View allAll Photos Tagged reprisal
Day 45, Christchurch, New Zealand:
Christchurch is the largest city on South Island New Zealand. During the period from September 2010 to January 2012, a series of earthquakes rocked the city. Two shakes measuring magnitude 7.1 and 6.3 devastated the city. 185 people died in the second quake that shook the city. By September 2013 over 1500 buildings in the city had been demolished or partly demolished.
While we were away we also heard the news of a terrorist attack with 51 people killed.
Unlike some places the quakes where considered to be natural events and not the act of a deity due to being unhappy.
There where little or no reprisal headlines after the terror attack, just a series of supporting messages and practical implementations.
I can say that during my visit this city has to be one of the most civilised and happy places. Art pervades the city. Not the informal graffiti that adorns many cities, but official artworks. The city was a blaze of colour.
Taken on August 31, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
YPATI - ΥΠΑΤΗ
Ypati is a town about 30 km west of Thermopylae and north of the Oeta mountains which was founded in the late 5th/early 4th century BC.
During the Axis occupation 15 inhabitants were shot as reprisals for the Gorgopotamos bridge sabotage in 1942, and later, on 17 June 1944, the Germans surrounded the town as part of reprisals for attacks by EAM-ELAS partisans based in the region. They executed 28 people, wounded another 30, and burned down 375 out of the town's 400 buildings. A memorial in the town centre commemorates the event and Ypati has been declared a "martyr city" by the Greek state.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
This photograph has achieved the following highest awards:
* THE GALAXY - HALL OF FAME
* THE GALAXY STARS - HALL OF FAME
Making a reprisal in Boston the ever popular and mysterious Guilford repainted geep is still looking clean and fresh. This was my first time catching her since shooting her here when she was fresh out of the Waterville paint booth back in August.
Here is Pan Am Railways Boston based local BO-1 with GMDD GP40-2LW MEC 507 (blt. Jul 1974 as CN 9472). This view looks across the Island End River here at its confluence with the Mystic as seen from the pretty Mary O'Malley State Park in Chelsea.
Everett, Massachusetts
Wednesday December 23, 2020
Photo taken on August 31, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
YPATI - ΥΠΑΤΗ
Ypati is a town about 30 km west of Thermopylae and north of the Oeta mountains which was founded in the late 5th/early 4th century BC.
During the Axis occupation 15 inhabitants were shot as reprisals for the Gorgopotamos bridge sabotage in 1942, and later, on 17 June 1944, the Germans surrounded the town as part of reprisals for attacks by EAM-ELAS partisans based in the region. They executed 28 people, wounded another 30, and burned down 375 out of the town's 400 buildings. A memorial in the town centre commemorates the event and Ypati has been declared a "martyr city" by the Greek state.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
This photograph has achieved the following highest awards:
* THE GALAXY - HALL OF FAME
Corella Valley Geoscience:
Rocks typically seen in the creekbeds of the Corella Valley are dark grey calcsilicates of the Corella Formation, often intruded by a pink fine-grained rock composed of pink feldspar and subordinate honrblende, which contain numerous fragments of dark-green to black metadolerite and some calc-silicates. This is a part of the Mount Philp Breccia. Typically mixed in with these creekbeds is pegmatite that seems to intrude the breccia.
Pegmatite are intrusive rocks with extreme coarse grained texture that are developed at the final stages of magma crystallization. As huge amount of time has been granted to pegmatite rocks so it has extremely large crystals and sometimes rare minerals are associated with it which are not found in other rocks. Pegmatite contains crystals that are atleast one centimetre long in diameter.
Pegmatite have composition similar to that of granite with abundant quartz, feldspar and mica. These are sometimes also called as granite pegmatites.
The mineralogy of a pegmatite is in most cases dominated by some form of feldspar, often with mica and usually with quartz, being altogether "granitic" in character. Beyond that, pegmatite may include most minerals associated with granite and granite-associated hydrothermal systems, granite-associated mineralisation styles, for example greisens, and somewhat with skarn associated mineralisation.
The Kalkadoon People:
The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.
The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.
The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.
The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.
Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.
The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'
The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.
Source: Rocks and Landscapes of Northwest Queensland by Laurie Hutton & Ian Withnall, Learning Geology (geologylearn.blogspot.com), &
Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au).
Photo taken on August 31, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
YPATI - ΥΠΑΤΗ
Ypati is a town about 30 km west of Thermopylae and north of the Oeta mountains which was founded in the late 5th/early 4th century BC.
During the Axis occupation 15 inhabitants were shot as reprisals for the Gorgopotamos bridge sabotage in 1942, and later, on 17 June 1944, the Germans surrounded the town as part of reprisals for attacks by EAM-ELAS partisans based in the region. They executed 28 people, wounded another 30, and burned down 375 out of the town's 400 buildings. A memorial in the town centre commemorates the event and Ypati has been declared a "martyr city" by the Greek state.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
This photograph has achieved the following highest awards:
* THE GALAXY - HALL OF FAME
The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.
The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.
The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.
The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.
Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.
The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'
The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.
Source: Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)
Taken on August 31, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
YPATI - ΥΠΑΤΗ
Ypati is a town about 30 km west of Thermopylae and north of the Oeta mountains which was founded in the late 5th/early 4th century BC.
During the Axis occupation 15 inhabitants were shot as reprisals for the Gorgopotamos bridge sabotage in 1942, and later, on 17 June 1944, the Germans surrounded the town as part of reprisals for attacks by EAM-ELAS partisans based in the region. They executed 28 people, wounded another 30, and burned down 375 out of the town's 400 buildings. A memorial in the town centre commemorates the event and Ypati has been declared a "martyr city" by the Greek state.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
This photograph has achieved the following highest awards:
* THE GALAXY - HALL OF FAME
Trapped in purgatory.
A lifeless object, alive.
Awaiting reprisal.
Death will be their acquittance.
The sky is turning red.
Return to power draws near.
Fall into me, the sky's crimson tears,
abolish the rules made of stone.
Pierced from below, souls of my treacherous past.
Betrayed by many.
Now ornaments dripping above.
Awaiting the hour of reprisal.
Your time slips away.
Raining blood,
from a lacerated sky.
Bleeding its horror.
Creating my structure.
Now I shall reign in blood.
----------------------------------------
This demon (I named him Dagareth the Bloody) looks incredible, and Shiloh's cute little fae was the perfect compliment to my shoulder.
Featuring gilded horns from Cureless, as well as the the Wizened Remnant face makeup, the Seeds of Ruin, and the Spite ritual dagger from Vae Victis.
The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.
The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.
The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.
The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.
Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.
The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'
The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.
Source: Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)
Unterhalb des Friedhofs stand die Synagoge, auf der anderen Talseite am Hang steht die christliche Kirche mit Friedhof dabei.
Below the cemetery stood the synagogue, on the other side of the valley on the hillside the Christian church with cemetery
Walter Ott, der den Friedhof vor dem Verfall rettete.
Die Jüdische Gemeinde in Buttenhausen im Süden Württembergs im Lautertal auf der Schwäbischen Alb geht auf die Ansiedlung von 25 jüdischen Familien zurück, die 1787 vom Freiherrn von Liebenstein (1730–1799) den Schutzbrief erhielten. Sie genossen hier ungewöhnlich tolerante und liberale Bedingungen... 1789 wurde ein Friedhof errichtet, 1795 eine Synagoge eröffnet....
1870 verzeichnen die Einwohnerlisten 442 jüdische Personen bei einer Gesamteinwohnerzahl von 800...
Die Repressalien der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus führte zur Emigration etwa der Hälfte der jüdischen Bevölkerung Buttenhausens... Von den 1933 verbliebenen 89 jüdischen Bürgern in Buttenhausen überlebte niemand den Holocaust.
The Jewish community in Buttenhausen in the south of Germany in a valley on the Swabian Alb goes back to the settlement of 25 Jewish families, who received in 1787 by the Baron of Liebenstein (1730-1799) the letter of protection. Here they enjoyed unusually tolerant and liberal conditions ... In 1789 a cemetery was built, 1795 opened a synagogue ....
In 1870, the population registers 442 Jewish people with a total population of 800 ...
The reprisals of the period of National Socialism led to the emigration of about half of the Jewish population of Buttenhausen. Of the 89 Jewish citizens remaining in Buttenhausen in 1933, no one survived the Holocaust.
Ignorance is a terrible thing, I have never heard of Meelin and I know absolutely nothing about the subject matter of the above description. The big benefit of this job is that within a few hours I will know all there is to know about it! Thanking you in advance.
Thanks to O Mac for the location and street view. There is no doubt that these so called "official reprisals" were a reality and were sanctioned at the highest level of command.
beachcomberaustralia and DannyM8 together managed to identify the most probable date for this photo and the link to the chapter 7 of Sean Moylan - Rebel Leader on Google Books is a must read for anyone with an interest in the Meelin story.
Photographer: W. D. Hogan
Collection: Hogan Wilson Collection
Date: Most likely 5th January 1921
NLI Ref.: HOG156
You can also view this image, and many thousands of others, on the NLI’s catalogue at catalogue.nli.ie
The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.
The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.
The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.
The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.
Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.
The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'
The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.
Source: Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au)
Ljubljana (also known by other historical names) is the capital and largest city of Slovenia, located along a trade route between the northern Adriatic Sea and the Danube region, north of the country's largest marsh, it has been inhabited since prehistoric times. It is the country's cultural, educational, economic, political and administrative center and the seat of the Urban Municipality of Ljubljana.
During antiquity, a Roman city called Emona stood in the area. The city was first mentioned in the first half of the 12th century. It was the historical capital of Carniola, one of the Slovene-inhabited parts of the Habsburg monarchy. It was under Habsburg rule from the Middle Ages until the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. After World War II, Ljubljana became the capital of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia, part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The city retained this status until Slovenia became independent in 1991 and Ljubljana became the capital of the newly formed state.
Name
Depiction of the city's coat of arms featuring the dragon on top of the castle, from Valvasor's The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola, 1689
The exact origin of the name Ljubljana is unclear. In medieval times, both the river and the town were also called Laibach (pronounced [ˈlaɪbax] in German. This name was used within the region until 1918 and continues to be used in German. In Italian, the city is referred to as Lubiana, and in Latin, it is known as Labacum. An archaic English form of the city's name is Lublyana, used primarily by Slovene Americans.
The German name was first documented in 1144, and the Slovenian form appeared in records as early as 1146. The 10th-century work Life of Gregentios provides the Greek variant Λυπλιανές (Lyplianés) and situates it among the Avars in the 6th century. This account is influenced by an earlier northern Italian source written shortly after the conquest of 774.
The connection between the Slovene and German names has posed a puzzle for scholars. In 2007, linguist Tijmen Pronk, an authority in comparative Indo-European linguistics and Slovene dialectology from the University of Leiden, provided strong support for the theory that the Slavic ljub- 'to love, like' was the most likely origin. He argued that the river's name likely stemmed from the settlement's name. Silvo Torkar, a linguist with expertise in Slovene names, put forth the idea that Ljubljana's name has its roots in Ljubija, the original name of the Ljubljanica River. This can be traced back to the Old Slavic male name Ljubovid, which translates to 'the one with a lovely appearance'. Torkar also asserted that the name Laibach is a combination of German and Slovene, sharing its origins with the same personal name.
Dragon symbol
The city's symbol is the Ljubljana Dragon. It is depicted on the top of the tower of Ljubljana Castle in the Ljubljana coat of arms and on the Ljubljanica-crossing Dragon Bridge (Zmajski most). It represents power, courage, and greatness.
Several explanations describe the origin of the Ljubljana Dragon. According to a Slavic myth, the slaying of a dragon releases the waters and ensures the fertility of the earth, and it is thought that the myth is tied to the Ljubljana Marsh, the expansive marshy area that periodically threatens Ljubljana with flooding. According to Greek legend, the Argonauts on their return home after having taken the Golden Fleece found a large lake surrounded by a marsh between the present-day towns of Vrhnika and Ljubljana. There Jason struck down a monster. This monster evolved into the dragon that today is present in the city coat of arms and flag.
It is historically more believable that the dragon was adopted from Saint George, the patron of the Ljubljana Castle chapel built in the 15th century.[citation needed] In the legend of Saint George, the dragon represents the old ancestral paganism overcome by Christianity. According to another explanation, related to the second, the dragon was at first only a decoration above the city coat of arms. In the Baroque, it became part of the coat of arms and, in the 19th and especially the 20th century, it outstripped the tower and other elements in importance.
History
Prehistory
Around 2000 BC, the Ljubljana Marsh was settled by people living in pile dwellings. Prehistoric pile dwellings and the oldest wooden wheel in the world are among the most notable archeological findings from the marshland. These lake-dwelling people survived through hunting, fishing and primitive agriculture. To get around the marshes, they used dugout canoes made by cutting out the inside of tree trunks. Their archaeological remains, nowadays in the Municipality of Ig, have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site since June 2011, in the common nomination of six Alpine states.
