซوینس Venetsiya

 

art umjetnost umění kunst taide τέχνη művészetList ealaín arte māksla menasarti Kunst sztuka artă umenie umetnost konstcelfקונסטարվեստincəsənətশিল্প艺术(yìshù)藝術 (yìshù)ხელოვნებაकलाkos duabアートಕಲೆសិល្បៈ미술(misul)ສິນລະປະകലकलाအတတ်ပညာकलाකලාවகலைఆర్ట్ศิลปะ آرٹsan'atnghệ thuậtفن (fan)אומנותهنرsanat artist

 

other Biennale :(Biennials ) :

Venice Biennial , Documenta Havana Biennial,Istanbul Biennial ( Istanbuli),Biennale de Lyon ,Dak'Art Berlin Biennial,Mercosul Visual Arts Biennial ,Bienal do Mercosul Porto Alegre.,Berlin Biennial ,Echigo-Tsumari Triennial .Yokohama Triennial Aichi Triennale,manifesta ,Copenhagen Biennale,Aichi Triennale .Yokohama Triennial,Echigo-Tsumari Triennial.Sharjah Biennial ,Biennale of Sydney, Liverpool , São Paulo Biennial ; Athens Biennale , Bienal do Mercosul ,Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art ,DOCUMENTA KASSEL ATHENS

* Dakar

  

kritik [edit] kritikaria kritičar crític kritiker criticus kriitik kriitikko critique crítico Kritiker κριτικός(kritikós) kritikus Gagnrýnandi léirmheastóir critico kritiķis kritikas kritiku krytyk crítico critic crítico krytyk beirniad קריטיקער

 

Basque Veneziako Venecija [edit] Catalan Venècia Venedig Venetië Veneetsia Venetsia Venise Venecia Venedig Βενετία(Venetía) Hungarian Velence Feneyjar Venice Venezia Latvian Venēcija Venezja Venezia Wenecja Portuguese Veneza Veneția Venetsiya Benátky Benetke Venecia Fenis וועניס Վենետիկ ভেনিস 威尼斯 (wēinísī) 威尼斯 Georgian ვენეციის વેનિસ वेनिस ヴェネツィア ವೆನಿಸ್ 베니스 வெனிஸ் వెనిస్ เวนิซ وینس Venetsiya

 

Thierry Geoffroy / Colonel

#thierrygeoffroy #geoffroycolonel #thierrygeoffroycololonel #lecolonel #biennalist

 

#artformat #formatart

#emergencyart #urgencyart #urgentart #artofthenow #nowart

emergency art emergency art urgency artist de garde vagt alarm emergency room necessityart artistrole exigencyart predicament prediction pressureart

 

#InstitutionalCritique

 

#venicebiennale #venicebiennale2017 #venicebiennale2015

#venicebiennale2019

#venice #biennale #venicebiennale #venezia #italy

#venezia #venice #veniceitaly #venicebiennale

 

#pastlife #memory #venicebiennale #venice #Venezia #italy #hotelveniceitalia #artexhibit #artshow #internationalart #contemporaryart #themundane #summerday

 

#biennalevenice

 

Institutional Critique

 

Identity Politics Post-War Consumerism, Engagement with Mass Media, Performance Art, The Body, Film/Video, Political, Collage, , Cultural Commentary, Self as Subject, Color Photography, Related to Fashion, Digital Culture, Photography, Human Figure, Technology

 

Racial and Ethnic Identity, Neo-Conceptualism, Diaristic

 

Contemporary Re-creations, Popular Culture, Appropriation, Contemporary Sculpture,

 

Culture, Collective History, Group of Portraits, Photographic Source

 

, Endurance Art, Film/Video,, Conceptual Art and Contemporary Conceptualism, Color Photography, Human Figure, Cultural Commentary

 

War and Military, Political Figures, Social Action, Racial and Ethnic Identity, Conflict

 

Personal Histories, Alter Egos and Avatars

 

Use of Common Materials, Found Objects, Related to Literature, Installation, Mixed-Media, Engagement with Mass Media, Collage,, Outdoor Art, Work on Paper, Text

  

Appropriation (art) Art intervention Classificatory disputes about art Conceptual art Environmental sculpture Found object Interactive art Modern art Neo-conceptual art Performance art Sound art Sound installation Street installations Video installation Conceptual art Art movements Postmodern art Contemporary art Art media Aesthetics Conceptualism

 

Post-conceptualism Anti-anti-art Body art Conceptual architecture Contemporary art Experiments in Art and Technology Found object Happening Fluxus Information art Installation art Intermedia Land art Modern art Neo-conceptual art Net art Postmodern art Generative Art Street installation Systems art Video art Visual arts ART/MEDIA conceptual artis

 

—-

 

CRITICAL RUN is an art format developed by Thierry Geoffroy / COLONEL, It follows the spirit of ULTRACONTEMPORARY and EMERGENCY ART as well as aims to train the AWARENESS MUSCLE.​

Critical Run has been activated on invitation from institutions such as Moderna Muset Stockholm, Moma PS1 ,Witte de With Rotterdam, ZKM Karlsruhe, Liverpool Biennale, Manifesta Biennial ,Sprengel Museum,Venice Biennale but have also just happened on the spot because a debate was necessary here and now.

 

It has been activated in Beijing, Cairo, London, Istanbul, Athens, Kassel, Sao Paolo, Hanoi, Istanbul, Paris, Copenhagen, Moskow, Napoli, Sydney, Wroclaw, Bruxelles, Rotterdam, Siberia, Karlsruhe, Barcelona, Aalborg, Venice, Virginia, Stockholm, Aarhus, Rio de Janeiro, Budapest, Washington, Lyon, Caracas, Trondheim, Berlin, Toronto, Hannover, Haage, Newtown, Cartagena, Tallinn, Herning, Roskilde;Mannheim ;Munich etc...

 

The run debates are about emergency topics like Climate Change , Xenophobia , Wars , Hyppocrisie , Apathy ,etc ...

 

Participants have been very various from Sweddish art critics , German police , American climate activist , Chinese Gallerists , Brasilian students , etc ...

 

Critical Run is an art format , like Emergency Room or Biennalist and is part of Emergency Art ULTRACONTEMPORARY and AWARENESS MUSCLE .

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/criticalrun.html

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

-------

In 2020 a large exhibition will show 40 of the Critical Run at the Museum Villa Stuck in Munich / part of the Awareness Muscle Training Center

------

for activating the format or for inviting the installation

please contact 1@colonel.dk

 

www.colonel.dk/

 

-----

 

critical,run,art,format,debate ,artformat,formatart,moment,clarity,emergency,kunst,

 

Sport,effort,curator,artist,urgency,urgence,criticalrun,emergencies,ultracontemporary

,rundebate,sport,art,activism, critic,laufen,Thierry Geoffroy , Colonel,kunstformat

 

,now art,copenhagen,denmark

 

The tower was built between 1855 and 1869 to commemorate the death of Daniel O’Connell, who established the cemetery in 1832. The iconic memorial was designed by George Petrie. The tower was closed to the public for about 40 years because the internal stairway was destroyed by a bomb in 1971. The attack was attributed to Loyalist paramilitaries and was carried out as a reprisal for the destruction of Nelson’s Pillar on O’Connell Street.

 

In 1847 Daniel O’Connell died in Genoa on May 15h 1847. His dying wish was that his heart be buried in Rome and his body in Glasnevin cemetery. Daniel O’Connell was buried in the O’Connell Circle in Glasnevin cemetery on August 5th 1847. On May 14th 1869 the remains were exhumed and reinterred in a crypt beneath an Irish round tower.

Coolangatta/Tweed Heads. Population 72,000.

In 1846 the schooner called the Coolangatta from Alexander Berry’s estate of Coolangatta near Nowra was shipwrecked on the coast here. The name was adopted for the tiny holiday town which was surveyed here in 1883 by the Queensland government. As the town grew in the early 20th century it developed as the first town along the Gold Coast. Meanwhile across the border its twin town, Tweed Heads emerged. Few people settled here except for timber cutters up the Tweed River valley. In 1859 the border placed the Tweed in NSW. A few sugar cane farmers moved into the Tweed in the 1860s and a border customs house was built by NSW in 1871. Tweed Heads emerged as a town with the 1871 customs house, the 1875 telegraph station and the first local school in 1876. Holiday makers started visited the town in the 1880s and a formal town was surveyed and gazetted in 1886. By 1892 there were still only 100 residents in the town. The railway from Casino reached here in 1903 and banana plantations were established beside the sugar plantations in 1909. But the small town only began rapid growth in the 1960s when the Gold Coast became popular. As it is in NSW Tweed Heads differs by an hour a day with Coolangatta when NSW goes onto summertime. Tweeds Heads currently has a population of about 20,000 people but it is part of the Coolangatta Gold Coast region which has a population of 625,000. Coolangatta has a population of about 6,000 people.

 

The Tweed River Valley.

The northern edge of the Tweed River valley- the McPherson Ranges, marks the border between Queensland and New South Wales and in the middle of the valley is the majestic volcanic peak of Mount Warning which was named by Captain Cook in 1770. Mt Warning is 1,157 metres high (just shy of 4,000 feet).The rich fertile volcanic soils, the year round rainfall and mild climate produce magnificent sub-tropical rainforest where it has not been cleared. The first Europeans into the valley came after the trees especially the Australian red cedar but also rosewood, box, sassafras, tulip wood, hoop pine, mahogany etc. Beneath the trees were ferns, palms, orchids and Elkhorn etc. In past geological times the volcanoes spewed lava which travelled down the valleys till it reached water on the coast at Fingal Heads where it produced hexagonal basalt columns. In other places crystallization formed semi-precious stones- beryl, amethysts and agates. The valley around Mt Warning is in fact a giant volcanic caldera.

