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pictionid60385434 - catalog08002046 - title Apollo production Downey Ca - filename0802046.tif---Image from the SDASM Curatorial Collection.Note: This material may be protected by Copyright Law (Title 17 U.S.C.)--Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum
Program:Aperture-priority AE
Lens:Tamron SP 70-300mm f/4-5.6 Di VC USD (A005)
F:5.6
Speed:1/125
ISO:2000
Focal Length:220.0 mm (35 mm equivalent 330.0 mm)
Focus Mode:AF-C
AF Area:Dynamic Area
Shooting Mode:Single-Frame
VR:On
EV:-1
Metering Mode:Spot
WB:Auto
Focus Distance:9.44 m
Dof:0.40 m (9.24 - 9.65)
HyperFocal:431.48 m
Photo credit: Elena Olivo
Copyright: NYU Photo Bureau
The Fall 2010 Student Hackathon brought in hundreds of students from 30 universities to NYU's Courant Institute for 24 hours of creative hacking on New York City startups' APIs.
Selected startups presented their technologies at the beginning of the event, and students formed groups to brainstorm and begin coding on their ideas. Many students worked into the night, foregoing sleep to fulfill their visions.
On Sunday afternoon students presented their projects to an audience including a judging panel, which selected the final winners.
hackNY hosts hackathons one each semester, as well as a Summer Fellows Program, which pairs quantitative and computational students with startups which can demonstrate a strong mentoring environment, a problem for a student to work on, a person to mentor them, and a place for them to work. Startups selected to host a student are expected to compensate student Fellows. Students enjoy free housing together and a pedagogical lecture series to introduce them to the ins and outs of joining and founding a startup.
For more information on hackNY's initiatives, please visit www.hackNY.org and follow us on twitter @hackNY
Catalog #: Casson_0012
Title: Apollo Lunar Capsule
Photo Credit: North American Aviation Inc., Space and Information Systems Division, Photographic Department
Year: 3/7/1966
Collection: Norm Casson Collection
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Catalog #: 08_00847
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: Columbia Rollout
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Catalog #: 08_00953
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: Space Shuttle Columbia
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Catalog #: 08_00870
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: The Space Shuttle
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
My hubby's lil' email gift to me.
He really knows so much...about stupid stuff...like this algorithmic mathematical art, I like it!
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Catalog #: 08_01001
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: shows a model concept for a space shuttle
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Catalog #: 08_00938
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: Space Shuttle Mock up
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Water Canyon / Shot Canyon Route
In a place called "The Maze" getting lost could be a concern. We brought maps, compasses, and GPS yet rarely consulted any of that. We followed established routes and didn't go off trail very much.On the slick rock the routes are marked by cairns. Sometimes they're closely spaced as they are here. In some locations there was a dearth of cairns but usually in those places the path of the route was obvious.
Maze District
Canyonlands National Park
Notes about these pictures: Most of my Chemtrail pictures were taken in Dayton, Ohio--home of The Wright-Patterson Air Force Base -- final resting place of the Roswell aliens <:-0 -- and apparently from my photo and video documentation, Chemtrail Central. This area has been getting Chemtrailed on a massive, daily basis and I have 1000's of pictures and videos since I began documenting Chemtrails regularly, in late 2014. The level of Chemtrail activity here is astonishing, and is being conducted, as they say, in plain sight. Looking back through my film archive of slides & negatives, I have convincing evidence of Chemtrailing activity back to the early 1990’s, and chemtraily-looking skies back to the early 1980’s.
I am designating all my Chemtrail pictures and videos uploaded to Flickr as CC0 (Creative Commons Zero), which removes my copyright and releases them into the Public Domain. My goal is to make them available in the highest resolution possible, and without any image processing. They are archived on Flickr under "Chem Trailchaser".
I hope by making these images widely available, it will accelerate interest, research, study and more documentation from all over the world. Please, download, copy, backup, mirror, share and use & improve as many of these photos as you can! Thanks for looking - Chem
Careful program of exercises explains Jeri Ryan measurements. The secret is to be regular with a positive view.