Later, the area remained a transit point, for groups including the Illyrians, followed by a mixed nation of the Celts and the Illyrians called the Iapodes, and then in the 3rd century BC a Celtic tribe, the Taurisci.
Antiquity
Around 50 BC, the Romans built a military encampment that later became a permanent settlement called Iulia Aemona. This entrenched fort was occupied by the Legio XV Apollinaris. In 452, it was destroyed by the Huns under Attila's orders, and later by the Ostrogoths and the Lombards. Emona housed 5,000 to 6,000 inhabitants and played an important role during battles. Its plastered brick houses, painted in different colours, were connected to a drainage system.
In the 6th century, the ancestors of the Slovenes moved in. In the 9th century, they fell under Frankish domination, while experiencing frequent Magyar raids. Not much is known about the area during the settlement of Slavs in the period between the downfall of Emona and the Early Middle Ages.
Middle Ages
The parchment sheet Nomina defunctorum ("Names of the Dead"), most probably written in the second half of 1161, mentions the nobleman Rudolf of Tarcento, a lawyer of the Patriarchate of Aquileia, who had bestowed a canon with 20 farmsteads beside the castle of Ljubljana (castrum Leibach) to the Patriarchate. According to the historian Peter Štih's deduction, this happened between 1112 and 1125, the earliest mention of Ljubljana.
The property changed hands repeatedly until the first half of the 12th century. The territory south of the Sava where Ljubljana developed, gradually became property of the Carinthian Dukes of the House of Sponheim. Urban settlement started in the second half of the 12th century. At around 1200, market rights were granted to Old Square (Stari trg), which at the time was one of Ljubljana's three original districts. The other two districts were an area called "Town" (Mesto), built around the predecessor of the present-day Ljubljana Cathedral at one side of the Ljubljanica River, and New Square (Novi trg) at the other side. The Franciscan Bridge, a predecessor of the present-day Triple Bridge, and the Butchers' Bridge connected the walled areas with wooden buildings. Ljubljana acquired the town privileges at some time between 1220 and 1243. Seven fires erupted during the Middle Ages.[43] Artisans organised themselves into guilds. The Teutonic Knights, the Conventual Franciscans, and the Franciscans settled there. In 1256, when the Carinthian duke Ulrich III of Spanheim became lord of Carniola, the provincial capital was moved from Kamnik to Ljubljana.
In the late 1270s, Ljubljana was conquered by King Ottokar II of Bohemia. In 1278, after Ottokar's defeat, it became—together with the rest of Carniola—property of Rudolph of Habsburg. It was administered by the Counts of Gorizia from 1279 until 1335, when it became the capital town of Carniola. Renamed Laibach, it was owned by the House of Habsburg until 1797. In 1327, the Ljubljana's "Jewish Quarter"—now only "Jewish Street" (Židovska ulica) remains—was established with a synagogue, and lasted until Emperor Maximilian I in 1515 and expelled the Jews from Ljubljana at the request of its citizens, for which he demanded a certain payment from the town. In 1382, in front of St. Bartholomew's Church in Šiška, at the time a nearby village, now part of Ljubljana, a peace treaty was signed between the Republic of Venice and Leopold III of Habsburg.
Early modern
In the 15th century, Ljubljana became recognised for its art, particularly painting and sculpture. The Latin Catholic Archdiocese of Ljubljana was established in 1461 and the Church of St. Nicholas became the diocesan cathedral. After the 1511 Idrija earthquake, the city was rebuilt in the Renaissance style and a new wall was built around it. Wooden buildings were forbidden after a large fire at New Square in 1524.
In the 16th century, the population of Ljubljana numbered 5,000, 70% of whom spoke Slovene as their first language, with most of the rest using German. The first secondary school, public library and printing house opened in Ljubljana. Ljubljana became an important educational centre.
From 1529, Ljubljana had an active Slovene Protestant community. They were expelled in 1598, marking the beginning of the Counter-Reformation. Catholic Bishop Thomas Chrön ordered the public burning of eight cartloads of Protestant books.
In 1597, the Jesuits arrived, followed in 1606 by the Capuchins, seeking to eradicate Protestantism. Only 5% of all the residents of Ljubljana at the time were Catholic, but eventually they re-Catholicized the town. The Jesuits staged the first theatre productions, fostered the development of Baroque music, and established Catholic schools. In the middle and the second half of the 17th century, foreign architects built and renovated monasteries, churches, and palaces and introduced Baroque architecture. In 1702, the Ursulines settled in the town, and the following year they opened the first public school for girls in the Slovene Lands. Some years later, the construction of the Ursuline Church of the Holy Trinity started. In 1779, St. Christopher's Cemetery replaced the cemetery at St. Peter's Church as Ljubljana's main cemetery.
Late modern
From 1809 to 1813, during the "Napoleonic interlude", Ljubljana (as Laybach) was the capital of the Illyrian Provinces. In 1813, the city returned to Austria and from 1815 to 1849 was the administrative centre of the Kingdom of Illyria in the Austrian Empire. In 1821, it hosted the Congress of Laibach, which fixed European political borders for that period. The first train arrived in 1849 from Vienna and in 1857 the line extended to Trieste.
In 1895, Ljubljana, then a city of 31,000, suffered a severe earthquake with a moment magnitude of 6.1 and a maximum EMS intensity of VIII–IX ("heavily damaging – destructive"). 21 people died due to the earthquake and some 10% of the city's 1,400 buildings were destroyed. During the subsequent reconstruction, some districts were rebuilt in the Vienna Secession style. Public electric lighting arrived in 1898. The rebuilding period between 1896 and 1910 is referred to as the "revival of Ljubljana" because of architectural changes that defined the city and for reform of urban administration, health, education and tourism. The rebuilding and quick modernisation of the city were led by the mayor Ivan Hribar.
In 1918, following the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the region joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In 1929, Ljubljana became the capital of the Drava Banovina, a Yugoslav province.
In 1941, during World War II, Fascist Italy occupied the city, and then on 3 May 1941 made Lubiana the capital of Italy's Province of Ljubljana with former Yugoslav general Leon Rupnik as mayor. After the Italian capitulation, Nazi Germany with SS-general Erwin Rösener and Friedrich Rainer took control in 1943, but formally the city remained the capital of an Italian province until 9 May 1945. In Ljubljana, the Axis forces established strongholds and command centres of Quisling organisations, the Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia under Italy and the Home Guard under German control. Starting in February 1942, the city was surrounded by barbed wire, later fortified by bunkers, to prevent co-operation between the resistance movements that operated inside and outside the fence. Since 1985, the commemorative trail has ringed the city where this iron fence once stood. Postwar reprisals filled mass graves.
After World War II, Ljubljana became the capital of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia, part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It retained this status until Slovene independence in 1991.
Contemporary situation
Ljubljana is the capital of independent Slovenia, which joined the European Union in 2004.
Geography
The city covers 163.8 km2 (63.2 sq mi).[1] It is situated in the Ljubljana Basin in Central Slovenia, between the Alps and the Karst. Ljubljana is located some 320 km (200 mi) south of Munich, 477 km (296 mi) east of Zürich, 250 km (160 mi) east of Venice, 350 km (220 mi) southwest of Vienna, 124 km (77 mi) west of Zagreb and 400 km (250 mi) southwest of Budapest. Ljubljana has grown considerably since the 1970s, mainly by merging with nearby settlements.
Geology
The city stretches out on an alluvial plain dating to the Quaternary era. The mountainous regions nearby are older, dating from the Mesozoic (Triassic) or Paleozoic. Earthquakes have repeatedly devastated Ljubljana, notably in 1511 and 1895.
Topography
Ljubljana has an elevation of 295 m (968 ft). The city centre, located along the river, sits at 298 m (978 ft). Ljubljana Castle, which sits atop Castle Hill (Grajski grič) south of the city centre, has an elevation of 366 m (1,201 ft). The highest point of the city, called Grmada, reaches 676 m (2,218 ft), 3 m (9.8 ft) more than the nearby Mount Saint Mary (Šmarna gora) peak, a popular hiking destination. These are located in the northern part of the city.
(Wikipedia)
Ljubljana (Ljubljana slowenisch [ljuˈbljàːna], umgangssprachlich [luˈblàːna], deutsch Laibach, italienisch Lubiana) ist die Hauptstadt Sloweniens und mit 288.382 Einwohnern (2024) zugleich bevölkerungsreichste Gemeinde des Landes.
Die Stadt ist das politische, wirtschaftliche und kulturelle Zentrum Sloweniens. Ljubljana ist Sitz des gleichnamigen römisch-katholischen Erzbistums und seit 1919 Universitätsstadt.
Die Stadt Ljubljana bildet gemeinsam mit einigen kleineren umliegenden Siedlungen die Stadtgemeinde Ljubljana (slowenisch Mestna občina Ljubljana, abgekürzt MOL).
Name der Stadt
Für die Herkunft des slowenischen Namens der Stadt gibt es mehrere Erklärungen: nach der einen, wohl volksetymologischen Erklärung kommt er vom slowenischen ljubljena („geliebte Stadt“), nach der anderen von dem lateinischen Flussnamen Aluviana. Der Stadtname wurde in dieser Form zum ersten Mal 1146 als Luwigana erwähnt.
Im deutschsprachigen Raum hat sich neben dem Namen Ljubljana auch der historische deutsche, ursprünglich wohl wie der gleichlautende Flussname aus dem Slawischen abgeleitete Name Laibach gehalten, der heute vor allem in Österreich gebräuchlich ist. In der österreichischen Diplomatie wird die Stadt amtlich Laibach bezeichnet. Der deutsche Name der Stadt wurde zum ersten Mal 1112–1125 als Leibach erwähnt. Diese Form ist auch gleichzeitig die älteste bekannte Erwähnung der Stadt.
Geschichte
Vorgeschichte
Von 3600 bis 3100 v. Chr. finden sich die frühesten Seebehausungen (Pfahlbauten) im Laibacher Moor.
Zwischen 1000 und 700 v. Chr. existierten erste illyrische und venetische Siedlungen und um 400 v. Chr. folgte die Periode der Kelten.
Als erster mythischer Bewohner gilt Iason (siehe den Abschnitt Wappen).
Römisches Reich
Im 1. Jahrhundert v. Chr. wurde von den Römern eine militärische Festung an der Stelle des heutigen Ljubljana errichtet und im Jahr 14 die römische Siedlung Emona oder Aemona (Colonia Aemona Iulia tribu Claudia) angelegt. Administrativ gehörte diese Stadt während der Antike zu Italien. Sie befand sich zwar an der Stelle des heutigen Ljubljana, ging jedoch in der Völkerwanderung unter und ist daher nur eine Vorgängersiedlung der heutigen Stadt, deren Straße Emonska cesta den Namen bewahrt.
Völkerwanderung und Fränkisches Reich
Um 600 wanderten slawische Stämme in das Gebiet, gefolgt von einem Niedergang Emonas. Um 800 fiel das Gebiet von Laibach unter die Herrschaft der Franken.
Heiliges Römisches Reich
Die Stadt vor dem 13. Jahrhundert
Im Ostfränkischen und später Heiligen Römischen Reich gehörte das Gebiet um Ljubljana zur Mark Krain. Der Zeitraum zwischen 1112 und 1125 ist die Entstehungszeit der ersten schriftlichen Aufzeichnungen von Laibach. Die erste urkundliche Erwähnung der Stadt stammt aus dem Jahr 1144.[8] Die von den Spanheimern gegründete Siedlung wurde um 1220 erstmals Stadt genannt, 1243 sind ihr Marktrecht und ihre Stadtmauer aktenkundig, 1280 wurden die Einwohner cives (Bürger) genannt.
1270 wurde Laibach von dem böhmischen König Přemysl Ottokar II. erobert, der sich zuvor nach dem Aussterben der Babenberger im Mannesstamm, 1246, deren österreichisches Herrschaftsgebiet untertan gemacht hatte.
Habsburgische Herrschaft, Reformation und Gegenreformation
1278 ging Laibach nach der Niederlage des Königs Ottokar II. gegen Rudolf von Habsburg in den Besitz der Habsburger über.
1335 wurde Laibach unter den Habsburgern Hauptstadt des zum Heiligen Römischen Reich zählenden Herzogtums Krain. Im Jahr 1415 widerstand Laibach einer türkischen Invasion.
Im Jahr 1461 wurde die Diözese Laibach gegründet (siehe auch: Liste der Bischöfe von Ljubljana) und die Kirche St. Nikolaus wurde zur Kathedrale. 1504 fand die Wahl des ersten Bürgermeisters statt. 1511 erlebte Laibach sein erstes großes Erdbeben.