 

Captain Cook named Cape Byron in 1770 and some Dutch explorers might have sighted the area (Abel Tasman went down to Tasmania in 1642) but it was John Oxley who first explored this coast line in 1823 when Governor Brisbane sent him to select a site for a new convict settlement. Oxley chose Moreton Bay but he did name the Tweed River after a river in Scotland. The first land explorer of the region was Henry Rous the second son of the Viscount of Dunwich who sailed north in the frigate the Rainbow in 1828. He discovered the mouth of the Tweed River and set off to explore it with a party of men. He erroneously named it the Clarence River. Rous next discovered the Richmond River which he sailed up for about 20 miles. He named it after the Duke of Richmond. It enters the sea near Ballina after flowing down through Casino, Coraki etc. The Richmond River was the site of an Aboriginal massacre in 1842 near the site of Coraki. Red cedar cutters moved into the district around 1840 and five Europeans were killed here where they were guarding a supplies depot. A reprisal massacre by the Europeans took place shortly afterwards at Evans Heads where according to Bundjalung oral traditions about 100 people were killed. In these early years with few Europeans in the region no press reports or government enquiry seems to have occurred. However, a few years later in 1853-54 another massacre of Aboriginal people occurred near where Ballina is sited under very different circumstances. A Native Police force was established in NSW in the very early 1840s to work with European police troopers. It is believed that some Tweed River Aborigines fled south to the Richmond River after murdering some white workers on the Tweed. The Aboriginal/Native and white police officers surrounded an Aboriginal camp of Bundjalung people and opened fire killing around 30 people. The incident was reported to the NSW government but no action was taken according to a 1922 reminiscence of an early white settler.

 

The Northern rivers.

This fertile region of NSW has a combined population of 300,000. It is a fertile sub-tropical region with the major cities being Tweed Heads, Lismore, Ballina and Byron Bay. The region has one university which has headquarters in Lismore- Southern Cross University. It also has campuses in Tweed Heads, Coffs Harbour and the Gold Coast. Mount Warning volcano last erupted about 23 million years ago. Its ancient volcanic plug is surrounded by a high ridge of mountains which from a caldera around it. The fertile soils and sub-tropical climate allows the growing of sugar cane, coffee, bananas, avocadoes nuts like macadamia and vegetables and other tropical fruits. Much of the mountainous part of the region is wilderness or National Park if it has not already been cleared. It was anti- logging protests in 1929 at Terania Creek which put Nimbin on the international map and led to the creation of Nightcap National Park in 1983. The group of national parks in this region including Mount Warning, Nightcap, Border Ranges are all part of the United Nations World Heritage listed Gondwana Rainforests parks. These parks were listed by the UN in 1986. This parks were added to the Australian Heritage list in 2007.

 

The Tweed. It rises on the eastern cups of the Great Dividing Range. Part of its course is used as the border between NSW and Queensland. It is just 78 kilometres long and descends 173 metres over its length. It enters the sea with a coastal barrier at Tweed Heads. The main towns on it are Murwillumbah and Tweed Heads. It drains the region around Mount Warning an old volcano cone. The region is and was covered with tropical rainforest with fertile volcanic soils. It has eight tributaries. It has a catchment area of 1,000 square kilometres.

The Brunswick River. It is just 48 kilometres long but it descends 142 metres over this distance. It rises on Mount Jerusalem and passes through Mullumbimby. It enters the sea at Brunswick Heads.

The Richmond. It rises near Mount Lindesay in the Great Dividing Range. It is 237 kilometres long and descends 256 metres over this length. It has 12 major tributaries including the Wilson River. The main towns on it are Kyogle, Casino, Coraki, and Woodburn. We will visit them all. It enters the sea at Ballina. It has a catchment area of nearly 7,000 square kilometres which is the sixth largest in NSW. It is a major river of NSW.

The Evans River. It rises near Woodburn and is just 17 kilometres long. It was named after the explorer Evans. It enters the sea at Evans Heads.

Wilsons River. It rises near Mount Jerusalem in the Nightcap Ranges National Park. It is 131 kilometres long and descends 359 metres. It passes through Lismore and joins the Richmond River of which it is a tributary at Coraki.

The Clarence River. Further south where we do not visit is the Clarence River. It rises in the Great Diving Range and flows 394 kilometres to the sea. It falls 256 metres and has 24 tributaries. It passes through Tabulam (which we visit), Grafton, Ulmarra and Maclean. It has a catchment area of nearly 23,000 square kilometres.

 

The Battle of the Little Bighorn is a mess of a battle to understand. In one way, it's very simple: Custer bit off more than he could chew and was slaughtered along with his men because of it.

 

Like much of our remembered-history, this is not untrue. It's also not the whole story. Much of this story is lost to history. With all of Custer's immediate command killed, the story of how that happened was left to the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne. But they had a big incentive not to tell that story - reprisals and revenge.

 

And so it was left to speculation and, much later, remembrances, and finally archaeology. A perfect picture of a battle is almost always difficult to come by. Here, it is simply impossible.

 

The battle is complex in other ways, as it was actually two battles in two separate locations (about three miles apart). Troops at one location had no idea what was going on at the other.

 

We have a fairly good idea of what happened with everything not involving Custer. The United States troops under Major Reno attacked, retreated and were under siege for two days. There is very little mystery involved in that part of the battle, and thus it's hardly remembered at all.

 

Custer's Last Stand is what we recall. It's why we know anything at all about the Little Bighorn battle.

  

.

.

.

 

Battle of the Little Bighorn, No. 1

 

Camera: Exakta Verex VX (c1951)

Lens: A. Schacht Ulm Travegon 3.5/35mm

Film: Kodak Ektachrome E200; (x-10/2011)

Process: E-6

 

Little Bighorn Battlefield, Montana

This gorge is in layered calc-silicate rocks of the Corella Formation; they were originally calcareous sediments (sand and mud) that have been metamorphosed. The quartz, felspar, and clays reacted with the calcite and dolomite to produce calc-silicate minerals like amphibole (hornblende and actinolite) and clinopyroxene (diopside).

 

The Kalkadoon People:

 

The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.

 

The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.

 

The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.

 

The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.

 

Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.

 

The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'

 

The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.

 

Source: Ian Withnall, & Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)

American Military Police inspecting a German 'Flugabwehrkanone 37' (Flight-defence-cannon or Anti-aircraft cannon 1937) 8,8cm "Acht-Acht" (Eight-Eight) after the Battle of Cologne. (Köln, Germany, March 1945).

 

The first Allied bombing of Köln started on the 17 May 1940 with a small formation targeting the railway yards. Later in 1942 the first of the larger raids began on the 30th of May with over 860 RAF aircraft dropping 1400+ tons of bombs. Although there was little strategic value in the city's industries, over 260 bombing-raids were conducted over the course of the war with the objective to severely lower German morale. The city towards the end was mostly rubble and burnt-out buildings, inhabited by anti-aircraft Flak units, sheltering civilians, hiding Wehrmacht deserters and by the anti-Nazi “Edelweißpiraten-Navajos" resistance regularly fighting local officials with Gestapo reprisals resulting in mass public hangings.

 

The Battle of Cologne began on the 5th March lead by the American 3rd Armored Division and the 13th Infantry Regiment capturing the city after fierce fighting on the 7th March 1945. A total of over 44,900 tons of bombs were dropped on Köln, resulting in 20,000+ civilian casualties and over 60% of the city destroyed.

 

The Flugabwehrkanone 37 or Flak 37 was an improved version of the Flak 36. The Flak 37 had a new sighting system and a faster rate of fire making it more effective against enemy aircraft. The Flak 37 also had a new barrel design called the 'Rohr Aufbau 9' (Barrel construction 9) developed by Rheinmetall, which made it easier and cheaper to replace internal barrel liners when worn out rather than replacing the entire barrel. The Flak 37 used an upgraded targeting device called the 'Zünderstellmaschine 37' (Fuse-setting-machine), a machine that automatically set the fuses of the shells according to the target range. The machine could be individually per gun or receive calculations via a 'Kommandogerät 40' (Command device) that could send via a cable targeting solutions of lead angle and fuse time delay to an entire battery.

  

Original Image Source: US Army, US Signal Corps (Public Domain)

Crop, repair, upscale, colorize: RyanN81

Video of 88 Live Fire: External link (Thanks to Panzergruppe Süd).

 

[The World War 2 colorized photos are apolitical, and are simply for historical interest and research purposes only. Any comments relating to politics, racism or other inappropriate/offensive subjects will be removed].

  

The Saint Hilarion Castle lies on the Kyrenia mountain range, in Cyprus. This location provided the castle with command of the pass road from Kyrenia to Nicosia. It is the best preserved ruin of the three former strongholds in the Kyrenia mountains, the other two being Kantara and Buffavento.

 

History

The castle is not named after St. Hilarion, active in Palestine and Cyprus in the 4th century. It was named after an obscure saint, who is traditionally held to have fled to Cyprus after the Arab conquest of the Holy Land and retired to the hilltop on which the castle was built for hermitage. An English traveller reported the preservation of his relics in the 14th century. It has been proposed that a monastery built in his name preceded the castle, which was built around it. However, this view is not supported by any substantial evidence.

 

Starting in the 11th century, the Byzantines began fortification. Saint Hilarion, together with the castles of Buffavento and Kantara, formed the defense of the island against Arab raids against the coast. Some sections were further upgraded under the Lusignan dynasty, whose kings may have used it as a summer residence. During the rule of Lusignans, the castle was the focus of a four-year struggle between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Regent John d' Ibelin for control of Cyprus.

 

Much of the castle was dismantled by the Venetians in the 15th century to reduce the cost of garrisons.

 

Architecture

The castle has three divisions or wards. The lower and middle wards served economic purposes, while the upper ward housed the royal family. The lower ward had the stables and the living quarters for the men-at-arms. The Prince John tower sits on a cliff high above the lower castle.

 

The upper ward was surrounded by a 1.4 metre-thick Byzantine wall, made of rough masonry. The entrance is through a pointed arch built by the Lusignans. This was protected by a semicircular tower to the east. Within the ward is a courtyard, with twin peaks being situated to either side of it. To the north-east is an extremely ruined kitchen. To the west are the royal apartments, dated by various sources to the 13th or 14th centuries. Although mostly ruined today, this was a structure in the northeast-southwest axis, with a length of 25 m and width of 6 m. It has a basement containing a cistern and two floors. The ground floor has a height of 7 m and a pointed barrel vault. The upper floor is known for its carved windows, one of which is dubbed the Queen's Window. These are placed on the western wall, which has a scenic view of the northern coast of Cyprus, especially the plains of Lapithos.