Program:Aperture-priority AE
Lens:AF-S DX VR Zoom-Nikkor 18-105mm f/3.5-5.6G ED
F:3.8
Speed:1/6
ISO:400
Focal Length:21.0 mm (35 mm equivalent 31.0 mm)
Focus Mode:AF-S
AF Area:Contrast-detect (normal area)
Shooting Mode:Single-Frame, [3]
VR:On
EV:-1
Metering Mode:Multi-segment
WB:Auto
Focus Distance:1.12 m
Dof:0.45 m (0.94 - 1.39)
HyperFocal:5.70 m
one of our teams at work is using pair programming on their projects!
this is a set of two keyboards and monitors attached to the same computer, showing the same screen.
Financial Wellness Program is a service or resource that can help you make smart choices for managing your money and planning for the future.These programs will help employees to find balance and control over their finances. Enhanced Financial Wellness Group provides you best programs that will meet your both family and business financial needs.
Minolta Program D316i Flash unit
Supposed to work only on the Dynax / Maxxum 3000i camera.
I even do not manage to open it :-(
U.S. Forest Service Engineer scoping out options for viewing platform and campsite at Djiji Falls to support development of ecotourism infrastructure in Ivindo National Park, Gabon. (Forest Service photo by Olivia Freeman)
The Global Learning and Observation to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) program is a worldwide hands-on, primary and secondary school-based science and education program. Field Training Sessions took place at the Goddard Space Flight Center during The 17th GLOBE Annual Partner Meeting
Credit: NASA/Goddard/Bill Hrybyk
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center enables NASA’s mission through four scientific endeavors: Earth Science, Heliophysics, Solar System Exploration, and Astrophysics. Goddard plays a leading role in NASA’s accomplishments by contributing compelling scientific knowledge to advance the Agency’s mission.
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I was a Canon (fan)boy for quite a long time but I have never owned their manual focus FD line. That is, until now. :)
Catalog #: 08_00834
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: shows an example of a mission control room
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Volunteer Teaching Program,Volunteer Teaching Kenya
Description: Teach English, Mathematics, Science and other subjects at our primary schools in urban and rural areas of Kenya. No teaching certificate is required, but native English speakers are preferred.
Your voluntary contribution to teach English as a second language in Kenya or to teach other subjects, will be highly appreciated and fulfilling to yourself. We work with a number of schools where teaching volunteers will be placed..
Those volunteering for international teaching in Kenya are expected to have at least graduated from high school or be enrolled in a college. On completion of a mandatory overseas teaching orientation, the overseas volunteer teachers will be expected to work for between 4 to 5 hours a day.
The number of local teachers per school is normally small. In some schools the student to teacher ratios are so high, but sometimes in Kenya, that’s the only chance the students have to learn and make something out of their lives.
The students range in age from 4 to 14 from pre-kindergarten to class 8. For the younger children, you can help them with conversational English, basic math, arts & crafts, board games, playground games, sports like soccer and running, music, and any other talents you wish to share. For the older students, you can teach more formal subjects like English, science, math, and history. The school schedule is Monday-Friday from 8am to 4pm with a two-hour sports period from 3-5pm where the students do things like cross-country running, soccer, and basketball.
All classes are taught in English in Kenya.
Qualification: Native English speakers are preferred.
Education
No teaching is done during April, August or December due to school holidays in these months.
Program Cost:
2 Weeks : US $740
4 Weeks : US$ 1, 090
Extra Week: US$100
Included in Program Fee
• All Food
• All Accommodations
• Airport Pickup/Dropoff
• Transfer to Project Location
• Orientation
•Sim Card for your Cell Phone
• 24/7country coordination
• First Night Hotel acommodation on Bed and Breakfast
Not Included in Program Fee
• Airfare
• Visa Fee
• Vaccinations
• Internet
• Phone Calls
Host Family Accomodation
For Placement feel free to contact us
To apply for this program, click here
info@lecdenkenya.com
Volunteering in Kenya: Maasailand Teaching
The Maasai have largely managed to remain outside of mainstream African culture and maintain their traditional ways, although this becomes more challenging each year. For this reason Maasai are increasingly seeking the opportunities African society has to offer. With little government support Maasai struggle to find teachers and medical professionals to work in their schools and medical clinics.