Die erste reformatorische Predigt wurde spätestens 1523 gehalten. Gefördert durch die Krainer Landstände errichteten Protestanten im Jahr 1536 eine professionelle Lateinschule im Range eines Gymnasiums. Prägend für die reformatorische Entwicklung war neben dem Humanismus vor allem der slowenische Reformator Primož Trubar (Primus Truber, 1508–1586) durch seine in slowenischer Sprache gehaltenen reformatorischen Predigten. Mit seinem umfangreichen, slowenisch abgefassten Schriftwerk gilt er als Begründer der slowenischen Schriftsprache. 2016 wurde Ljubljana durch die Gemeinschaft Evangelischer Kirchen in Europa der Ehrentitel „Reformationsstadt Europas“ verliehen.
Nachdem 1597 die Jesuiten in Laibach eintrafen, die zwei Jahre später ihr eigenes Gymnasium errichteten, kam die Reformation Trubars in Slowenien im ersten Drittel des 17. Jahrhunderts an ihr Ende. Mit der Gegenreformation wurde das Kirchen- und Schulministerium in Laibach geschlossen, evangelische Prediger wurden ausgewiesen, eine Religions-Reformationskommission wurde eingerichtet und der konversionsunwillige Adel des Landes verwiesen. Zu evangelischen Gemeindeneugründungen kam es – ermöglicht durch das Toleranzpatent Josephs II. von 1781 – in Laibach in der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Seit 1945 existiert die Slowenische Kirche A.B. (Augsburger Bekenntnisses).
1693 erfolgte die Gründung der Academia Operosum, einer Vereinigung der angesehensten Gelehrten, und 1701 die Gründung der Academia Philharmonicorum.
1754 lag die Bevölkerungszahl der Stadt bei 9.300 Einwohnern. 1773 bis 1781 wurden der Gruberkanal (Gruberjev kanal) und der Gruber-Palast (Gruberjeva palača) erbaut. 1797 wurde die erste Tageszeitung von Slowenien herausgegeben.
Kaisertum Österreich
1804 wurde Laibach Teil des neu proklamierten Kaisertums Österreich. Nach dem Frieden von Schönbrunn musste die Stadt mit dem Umland an das napoleonische Frankreich abgetreten werden, und die Stadt wurde unter dem Namen Laybach 1809 bis 1813 Hauptstadt der Illyrischen Provinzen Frankreichs. 1814/15 kehrte sie mit dem Wiener Kongress wieder zu Österreich zurück.
1810 erfolgte die Gründung des Botanischen Gartens. 1821 fand auf Einladung von Kaiser Franz I. der Laibacher Kongress der Heiligen Allianz statt. Am 4. Oktober 1831 konnte der Präsident der Landwirtschaftlichen Gesellschaft für Krain, Franz von Hohenwart, in Laibach im Beisein des Landesgouverneurs Joseph Camillo von Schmidburg das Landesmuseum eröffnen.
Im Jahr 1849 wurde die Eisenbahnverbindung Laibach–Wien, die österreichische Südbahn, erbaut und 1857 als Verlängerung die Verbindung Laibach–Triest.
Im Jahr 1861 erfolgte die Einführung der öffentlichen Gasbeleuchtung und 1890 der Bau der öffentlichen Wasserversorgung. Nach einem verheerenden Erdbeben verpflichtete sich Laibach 1895 zu einem modernen Aussehen. 1898 wurde die öffentliche elektrische Beleuchtung eingeführt. Drei Jahre später, 1901, folgte die Einführung der elektrischen Straßenbahn in Laibach.
Im Jahr 1900 hatte Laibach inklusive Garnison 36.547 Einwohner. Davon waren 29.733 slowenisch- (81 %) und 5.423 deutschsprachig (15 %).
Vor dem Ersten Weltkrieg war Laibach österreichisch-ungarische Garnisonstadt. Im Jahre 1914 waren hier ganz oder in Teilen stationiert: der Stab der k. u. k. 28. Infanterie Truppen Division, das k.u.k. Krainische Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 17, das k.u.k. Steirische Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 27, das k.k. Landwehr Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 27 und das k.u.k. Feldkanonen Regiment Nr. 7. Die strategischen Entscheidungen für die Italienfront, insbesondere für die Isonzofront, wurden vom Armeekommando in Laibach getroffen, wo unter anderen Feldmarschall Boroević und der spätere österreichische Bundespräsident Körner tätig waren.
Königreich der Serben, Kroaten und Slowenen und Königreich Jugoslawien
Ende Oktober 1918 wurde Ljubljana Teil des neu gegründeten Königreichs der Serben, Kroaten und Slowenen. 1919 erfolgte die Gründung der Universität von Ljubljana. 1929 wurde Ljubljana Hauptstadt der Banschaft Drau (Dravska banovina) im Königreich Jugoslawien.
Italienische Annexion und deutsche Besetzung
Nach dem Überfall auf Jugoslawien im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde am 3. Mai 1941 Ljubljana mit dem ehemaligen jugoslawischen General Leon Rupnik als Bürgermeister unter der Bezeichnung Lubiana Hauptstadt der annektierten italienischen Provincia di Lubiana. Der Großteil der Laibacher Deutschen, das waren rund 2.400 Personen, wurde im Winter 1941/42 auf Grund eines Abkommens zwischen Adolf Hitler und Benito Mussolini ins Großdeutsche Reich umgesiedelt, mehrheitlich in die Oberkrain und die Untersteiermark.
Im Jahr 1942 riegelten italienische Truppen die Stadt mit Stacheldrahtzaun und Wachtürmen ab und durchkämmten sie danach mehrfach im Rahmen der italienischen Repression gegen den slowenischen Widerstand. Bis zur Kapitulation Italiens beim Waffenstillstand von Cassibile im September 1943 wurden etwa achtzehn Prozent der Bevölkerung von Lubiana in italienische Konzentrationslager deportiert.
Nach der Kapitulation Italiens ging sie in deutsche Kontrolle über (SS-General Erwin Rösener und Friedrich Rainer als Chef der Zivilverwaltung) bis zur vollständigen Kapitulation der Wehrmacht am 8. Mai 1945.
Massengräber in Ljubljana
Während und direkt nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg fanden auf dem Gebiet des heutigen Slowenien Massentötungen statt. Die Opfer waren deutsche Kriegsgefangene, zwangsrepatriierte Soldaten der slowenischen Heimwehr und weitere, den jeweiligen Machthabern unliebsame Menschen. Die Getöteten wurden in Massengräbern abgelegt.
Meistens wurde ihre Existenz zwischen 1945 und 1990 geheim gehalten. Heute sind sie in Slowenien auch unter den Bezeichnungen „verborgene Gräberfelder“ (slowenisch: prikrita grobišča) oder „stille Gräberfelder“ (zamolčana grobišča) bekannt. Einige der Stätten gehören zu den größten Massengräbern Europas. Fast 600 solcher Stätten wurden von der Kommission für verborgene Massengräber in Slowenien (Komisija Vlade Republike Slovenije za reševanje vprašanj prikritih grobišč) registriert. Historiker schätzen, dass es insgesamt bis zu 750 Massengräber mit Hinrichtungsopfern gibt.[20] Diese enthalten die Überreste von bis zu 100.000 Opfern.
Auf dem Gebiet der Stadtgemeinde Ljubljana wurden zwanzig Massengräber aus der Zeit des Zweiten Weltkriegs gefunden, und zwar fünf in der Stadt Ljubljana selbst, sowie vier bzw. 11 in den zur Stadtgemeinde gehörenden Ortschaften Pance und Selo pri Pancah.
Sozialistische Föderative Republik Jugoslawien
Am 9. Mai 1945 erfolgte die formale Auflösung der Provincia di Lubiana. 1945 mussten die verbliebenen Laibacher Deutschen ebenso wie die übrigen Sloweniendeutschen auf Grund der AVNOJ-Beschlüsse das Land verlassen. Zahlreiche Menschen wurden ermordet.
Im Jahr 1945 wurde Ljubljana Hauptstadt der Volksrepublik Slowenien in der Föderativen Volksrepublik Jugoslawien.
1958 startete der erste slowenische Fernsehsender mit regelmäßigen Übertragungen und in diesem Jahr wurde die Straßenbahn stillgelegt; der Büroturm S2 wurde 1978 fertiggestellt. 1980 starb der jugoslawische Staatspräsident Josip Broz Tito in Ljubljana.
Republik Slowenien
Im Jahr 1991 feierte die Stadt Sloweniens Unabhängigkeit. Die österreichischen Journalisten Norbert Werner und Nikolas Vogel starben in Ljubljana am 28. Juni 1991 während des 10-Tage-Krieges am Flughafen Ljubljana als Opfer eines Raketenangriffes der jugoslawischen Volksarmee auf ihr Auto. Im Rahmen der Feier anlässlich des endgültigen Beitritts Sloweniens zum Schengen-Raum im Jahr 2008 gedachte Premierminister Janez Janša auf dem Flugfeld von Ljubljana der beiden Toten.
2002 fand das Gipfeltreffen Bush/Putin in Ljubljana statt.
Nur wenige Wochen nach Entdeckung eines neuen Massengrabes mit über 4000 von Tito-Partisanen Ermordeten in einem slowenischen Bergwerk beschloss der Stadtrat von Ljubljana mit der Mehrheit der Linksparteien im April 2009, wieder eine Straße nach Josip Broz Tito zu benennen, nachdem bereits von 1952 bis 1954 die heutige Slovenska cesta (Slowenische Straße) nach ihm benannt war.
Bevölkerung
Die Bevölkerung der Stadt bestand seit dem Hochmittelalter vor allem aus Deutschsprachigen. Nach 1848 fungierte die Stadt als kultureller Mittelpunkt der Slowenen. Zur Volkszählung im Jahr 1880 waren die 5.658 Deutschsprachigen (23 % der Bevölkerung) bereits eine Minderheit.
Bei der Volkszählung 2002 waren 84,1 % der Einwohner von Ljubljana slowenische Staatsbürger, 7,5 % Bosnier, 3,5 % Kroaten, 3,2 % Serben, 0,7 % EU-Bürger (damals EU-15), 0,6 % Nordmazedonier und 0,5 % andere.
Slowenisch ist alleinige Amtssprache der Stadtgemeinde Ljubljana und wurde bei dieser Volkszählung von 78,9 % der Bevölkerung als Muttersprache angegeben. Ferner sprachen nach eigenen Angaben 4,1 % Serbisch, 3,9 % Kroatisch, 3,9 % Serbokroatisch, 3,4 % Bosnisch und 1,9 % sonstige Sprachen.
Geografie
Lagebeschreibung
Ljubljana liegt auf 298 m. i. J. am Rande des Laibacher Beckens an der Ljubljanica (Laibach), die noch im Stadtgebiet in die Save mündet. Südlich tut sich der Karst auf, nach Norden erlaubt das Becken freien Blick in die Karawanken und die Steiner Alpen.
Südwestlich erstreckt sich die Ebene des teilweise trockengelegten Laibacher Moores (Ljubljansko barje).
Die Altstadt liegt an einer Schlinge der Ljubljanica um den Schlossberg. Zur Erleichterung der damaligen Schifffahrt wurde diese Schlinge im Jahr 1750 durch den Gruberkanal (Gruberjev Prekop) abgeschnitten.
(Wikipedia)
by Jo Elliot, NSW. Another entry at the Swell Sculpture festival.
artist statement: 'War of the Worlds' draws upon inspiration from the magically surreal, alien like and microscopic lifeforms that exist in our oceans. Phytoplankton. These lifeforms are equipped with magnificent and ingenious design driving our earthly mechanics and fundamental to all life on earth. The work is about invasion and reprisal, our war against nature and its inevitable war against us.
My cross discipline art is a union of art and science. It explores the wonders of the natural world, considering the extraordinary that happens in the every day.
from Walpi, First Mesa ..I'm pretty sure that is First Mesa in silhouette at far right. I took this a few years ago before digital cameras.
The system of villages unites three mesas in the pueblo style traditionally used by the Hopi. Walpi is the oldest village on First Mesa, having been established in 1690 after the villages at the foot of mesa Koechaptevela were abandoned for fear of Spanish reprisal post 1680 Pueblo Revolt. The Tewa people live on First Mesa. Hopi also occupy the Second Mesa and Third Mesa
Wikipedia
The San Francisco Peaks, known by various Indian language names, are sacred to the Navajo, Hopi, and Havasupai (a Yuman group). In the 17th century, members of the Spanish mission at Oraibi named the summits after the founder of their order, St. Francis of Assisi.
Encyclopaedia Brittannica
View of the Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore, the cathedral of the city of Florence, from Piazzale Michelangelo, Florence, Tuscany, Italy
Some background information:
The Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style to a design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was structurally completed by 1436, with the dome designed by Filippo Brunelleschi. The exterior of the basilica is faced with polychrome marble panels in various shades of green and pink, bordered by white. The cathedral complex in Piazza del Duomo includes the Baptistery and Giotto's Campanile. These three buildings are one of the major tourist attractions of Tuscany and part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site covering the historic centre of Florence. The basilica is one of Italy's largest churches, and until the development of new structural materials in the modern era, the dome was the largest in the world. It still remains the largest brick dome ever constructed.