 

In fiction

Two of the main characters in the 1958 historical novel, Exodus, by Leon Uris, spend a day walking around the castle ruins. Featured in the 1999 novel “Race of Scorpions” by Dorothy Dunnett. The Castle of Saint Hilarion appears in the 2009 action-adventure video game Assassin's Creed: Bloodlines, the 2015 novel "The Lost Treasure of the Templars" by James Becker, and Death in Cyprus by M. M. Kaye. The castle is also featured in the 2016 crypto-thriller The Apocalypse Fire by Dominic Selwood.

 

The Kyrenia Mountains (Greek: Κερύνειο Όρος; Turkish: Girne Dağları) is a long, narrow mountain range that runs for approximately 160 km (100 mi) along the northern coast of the island of Cyprus. It is primarily made of hard crystalline limestone, with some marble. Its highest peak is Mount Selvili, at 1,024 m (3,360 ft). Pentadaktylos (also spelt Pentadactylos; Greek: Πενταδάκτυλος; Turkish: Beşparmak) is another name for the Kyrenia Mountains, though Britannica refers to Pentadaktylos as the "western portion" of the latter, or the part west of Melounta. Pentadaktylos (lit. "five-fingered") is so-named after one of its most distinguishing features, a peak that resembles five fingers.

 

The Kyrenian mountains are named after the Kyrenian mountains in Achaia, Greece, which are well known from mythology because of the connection with one of the 12 labours of Hercules, the capture of the Kerynitis deer that lived there. This sacred deer of Artemis with golden horns and bronze legs ran so fast that no one could reach it. Hercules, however, after pursuing it for a whole year, managed to catch it and transport it alive to Mycenae.

 

A devastating fire in July 1995 burned large portions of the Kyrenia Mountains, resulting in the loss of significant forest land and natural habitat.

 

The only other mountain range in Cyprus is the Troodos Mountains.

 

Geology

These mountains are a series of sedimentary formations from the Permian to the Middle Miocene pushed up by a collision of the African and Eurasian plates. Though only half the height of the Troodos Mountains, the Kyrenia Mountains are rugged and rise abruptly from the Mesaoria plain.

 

History

The location of the mountains near the sea made them desirable locations for watch towers and castles overlooking the northern Cyprus coast, as well as the central plain. These castles generally date from the 10th through the 15th centuries, primarily constructed by the Byzantines and Lusignans. The castles of St. Hilarion, Buffavento, and Kantara sit astride peaks and were of strategic importance during much of the history of Cyprus during the Middle Ages.

 

Painted flag

A flag of Northern Cyprus is painted on the southern slope of the Kyrenia Mountains. It is reportedly 425 metres wide and 250 metres high, and is illuminated at night.

 

The flag is considered controversial as evidenced in the Parliamentary Question put to the European Parliament by Antigoni Papadopoulou on 22 October 2009, "How can it permit the existence of such a flag which, apart from the catastrophic environmental damage it causes, the use of chemical substances and the brutal abuse of the environment, involves an absurd waste of electricity at a time of economic crisis? Does Turkey show sufficient respect towards the environment to justify its desire to open the relevant chapter of accession negotiations?"

 

Legends

There are many legends about the Pentadactylos mountains. One tells the story of a conceited villager who fell in love with the local queen and asked for her hand in marriage. The queen wished to be rid of the impertinent young man and requested that he bring her some water from the spring of Apostolos Andreas monastery in the Karpas, a perilous journey in those days. The man set off and after several weeks returned with a skin full of that precious water. The queen was most dismayed to see that he had succeeded, but still refused to marry him. In a fit of rage, he poured the water on to the earth, seized a handful of the resulting mud and threw it at the queens head. She ducked and the lump of mud sailed far across the plain to land on top of the Kyrenia mountain range, where it is to this day, still showing the impression of the thwarted villager’s five fingers.

 

Another famous one is of the Byzantine hero Digenis Akritas. Tradition has it that Digenis Akritas's hand gripped the mountain to get out of the sea when he came to free Cyprus from its Saracen invaders, and this is his handprint. He also threw a large rock across Cyprus to get at the Saracen ships. That rock landed in Paphos at the site of the birthplace of Aphrodite, thus known to this day as Petra Tou Romiou or "Rock of the Greek".

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

The Turkish invasion of Cyprus began on 20 July 1974 and progressed in two phases over the following month. Taking place upon a background of intercommunal violence between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, and in response to a Greek junta-sponsored Cypriot coup d'état five days earlier, it led to the Turkish capture and occupation of the northern part of the island.

 

The coup was ordered by the military junta in Greece and staged by the Cypriot National Guard in conjunction with EOKA B. It deposed the Cypriot president Archbishop Makarios III and installed Nikos Sampson. The aim of the coup was the union (enosis) of Cyprus with Greece, and the Hellenic Republic of Cyprus to be declared.

 

The Turkish forces landed in Cyprus on 20 July and captured 3% of the island before a ceasefire was declared. The Greek military junta collapsed and was replaced by a civilian government. Following the breakdown of peace talks, Turkish forces enlarged their original beachhead in August 1974 resulting in the capture of approximately 36% of the island. The ceasefire line from August 1974 became the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus and is commonly referred to as the Green Line.

 

Around 150,000 people (amounting to more than one-quarter of the total population of Cyprus, and to one-third of its Greek Cypriot population) were displaced from the northern part of the island, where Greek Cypriots had constituted 80% of the population. Over the course of the next year, roughly 60,000 Turkish Cypriots, amounting to half the Turkish Cypriot population, were displaced from the south to the north. The Turkish invasion ended in the partition of Cyprus along the UN-monitored Green Line, which still divides Cyprus, and the formation of a de facto Autonomous Turkish Cypriot Administration in the north. In 1983, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) declared independence, although Turkey is the only country that recognises it. The international community considers the TRNC's territory as Turkish-occupied territory of the Republic of Cyprus. The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law, amounting to illegal occupation of European Union territory since Cyprus became a member.

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

Mugbil Al-Thukair was likely photographed in his bedchamber at his house in Manama, sitting on a prayer rug with a pious wistful countenance in a dapper embroidered silk Jubbah (open coat) and an ornate Cashmere Ghutra Shawl (headdress) fastened with the obsolete thick Najdi Agal (wool headband), the distinctive formal attire once worn by wealthy Arab merchants and tribal chieftains in Central Arabia and the northern Arabian Gulf in the early twentieth century as Al-Thukair supposedly was facing a Victorian colonial Anglo-Indian Raj four-poster teakwood bed surrounded by all the trappings of wealth typifying the lifestyle of a Gulf-rich pearl merchant and his household at the time, such as the open Indian teakwood wardrobe cabinet with an inside mirrored door on the left where a visible Cashmere Ghutra Shawl hangs from an open wardrobe drawer, a Victorian glass-shaded gas lamp in the right corner next to a pendulum clock in the back of a reclining wooden cane chair with its vertically striped cushion and several sitting chairs stacked high with books together with a variety of Persian rugs and carpets strewn across the floor during Jacques Cartier's second extended visit to Bahrain (from the 14th to the 26th of March 1912) the focal point of his Arabian Gulf pearl purchasing trip on Thursday, the 16th of March, 1912.

 