Teaching Program: It is estimated that less than half of all Maasai children attend schools, so teaching volunteers are urgently needed to help reverse this trend. Volunteers have the opportunity to educate children at primary school level. Subjects taught include English, mathematics, science, and social studies. Volunteers are also encouraged to initiate extra-curricular activities.
The Maasai have largely managed to remain outside of mainstream African culture and maintain their traditional ways, although this becomes more challenging each year. For this reason Maasai are increasingly seeking the opportunities African society has to offer. With little government support Maasai struggle to find teachers and medical professionals to work in their schools and medical clinics.
It is estimated that less than half of all Maasai children attend schools, so teaching volunteers are urgently needed to help reverse this trend. Volunteers have the opportunity to educate children at primary school level. Subjects taught include English, mathematics, science, and social studies. Volunteers are also encouraged to initiate extra-curricular activities like, art ‘n’ crafts, reading groups, drama, music and sports.
You may find Kenyan classrooms very different to your own past experience. They are often lacking in funding and resources. At best, a standard classroom may consist of chairs, a chalkboard and very little in terms of other equipment. Even textbooks are rare and students often find themselves sharing textbooks if they are available.
Each grade will have its own classroom and you can expect to have a class size of 30 to 50 students. There are 8 classes in a day, with several breaks in between. After three o’clock, there are no classes, but the students do alternative things such as play sports, hold debates, or work on their homework. The official school day begins at 7:50am and ends at 5pm.
The teaching staff is made up of paid and local volunteer teachers. You may be working as the sole teacher in the classroom or in partnership with a Kenyan teacher. Sometimes Kenyan teachers will step down in order for you to take their classes, we do not encourage this and strongly recommend that volunteers work in partnership with Kenyan teachers to introduce new skills, knowledge and practical teaching methods to the classroom that can be carried on after your placement. Working in partnership will also provide volunteers the opportunity to learn another ways of doing things also.
The level of English language skills will offer a challenge. Regardless of the education level, English skills amongst the children will vary due to age and the quality of education they have received. As a result, levels of individuals within classes often differ and you will be expected to work with the varying levels.
School is in session three months at a time (January to March, May to July, September to November) and then the students are given a month break before beginning again. Exams normally occur at the end of term time. Volunteers working during exam time are expected to help prepare students for exams and grade them.
Note: the type of work volunteers will perform is subject to the needs of the particular project they are placed at and their own experience and skills.
Volunteer work expectation
Volunteers are expected to work a minimum of 4 to 6 hours a day, 5 days a week from Monday to Saturday. Sundays are days off. Volunteers are able to work beyond this minimum commitment.
It is vital that you are flexible and willing to adapt to situations as they arise. You cannot predict what each day may bring. We also ask that you are prepared to follow any rules set by us or our partners to ensure continuity of the program. New initiatives you may wish to set up at your project should be discussed with Lecden-Kenya. and your project director supervisor before implementation to ensure that what you set up is appropriate for the project.
Accommodation
Volunteers in the Teaching, Medical/Health and HIV/AIDS program will be accommodated in a homestay situation. While volunteers in the Children’s program may be accommodated in either a homestay, volunteer dormitory, or at the Children’s Home they are working in.
Accommodation at homestays is with everyday members of the community who have invited international volunteers into their homes. Each host situation is different in terms of the number and make-up of people living in the house, their personal circumstances, style of accommodation, and their expectation of you as a guest in their home.
Volunteer dormitory accommodation is where volunteers live together in a house located near their placement and are cared for by househelp.
Accommodation at a Children’s Home is located onsite and provides the volunteer with separate sleeping quarters from the children. Volunteers are cared for by the Home’s staff.
Accommodation providers have been selected to ensure volunteer well-being and comfort, to maintain safety and security, and to give an insight into Kenyan life. Take the opportunity to get to know those at your accommodation. You have a unique opportunity to learn a different way of living and culture. Make the most of it!