After the cathedral’s nave had been finished by 1380, only the dome remained incomplete. On 18th August 1418, an architectural design competition was announced for erecting the dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, the latter of whom was supported by Cosimo de Medici. Ghiberti had been the winner of a competition for a pair of bronze doors for the Baptistery in 1401 and lifelong competition between the two remained sharp. Brunelleschi won and received the commission. Work on the dome started in 1420 and was completed in 1436. The cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on 25th March 1436, (the first day of the year according to the Florentine calendar). It was the first "octagonal" dome in history to be built without a temporary wooden supporting frame. And it was and still is one of the most impressive architectural projects of the Renaissance.
With about 400,000 residents in its city centre and more than 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area, Florence is the capital and also the most populous city of the Italian region of Tuscany. The town lies in a basin formed by several hills. The Arno river, three other minor rivers and some streams flow through its metropolitan area. During the Middle Ages the city was a centre of European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of that era. It is also considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has been called "the Athens of the Middle Ages". A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family and numerous religious and republican revolutions. From 1865 to 1871 Florence was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy.
The Florentine dialect forms the base of Standard Italian and it became the language of culture throughout Italy due to the prestige of the masterpieces by Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini, who were all born in the city. Florence attracts millions of tourists each year, and its historic centre was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, art, architecture and monuments. It contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti. Due to Florence's artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Furthermore, Florence is also an important city in Italian fashion, being ranked in the top 15 fashion capitals of the world.
Florence originated as a Roman city. Around 200 BC, the Etruscans initially formed the small settlement of Fiesole, which was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 80 BC in reprisal for supporting the populares faction in Rome. In 59 BC, the present city of Florence was established by Julius Caesar as a settlement for his veteran soldiers. Originally it was named Fluentia, owing to the fact that it was built between two rivers, but its name was later changed to Florentia (in English: "flowering"). Situated along the Via Cassia, the main route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre.
In centuries to come, the city was often troubled by warfare between the Ostrogoths and the Byzantines, which may have caused the population to fall to as few as 1,000 people. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century. In 774, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as its capital. The population began to grow again and commerce prospered.
Margrave Hugo chose Florence as his residency instead of Lucca at about 1000 AD. The Golden Age of Florentine art began around this time. The city's primary resource was the Arno river, providing power and access for the industry (mainly textile industry), and access to the Mediterranean Sea for international trade. Another great source of strength was its industrious merchant community. The Florentine merchant banking skills became recognised in Europe after they brought decisive financial innovation to medieval fairs, such as bill of exchange and double-entry bookkeeping system.
In 1115, the Republic of Florence originated, when the Florentine people rebelled against the Margraviate of Tuscany upon the death of Matilda of Tuscany, a woman who controlled vast territories that included Florence. The Florentines formed a commune in her successors' place. Subsequently, the early, modern state of the republic was ruled by a council known as the Signoria of Florence. The republic had a checkered history of factions and counter-factions. But in 1434, the Medici faction gained governance of the city under Cosimo de' Medici.
During this first Medici governance, in 1469, Cosimo’s grandson Lorenzo de' Medici assumed the reins of government. Lorenzo was a great patron of the arts, commissioning works by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Botticelli. As he was also an accomplished poet and musician himself, he brought composers and singers to Florence too. By contemporary Florentines (and since), he was known as "Lorenzo il Magnifico" (in English: "Lorenzo the Magnificent").
The Medici kept control of Florence until 1494, when Lorenzo’s son Piero II was expelled by the French king Charles VIII, whose army had invaded northern Italy. In 1498, when the Medici were out of power, Niccolò Machiavelli, a diplomat, politician, historian, philosopher, humanist, writer, playwright and poet of the Renaissance period, became secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence. His prescriptions for Florence's regeneration under strong leadership have often been seen as a legitimisation of political expediency and even malpractice. In other words, Machiavelli was a political thinker, perhaps most renowned for his political handbook, titled "The Prince", which is about ruling and the exercise of power. Commissioned by the Medici, Machiavelli also wrote the Florentine Histories, the history of the city.
In 1512, Giovanni de' Medici (later Pope Leo X) re-conquered the Republic of Florence. However, Florence repudiated Medici authority for a second time in 1527, during the so-called War of the League of Cognac. But again the Medici re-assumed their rule in 1531 after an 11-month siege of the city. The republican government was disestablished in 1532, when Pope Clement VII appointed Alessandro de' Medici "Duke of the Florentine Republic", making the republic a hereditary monarchy.
In 1569, the Medici became Grand Dukes of Tuscany, ruling for another two centuries. In all Tuscany, only the Republic of Lucca and the Principality of Piombino were independent from Florence. The extinction of the Medici dynasty and the accession in 1737 of Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine and husband of Maria Theresa of Austria, led to Tuscany's temporary inclusion in the territories of the Austrian crown. From 1801 to 1807 Florence was the capital of the Napoleonic client state Kingdom of Etruria and from 1808 to the fall of Napoleon in 1814, it was the was the prefecture of the French département of Arno. In 1861, Tuscany became a region of the Kingdom of Italy. In 1865, Florence replaced Turin as Italy's capital, but already six years later, it was superseded by Rome.
After doubling during the 19th century, Florence's population was to triple in the 20th, resulting from growth in tourism, trade, financial services and industry. During World War II the city experienced a year-long German occupation (1943 to 1944) and was declared an open city in late July 1944 as troops of the British 8th Army closed in. The retreating Germans decided to demolish all the bridges along the Arno, making it difficult for troops of the 8th Army to cross. But at the latest moment, the German general was convinced that Ponte Vecchio was not to be destroyed due to its historical value. In November 1966, the Arno flooded parts of the centre, damaging many art treasures.
Today, Florence is known as the "cradle of the Renaissance" for its many Renaissance monuments, churches, and other buildings. 600 years after its completion, the dome, built by Filippo Brunelleschi, is still the largest dome built in brick and mortar in the world. Florence also contains numerous museums and art galleries where some of the world's most important works of art are held. Hence, tourism is, by far, the most important of all industries and most of the Florentine economy relies on the money generated by international arrivals and students studying in the city. The value tourism to the city totalled some 62.5 billion € in 2015 and the number of visitors still increases to the present day.
Making a reprisal in Boston the ever popular and mysterious Guilford repainted geep is still looking clean and fresh. This was my first time catching her since shooting her here when she was fresh out of the Waterville paint booth back in August.
Here is Pan Am Railways Boston based local BO-1 with GMDD GP40-2LW MEC 507 (blt. Jul 1974 as CN 9472). This view looks across the Island End River here at its confluence with the Mystic as seen from the pretty Mary O'Malley State Park in Chelsea.
Everett, Massachusetts
Wednesday December 23, 2020
Photo of me taken on September 2, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
THE GORGOPOTAMOS RIVER - ΓΟΡΓΟΠΟΤΑΜΟΣ
The bridge over the river was built in 1905, putting the Gorgopotamos village on the map for the strategic purpose the bridge played during World War II. The name of Gorgopotamos became famous during World War II, when 150 Greek partisans, following plans drawn by E. C. W. "Eddie" Myers and assisted by a group of British SOE officers, which included C.M. Woodhouse, blew up the railroad bridge over the Gorgopotamos river on November 25, 1942 as part of Operation Harling and cut off the enemy-controlled route between Thessaloniki and Athens. The blast ruined two of the six piers of the bridge. In an act of reprisals, the German occupation forces executed 16 Greek locals. The area around the bridge has been designated a national monument.
After World War II and the Greek Civil War, the bridge of Gorgopotamos was partially rebuilt, the piers being replaced with steel pylons.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
Sir Kenelm Digby (July 11, 1603 – June 11, 1665) was an English courtier and diplomat. He was also a highly reputed natural philosopher, and known as a leading Roman Catholic intellectual and Blackloist. For his versatility, Anthony à Wood called him the "magazine of all arts".
He was born at Gayhurst, Buckinghamshire, England. He was of gentry stock, but his family's adherence to Roman Catholicism coloured his career. His father, Sir Everard, was executed in 1606 for his part in the Gunpowder Plot. Kenelm was sufficiently in favour with James I to be proposed as a member of Edmund Bolton's projected Royal Academy (with George Chapman, Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, John Selden, and Sir Henry Wotton).[2]
He went to Gloucester Hall, Oxford in 1618, where he was taught by Thomas Allen; but left without taking a degree. In time Allen bequeathed to Digby his library, and the latter donated it to the Bodleian.[3][4]
He spent three years in Europe between 1620 and 1623, where Marie de Medici fell madly in love with him (as he later recounted). He was granted a Cambridge M.A. on the King's visit to the university in 1624.[5] Around 1625, he married Venetia Stanley, whose wooing he cryptically described in his memoirs. He had also become a member of the Privy Council of Charles I of England. His Roman Catholicism being a hindrance in the way of government office, he switched to Anglicanism.
In 1628, Digby became a privateer, with some success: on January 18 he arrived off Gibraltar and captured several Spanish and Flemish vessels. From February 5 to March 27 he remained at anchor off Algiers on account of the sickness of his men, and extracted a promise from the authorities of better treatment of the English ships. He seized a rich Dutch vessel near Majorca, and after other adventures gained a complete victory over the French and Venetian ships in the harbour of Iskanderun on the June 11. His successes, however, brought upon the English merchants the risk of reprisals, and he was urged to depart.
He returned to become a naval administrator and later Governor of Trinity House. His wife died suddenly in 1633, prompting a famous deathbed portrait by Van Dyck and a eulogy by Ben Jonson. (Digby was later Jonson's literary executor. Jonson's poem about Venetia is now mostly lost, because of the loss of the center sheet of a leaf of papers which held the only copy.) Digby, stricken with grief and the object of enough suspicion that the Crown had ordered an autopsy (rare at the time) on Venetia's body, secluded himself in Gresham College and attempted to forget his personal woes through scientific experimentation and a return to Catholicism. At that period, public servants were often rewarded with patents of monopoly; Digby received the regional monopoly of sealing wax in Wales and the Welsh Borders. This was a guaranteed income; more speculative were the monopolies of trade with the Gulf of Guinea and with Canada. These were doubtless more difficult to police.
Digby became a Catholic once more in 1635. He went into voluntary exile in Paris, where he spent most of his time until 1660. There he met both Marin Mersenne and Thomas Hobbes.[6]
Returning to support Charles I in his struggle to establish episcopacy in Scotland (the Bishops' Wars), he found himself increasingly unpopular with the growing Puritan party. He left England for France again in 1641. Following an incident in which he killed a French nobleman, Mont le Ros, in a duel,[7] he returned to England via Flanders in 1642, and was jailed by the House of Commons. He was eventually released at the intervention of Anne of Austria, and went back again to France. He remained there during the remainder of the period of the English Civil War. Parliament declared his property in England forfeit.
Queen Henrietta Maria had fled England in 1644, and he became her Chancellor. He was then engaged in unsuccessful attempts to solicit support for the English monarchy from Pope Innocent X. Following the establishment of The Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell, who believed in freedom of conscience, Digby was received by the government as a sort of unofficial representative of English Roman Catholics, and was sent in 1655 on a mission to the Papacy to try to reach an understanding. This again proved unsuccessful.
At the Restoration, Digby found himself in favor with the new regime due to his ties with Henrietta Maria, the Queen Mother. However, he was often in trouble with Charles II, and was once even banished from Court. Nonetheless, he was generally highly regarded until his death at the age of 62 from "the stone", likely caused by kidney stones.
He published a work of apologetics in 1638, A Conference with a Lady about choice of a Religion. In it he argued that the Catholic Church, possessing alone the qualifications of universality, unity of doctrine and uninterrupted apostolic succession, is the only true church, and that the intrusion of error into it is impossible.
Digby was regarded as an eccentric by contemporaries, partly because of his effusive personality, and partly because of his interests in scientific matters. Henry Stubbe called him "the very Pliny of our age for lying".[9] He lived in a time when scientific enquiry had not settled down in any disciplined way. He spent enormous time and effort in the pursuits of astrology, and alchemy which he studied in the 1630s with Van Dyck.[10][11][12]
Notable among his pursuits was the concept of the Powder of Sympathy. This was a kind of sympathetic magic; one manufactured a powder using appropriate astrological techniques, and daubed it, not on the injured part, but on whatever had caused the injury. His book on this salve went through 29 editions.[13] Synchronising the effects of the powder, which apparently caused a noticeable effect on the patient when applied, was actually suggested in 1687 as a means of solving the longitude problem.