(Mugbil Bin Abdulrahman Al-Thukair was born in 1844 in the rural town of Unaizah in the Al-Qassim region in northern Najd, Central Arabia as Al-Qassim has always been considered the agricultural heartland of the Arabian Peninsula known since pre-Islamic times as the "Alimental Basket" or granary of Arabia for its abundant agricultural assets into a prestigious erudite family of merchants widespread across Arabia and the Fertile Crescent with a trading history that could be traced back to the early eighteenth century from a young age Al-Thukair was endowed with natural business acumen combined with deep intellectual and literary interests following in the footsteps of generations of his family's enterprising male offspring which drove him first in 1867 at the tender age of 23 to the prosperous port town of Jeddah on the Red Sea coast of Arabia with its bustling market and cosmopolitan outlook the obvious first choice for any ambitious young man from the hinterlands of Arabia mainly Najd in those days where he began to make his mark as a budding young merchant at the same time exploring any available business opportunities in the port cities and towns of the Near East (Middle East) and those in the neighbouring Indian subcontinent principally in the newly British-founded port city of Bombay (Mumbai), the quickly burgeoning commercial hub on the Arabian Sea, the main western gateway to India and the key gathering place for Arab merchants and their families from Arabia in the subcontinent forming a dynamic expatriate Arab community that would continue to exist from the mid-nineteenth century until India's independence from Britain in 1947 Bombay also provided a good head start for scores of young merchants from the Arabian Peninsula at the time some of whom became well-known household business names across the region most notably Alireza of Jeddah, Alghanim, Al-Kharafi and Alshaya of Kuwait among others, spurring young Al-Thukair to learn Hindi, the pre-oil seafaring age's business lingua franca in the Arabian Peninsula since the majority of Arabia's trade passed through Indian entrepôts and in due course he became proficient in the essential business language, the thriving port city of Basra in southern Iraq was yet another desirable alternative business opportunity for Al-Thukair, a familiar business destination for his family for many decades and a second adopted domicile for several family members as Iraq's only maritime gateway to the rest of the world, often visited by him in the early to mid-1870s while en route to Iraq's only port on the Arabian Gulf his ship would stop at Bahrain one of the three major ports of the Arabian Peninsula in the second half of the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth centuries (the other two were Aden and Jeddah) allowing him during the few hours interval between passengers and cargo disembarkation and embarkation to wander around the town of Manama the cosmopolitan commercial hub on the main island of the Bahraini archipelago examining closely along the way Manama's ethnically diverse purveyors of bountiful goods from all over the world meanwhile assessing the business possibilities of the Bahraini market especially its booming pearl trade prompting him to dabble in the lucrative commodity with great success as part of his general trading business interests and after spending ten years in the coastal town of Jeddah now as a seasoned well-established general merchant Bahrain beckoned as the centre of the pearl trade in the Arabian Gulf and beyond a pioneering position consolidated by possessing in its northern waters the richest pearl oyster beds in the Gulf renowned worldwide for producing the finest quality pearls for their iridescent lustre, size and variety of colours making it the place of choice for anyone wishing to try his luck in the pearl business back then which was the mainstay of the Arabian Gulf economy prior to the discovery of oil similarly sundry of his Central Arabian Najdi merchant counterparts from the austere Arabian inland such as Algosaibi, Al-Ajaji, Al-Qadi and Al-Bassam were lured to Bahrain by the country's newfound political stability following the accession of the young, astute and literarily inclined Sheikh Isa Bin Ali Al Khalifa (1848-1932) to the throne in 1869 ushering in a new era of peace and prosperity after decades of turmoil and instability as reflected in the renewed confidence and heightened profitability prospects of the Bahraini pearl market driven by increasing international demand particularly in the West for high-quality natural pearls from the Arabian Gulf as rapidly soaring demand propelled pearl prices to unprecedented heights against such a heady backdrop Al-Thukair decided in 1877 at the age of 33 to relocate to Bahrain with his immediate family consisting of his wife and two young sons Abdullatif and Abdulmuhsin, a decision that would change his life forever Bahrain with its lush date palm groves and freshwater springs proved to be more suitable to his agrarian temperament than arid Jeddah though comparable to its vibrant multicultural and multi-ethnic society as it was the closest thing to a second home for the mature aspiring assiduous merchant after his beloved birthplace of Unaizah within a matter of years after arriving in the small island country he managed to become a leading pearl merchant and a highly esteemed public figure well-known for his philanthropic disposition, honest dealings, impeccable integrity and intellectual prowess so much so that he was dubbed "The Pride of Merchants" by the Bahraini business community he also took on the role of honorary chairman of the Manama business community and titular head of the Najdi diaspora community in Bahrain as a natural progression of his tremendous entrepreneurial successes and admirable character traits due to this exalted social status and the extensive network of highly influential personages he cultivated throughout the region Al-Thukair became increasingly sought-after as an arbiter of disputes including those of a political nature in Bahrain and elsewhere in the region but among the many scattered instances of his arbitration cases in the declassified annual Gulf reports from the British Archives, the following case from the latter stage of his life in Bahrain is one of the most striking examples of his high-level arbitrations where a family of illustrious clerics and judges resorted to his conscientious arbitration when asked by Ibrahim one of the two younger brothers of Bahrain's highest religious Muslim authority for nearly half a century the eminent cleric and unofficial supreme judge Sheikh Qasim Al Mehza (1847-1941) dubbed the "chief judge" unanimously by adherents of both Sunni and Shiite cross-sectarian Muslim denominations of Bahraini society for his scholarly knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence to intercede between the two younger siblings one of whom Ahmed was a highly respected cleric in his own right the first Bahraini graduate of the Al-Azhar of Cairo in 1887 and ironically their elder brother the highly learned cleric and judge Sheikh Qasim, here is the next slightly edited citation from the British Gulf residency report of 1912 concerning local Bahraini affairs from 1st to 30th September, exact date unspecified (A difference over the ownership of a plot of land and a shop recently arose between Sheikh Qasim Bin Mehza and his two brothers Ahmed and Ibrahim and the two parties were not on speaking terms. At the request of Ibrahim, Sheikh Mugbil and Yusuf Kanoo intervened and succeeded in arranging a comprise) correspondingly he was acting as an unpaid adviser, interlocutor and mediator to some of the Arabian Peninsula's rulers as attested by one of the earliest documented references to Al-Thukair in the British Archives in late 1888 and early 1889 where he was linked to a series of accounts dealing with the recurring violent hostilities between the neighbouring Sheikhdoms of Qatar and Abu Dhabi in which he acted as a go-between on behalf of Sheikh Qasim Bin Muhammad Al-Thani (r. 1868-1913) the first British-recognised Qatari ruler independent of Bahraini suzerainty and founder of the Al-Thani ruling dynasty to help broker a peaceful settlement between the two parties and other key players in the conflict including the Al Rasheed the then rulers of Arabia's northern region of Ha'il and their Ottoman backers both of whom intervened on behalf of the Qatari side, from early on as a middle-aged man Al-Thukair had gained recognition as an ethical impartial figure and a reliable confidant to the majority of the rulers in the Arabian Gulf as demonstrated in numerous instances in this mini-biography of the man, the following two edited extracts are part of a comprehensive report on the latter stage of the long-drawn fitful hostilities between Qatar and Abu Dhabi covering the period from March 1888 to June 1890 by the British Gulf residency in Bushehr Persia (Iran) on the bloody conflict which involved lengthy correspondence between the British political agent in Bahrain and his superior the political resident in Bushehr where Al-Thukair is frequently mentioned, a conflict that started as a random mid-sea raid by Qatari corsairs on an Abu Dhabi-owned pearl fishing vessel in Qatari waters killing all of its crew presumably around the year 1880 escalating into a prolonged fierce enmity between Sheikh Zayed Bin Khalifa Al Nahyan (r. 1855-1909) ruler of Abu Dhabi and Sheikh Qasim Bin Muhammad Al-Thani (r. 1868-1913) ruler of Qatar spiralling into uncontrollable atrocious carnage and depredation reprisals manifested in the thrice sacking of the Qatari capital Doha during the third of which Qatar ruler's son Ali was killed and the multiple sackings of the sedentary communities of Abu Dhabi's western region of Al Dhafra and other towns between 1880 and 1892 the first extract is a full-text letter while the second consists of the last two paragraphs of a longer letter the first of which is as follows (No. 10, dated the 20th January 1889. From-The Residency Agent, Bahrain. To-The Political Resident, Arabian Gulf. After compliments. I beg to send herewith a copy of a letter sent by Qasim Bin Thani (ruler of Qatar) to the Chief (ruler) of Bahrain with a special messenger who has also brought a number of other letters giving welcome tidings to Muhammad Bin Abdulwahab (Al-Faihani), Mugbil (Al-Thukair) and (Abdulrahman) Bin Aidan; and mentioning the number of people who were slain out of the inhabitants of Liwa (the Al Dhafra region is centred on the large Liwa Oasis in Abu Dhabi's westernmost domain); viz., 520 persons; and that they took from them large booty and numerous camels and that Sheikh Qasim returned safely with his army. I hear from reports that Sheikh Qasim lost 8 men killed. Others say 48, others again 110. But as yet there is no correct report as since the arrival of this messenger no one has come from Qatar owing to heavy "shemall" (northern gusty) winds. It is stated that Sheikh Qasim has not yet reached Al-Bidda (Doha). I hear that Isa Bin Ziyab a cousin of Sheikh Zayed Bin Khalifa (Al Nahyan) has arrived in Bahrain from Abu Dhabi and interviewed the Chief (ruler of Bahrain). According to what he says there are not so many people at Liwa and that Sheikh Zayed had not received any report of Sheikh Qasim's proceedings from Qatar to Liwa or any other place. I shall make further reports when I receive any fresh news) the second extract is as follows (No. 52, dated the 28th of March 1889. From-The Residency Agent, Bahrain. To-The Political Resident, Arabian Gulf. I have seen a letter from Qasim (ruler of Qatar) to Mugbil (Al-Thukair) in which the writer says that he is prepared to meet Zayed (ruler of Abu Dhabi) and that he is not afraid of his advance; on the contrary that he will himself march out to attack Zayed in case the latter should not advance against him. In that letter he also wishes Mugbil to believe that Ibn Rasheed (ruler of Ha'il in northern Arabia) will not fail to fulfil his promise. The date of this letter is 17th March. It is apparent that Qasim wrote that letter before the arrival of Nafi (Ibn Rasheed messenger) My own opinion is that if the news about Zayed's advance be true and also that if Qasim be supported by the Turkish soldiers, Zayed's forces will have hard work before them; for Qasim is regardless of expense and the Turkish soldiers are greedy as is known. Their number at Al-Bidda (Doha) is 250) the previous references were among several in this special report to Al-Thukair's top-level intermediation in this particular bloody conflict a small sample of his early political intermediation in regional affairs that