What you can expect
Volunteers can expect to share a room with one to three other volunteers. Bedding, such as sheets, blankets, pillows, is provided however volunteers will need to supply their own mosquito nets. Mosquito nets cost less than US$10 and can be purchased in Nairobi on day two of Orientation.
Living is basic, but comfortable. In urban areas accommodation is modern relative to rural areas. Houses will generally have electricity, running water, hot water and flushing toilets. Internet, telephone, ATMs, supermarkets, and restaurants are an easy travel distance from accommodation. Public transport is readily accessible and just a short walk from most urban accommodation sites.
In contrast, rural accommodation may not have electricity or running water. Common to all houses are bucket baths, squat toilets and boiled hot water. Internet, bank or ATMs, supermarkets, and restaurants are located in the nearest town which will require public transport to get to. Public transport is available but will normally require volunteers to walk a distance to get to.
Both urban and rural accommodation will not have telephones. For this reason it is recommended volunteers buy a local mobile phone to keep in contact with family and friends at home, other volunteers and program staff. Volunteers will have an opportunity to buy a mobile phone on day two of Orientation and the cost is upwards of US$30. Remember to keep an eye on international calling charges.
Meals
Volunteers will be served two meals per day: breakfast and dinner. While meals will differ from accommodation to accommodation, volunteers can expect the style of food served to be in keeping with the traditional Kenyan diet. An example of the types of meals served:
Breakfast: bread with jam, fruit, and chai tea.
Dinner: a typical dinner includes three dishes of the following: beans, rice, potatoes, meat, spinach, cabbage, mixed vegetables, or chapatti.
Please note that snack food is not provided as part of the meals supplied at your accommodation.
As you can see the Kenyan diet is made up of mostly carbohydrate dishes and meat served at most one to two times a week. For most, this will be a new way of eating and you may like to consider supplementing your diet with vitamins and perhaps purchasing food from a local market or supermarket. If your diet differs from the foods listed above, let your accommodation provider know so not to cause any confusion about your eating habits.
Water
As it is not advisable to drink tap water we recommend that you purchase bottled water. This is widely available in Kenya and you can expect to pay about US$10 per week. This would provide you with 2 liters of water per day. Be sure to check that the seals are not broken.
Boiled water is another good option for safe drinking water. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (http://www.cdc.gov/travel/contentWaterTreatment.aspx) recommends boiling water as the best method for making water safe to drink. Boiling water as recommended will kill bacterial, parasitic, and viral causes of diarrhea. Directions for boiling water: boil water vigorously for 1 minute and allow it to cool to room temperature (do not add ice).
Where to buy? What you can buy?
Kenya has a large number of outlets where food is sold, ranging from small outdoor markets to large supermarkets, and roadside eateries to world famous restaurants. Prices vary greatly. You can expect to pay what you would in your own country when buying food from a supermarket or eating at a restaurant, while small markets and roadside eateries offer a much cheaper price option.
Transport
Your transport from your arrival location to the volunteer accommodation, and during Orientation is covered by the program fee. Once Orientation is complete volunteers are transferred to their program locations. Volunteers, in most cases, will be accommodated a reasonable walking distance from their project location and will be able to walk to work each day. For those who are accommodated outside of a reasonable walking distance and when public transport is available, money for transport will be provided. Note: any transport money provided in this instance is at the discretion of Lecden-Kenya.
Transport on departure from the program is not covered by the program fee. Volunteers will need to organise and pay for their own transport when leaving the program.
Getting around Kenya
Kenya has about 250 airports and airstrips (of vastly varying quality) and plenty of airlines connecting Nairobi with Mombasa, Kisumu, Nanyuki, Malindi, Lamu and the national parks/reserves of Amboseli, Masai Mara and Samburu. Flying around Kenya and its neighboring countries is a relatively safe way to cover a lot of ground.
Traveling by train between Nairobi and Mombasa is also a popular form of transport.