In 1644 he published together two major philosophical treatises, The Nature of Bodies and On the Immortality of Reasonable Souls. The latter was translated into Latin in 1661 by John Leyburn. These Two Treatises were his major natural-philosophical works, and showed a combination of Aristotelianism and atomism.[14]
He was in touch with the leading intellectuals of the time, and was highly regarded by them; he was a founding member of the Royal Society[10] and a member of its governing council from 1662 to 1663. His correspondence with Fermat contains the only extant mathematical proof by Fermat, a demonstration, using his method of descent, that the area of a Pythagorean triangle cannot be a square. His Discourse Concerning the Vegetation of Plants (1661) proved controversial among the Royal Society's members.[15] He is credited with being the first person to note the importance of "vital air," or oxygen, to the sustenance of plants.[16]
Digby is known for the publication of a cookbook, The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelme Digbie Knight Opened, but it was actually published by a close servant, from his notes, in 1669, several years after his death. It is currently considered an excellent source of period recipes, particularly for beverages such as mead.
Digby is also considered the father of the modern wine bottle. During the 1630s, Digby owned a glassworks and manufactured wine bottles which were globular in shape with a high, tapered neck, a collar, and a punt. His manufacturing technique involved a coal furnace, made hotter than usual by the inclusion of a wind tunnel, and a higher ratio of sand to potash and lime than was customary. Digby's technique produced wine bottles which were stronger and more stable than most of their day, and which, due to their dark color, protected the contents from light. During his exile and prison term, others claimed his technique as their own, but in 1662 Parliament recognized his claim to the invention as valid.
Sir Kenelm Digby (July 11, 1603 – June 11, 1665) was an English courtier and diplomat. He was also a highly reputed natural philosopher, and known as a leading Roman Catholic intellectual and Blackloist. For his versatility, Anthony à Wood called him the "magazine of all arts".
He was born at Gayhurst, Buckinghamshire, England. He was of gentry stock, but his family's adherence to Roman Catholicism coloured his career. His father, Sir Everard, was executed in 1606 for his part in the Gunpowder Plot. Kenelm was sufficiently in favour with James I to be proposed as a member of Edmund Bolton's projected Royal Academy (with George Chapman, Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, John Selden, and Sir Henry Wotton).[2]
He went to Gloucester Hall, Oxford in 1618, where he was taught by Thomas Allen; but left without taking a degree. In time Allen bequeathed to Digby his library, and the latter donated it to the Bodleian.[3][4]
He spent three years in Europe between 1620 and 1623, where Marie de Medici fell madly in love with him (as he later recounted). He was granted a Cambridge M.A. on the King's visit to the university in 1624.[5] Around 1625, he married Venetia Stanley, whose wooing he cryptically described in his memoirs. He had also become a member of the Privy Council of Charles I of England. His Roman Catholicism being a hindrance in the way of government office, he switched to Anglicanism.
In 1628, Digby became a privateer, with some success: on January 18 he arrived off Gibraltar and captured several Spanish and Flemish vessels. From February 5 to March 27 he remained at anchor off Algiers on account of the sickness of his men, and extracted a promise from the authorities of better treatment of the English ships. He seized a rich Dutch vessel near Majorca, and after other adventures gained a complete victory over the French and Venetian ships in the harbour of Iskanderun on the June 11. His successes, however, brought upon the English merchants the risk of reprisals, and he was urged to depart.
He returned to become a naval administrator and later Governor of Trinity House. His wife died suddenly in 1633, prompting a famous deathbed portrait by Van Dyck and a eulogy by Ben Jonson. (Digby was later Jonson's literary executor. Jonson's poem about Venetia is now mostly lost, because of the loss of the center sheet of a leaf of papers which held the only copy.) Digby, stricken with grief and the object of enough suspicion that the Crown had ordered an autopsy (rare at the time) on Venetia's body, secluded himself in Gresham College and attempted to forget his personal woes through scientific experimentation and a return to Catholicism. At that period, public servants were often rewarded with patents of monopoly; Digby received the regional monopoly of sealing wax in Wales and the Welsh Borders. This was a guaranteed income; more speculative were the monopolies of trade with the Gulf of Guinea and with Canada. These were doubtless more difficult to police.
Digby became a Catholic once more in 1635. He went into voluntary exile in Paris, where he spent most of his time until 1660. There he met both Marin Mersenne and Thomas Hobbes.[6]
Returning to support Charles I in his struggle to establish episcopacy in Scotland (the Bishops' Wars), he found himself increasingly unpopular with the growing Puritan party. He left England for France again in 1641. Following an incident in which he killed a French nobleman, Mont le Ros, in a duel,[7] he returned to England via Flanders in 1642, and was jailed by the House of Commons. He was eventually released at the intervention of Anne of Austria, and went back again to France. He remained there during the remainder of the period of the English Civil War. Parliament declared his property in England forfeit.
Queen Henrietta Maria had fled England in 1644, and he became her Chancellor. He was then engaged in unsuccessful attempts to solicit support for the English monarchy from Pope Innocent X. Following the establishment of The Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell, who believed in freedom of conscience, Digby was received by the government as a sort of unofficial representative of English Roman Catholics, and was sent in 1655 on a mission to the Papacy to try to reach an understanding. This again proved unsuccessful.
At the Restoration, Digby found himself in favor with the new regime due to his ties with Henrietta Maria, the Queen Mother. However, he was often in trouble with Charles II, and was once even banished from Court. Nonetheless, he was generally highly regarded until his death at the age of 62 from "the stone", likely caused by kidney stones.
He published a work of apologetics in 1638, A Conference with a Lady about choice of a Religion. In it he argued that the Catholic Church, possessing alone the qualifications of universality, unity of doctrine and uninterrupted apostolic succession, is the only true church, and that the intrusion of error into it is impossible.
Digby was regarded as an eccentric by contemporaries, partly because of his effusive personality, and partly because of his interests in scientific matters. Henry Stubbe called him "the very Pliny of our age for lying".[9] He lived in a time when scientific enquiry had not settled down in any disciplined way. He spent enormous time and effort in the pursuits of astrology, and alchemy which he studied in the 1630s with Van Dyck.[10][11][12]
Notable among his pursuits was the concept of the Powder of Sympathy. This was a kind of sympathetic magic; one manufactured a powder using appropriate astrological techniques, and daubed it, not on the injured part, but on whatever had caused the injury. His book on this salve went through 29 editions.[13] Synchronising the effects of the powder, which apparently caused a noticeable effect on the patient when applied, was actually suggested in 1687 as a means of solving the longitude problem.
In 1644 he published together two major philosophical treatises, The Nature of Bodies and On the Immortality of Reasonable Souls. The latter was translated into Latin in 1661 by John Leyburn. These Two Treatises were his major natural-philosophical works, and showed a combination of Aristotelianism and atomism.[14]
He was in touch with the leading intellectuals of the time, and was highly regarded by them; he was a founding member of the Royal Society[10] and a member of its governing council from 1662 to 1663. His correspondence with Fermat contains the only extant mathematical proof by Fermat, a demonstration, using his method of descent, that the area of a Pythagorean triangle cannot be a square. His Discourse Concerning the Vegetation of Plants (1661) proved controversial among the Royal Society's members.[15] He is credited with being the first person to note the importance of "vital air," or oxygen, to the sustenance of plants.[16]
Digby is known for the publication of a cookbook, The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelme Digbie Knight Opened, but it was actually published by a close servant, from his notes, in 1669, several years after his death. It is currently considered an excellent source of period recipes, particularly for beverages such as mead.
Digby is also considered the father of the modern wine bottle. During the 1630s, Digby owned a glassworks and manufactured wine bottles which were globular in shape with a high, tapered neck, a collar, and a punt. His manufacturing technique involved a coal furnace, made hotter than usual by the inclusion of a wind tunnel, and a higher ratio of sand to potash and lime than was customary. Digby's technique produced wine bottles which were stronger and more stable than most of their day, and which, due to their dark color, protected the contents from light. During his exile and prison term, others claimed his technique as their own, but in 1662 Parliament recognized his claim to the invention as valid.
Photo of me taken on August 31, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
YPATI - ΥΠΑΤΗ
Ypati is a town about 30 km west of Thermopylae and north of the Oeta mountains which was founded in the late 5th/early 4th century BC.
During the Axis occupation 15 inhabitants were shot as reprisals for the Gorgopotamos bridge sabotage in 1942, and later, on 17 June 1944, the Germans surrounded the town as part of reprisals for attacks by EAM-ELAS partisans based in the region. They executed 28 people, wounded another 30, and burned down 375 out of the town's 400 buildings. A memorial in the town centre commemorates the event and Ypati has been declared a "martyr city" by the Greek state.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
CIMS PER LA LLIBERTAT és una acció esportiva, solidària i reivindicativa.
Consisteix en una ascensió simultània a 18 cims de la nostra terra que han estat triats directament pels nostres presos, exiliats i represaliats polítics.
Un dels quals és el Puigsacalm (1.515m.) (Garrotxa) CAT., cim escollit pel president Carles Puigdemont
Aquest projecte neix de la nostra passió per la natura i del sentiment de llibertat que sentim a la muntanya, sobretot quan fem cim. Una sensació que segur que troben a faltar totes aquelles persones que s'han vist privades de llibertat per defensar de forma pacífica les seves idees.
CIMS PER LA LLIBERTAT té com a objectiu conscienciar de la injustícia que representa la situació dels nostres presos, exiliats i represaliats polítics, així com transmetre el nostre suport incondicional tant a ells com a les seves famílies.
Unes 11.000 persones han participat (13-10-2018) a la campanya "Cims per la Llibertat", una ascensió simultània a 18 cims de Catalunya per conscienciar de la situació de "presos, exiliats i represaliats polítics"
El president de la Generalitat, Quim Torra, ha participat en l'ascensió al Puigsacalm, a coll de Bracons.
-------------------------------------------
Puigsacalm "summitsXthefreedom"
CIMS POR LA LIBERTAD is a sporting, solidarity and protestive action.
It consists of a simultaneous ascent to 18 summits of our land that have been chosen directly by our prisoners, exiled and reprisal politicians.
One of which is the Puigsacalm (1,515m.) (Garrotxa) CAT., Summit chosen by President Carles Puigdemont
This project is born of our passion for nature and the feeling of freedom that we feel in the mountains, especially when we make a summit. A feeling that is sure to miss those who have been deprived of freedom to defend their ideas in a peaceful way.
CIMS POR LA LIBERTAD aims to raise awareness of the injustice that represents the situation of our prisoners, political exiles and reprisals, as well as convey our unconditional support to both them and their families.
About 11,000 people have participated (13-10-2018) in the campaign "Summits for Freedom", a simultaneous promotion to 18 summits of Catalonia to raise awareness of the situation of "prisoners, exiles and reprisals politicians"
The president of the Generalitat, Quim Torra, has participated in the ascent to the Puigsacalm, at Coll de Bracons
When I selected this from the archive I thought I recognised the man but I was not sure. Now getting the photo ready to post I see the following from the archive Photographic print of Major General Emmet Dalton and his new bride on their wedding day. They were married in October 1922. Title taken from inscription written on mount under print . It tends to confirm my guess, what do you think?....
....and with thanks to today's excellent contributions it seems confirmed that this is indeed Major General Emmet Dalton and Alice Shannon on the day of their wedding in October 1922 at Clarence Hall in the Imperial Hotel, Cork. Guliolopez shares a contemporary newspaper article on the wedding which described the bride's attire as:
a petunia frock, and she wore a silver grey hat of chiffon velvet, and silver grey shoes and stockings. She carried a bouquet of chrsyanthemums and lilies
Their marriage took place during the Civil War, just a few months after Dalton championed the offensive against anti-treaty strongholds in the area (during which his friend Michael Collins was killed). Dalton left the army within a few months of this photo - possibly due to Collins' death or the reprisal killings which marked the latter stages of the Civil War. He later became involved in the film industry - founding Ardmore Studios (coincidentally up for sale this very week)....
Photographer: W. D. Hogan
Collection: Hogan Wilson Collection
Date: October 1922
NLI Ref.: HOGW 191
You can also view this image, and many thousands of others, on the NLI’s catalogue at catalogue.nli.ie
Minervino Murge was inhabited since prehistory. The first primitive settlement probably dates back to the VIII and VII century A.D.
Beginning from the III A.D. all tracks have been lost until the early Middle Ages. Repeatedly destroyed by saracen invasions and Byzantine reprisals, the village was bishop's see during the Norman Age untill 1818, and then county capital. In the XV century the village became the rule of the Princes of Taranto and then feud of some noble families, such as the Del Tufo, Pignatelli, Carafa and Tuttavilla that kept the feud until the feudalism’s abolition. The “Scesciola” i.e. the oldest core of the village, is characterized by a labyrinth of narrow streets, slopes, and modest houses with lime walls. They rise on the hillside, being built one next to each other by means of little arches. Moreover, many holy niches are evidence of a deep faith. Today, the “Scesciola” is poorly inhabited, but still has its original architectonic characteristics; this is the reason why the reconstruction of the buildings history is currently possible.