would last until he unwillingly left his second adopted homeland Bahrain in mid-1917 but in connection with his frequent interactions with the rulers of the Arabian Peninsula the most significant of those were Sheikh Isa Bin Ali Al Khalifa (r. 1869-1932) of Bahrain, Sheikh Qasim Bin Muhammad Al-Thani (r. 1868-1913) of Qatar and Abdulaziz Ibn Saud (r. 1902-1953) ruler of Najd and its dependencies who was styled as such from the 13th of January 1902 onwards after the subtle young industrious scion of the House of Saud succeeded in recapturing the ancestral seat of power of his forefathers, the then small town of Riyadh from the bellicose Ottoman-backed Al Rasheed ruling clan of the northern Arabian region of Ha'il in an audacious dawn attack, the future king of what would become the sprawling Kingdom of Saudi Arabia perceptibly in the course of time Al-Thukair became such a revered sage that the ruler of Bahrain Sheikh Isa Bin Ali Al Khalifa asked him to be one of the signatories of a solemn pledge of allegiance deed to his eldest surviving son the 24-year-old newly appointed crown prince and future ruler Sheikh Hamad (r. 1932-1942) on 8th October 1896 following the untimely death of his eldest son and heir apparent Salman near Riyadh in Najd Central Arabia three years earlier on his exhausting perilous long land journey home from the Hajj pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca during the formal investiture ceremony for the crown prince an honour reserved for only a select few high-ranking merchants from the highest echelons of the Bahraini business community who were recognised as pillars of society outside the ranks of senior members of the ruling family, tribal chieftains and clergy leaders amongst whom were Hussain Bin Salman Matar (1817-1911) and Ahmed Bin Muhammed Kanoo (1835-1905) as for Al-Thukair's aforementioned special relationship with Ibn Saud the marriage of his niece Lulwa the daughter of his brother Yahya to Ibn Saud solidified that relationship enabling him to negotiate on behalf of Ibn Saud a favourable agreement with the Ottomans on the withdrawal of their garrison from the Al-Hasa Oasis and its environs in eastern Arabia which would become part of the future eastern province of Saudi Arabia as Ibn Saud was poised to take control of the oasis in mid-1914 soon before the outbreak of World War One given that by the year 1890 after more than a decade of his arrival in Bahrain Al-Thukair began to pursue in earnest his profound and ardent passion for spreading knowledge and learning an indelible lifelong characteristic of his initially by starting a literary salon at his house in Manama similar to that of his friend and first cousin to the ruler of Bahrain classical poet and intellectual Sheikh Ibrahim Bin Muhammad Al Khalifa's literary salon in Muharraq and those of several educated and well-travelled merchants and ruling family members in both Manama and Muharraq Bahrain's former political capital from 1810 to 1923 however the literary salon of Al-Thukair was rather different from its local counterparts in that it was more educationally oriented than the others by allocating a well-furnished spacious room in his house as a permanent location for the salon equipped with a relatively sizable varied library whose contents were kept in its wall alcoves as it was the antecedent of his most ambitious cultural and educational project ever the "Bahrain Literary Society" twenty-three years later since those literary salons (clubs) collectively played a discernible educational role as they were haunts for the knowledge-hungry local literate young men prior to the establishment of formal education following the end of the First World War furthermore Sheikh Ibrahim requested Al-Thukair to be the principal supplier of Arabic periodicals in Bahrain by making use of his network of regional business agents to acquire popular newspapers and magazines from the Levant and Egypt, therefore he took it upon himself to supply all of the needs for published materials of other literary salons as a courtesy moving in the same vein he also vigorously sponsored the publication of seminal literary and theological works from the Arab Islamic mediaeval heritage as well as non-formal charity schooling and public libraries well-stocked with diverse books and respected periodicals largely from the Levant and Egypt (such as Al-Muqtataf, Al-Mu'ayyad, Al-Hilal, Al-Manar and so on) in both Bahrain and his birthplace Unaizah in addition to his educational and cultural dissemination efforts he was acutely sensitive to the daily hardships of ordinary impoverished and marginalised people as evidenced by the next edited excerpt from the 1910 British Gulf residency report (Almas, Negro the Confidential Adviser of Sheikh Isa (ruler of Bahrain) died on 11th January and was replaced by Ali Bin Abdullah (Al-Obaidli) on the advice of Ali Bin Abdullah, Sheikh Isa called upon house owners to produce the sanads (Arabic singular title deed: سند, Romanised English plural: sanads) in virtue of which they held their property on their failing to do so they were evicted and no consideration was paid to the period of possession, Sheikh Mugbil Bin Abdulrahman Al-Thukair protested to Sheikh Isa against this measure as it pressed hardly on the poor the protest had the desired effect and the Sheikh (ruler) promised to refrain from such actions in the future) the rescinding of the ruler's decree in the past incident is the definitive indication of the unflinching deference accorded to Al-Thukair by everyone who came into contact with him from those in power to the ordinary man in the street he was also involved in a wide range of philanthropic activities that were not confined to the conventional charity act of almsgiving since he was a practical man who took a number of practical steps to assuage human suffering in any way he could defying common human prejudices among his various practical philanthropic contributions in Bahrain and elsewhere in the Gulf was the commissioning of a water well next to his house in Manama around the year 1900 akin to the undertakings of prominent fellow local pearl merchants Salman Bin Hussain Matar (1837-1944) and Muhammad Bin Rashid Bin Hindi (1850-1934) of Muharraq who attempted to alleviate some of the freshwater supply predicament that plagued Bahrain's urban dwellers predominantly those of Manama and Muharraq the two main densely populated towns in the small island nation at the turn of the twentieth century where the majority of the population had difficulty securing their daily domestic supply of freshwater owing to the lack of potable drinking water infrastructure in Bahrain and much of the Near East as in many other parts of the globe including some of the underdeveloped regions of the Western world in the early part of the twentieth century despite the fact that Bahrain had abundant freshwater resources unlike some of its Arab Gulf neighbours a small example of the central socioeconomic roles that rich mercantile elites played throughout Arab polities in the Arabian Gulf before the discovery of oil and the subsequent establishment of the modern welfare state Al-Thukair also tended to the spiritual needs of the inhabitants of his neighbourhood in Manama at roughly the same time he commissioned the water well he financed the renovation of an old dilapidated bijou Mosque within the vicinity of his house dating back to the late seventeen hundreds placing a nearby shop he owned as a charitable endowment for the Mosque which the locals of the area after him affectionately called Mugbil Mosque even though he was not its original builder he was also instrumental in locally funding the construction of Bahrain's second hospital after the opening of the "American Mission Hospital" in Manama on 26th January 1903 at the request of the British to fulfil their envisaged "Victoria Memorial Hospital" between 1902 and its formal opening on 9th November 1906 to commemorate the late Queen Victoria (defunct since 1948) situated in the Ras Rumman area in Manama south of the British political agency (present-day British Embassy) by rallying other leading merchants to contribute to this vital medical project as Bahrain was in desperate need of a quarantine medical facility to combat the rampant spread of recurring deadly epidemics specifically plague, cholera and typhus as reported in the British Gulf residency report of 1902 this is a slightly edited excerpt from the detailed report dated 23rd August 1902 by J. C. Gaskin, Esq, Assistant Political Agent, Bahrain where Gaskin was delegated by his superiors in the British Indian government the task of securing funds for the proposed hospital locally by taking the pulse of the local mercantile elite through cosying up to rich local merchants chief among them Al-Thukair to enlist their financial assistance in building the hospital, stated as follows (I would venture to report that since the receipt of your communication I have spoken on the subject to some of the leading native merchants and from their replies to me I got the impression that they would give liberal donations towards the hospital: and subsequently Haji Mugbil Al-Thukair the leading Bahraini merchant called on me and offered to subscribe R1,000. (One thousand rupees) Haji Mugbil's handsome offer will influence the native merchants who usually follow his lead) in recognition of his role in securing local funding for the hospital British colonial authorities invited Al-Thukair along with other donors to the hospital opening ceremony, the following edited excerpt from the British Gulf residency report for the year 1906-1907 formulated by the British political agent in Bahrain Captain F. B. Prideaux sheds light on the event (on the 9th November 1906 advantage was taken of the presence of the Political Resident (Major P. Z. Cox) in the Arabian Gulf to hold a public meeting for the opening of the Victoria Memorial Charitable Hospital nearly all the contributors to the Rs. 21,000 which the construction had cost were present on the occasion as were also the Chief (ruler) of Bahrain and his sons after the Resident had delivered a short extempore speech, the leading Arab merchant Haji Mugbil Al-Thukair read a reply expressing gratitude to the British Government for their interest in and protection of Bahrain and wishing long life to the Ruler Sheikh Isa Bin Ali) for some the antagonistic stance of Al-Thukair towards the British as expounded in detail further in the text seemed contradictory as he gladly collaborated with them in their efforts to secure funding for the construction of the said hospital in tandem with their other measures to improve public sanitation and hygiene to help curb the spread of virulent diseases in Bahrain's two major towns Manama and Muharraq as he saw his sporadic cooperation with the advanced British in a different light as he would endorse any attempt to better the lives of ordinary Bahrainis even if it meant occasionally cooperating with a foreign colonial power he vehemently opposed in that sense he was a modern practical man, it could not be denied that the least tangible of his philanthropic efforts but perhaps the most life-changing for those affected by it was the hidden assistance he rendered in paying off the debts of struggling insolvent merchants in Bahrain and across the Arabian Gulf with a special priority given to his own debtors who either had their debts temporarily reprieved or cancelled altogether as in this revealing slightly edited citation from the 1913 British Gulf residency report asserting the regional scope of his business interests dated 5th of May 1913 stating as follows (Sheikh Qasim Bin Thani (ruler) of Qatar has asked Yusuf Kanoo to use his influence with Sheikh Mugbil Al-Thukair in bringing about an amiable settlement between the latter and his Qatar debtors who are unable to pay their debts on account of the dullness of the pearl market) surpassed only by Bahrain's preeminent pearl merchant of all time dubbed by the Bahraini people "Father of orphans and protector of widows" for his unequalled altruism and magnanimity Salman Bin Hussain Matar, yet his most important legacy was the founding in mid-1913 of the first officially recognised Literary Society in Bahrain as touched upon earlier located in close proximity to the American Mission Bible Bookshop in Manama on what is now Sheikh Isa Al Kabeer (Isa the Great) Avenue in its own special-purpose premises inaugurated under his patronage and with the full endorsement of the ruler of Bahrain Sheikh Isa Bin Ali Al Khalifa and the moral support of a number of local literary figures and dignitaries led by Bahrain's foremost literary figure in