My mother wrote the following about this photo she took in Colombia in 1952:
1. Side street in Tunja, capital of the state of Boyacá, Colombia, South America. Tunja is 3 hours by car north of Bogotá, the national capital.
Here, Bolívar and the 2,000 survivors of the death march over the "impossible" Pisba pass, stopped to rest and recruit new forces before defeating the Spaniards at the Battle of Boyacá in August, 1819.
This part of the city has changed very little since the days of Bolívar. The electricity is new.
Taken August 1952 en route to fishing trip to Lake Tota.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
When I reviewed the collection of old family slides for the first time recently, I came across a bulging yellow envelope that my sister had marked "Colombia 50s."
In it were many glassine envelopes, each of which contained one slide and a numbered card bearing a closely-spaced typewritten text.
The text named the subject of the photo and said a bit about it. Below the body of the text was typed my mother's name, the month and year (1952 or 1953), "Argus camera" and my father's business address at the Creole Petroleum Corporation in Caracas.
My family moved from Bogotá to Caracas later in 1953, and I was born there a few years later.
The existence of this collection of photos and descriptive texts was unknown to me until last month. My guess is that my mother compiled the materials so she could put on a slide show for women's clubs in Caracas or in her home state of Kansas.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
"How Simón Bolívar Crossed the Andes"
By Christopher Minster
Updated on May 31, 2019
In 1819, the War of Independence in Northern South America was locked in a stalemate. Venezuela was exhausted from a decade of war, and patriot and royalist warlords had fought each other to a standstill.
Simón Bolívar, the dashing Liberator, conceived of a brilliant yet seemingly suicidal plan: he would take his 2,000 man army, cross the mighty Andes, and hit the Spanish where they were least expecting it: in neighboring New Granada (Colombia), where a small Spanish army held the region unopposed. His epic crossing of the frozen Andes would prove to be the most genius of his many daring actions during the war.
Venezuela in 1819
Venezuela had borne the brunt of the War of Independence. Home of the failed First and Second Venezuelan Republics, the nation had suffered greatly from Spanish reprisals. By 1819 Venezuela was in ruins from the constant warring. Simón Bolívar, the Great Liberator, had an army of some 2,000 men, and other patriots like José Antonio Páez also had small armies, but they were scattered and even together lacked the strength to deliver a knockout blow to Spanish General Morillo and his royalist armies. In May, Bolívar's army was camped near the llanos or great plains, and he decided to do what the royalists least expected.
Nueva Granada (Colombia) in 1819
Unlike war-weary Venezuela, Nueva Granada was ready for revolution. The Spanish were in control but deeply resented by the people. For years, they had been forcing the men into armies, extracting “loans” from the wealthy and oppressing the Creoles, afraid they might revolt. Most of the royalist forces were in Venezuela under the command of General Morillo: in Nueva Granada, there were some 10,000, but they were spread out from the Caribbean to Ecuador. The largest single force was an army of some 3,000 commanded by General José María Barreiro. If Bolívar could get his army there, he could deal the Spanish a mortal blow.
The Council of Setenta
On May 23, Bolívar called his officers to meet in a ruined hut in the abandoned village of Setenta. Many of his most trusted captains were there, including James Rooke, Carlos Soublette and José Antonio Anzoátegui. There were no seats: the men sat on the bleached skulls of dead cattle. At this meeting, Bolívar told them of his daring plan to attack Nueva Granada, but he lied to them about the route he would take, fearing they would not follow if they knew the truth. Bolívar intended to cross the flooded plains and then cross the Andes at the Páramo de Pisba pass: the highest of three possible entries into New Granada.
Crossing the Flooded Plains
Bolívar’s army then numbered some 2,400 men, with less than one thousand women and followers. The first obstacle was the Arauca River, upon which they traveled for eight days by raft and canoe, mostly in the pouring rain.
Then they reached the plains of Casanare, which were flooded by the rains. Men waded in water up to their waists, as thick fog obscured their vision: torrential rains drenched them daily. Where there was no water there was mud: the men were plagued by parasites and leeches. The only highlight during this time was meeting up with a patriot army of some 1,200 men led by Francisco de Paula Santander.
Crossing the Andes
As the plains gave way to the hilly jungle, Bolívar’s intentions became clear: the army, drenched, battered and hungry, would have to cross the frigid Andes Mountains. Bolívar had selected the pass at Páramo de Pisba for the simple reason that the Spanish did not have defenders or scouts there: no one thought an army could possibly cross it.
The pass peaks at 13,000 feet (almost 4,000 meters). Some deserted: José Antonio Páez, one of Bolívar's top commanders, tried to mutiny and eventually left with most of the cavalry. Bolívar's leadership held, however, because many of his captains swore they would follow him anywhere.
Untold Suffering
The crossing was brutal. Some of Bolívar’s soldiers were barely-dressed indigenous people who quickly succumbed to exposure.
The Albion Legion, a unit of foreign (mostly British and Irish) mercenaries, suffered greatly from altitude sickness and many even died from it.
There was no wood in the barren highlands: they were fed raw meat. Before long, all of the horses and pack animals had been slaughtered for food.
The wind whipped them, and hail and snow were frequent.
By the time they crossed the pass and descended into Nueva Granada, some 2,000 men and women had perished.
Arrival in Nueva Granada
On July 6, 1819, the withered survivors of the march entered the village of Socha, many of them half-naked and barefoot. They begged food and clothing from the locals. There was no time to waste: Bolívar had paid a high cost for the element of surprise and had no intention of wasting it. He swiftly refitted the army, recruited hundreds of new soldiers and made plans for an invasion of Bogota. His greatest obstacle was General Barreiro, stationed with his 3,000 men at Tunja, between Bolívar and Bogota. On July 25, the forces met at the Battle of Vargas Swamp, which resulted in an indecisive victory for Bolívar.
The Battle of Boyacá
Bolívar knew that he had to destroy Barreiro's army before it reached Bogota, where reinforcements could reach it. On August 7, the royalist army was divided as it crossed the Boyaca River: the advance guard was in front, across the bridge, and the artillery was far to the rear. Bolivar swiftly ordered an attack. Santander's cavalry cut off the advance guard (which were the best soldiers in the royalist army), trapping them on the other side of the river, while Bolívar and Anzoátegui decimated the main body of the Spanish force.
Legacy of Bolívar’s Crossing of the Andes
The battle lasted only two hours: at least two hundred royalists were killed and another 1,600 were captured, including Barreiro and his senior officers. On the patriot side, there were only 13 killed and 53 wounded.
The Battle of Boyacá was a tremendous, one-sided victory for Bolívar who marched unopposed into Bogota: the Viceroy had fled so swiftly that he left money in the treasury. Nueva Granada was free, and with money, weapons, and recruits, Venezuela soon followed, allowing Bolívar to eventually move south and attack Spanish forces in Ecuador and Peru.
The epic crossing of the Andes is Simón Bolívar in a nutshell: he was a brilliant, dedicated, ruthless man who would do whatever it took to free his homeland. Crossing flooded plains and rivers before going over a frigid mountain pass over some of the bleakest terrain on earth was absolute madness. No one thought Bolívar could pull off such a thing, which made it all the more unexpected. Still, it cost him 2,000 loyal lives: many commanders would not have paid that price for victory.
www.thoughtco.com/1819-simon-bolivar-crosses-the-andes-21...
A View Of The World Trade Center Memorial NYC In 2014 - IMRAN™
The twin towers of the World Trade Center in Manhattan, New York were the closest any man-made structure came to representing who I am as a Gemini lifetime New Yorker at heart. I am happy that the new WTC was built but I have to admit it does not elicit the same emotional resonance from my soul as the original twin towers.
But when I am in the area I do try to visit the area. This was a video I recorded in 2014 as the new tower gleamed in the sunlight. Some of the names of the victims of the terrible day are visible in the video when I turned to the memorial where an original tower stood. The irony of the names of Muslims, Jews, Christians, and many other faiths and nationalities all as common victims of an act of political reprisal against US policies but wrapped in the guise of a holy war.
Twenty years later, it is hard to believe how divided the people of the United States of America are internally.
© 2021 IMRAN™
The Kalkadoon People, also known as the Kalkatungu, Kalkatunga, or Kalkadungu, ruled what is called the Emu Foot Province and have been living on these lands for over 40 thousand years. The Kalkadoon People owned vast tracts of land extending from McKinley’s Gap in the east where they joined the Goa tribe of the Winton district to Gunpowder Creek which was the territory of the Waggaboongas. On the southern side of their territory the Kalkadoons were touched upon by the Pitta-Pitta tribe of the Boulia district, and on the northern side by the Mittakoodi of the Fort Constantine country.
The Kalkadoons would mark their territory boundaries with an emu or cranes foot that was either painted onto rocks and trees or carved into the hard granite rock. This was also a warning for other Aboriginal clans not to pass these boundaries.
The Kalkadoon (Kalkatungu) are descendants of an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the Mount Isa region of Queensland. Their forefather tribe has been called 'the Elite of the Aboriginal warriors of Queensland'. In 1884 they were massacred at "Battle Mountain" by settlers and police.
The first Europeans to visit the area were explorers Burke and Wills who crossed the Cloncurry River in 1861. Though their journals make no mention of the tribe, their passing through is said to have been recorded in Kalkatungu oral history, and in their language they coined the term walpala (from 'white feller') to denote Europeans. Three parties sent out to search for Burke and Wills, led respectively by John McKinlay, William Landsborough, and Frederick Walker, passed through the general area. Walker, a former commander of the Dawson native police, shot 12 natives dead and wounded several more, just to the north east of Kalkatungu territory.
Another early European settler, Edward Palmer, who was described by George Phillips as 'one of that brave band of pioneer squatters who in the early sixties swept across North Queensland with their flocks and herds, settling, as if by magic, great tracts of hitherto unoccupied country', settled on the edge of Kalkatungu country in 1864, at Conobie, on the western bank of the Cloncurry River. Decades later, Palmer described the natives as a peculiar people of which little was known. Palmer was critical of the use of native police and interested in indigenous tribes. His station lands did not cover any Kalkatungu sacred sites, he did not object to their presence in the vicinity, and found no problem in his relations with the Kalkatungu. He tried to learn their language. Ernest Henry arrived in 1866, discovering, with the assistance of Kalkatungu guides, copper deposits the following year, and founded the Great Australia Mine. He successfully enlisted some Kalkatungu people to work one of these mines. A short attempt at settlement by W. and T. Brown at Bridgewater in 1874 experienced, like Palmer, no difficulties with the indigenous owners of the land.
The Scottish settler Alexander Kennedy then took up land in the area in 1877. He had managed, since his arrival in 1861, to accumulate land holdings of some 4,800 sq. miles, holding 60,000 cattle, and established himself in a residence he built, called Buckingham Downs. Kennedy is thought to have begun the troubles with the native peoples of the area by instigating murderous assaults on the Kalkatungu. Iain Davidson describes him as 'the man who led the destruction of the tribes of North West Central Queensland.'
The traditional white heroic narrative version of what then occurred drew on the account provided by Sir Wilmot Hudson Fysh in 1933. According to this version, the Kalkatungu was by nature a hostile and bellicose tribe, exceptionally brave with 'primitive' military cunning and guerilla-like tactics of strategic withdrawals to the mountains to evade reprisals for their savagery. They were eventually vanquished and broken after a last stand against men like Alexander Kennedy.
Source: Kalkadoon PBC (www.kalkadoonpbc.com.au).
Taken on September 2, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
GORGOPOTAMOS - ΓΟΡΓΟΠΟΤΑΜΟΣ
The bridge over the river was built in 1905, putting the Gorgopotamos village on the map for the strategic purpose the bridge played during World War II. The name of Gorgopotamos became famous during World War II, when 150 Greek partisans, following plans drawn by E. C. W. "Eddie" Myers and assisted by a group of British SOE officers, which included C.M. Woodhouse, blew up the railroad bridge over the Gorgopotamos river on November 25, 1942 as part of Operation Harling and cut off the enemy-controlled route between Thessaloniki and Athens. The blast ruined two of the six piers of the bridge. In an act of reprisals, the German occupation forces executed 16 Greek locals. The area around the bridge has been designated a national monument.
After World War II and the Greek Civil War, the bridge of Gorgopotamos was partially rebuilt, the piers being replaced with steel pylons.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
This photograph has achieved the following highest awards:
* THE GALAXY - HALL OF FAME
Day 45, Christchurch, New Zealand:
Christchurch is the largest city on South Island New Zealand. During the period from September 2010 to January 2012, a series of earthquakes rocked the city. Two shakes measuring magnitude 7.1 and 6.3 devastated the city. 185 people died in the second quake that shook the city. By September 2013 over 1500 buildings in the city had been demolished or partly demolished.
While we were away we also heard the news of a terrorist attack with 51 people killed.
Unlike some places the quakes where considered to be natural events and not the act of a deity due to being unhappy.
There where little or no reprisal headlines after the terror attack, just a series of supporting messages and practical implementations.
I can say that during my visit this city has to be one of the most civilised and happy places. Art pervades the city. Not the informal graffiti that adorns many cities, but official artworks. The city was a blaze of colour.
Tibetan Monastic Education by Georges Dreyfus and THL. Section 4 of 7 Copyright © 2001
Procedures and Rules of Debate
Tibetan debates involve two parties: a defender (damchawa), who answers, and a questioner (riklampa). The roles of defender and questioner imply very different commitments, as Daniel Perdue explains: “The defender puts forth assertions for which he is held accountable. The challenger raises qualms to the defender’s assertions and is not subject to reprisal for the questions he raises. The responsibility of the defender is to put forth a true thesis and to defend it. Hence, the defender is accountable for the truth of his assertions. The questioner, on the contrary, is responsible only for the questions he puts forth. His questions must be well-articulated, must logically follow from the points already made, and must be relevant to defeating the defender. Their truth content is irrelevant, however, for his task is not to establish a thesis but to oblige the defender to contradict either previous statements or common sense.
Read more: www.thlib.org/#!essay=/dreyfus/drepung/monasticed/s/b41#i...
Taken on August 31, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
YPATI - ΥΠΑΤΗ
Ypati is a town about 30 km west of Thermopylae and north of the Oeta mountains which was founded in the late 5th/early 4th century BC.
During the Axis occupation 15 inhabitants were shot as reprisals for the Gorgopotamos bridge sabotage in 1942, and later, on 17 June 1944, the Germans surrounded the town as part of reprisals for attacks by EAM-ELAS partisans based in the region. They executed 28 people, wounded another 30, and burned down 375 out of the town's 400 buildings. A memorial in the town centre commemorates the event and Ypati has been declared a "martyr city" by the Greek state.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
Taken on August 31, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
YPATI - ΥΠΑΤΗ
Ypati is a town about 30 km west of Thermopylae and north of the Oeta mountains which was founded in the late 5th/early 4th century BC.
During the Axis occupation 15 inhabitants were shot as reprisals for the Gorgopotamos bridge sabotage in 1942, and later, on 17 June 1944, the Germans surrounded the town as part of reprisals for attacks by EAM-ELAS partisans based in the region. They executed 28 people, wounded another 30, and burned down 375 out of the town's 400 buildings. A memorial in the town centre commemorates the event and Ypati has been declared a "martyr city" by the Greek state.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
Taken on August 31, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
YPATI - ΥΠΑΤΗ
Ypati is a town about 30 km west of Thermopylae and north of the Oeta mountains which was founded in the late 5th/early 4th century BC.
During the Axis occupation 15 inhabitants were shot as reprisals for the Gorgopotamos bridge sabotage in 1942, and later, on 17 June 1944, the Germans surrounded the town as part of reprisals for attacks by EAM-ELAS partisans based in the region. They executed 28 people, wounded another 30, and burned down 375 out of the town's 400 buildings. A memorial in the town centre commemorates the event and Ypati has been declared a "martyr city" by the Greek state.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
Minervino Murge was inhabited since prehistory. The first primitive settlement probably dates back to the VIII and VII century A.D.
Beginning from the III A.D. all tracks have been lost until the early Middle Ages. Repeatedly destroyed by saracen invasions and Byzantine reprisals, the village was bishop's see during the Norman Age untill 1818, and then county capital. In the XV century the village became the rule of the Princes of Taranto and then feud of some noble families, such as the Del Tufo, Pignatelli, Carafa and Tuttavilla that kept the feud until the feudalism’s abolition. The “Scesciola” i.e. the oldest core of the village, is characterized by a labyrinth of narrow streets, slopes, and modest houses with lime walls. They rise on the hillside, being built one next to each other by means of little arches. Moreover, many holy niches are evidence of a deep faith. Today, the “Scesciola” is poorly inhabited, but still has its original architectonic characteristics; this is the reason why the reconstruction of the buildings history is currently possible.
"Where Trump runs afoul of the foreign-emoluments clause is that, first and foremost, he is a businessman with significant financial interests and governmental entanglements all over the globe."
And
"Presidents and public officers often utilize blind trusts so as not to violate the foreign-emoluments clause. A truly blind trust involves an arrangement wherein the public officer has no control whatsoever over the assets placed in the trust — that means no communications with, from or about the trust, and no knowledge of the specific assets held for his benefit in the trust. In the case of Trump’s ownership in the Trump Organization, this could be achieved only by a complete liquidation of the assets, with the proceeds to be invested by an independent Trustee, without Trump’s involvement or knowledge. Trump’s decision to continue the business of the Trump Organization, continue to maintain his substantial ownership of the organization and turn the management of it over to his children, is woefully inadequate in addressing the emoluments clause."
time.com/4658633/impeach-donald-trump-congress/
(Yes, another protest pic, but I can't help it! If he'd leave ME alone then I'd leave HIM alone! (giggles) I took this aboard the USS Reprisal
maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Woodbine/118/135/36 What a totally fitting name, right?)
I wish it was the NCAA tournament!
Instead, it was the onset of what we now know as a new normal.
This was taken on a warm day in early March . . I think back on it nostalgically, since that day included a delicious dinner in a restaurant, shopping, and spending time with close friends
Like all of us, I'm hoping for a reprisal of happy days like this sooner than later!
Wishing you all the best, and thanking you for your Greek Easter wishes today!
Photo of me taken on August 31, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
YPATI - ΥΠΑΤΗ
Ypati is a town about 30 km west of Thermopylae and north of the Oeta mountains which was founded in the late 5th/early 4th century BC.
During the Axis occupation 15 inhabitants were shot as reprisals for the Gorgopotamos bridge sabotage in 1942, and later, on 17 June 1944, the Germans surrounded the town as part of reprisals for attacks by EAM-ELAS partisans based in the region. They executed 28 people, wounded another 30, and burned down 375 out of the town's 400 buildings. A memorial in the town centre commemorates the event and Ypati has been declared a "martyr city" by the Greek state.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
Photo of me taken on September 2, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
THE GORGOPOTAMOS BRIDGE - ΓΕΦΥΡΑ ΓΟΡΓΟΠΟΤΑΜΟΥ
The bridge was built in 1905, putting the Gorgopotamos village on the map for the strategic purpose the bridge played during World War II. The name of Gorgopotamos became famous during World War II, when 150 Greek partisans, following plans drawn by E. C. W. "Eddie" Myers and assisted by a group of British SOE officers, which included C.M. Woodhouse, blew up the railroad bridge over the Gorgopotamos river on November 25, 1942 as part of Operation Harling and cut off the enemy-controlled route between Thessaloniki and Athens. The blast ruined two of the six piers of the bridge. In an act of reprisals, the German occupation forces executed 16 Greek locals. The area around the bridge has been designated a national monument.
After World War II and the Greek Civil War, the bridge of Gorgopotamos was partially rebuilt, the piers being replaced with steel pylons.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
Photo taken on August 31, 2018, during a 3 day photographic trip to the Prefecture of FTHIOTIDA - ΦΘΙΩΤΙΔΑ central Greece with my wife Theresa Jane Brown.
YPATI - ΥΠΑΤΗ
Ypati is a town about 30 km west of Thermopylae and north of the Oeta mountains which was founded in the late 5th/early 4th century BC.
During the Axis occupation 15 inhabitants were shot as reprisals for the Gorgopotamos bridge sabotage in 1942, and later, on 17 June 1944, the Germans surrounded the town as part of reprisals for attacks by EAM-ELAS partisans based in the region. They executed 28 people, wounded another 30, and burned down 375 out of the town's 400 buildings. A memorial in the town centre commemorates the event and Ypati has been declared a "martyr city" by the Greek state.
Thanassis Fournarakos - Θανάσης Φουρναράκος
Professional Photographer, Athens, Greece
(retired in 2011, born in 1946).
© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
None of my images may be downloaded, copied, reproduced, manipulated or used on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission. THANK YOU!
This photograph has achieved the following highest awards:
* THE GALAXY - HALL OF FAME
Minervino Murge was inhabited since prehistory. The first primitive settlement probably dates back to the VIII and VII century A.D.
Beginning from the III A.D. all tracks have been lost until the early Middle Ages. Repeatedly destroyed by saracen invasions and Byzantine reprisals, the village was bishop's see during the Norman Age untill 1818, and then county capital. In the XV century the village became the rule of the Princes of Taranto and then feud of some noble families, such as the Del Tufo, Pignatelli, Carafa and Tuttavilla that kept the feud until the feudalism’s abolition. The “Scesciola” i.e. the oldest core of the village, is characterized by a labyrinth of narrow streets, slopes, and modest houses with lime walls. They rise on the hillside, being built one next to each other by means of little arches. Moreover, many holy niches are evidence of a deep faith. Today, the “Scesciola” is poorly inhabited, but still has its original architectonic characteristics; this is the reason why the reconstruction of the buildings history is currently possible.
Piazza di San Giovanni with the cathedral Santa Maria del Fiore in the background, Florence, Tuscany, Italy
Some background information:
The Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style to a design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was structurally completed by 1436, with the dome designed by Filippo Brunelleschi. The exterior of the basilica is faced with polychrome marble panels in various shades of green and pink, bordered by white. The cathedral complex in Piazza del Duomo includes the Baptistery and Giotto's Campanile. These three buildings are one of the major tourist attractions of Tuscany and part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site covering the historic centre of Florence. The basilica is one of Italy's largest churches, and until the development of new structural materials in the modern era, the dome was the largest in the world. It still remains the largest brick dome ever constructed.
After the cathedral’s nave had been finished by 1380, only the dome remained incomplete. On 18th August 1418, an architectural design competition was announced for erecting the dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, the latter of whom was supported by Cosimo de Medici. Ghiberti had been the winner of a competition for a pair of bronze doors for the Baptistery in 1401 and lifelong competition between the two remained sharp. Brunelleschi won and received the commission. Work on the dome started in 1420 and was completed in 1436. The cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on 25th March 1436, (the first day of the year according to the Florentine calendar). It was the first "octagonal" dome in history to be built without a temporary wooden supporting frame. And it was and still is one of the most impressive architectural projects of the Renaissance.
With about 400,000 residents in its city centre and more than 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area, Florence is the capital and also the most populous city of the Italian region of Tuscany. The town lies in a basin formed by several hills. The Arno river, three other minor rivers and some streams flow through its metropolitan area. During the Middle Ages the city was a centre of European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of that era. It is also considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has been called "the Athens of the Middle Ages". A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family and numerous religious and republican revolutions. From 1865 to 1871 Florence was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy.
The Florentine dialect forms the base of Standard Italian and it became the language of culture throughout Italy due to the prestige of the masterpieces by Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini, who were all born in the city. Florence attracts millions of tourists each year, and its historic centre was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, art, architecture and monuments. It contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti. Due to Florence's artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Furthermore, Florence is also an important city in Italian fashion, being ranked in the top 15 fashion capitals of the world.
Florence originated as a Roman city. Around 200 BC, the Etruscans initially formed the small settlement of Fiesole, which was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 80 BC in reprisal for supporting the populares faction in Rome. In 59 BC, the present city of Florence was established by Julius Caesar as a settlement for his veteran soldiers. Originally it was named Fluentia, owing to the fact that it was built between two rivers, but its name was later changed to Florentia (in English: "flowering"). Situated along the Via Cassia, the main route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre.
In centuries to come, the city was often troubled by warfare between the Ostrogoths and the Byzantines, which may have caused the population to fall to as few as 1,000 people. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century. In 774, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as its capital. The population began to grow again and commerce prospered.
Margrave Hugo chose Florence as his residency instead of Lucca at about 1000 AD. The Golden Age of Florentine art began around this time. The city's primary resource was the Arno river, providing power and access for the industry (mainly textile industry), and access to the Mediterranean Sea for international trade. Another great source of strength was its industrious merchant community. The Florentine merchant banking skills became recognised in Europe after they brought decisive financial innovation to medieval fairs, such as bill of exchange and double-entry bookkeeping system.
In 1115, the Republic of Florence originated, when the Florentine people rebelled against the Margraviate of Tuscany upon the death of Matilda of Tuscany, a woman who controlled vast territories that included Florence. The Florentines formed a commune in her successors' place. Subsequently, the early, modern state of the republic was ruled by a council known as the Signoria of Florence. The republic had a checkered history of factions and counter-factions. But in 1434, the Medici faction gained governance of the city under Cosimo de' Medici.