the early twentieth century the acclaimed classical poet Sheikh Ibrahim Bin Muhammad Al Khalifa (1850-1933) in conjunction with Al-Thukair's younger and trusted energetic friend, the influential comprador merchant and shrewd entrepreneur founder and sole owner of Bahrain's first Western-style Bank in 1890 a true man of the world the maverick Yusuf Bin Ahmed Kanoo (1861-1945) this society was not merely an ordinary Literary Society but a modern educational institution in the true sense of the word a wellspring of radiance for the Bahraini people at the time comprising a comprehensive library, a school for teaching Arabic, English, mathematics and Islamic theology and a lecture hall ably managed by the gifted 33-year-old Al-Azhar graduate educator Muhammad Bin Abdulaziz Al-Mana (1882-1965) who would become the first chairman of the Directorate of Knowledge (Ministry of Education) in the newly-established Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the future judge and Grand Mufti (jurisconsult) of Qatar handpicked by Al-Thukair to undertake the onerous task of transforming this institution into a beacon of enlightenment and forward-thinking in a short period of time one of the many cultural contributions of the educated and enlightened Bahraini business elite who were at the vanguard of modernity and progress in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries through their previously mentioned literary salons and also through their lesser-known but no less important financing of numerous free of charge non-formal local schooling initiatives as those were among the earliest semi-modern organised educational institutions to tackle the prevalent illiteracy in Bahrain other than the existing traditional Quranic schools strikingly among the several non-formal schools of the time one stood out as the first female-founded charity school in Bahrain and most likely the entire Gulf established on the island of Muharraq the former capital of Bahrain in 1887 by the noblewoman and philanthropist heiress Sheikha Saida Bint Bishr (1834-1892) who defied all expectations of traditional domestic roles for women in the highly patriarchal society of late-nineteenth-century Bahrain by allocating the revenue of a date palm orchard she owned in Manama as an endowment for the school eponymously named after her nevertheless some of the independent charity schools date back to the early part of the nineteenth century since the earliest recorded charity school in Bahrain was that of Sheikh Isa Bin Rashid in Muharraq in 1829 an eminent cleric of the Island of Muharraq predating the reign of Sheikh Isa by forty years however this proliferation of educational initiatives noticeably in the last third of the nineteenth century was the fruit of the long-lasting stability of Sheikh Isa's reign the role of the Bahraini business elite was not limited to just paving the way for the establishment of modern education but also was directly involved in the development of Western-influenced formal education leading to the opening of the first elementary school for boys in Muharraq in 1919 followed by another for girls in 1928 also in Muharraq with a nine-year gap where some of the senior members of the said elite (such as Matar, Algosaibi, Al-Zayani and Fakhro) served on the first governmental educational regulatory body in the modern history of the country the education supervisory committee (the forerunner of the Ministry of Education) which oversaw the development of the nascent government's educational system chaired by Sheikh Abdullah (1883-1966) the youngest son of the ruler of Bahrain in the honorary position of minister of education, the first and only local state official to hold such a position under British colonial rule in Bahrain this exception was made due to the high status of its occupant considering he was the son of the ruler since the office of a minister was a symbol of sovereignty in an independent sovereign state which was not the case with Bahrain an office he would continue to occupy until his death in 1966 the education committee continued as the main financial backer of education in Bahrain by financing the construction of schools across the country since its formation in 1919 until the mid-1930s when the Bahraini government became financially self-sufficient as a result of stable oil export revenues lastly allowing the government to replenish its empty coffers permanently resolving the protracted financial problems that had beset the Bahraini government for many decades rendering it a thing of the past simultaneously with the establishment of formal education in 1919 another milestone was the creation of the first partially elected municipal councils in both Manama and Muharraq which were dominated by elected and appointed senior members of the Bahraini business elite who played a crucial role in sponsoring a number of infrastructure projects in the country including the Manama port project in 1919 as happened in the pre-oil era throughout the Gulf as the 1920s and 1930s saw the gradual emergence of the modern Bahraini bureaucratic centralised state and good governance replacing the existing centuries-old obsolete mediaeval fiefdom system an inexorable obstacle to human development in its entirety anywhere in the world of the early twentieth-century industrial age, it would be misleading not to mention the facilitating quintessential role of Britain in bringing those reforms to fruition as represented by the four most influential British colonial administrators and officers in the British colonial history of Bahrain whose contributions to the establishment of modern Bahrain could not be ignored or underestimated under any circumstances serving consecutively one after the other starting with the delicate and focal preliminary task of the wily Arabist and orientalist military commander and intelligence officer Captain N. N. E. Bray (1885-1962) as a political agent in Bahrain from November 1918 to June 1919 with clear directives to "seek the amelioration of the internal government by indirect and pacific means and by gaining the confidence and trust of the Sheikh (ruler)" followed by Major H. R. P. Dickson (1881-1959) with a brief yet extremely productive tenure from 1919 to 1920 he would later serve as a political agent in Kuwait from 1929 to 1936 then succeeded by the demoted from Colonel to Major for recklessly violent behaviour in post-World War One Iraq, inadvertently responsible for single-handedly igniting the first spark of what would become "The Iraqi revolt against the British" also known as the 1920 Iraqi Revolt or the Great Iraqi Revolution, the disgraced Anglo-Irish Clive Kirkpatrick Daly (1888-1966) with his divisive and controversial tenure from 1921 to 1926 and finally Charles D. Belgrave (1894-1969) who served as an administrator and financial adviser to the ruler of Bahrain in the newly created office of the "Adviser" to purposefully overshadow the increasingly unpopular post of the political agent for its association with Daly's heavy-handed colonial rule, Belgrave's long tenure from 1926 to 1957 is seen by historians as a consolidation of the modernising reforms of his predecessors particularly Daly, whom Belgrave held in high esteem where the reforms gained more momentum following the steady flow of oil revenues after the discovery of the essential commodity in 1932 as all four carefully selected highly competent Arabist hardy tricenarian officers were assigned by the British Government with specific instructions to introduce all required administrative reforms based on their own discretion in line with the broader British regional strategy of placating the growing social discontent among the disenfranchised lower classes by redressing the pressing multigenerational injustices in Bahraini society specifically in the semi-feudal systems of pearl fishing indentured workers and agricultural farmers coordinating their reforms with the financial and moral support of the cooperative Bahraini business elite under such circumstances the first batch of reforms in education, municipal and fiscal sectors was implemented almost immediately after Bray's assisting initiative by Dickson, whereas customs, judiciary, police and land reform fell to the authoritarian Daly while Belgrave is credited with creating several new government departments including the "Directorate of Religious Endowments" in 1927 his first significant reform after assuming office as a financial adviser to stem the chronic unfettered corruption of some of the local clergy whom the government entrusted to administer religious endowments (waqf) without any supervision or legal accountability followed by the slow process of his decades-long vital initiative to develop modern public utility infrastructure for electricity, water and telephone services which commenced effectively in early 1928 he was also instrumental in securing the oil concession that led to the discovery of oil in 1932 but his everlasting achievement was the founding of the "Minors Funds Directorate" in 1932 to protect the inheritance rights of orphans and widows, a life-changing cross-sectarian institution in the service of the Bahraini people operating without interruption since its inception the first governmental institution of its kind in Bahrain and Belgrave's most enduring legacy however Belgrave faced fierce and persistent opposition from deeply conservative reactionary and corrupt elements within the Sunni and Shiite cross-sectarian main religious composition of Bahrain who sought to obfuscate and obstruct the introduction of such a governmental institution as those elements had a vested interest in maintaining the status quo, deeming such a move as tantamount to heresy but Belgrave's dedication and perseverance prevailed in the end, sadly for many Bahrainis this remarkable feat of his remains a little-known historical fact the upcoming excerpt is one of numerous recurring instances in Belgrave's diary on this motion from 20th February 1931 until it was ratified on 15th January 1932 by the deputy ruler Sheikh Hamad less than a year before his accession to the throne on 9th December after being put forward for public debate by the government involving the wonted religious and mercantile elites of Bahraini society as alluded to earlier illustrating the great lengths Belgrave went to for the creation of this totally new governmental regulatory body with no precedent at least in Bahrain (Sunday 17th Jan 1932 Called on Yusuf Kanoo in the morning and discussed with him the question of the Proclamation which we are issuing ordering all wills to be registered with the Government and no persons to administer estates without getting permission from Government. It will to a certain extent safeguard the rights of widows and orphans who at present are being robbed wholesale) but the timing of the urgency in implementing the reforms cannot be overlooked as it coincided with the execution on the ground of the 1916 secret Sykes-Picot agreement on dividing the legacy of the vanquished Ottoman Empire between the two main World War One victorious powers, Britain and France giving birth to the ubiquitous British coined term "Middle East" recognising the fact that the Hejaz western region of the Arabian Peninsula where the holy cities of Mecca and Medina are located was under direct Ottoman rule and the Peninsula as a whole was and still is an extension of Iraq and the Levant in addition to achieving sustainable political stability in the Gulf as the advanced western Arabian frontier of the British Raj in the Indian subcontinent the jewel in the crown of the British Empire in the final analysis, the seemingly avowed altruistic goals of the reforms in Bahrain were part of the colonial "grafting process" reform assimilation policy of Britain through tactfully transplanting British hegemonic ideas into the newly formed Middle East as in other parts of the British Empire in contrast to its fellow draconian and pompous French to ensure the long-term strategic interests of Britain in the aftermath of World War One, thus everything the British undertook was to this end, Al-Thukair was concerned not only with the spread of modern learning and science but also with the introduction of modern technology in the region as he was either the first or second local to own a motor car in Bahrain in 1908 ten years before the supposed official arrival of the first motor vehicle in the country as depicted in the travel diary of international jeweller Jacques Cartier of the iconic Parisian Cartier jewellery house during his second visit to Bahrain in March 1912 moreover it is worth mentioning that among his numerous noble deeds