During this first Medici governance, in 1469, Cosimo’s grandson Lorenzo de' Medici assumed the reins of government. Lorenzo was a great patron of the arts, commissioning works by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Botticelli. As he was also an accomplished poet and musician himself, he brought composers and singers to Florence too. By contemporary Florentines (and since), he was known as "Lorenzo il Magnifico" (in English: "Lorenzo the Magnificent").
The Medici kept control of Florence until 1494, when Lorenzo’s son Piero II was expelled by the French king Charles VIII, whose army had invaded northern Italy. In 1498, when the Medici were out of power, Niccolò Machiavelli, a diplomat, politician, historian, philosopher, humanist, writer, playwright and poet of the Renaissance period, became secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence. His prescriptions for Florence's regeneration under strong leadership have often been seen as a legitimisation of political expediency and even malpractice. In other words, Machiavelli was a political thinker, perhaps most renowned for his political handbook, titled "The Prince", which is about ruling and the exercise of power. Commissioned by the Medici, Machiavelli also wrote the Florentine Histories, the history of the city.
In 1512, Giovanni de' Medici (later Pope Leo X) re-conquered the Republic of Florence. However, Florence repudiated Medici authority for a second time in 1527, during the so-called War of the League of Cognac. But again the Medici re-assumed their rule in 1531 after an 11-month siege of the city. The republican government was disestablished in 1532, when Pope Clement VII appointed Alessandro de' Medici "Duke of the Florentine Republic", making the republic a hereditary monarchy.
In 1569, the Medici became Grand Dukes of Tuscany, ruling for another two centuries. In all Tuscany, only the Republic of Lucca and the Principality of Piombino were independent from Florence. The extinction of the Medici dynasty and the accession in 1737 of Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine and husband of Maria Theresa of Austria, led to Tuscany's temporary inclusion in the territories of the Austrian crown. From 1801 to 1807 Florence was the capital of the Napoleonic client state Kingdom of Etruria and from 1808 to the fall of Napoleon in 1814, it was the was the prefecture of the French département of Arno. In 1861, Tuscany became a region of the Kingdom of Italy. In 1865, Florence replaced Turin as Italy's capital, but already six years later, it was superseded by Rome.
After doubling during the 19th century, Florence's population was to triple in the 20th, resulting from growth in tourism, trade, financial services and industry. During World War II the city experienced a year-long German occupation (1943 to 1944) and was declared an open city in late July 1944 as troops of the British 8th Army closed in. The retreating Germans decided to demolish all the bridges along the Arno, making it difficult for troops of the 8th Army to cross. But at the latest moment, the German general was convinced that Ponte Vecchio was not to be destroyed due to its historical value. In November 1966, the Arno flooded parts of the centre, damaging many art treasures.
Today, Florence is known as the "cradle of the Renaissance" for its many Renaissance monuments, churches, and other buildings. 600 years after its completion, the dome, built by Filippo Brunelleschi, is still the largest dome built in brick and mortar in the world. Florence also contains numerous museums and art galleries where some of the world's most important works of art are held. Hence, tourism is, by far, the most important of all industries and most of the Florentine economy relies on the money generated by international arrivals and students studying in the city. The value tourism to the city totalled some 62.5 billion € in 2015 and the number of visitors still increases to the present day.
Peul herders, Bambara and Dogan farmers, itinerant traders and a colourful multiethnic host of other buyers and sellers converge at this vibrant weekly market every Monday in front of Djenné's grand mosque. They come from the surrounding regions and fertile flood plains of the Niger inland river delta in the Mopti region of central Mali, part of the semi-arid Sahel zone that stretches across northern Africa just south of an encroaching Sahara.
The ancient adobe mosque towers over Djenné’s bustling market and ageless labyrinth of traditional flat-roofed two-storey adobe houses and narrow backstreets below. The rooftop view extends to the delta flood plains in an infinite backdrop. Access to the mosque's interior and rooftop was forbidden to non-Muslims in 1996 after an intrusive display of disrespect by a Vogue magazine fashion shoot inside the grand mosque. Digital film scan, Asahi Pentax Spotmatic, circa 1976.
~~~
Postrscript - The enchanting Arabian Nights imagery emanating out of this ancient marketplace at the time if this photo shoot (1976) is reminiscent of a seemingly bygone Sahelian era devoid of smartphones, credit cards and packaged safari tours. Nowadays, nascent tourism is on hold and easy access to markets, pastures and farmlands is hampered as ethnic strife and intercommunal violence continue to erupt under a fragile Malian state.
In 2018, Human Rights Watch reported that the Mopti region of central Mali has become an epicentre of interethnic conflict, fuelled by a steady escalation of violence by armed Islamist groups largely allied with Al Qaeda’s advance from the north since 2015. Recruitment to the militant Islamist movement from Peul pastoral herding communities has inflamed tensions within sedentary agrarian communities (Bambara, Dogon, Tellem, Bozo and others) who rely on access to agricultural lands for their livelihood. Predominantly Muslim but opposing ethnic self-defence militias on both sides have been formed for the protection of their own respective communities. This has contributed to a continuous cycle of violent inter-ethnic attacks and reprisals touching villages and hamlets, pastures and farmlands and some marketplaces.
While communal tensions are profoundly connected to a larger ethnopolitical conflict unfolding in northern Mali, chronic insecurities around the ancient town of Djenné and in the broader central regions of Mali are exacerbated by longstanding indigenous concerns over a struggle for scarce natural resources - agricultural land for settled farmers versus water and grazing land for semi-nomadic Peul herdsmen.
Efforts at mediation in the area around Djenné and the grand mosque include a Humanitarian Agreement specifically among Bambara and Bozo farmers, Dogan "hunters" protecting farmers' interests and Peul herders, all committed to guaranteeing the freedom of movement of people, goods and livestock in the "Circle of Djenné" situated in the Mopti region of central Mali.
© All rights to these photos and descriptions are reserved
The earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c. 8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have been found on Castle Rock, Arthur's Seat, Craiglockhart Hill and the Pentland Hills.
When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, they found a Brittonic Celtic tribe whose name they recorded as the Votadini. The Votadini transitioned into the Gododdin kingdom in the Early Middle Ages, with Eidyn serving as one of the kingdom's districts. During this period, the Castle Rock site, thought to have been the stronghold of Din Eidyn, emerged as the kingdom's major centre. The medieval poem Y Gododdin describes a war band from across the Brittonic world who gathered in Eidyn before a fateful raid; this may describe a historical event around AD 600.
In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria, and around this time control of Lothian passed to the Angles. Their influence continued for the next three centuries until around 950, when, during the reign of Indulf, son of Constantine II, the "burh" (fortress), named in the 10th-century Pictish Chronicle as oppidum Eden, was abandoned to the Scots. It thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction.
The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, though the date of its charter is unknown. The first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In the middle of the 14th century, the French chronicler Jean Froissart described it as the capital of Scotland (c. 1365), and James III (1451–88) referred to it in the 15th century as "the principal burgh of our kingdom". Despite the destruction caused by an English assault in 1544, the town slowly recovered, and was at the centre of events in the 16th-century Scottish Reformation and 17th-century Wars of the Covenant. In 1582, Edinburgh's town council was given a royal charter by King James VI permitting the establishment of a university; founded as Tounis College, the institution developed into the University of Edinburgh, which contributed to Edinburgh growing intellectual importance.
Edinburgh in the 17th century
In 1603, King James VI of Scotland succeeded to the English throne, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England in a personal union known as the Union of the Crowns, though Scotland remained, in all other respects, a separate kingdom. In 1638, King Charles I's attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Subsequent Scottish support for Charles Stuart's restoration to the throne of England resulted in Edinburgh's occupation by Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth of England forces – the New Model Army – in 1650.
In the 17th century, Edinburgh's boundaries were still defined by the city's defensive town walls. As a result, the city's growing population was accommodated by increasing the height of the houses. Buildings of 11 storeys or more were common, and have been described as forerunners of the modern-day skyscraper. Most of these old structures were replaced by the predominantly Victorian buildings seen in today's Old Town. In 1611 an act of parliament created the High Constables of Edinburgh to keep order in the city, thought to be the oldest statutory police force in the world.
Following the Treaty of Union in 1706, the Parliaments of England and Scotland passed Acts of Union in 1706 and 1707 respectively, uniting the two kingdoms in the Kingdom of Great Britain effective from 1 May 1707. As a consequence, the Parliament of Scotland merged with the Parliament of England to form the Parliament of Great Britain, which sat at Westminster in London. The Union was opposed by many Scots, resulting in riots in the city.
By the first half of the 18th century, Edinburgh was described as one of Europe's most densely populated, overcrowded and unsanitary towns. Visitors were struck by the fact that the social classes shared the same urban space, even inhabiting the same tenement buildings; although here a form of social segregation did prevail, whereby shopkeepers and tradesmen tended to occupy the cheaper-to-rent cellars and garrets, while the more well-to-do professional classes occupied the more expensive middle storeys.
During the Jacobite rising of 1745, Edinburgh was briefly occupied by the Jacobite "Highland Army" before its march into England. After its eventual defeat at Culloden, there followed a period of reprisals and pacification, largely directed at the rebellious clans.[69] In Edinburgh, the Town Council, keen to emulate London by initiating city improvements and expansion to the north of the castle, reaffirmed its belief in the Union and loyalty to the Hanoverian monarch George III by its choice of names for the streets of the New Town: for example, Rose Street and Thistle Street; and for the royal family, George Street, Queen Street, Hanover Street, Frederick Street and Princes Street (in honour of George's two sons).
In the second half of the century, the city was at the heart of the Scottish Enlightenment, when thinkers like David Hume, Adam Smith, James Hutton and Joseph Black were familiar figures in its streets. Edinburgh became a major intellectual centre, earning it the nickname "Athens of the North" because of its many neo-classical buildings and reputation for learning, recalling ancient Athens. In the 18th-century novel The Expedition of Humphry Clinker by Tobias Smollett one character describes Edinburgh as a "hotbed of genius". Edinburgh was also a major centre for the Scottish book trade. The highly successful London bookseller Andrew Millar was apprenticed there to James McEuen.
From the 1770s onwards, the professional and business classes gradually deserted the Old Town in favour of the more elegant "one-family" residences of the New Town, a migration that changed the city's social character. According to the foremost historian of this development, "Unity of social feeling was one of the most valuable heritages of old Edinburgh, and its disappearance was widely and properly.
Despite an enduring myth to the contrary, Edinburgh became an industrial centre with its traditional industries of printing, brewing and distilling continuing to grow in the 19th century and joined by new industries such as rubber works, engineering works and others. By 1821, Edinburgh had been overtaken by Glasgow as Scotland's largest city. The city centre between Princes Street and George Street became a major commercial and shopping district, a development partly stimulated by the arrival of railways in the 1840s. The Old Town became an increasingly dilapidated, overcrowded slum with high mortality rates. Improvements carried out under Lord Provost William Chambers in the 1860s began the transformation of the area into the predominantly Victorian Old Town seen today. More improvements followed in the early 20th century as a result of the work of Patrick Geddes, but relative economic stagnation during the two world wars and beyond saw the Old Town deteriorate further before major slum clearance in the 1960s and 1970s began to reverse the process. University building developments which transformed the George Square and Potterrow areas proved highly controversial.
Since the 1990s a new "financial district", including the Edinburgh International Conference Centre, has grown mainly on demolished railway property to the west of the castle, stretching into Fountainbridge, a run-down 19th-century industrial suburb which has undergone radical change since the 1980s with the demise of industrial and brewery premises. This ongoing development has enabled Edinburgh to maintain its place as the United Kingdom's second largest financial and administrative centre after London. Financial services now account for a third of all commercial office space in the city. The development of Edinburgh Park, a new business and technology park covering 38 acres (15 ha), 4 mi (6 km) west of the city centre, has also contributed to the District Council's strategy for the city's major economic regeneration.
In 1998, the Scotland Act, which came into force the following year, established a devolved Scottish Parliament and Scottish Executive (renamed the Scottish Government since September 2007[87]). Both based in Edinburgh, they are responsible for governing Scotland while reserved matters such as defence, foreign affairs and some elements of income tax remain the responsibility of the Parliament of the United Kingdom in London.
Making a reprisal in Boston the ever popular and mysterious Guilford repainted geep is still looking clean and fresh. This was my first time catching her since shooting her here when she was fresh out of the Waterville paint booth back in August.
Here is Pan Am Railways Boston based local BO-1 with GMDD GP40-2LW MEC 507 (blt. Jul 1974 as CN 9472). This view looks across the Island End River here at its confluence with the Mystic as seen from the pretty Mary O'Malley State Park in Chelsea.
Everett, Massachusetts
Wednesday December 23, 2020
Reprisal by Zibska for Enchantment. www.flickr.com/photos/zibska/12173730773/
Along side platforms (Siren in Ruby) by Lindsey Warwick
www.flickr.com/photos/105461342@N04/10852526085/
Pose is Voyuer by Del May.