was the utilisation of his high social status as a business doyen, arbiter of disputes and man of letters both locally and regionally in mustering financial and moral support for the Libyan resistance in the wake of the Italian invasion of Ottoman Libya in October of 1911 and Mussolini's subsequent genocidal fascist regime settler colonialism of this vast sparsely populated semidesert North African Arab nation where Al-Thukair successfully raised twenty thousand rupees in relief aid donations in Bahrain and elsewhere in the Gulf with the effective collaboration of the motivated cleric and merchant Sheikh Abdulwahab Bin Heji Al-Zayani (1863-1925) who travelled to Lengeh (an Arab coastal town in modern-day Iran) and Dubai as part of a Gulf-wide fundraising campaign for the embattled Libyans of Tripoli to be forwarded after the end of the subscription on the steamship SS. "Patiala" on 8th July 1912 to the Ottoman Red Crescent Society in the Iraqi city of Basra to be sent from there via Egypt to Tripoli, Libya as stated in the following are slightly edited excerpts from the 1912 British Gulf residency report concerning the Turco-Italian war and local and regional reactions to it from February and July respectively the first describes Sheikh Abdulwahab Al-Zayani's tireless zeal for collecting donations for the Libyan cause while the second describes Al-Thukair's delivery of those donations, it was clearly a collaborative effort rather than a single individual endeavour however this is not meant to diminish the efforts of Al-Thukair as he was either the driving force behind all of those initiatives or an integral member of the majority of them the first excerpt is as follows (The Arabs of Muharraq incited by an influential Mullah Sheikh Abdulwahab (Al-Zayani) have opened a subscription list for The Red Crescent Society in order to help it in bringing succour to the wounded in Tripoli. So far about Rs. 5,000 have been collected. This sum will be largely increased if the Arabs of Manama, Budaiya and Hidd join in as they have promised to do. The same Mullah is stated to have paid visits to Lengeh and Dubai about a month ago. At Lengeh he succeeded in collecting some 5,000 rupees but met with no success at Dubai where the people were sceptical as to the probability of the money ever reaching its ostensible destination) while the second as with the first shows the British meticulous documentation of the conclusion of the initiative (Sheikh Mugbil Al-Thukair forwarded on the 8th of July per SS. "Patiala" the sum of Rs. 20,000 being the total amount of subscription raised in Bahrain for the Red Crescent Society to Basra for transmission to Tripoli via Egypt) leading to the incensing of the British colonial authorities in Bahrain against him he also played a significant role in the Bahraini relief campaign to provide financial aid to the displaced Muslim refugees of the Balkan war precipitated by the raging Turco-Italian War over Ottoman Libya the "Balkan League" was formed in 1912 under the auspices of the Russians with the aim of putting an end to the Ottoman presence in the Balkans once and for all resulting in the ethnic genocide of nearly one and a half million Balkan Muslims with more than four hundred thousand refugees fleeing to Anatolia as news of the harrowing atrocities reached Bahrain cleric and pearl merchant Sheikh Abdulwahab Bin Heji Al-Zayani referred to earlier one of Bahrain's most revered national figures in the early twentieth century the leader of the first Bahraini independence movement from Britain at the turn of the twentieth century set up a fundraising refugee relief committee with the full backing of the ruler of Bahrain Sheikh Isa Bin Ali Al Khalifa who launched the donation fundraiser with the generous sum of ten thousand rupees appointing Al-Thukair as secretary-treasurer of the committee who rose to the occasion by exerting immense efforts to garner financial aid for the displaced Muslim refugees by exhorting the Bahraini populace to donate to their stranded Muslim brethren through his eloquent oratorical motivational skills, thus by the end of the fundraising the accumulated amount had risen to well over a hundred and four thousand rupees a sizable sum for a tiny country the size of Bahrain in the early twentieth century Sheikh Abdulwahab Bin Heji Al-Zayani and Yusuf Bin Ahmed Kanoo were entrusted by the committee with the task of faithfully delivering the donations to the representative of the Ottoman Governor of Iraq in the Iraqi port city of Basra on 28th December 1912 according to the 1912 report of the British political agency in Bushehr compiled by a number of political agents in the region including Captain D. L. R. Lorimer and Major A. P. Trevor both of whom served in Bahrain the following edited excerpt is part of Major Trevor's section of this thorough report written after he succeeded Lorimer as Political Agent in Bahrain on 1st November 1912 (The subscription raised by the Arabs of Bahrain for the Turkish Red Crescent Society having reached the handsome figure of Rs. 1,04,100 the amount was taken to Basra by SS. "Bahrain" (of the Arab Steamers, Limited) on 28th December by Sheikh Abdulwahab Al-Zayani and Yusuf Kanoo for despatch to the Sultan. Yusuf Kanoo stated that it was their intention to land at Bushehr and send a telegram to the Sultan stating the amount of the sum raised for the Red Crescent Fund and mentioning that it had been subscribed by the Sheikhs and people of Bahrain for the sick and wounded. The object of this telegram of course was to prevent hanky-panky on the part of the Wali (Ottoman Governor) of Basra) it should be pointed out that Sheikh Abdulwahab Al-Zayani was exiled to the Indian port city of Bombay by the British colonial authorities in Bahrain in 1923 along with several of his comrades in the Bahraini independence movement where he died and was buried in less than two years in 1925 on a similar note an oblique account related to a letter dated 11th April of the same year sent by an anonymous Indian Muslim leader requesting Al-Thukair to organise an unspecified cause relief aid campaign for the Muslims of an unnamed Indian province was included in the 1913 report of the British political agency in Bahrain demonstrating the widely acclaimed reputation he achieved through the efficacy of his fundraising campaigns however by the middle of the Great War Al-Thukair had suffered considerable losses in his pearl business wrought in part by the dire effects of war particularly on the luxury goods market but mainly attributed to British interventions aimed at undermining his business interests primarily in Bahrain as some Bahraini historical researchers concluded as a consequence of his active role in supporting the Libyan resistance movement against Italian colonialism as previously stated, needless to say from the British point of view the uncompromising character of Al-Thukair and his unequivocal stance against Western colonialism in all of its forms constituted a threat to British colonial economic hegemony in the region that needed to be addressed decisively by thwarting any attempt to achieve any form of economic independence no matter how insignificant or trivial it might seem as in Al-Thukair's participation as a founding major shareholder with a five percent stake with a number of other wealthy pearl merchants from Bahrain and Kuwait together with the rulers of the said countries and those of Qatar and Oman led and chaired by the regionally famous Kuwaiti pearl merchant Jassim Bin Muhammad Al-Ibrahim (1869-1956) and his fellow leading Bahraini pearl merchant Muhammad Bin Abdulwahab Al-Mishari (1864-1922) in the position of general manager in establishing the first truly regional Arab shareholding firm and the first fully Arab-owned ocean liner shipping company in the Arabian Gulf on 30th April 1911 "The Arab Steamers, Limited" made up for the first time in the modern history of the Gulf of a medium-sized fleet of Western-built passenger steamships the moderately edited following extract from the 1912 report of the British Gulf residency in the Persian (Iranian) coastal city of Bushehr gives an inkling of the size of the company's fleet (The Arab Steamers, Limited-This company started a service to the Arabian Gulf in July 1911 and during the past year, 18 of their steamers have called at Lengeh outwards from Bombay while 10 steamers called on the return journey from Basra) one must note that the fleet included the passenger and cargo ship "Tynesider" renamed "Faris" in early 1912 on which the Parisian jeweller Jacques Cartier (1884-1941) travelled to India and the Arabian Gulf the same year as the company's board named the previously mentioned respected Bahraini banker and merchant Yusuf Bin Ahmed Kanoo as its agent in Bahrain since he was friends with most of the board members incidentally it was Yusuf Kanoo's first shipping agency in 1911, thus launching his shipping agency business which would become the posthumous cornerstone of the eponymous regional multinational Y.B.A. Kanoo conglomerate in the post-World War Two Arabian Gulf oil economy, the following excerpt from the 1912 report of the British Gulf residency describes the sense of jubilation and pride of the Bahraini people at the arrival of the first passenger steamship of "The Arab Steamers, Limited" to bear the name Bahrain on its maiden voyage (SS. Bahrain a new acquisition of the Arab company, arrived at Bahrain on 1st March, fully dressed with flags. It was explained that the decoration was in honour of the first visit of the ship to its name-place. The name is a source of great delight to the local Arabs) apart from the legitimate premise of economic independence the real reason for the establishment of this firm was a response to the monopolistic exploitative practises and racially discriminatory colonial policies of the "British India Steam Navigation Company" (B.I.) against non-European passengers in general and Arabs in particular as attested by the exorbitant ticket prices of Arab travellers not to mention the additional cargo charges exacted on Arab-owned goods exacerbating the whole situation by barring affluent Arab first-class passengers from eating in the dining rooms and halls of its ships rightfully regarded as a disparaging and demeaning hierarchical colonial policy that posed an egregious affront to human dignity irrespective of race, colour, ethnicity or creed commonly practised by Western colonial powers of divesting non-white peoples of their humanity in order to legitimise their subjugation on the other hand unfortunately the fate of this pioneering highly successful company was tragically sealed unceremoniously in 1915 when it was sold to the "Bombay & Persia Steam Navigation Company" (The Mogul Line) as a direct result of insurmountable British pressure after less than five years of operation a pressure that began by dissuading Gulf Arab rulers from investing in such a venture while the company was still in formation under the usual infantilising colonial mendacious pretenses of catastrophic financial losses and no practical feasibility for themselves and their peoples whether in the near or distant future but their spurious discouraging attempts were in vain with the British-owned (B.I.) resorting to an all-out price war immediately after the start of the company's operations all these flagrantly malicious actions by the British helped stoke the flames of Arab patriotic sentiments to the fullest against them in the Gulf by causing Gulf Arabs including Iraqis to travel almost exclusively on the ships of "The Arab Steamers, Limited" still the company managed to command the substantial sum of three-quarters of a million British Indian silver rupees as a sale price exactly threefold the paid-in capital just over four years earlier given the geopolitical situation of the Great War adverse international economic conditions, sending the pearl-based mono-cultural economies of the Gulf into a tailspin along with wartime restrictions on sea travel, to compound matters further, the British Admiralty requisitioned one of the company's vessels, the passenger and cargo ship SS. "Budrie" originally named SS. "Golconda" for the war effort where it ended up being scuttled as a blockship at Scapa Flow in northern Scotland on 3rd October 1915 a clear testament to the enormous success that this ill-fated company enjoyed in its short-lived existence, the following excerpt is from a thoroughly detailed report on the trade movement of Oman by Major S. G. Knox the British consul in Muscat, Oman and its de facto ruler dated 13th April 1912 on sea trade and shipping movement in and out of the country, refers to the effect of the launching of "The Arab Steamers, Limited" on freight shipping rates (The British India Company who have got the contract for the carriage of mails from and to India provide one weekly fast mail service up and down and 1 fortnightly coasting slow mail service both ways. The vessels of the Arab Steamers, Limited have also maintained a weekly service. In consequence of the weekly service maintained by the Arab Steamers, the freights to India, etc., were greatly reduced during the year and those for United States of America enhanced) the doomed fate of this company became a cautionary tale for anyone attempting to challenge British colonial economic hegemony in the region for many decades to come until the defining watershed historical moment of Britain's future role as a global power in the outcome of the new harsh bipolar world order realities of the 1956 Suez crisis (known as the "tripartite aggression" in the Arab world) marking the beginning of the end of the British imperial presence in the Middle East incrementally superseded by American influence in all aspects nevertheless on the positive side racial discrimination, unwarranted prices and mistreatment of Arabs and non-Europeans on British passenger ships came to an end as the British realised though belatedly that such discriminatory practises could impinge on their long-term economic interests in the region epitomising British pragmatism at its finest one of the most contributing factors to the British Imperial enterprise's resounding successes over the centuries in comparison to its other European counterparts and finally culminating in the straw that broke the camel's back Al-Thukair's staunch allegiance to the sworn enemy of Great Britain in the region the Ottoman Turks on the eve of World War One demonstrably embodied itself in his spearheading of a very large Gulf-wide fundraising campaign comparable to, if not larger than his previous ones to raise financial aid for the Ottomans with a special emphasis on enlisting the financial assistance of Arabian Gulf heads of state, leading merchants and clerics where it attained a resounding success under the watchful eye of the British colonial authorities in the region confirmed by a concise reference in the British Archives to the recently deceased ruler of Qatar Sheikh Qasim Bin Muhammad Al-Thani who died on 17th July 1913 in relation to the worrying antagonistic fundraising activities of Al-Thukair the British in anticipation of the looming global conflagration of World War One (as it would be known in the West as the Great War or perhaps more idealistically as "the war to end war" the paradoxical catchphrase created by prolific English author H. G. Wells) as an inevitable conclusion in light of the fraught international situation of the escalating crisis in Europe among the newly allied powers of Britain, France and Russia since the turn of the twentieth century in the face of rising militaristic and economic power of Germany as leader of the central powers mainly the Austro-Hungarians and the beleaguered Ottomans in the same previously referred to 1913 report of the British Gulf residency stated as follows (Sheikh Qasim Bin Muhammad Al-Thani has sent 25 thousand rupees to Sheikh Mugbil and Yusuf Kanoo here with instructions to send the amount to Basra. It is the subscription of the Qatar people for the Turkish relief) a war of the kind that the ailing Ottoman Empire dubbed "The Sick Man of Europe" in the West would be playing its definitive role in deciding the future of the Middle East after four centuries of imperial dominance just as war-weary Britain would be playing itself forty years later in the face of the growing new American influence in the region in the aftermath of the Second World War though in a peaceful conciliatory mode as should be the norm between close strategic partners ultimately Al-Thukair's relentless and far-reaching fervour on all fronts caught up with him forcing the venerable septuagenarian merchant to reluctantly relinquish his most rewarding and cherished achievement the "Bahrain Literary Society" resulting in its permanent closure in 1917 due to the unfortunate fact that he was the sole benefactor of this progressive institution where he spared no expense on his beloved creation during its fruitful albeit brief existence followed soon thereafter by the selling of almost all of his assets in Bahrain starting with the sale of virtually all his Manama properties including his commercial buildings and four houses in early 1917 to his friend and equal in character and exalted social stature prominent pearl merchant Salman Bin Hussain Matar (1837-1944) and ending with his most prized possession his huge date palm orchard named "Tinar" on the outskirts of Manama near the historic Al-Khamis Mosque which he sold to his fellow countryman and successor in heading the Najdi community of Bahrain and Ibn Saud's representative notable pearl merchant Abdulaziz Bin Hassan Algosaibi (1876-1953) shortly before his final departure to his birthplace Unaizah where he would die less than six years later in 1923 at the age of 79 this is undoubtedly the clearest manifestation of his unwavering loyalty to his Central Arabian Najdi roots in spite of making Bahrain his home in every sense for forty years however some of his descendants chose to remain in Bahrain namely his Bahraini-born youngest son Abdulrahman who spent the best part of his life moving back and forth between Bahrain and the birthplace of his ancestors Unaizah and whose descendants still live in Bahrain remarkably those last few years of his life were not spent idly on the contrary notwithstanding his financial woes Al-Thukair rose above it all by erecting a charity school complex with free lodging for teachers in his beloved hometown of Unaizah he also funded the publication of two classical Islamic theological works to be distributed gratuitously among its literate residents as a last token of gratitude to the place that played a pivotal role in shaping his formative years the ultimate proof of his noble unfaltering magnanimous nature in the face of overwhelming vicissitudes of fortune in other words for Al-Thukair moral agency and altruism took precedence over expediency, personal gain and selfish interest this idealised narrative might be viewed by some with incredulity however the veracity of the preceding portrait of Al-Thukair was corroborated by an independent foreign source free of any cultural affiliation to the region represented in the travel diary of the young French jeweller Jacques Cartier who painted a more poignant portrait of him than even some of his local and regional contemporaries devoid of duplicity and guile (such values and principles as some commentators suggested were detrimental to Al-Thukair's business activities of course from a pragmatic unscrupulous perspective) as expected at the death announcement of Al-Thukair at dawn on the 13th of May 1923 in his then small sleepy rural hometown of Unaizah thousands of mourners of all genders and walks of life thronged to join the sombre funeral procession of one of Unaizah's most illustrious natives while paying their respects to the family of this noble pious benevolent man the least honour they could afford for someone who gave so much to his people as word of his passing spread beyond Unaizah, cables and letters of condolence started to pour in from regional potentates, political leaders, notables and leading merchants from around the Arabian Peninsula he was also mourned and deservedly eulogised in Iraqi, Levantine and Egyptian journals and periodicals by clerics, writers and intellectuals from the Gulf to Iraq and all the way to Egypt some of whom were personal friends such as the loyal Muhammad Bin Abdulaziz Al-Mana (1882-1965) the published author, judge and future Grand Mufti of Qatar and at one time the semi-adopted son and business assistant of Al-Thukair who wrote a heart-wrenching eloquently effusive obituary for Al-Thukair titled "The death of a great man and a famous philanthropist" in the respected Egyptian Magazine Al-Manar on 9th June 1923 less than a month after his death the unique closeness of Al-Mana to Al-Thukair in all respects including their shared birthplace allowed him to serve as a key link between Al-Thukair and all of his regional friends another personal friend was Sheikh Muhammad Saleh Khonji (1880-1967) the esteemed Bahraini multi-talented cleric, poet, writer, intellectual, historian, administrator and educator the second Bahraini to graduate from the reputable Al-Azhar Islamic University of Cairo, Egypt in 1902 a worthy member of the 1919 prestigious education supervisory committee and a regular patron of the "Bahrain Literary Society" the brainchild of Al-Thukair before and after its official inauguration in 1913 a prolific correspondent with Sheikh Muhammad Rasheed Rida the owner of Al-Manar Magazine in Cairo who also happened to be an epistolary friend of Al-Thukair as noted further down in the text curiously enough Khonji's upcoming literal translated description of Al-Thukair was the least ornate of his contemporaries written in a plain stoic unrhetorical spare style displaying the typical ascetic attributes of his writings (Mugbil was a well-educated big merchant who had correspondence through his many agents in India, East Africa, Arab countries and Europe may God Almighty rest his soul) Al-Thukair also formed abiding epistolary friendships throughout his adult life which began as a means to quench his lifelong thirst for intellectual knowledge by forming long-standing literary correspondents that evolved into genuine epistolary friendships as in the case of Mahmud Shukri Al-Alusi (1856-1924) the revered multidiscipline Iraqi Islamic thinker, linguist, historian and reformer editor-in-chief of the first Iraqi periodical the renowned weekly newspaper Al-Zawra'a and once professor and mentor to Al-Mana during his student days in Baghdad however there is strong evidence that the friendship of Al-Alusi and Al-Thukair was not solely epistolary as it was perfectly possible for both gentlemen to meet several times during Al-Thukair's numerous business trips to Iraq particularly in the 1890s there was also occasional specific correspondence between the two concerning the latter's generous and varied assistance to Al-Alusi including the forwarding of several batches of books each containing hundreds of copies of a newly printed first edition of an Islamic theological work by Al-Alusi printed and shipped to Iraq from India one batch at a time at Al-Thukair's expense in addition to financial assistance this was the main topic of a series of letters between the two parties dating back to the year 1893 but for the sake of historical accuracy some of the batches in question were consigned by the ruler of Qatar Sheikh Qasim Bin Muhammad Al-Thani to be delivered to Al-Alusi by Al-Thukair a trusted friend of the ruler as was the case with other Arabian Gulf rulers mentioned earlier the other distinguished epistolary friend of his was Sheikh Muhammad Rasheed Rida (1865-1935) the eminent Levantine-Egyptian Islamic theologian reformer, Quranic exegete, author and journalist founder and owner of Al-Manar Magazine in Cairo, Egypt to whom he regularly wrote seeking his scholarly counsel on Islamic jurisprudence issues who was alerted to the demise of Al-Thukair by their mutual friend Al-Mana, eliciting a brief yet meaningful obituary by Rida in his own Al-Manar Magazine; the following text is a literal translation of the obituary (we beseech thee Almighty God to bless the life of our mourning brother the just judge of Qatar and to bestow his mercy and blessings upon our departed brother and to unite us with him {In an Assembly of Truth, in the Presence of a Sovereign Omnipotent} (The Moon Surah (chapter) "verse 55" Quran) and to mitigate the grief of his family and offspring and to guide them in following his righteous path) the first impression of this final example of his lasting correspondence is that it was arguably the only one of his consequential epistolary friendships that remained exclusively epistolary since there is no record of any meeting between Al-Thukair and Rida that had ever occurred since their first correspondence at the end of the nineteenth century until the death of Al-Thukair a premise reinforced by an excessive degree of formality and reserved mutual respect a constant feature mirrored in their writings for each other over the years these are the most noteworthy examples to name a few of the monumental veneration that Al-Thukair received upon his death, an explicit attestation of the high standing that he enjoyed at all levels)