Kenya has a good network of regular buses, matatus (usually minibuses), shared-taxis and private taxis which will get you where you need to go; from home to the closest town or the neighboring country. To reduce any safety risks, only travel with recommended bus companies and taxi drivers and never travel by matatu at night. Cycling is best done in rural areas due to the chaotic traffic on the main roads, but the distances between towns and the poor condition of roads needs to be kept in mind.
Communication
Keeping in touch by post, telephone and email is generally easy, but sometimes not reliable.
Telephone
Kenya‘s telephone system is improving but the network is limited to main towns and often breaks down in times of heavy usage or bad weather conditions.
Volunteer accommodations do not have telephones, but phone booths are usually located in the cities. Most Kenyans however, rely on mobile phones to keep in contact with the outside world. For this reason we recommend volunteers buy a local mobile phone to keep in contact with family and friends at home, other volunteers and program staff. (Volunteers will have an opportunity to buy a mobile phone on day two of Orientation and cost upwards of US$30. Remember to keep an eye on international calling charges.)
Internet Services
IT has picked up rapidly in Kenya. Internet cafes are available in the main towns and you can expect to pay around US$1 for an hour of internet use. The internet is slow but it is a much cheaper option for keeping in touch with family and friends at home than telephone.
Post
There are several post offices in Kenya scattered around the country. The post, on average, takes a few days to Europe and around ten days to North America, Australia and New Zealand; times from these places to Kenya are slightly longer. It is a good idea to keep copies of letters or photo disks just incase they get lost in the post and we recommend not sending valuables just in case they go missing also.
Electricity
Electricity runs in cities and towns but not in extremely rural areas. Power cuts do occur, so a power surge protector for sensitive equipment and a torch and or head lamp are good ideas. Kenya’s electrical system is characterized by 240 volts AC, 50Hz with a rectangular blade 3 pin plug (http://kropla.com/!g.htm).
Free Time
Volunteers are free to do as they please during down time. For most, free time will be on weekends, public holidays and after volunteer duties are done for the day.
You can use free time to prepare for any future work or activities you may wish to plan. Some volunteers choose to help in other programs when they have free time. You may like to meet up with other volunteers during your free time to swap ideas or simply spend time with them. You may also like to visit local sights of interest.
If you are considering traveling around Kenya and neighboring countries we recommend you take the necessary safety precautions and the advice of our partner organisation and trusted locals. If you would like to discover Kenya by joining a safari you may like to consult our partner who can put you in touch with providers of safari packages at competitive rates. Organizing a safari can be done while in Kenya.
Number of Volunteers
The Kenya program usually has between 30 and 80 volunteers per month, but the number of volunteers varies depending on the season. Generally you are placed with one to three other volunteers at your project.
Program Cost:
2 Weeks : US $740
4 Weeks : US$ 1, 090
Extra Week: US$100
Included in Program Fee
• All Food
• All Accommodations
• Airport Pickup/Dropoff
• Transfer to Project Location
• Orientation
•Sim Card for your Cell Phone
• 24/7country coordination
• First Night Hotel acommodation on Bed and Breakfast
Not Included in Program Fee
• Airfare
• Visa Fee
• Vaccinations
• Internet
• Phone Calls
Host Family Accomodation
For Placement feel free to contact us
Volunteer Programs ,To apply for this program, click here
To apply for this program, click here
info@lecdenkenya.com
Gap Year & Volunteer,Volunteer in Kenya Volunteer Work Opportunities Volunteer Working Abroad Kenya.
Volunteer in kenya, kenya Volunteer Aboad in Kenya community volunteer orgarnization kenya volunteering programs, kenya volunteer work opportunities, kenya volunteer placements in kenya volunteer travel, voluneer working abroad kenya.
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VOLUNTEERS TYPICAL ACTIVITIES,Children Program in Orphanage/Care Center* Intern Abroad Programs,Volunteer Abroad Programs,High School Abroad Programs, TEFL Certification Programs,Trends in Volunteering Corporate Volunteering on the Rise.
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see our chip in widget, lecdenkenya.chipin.com/lecden-kenya-a-non-profit-for-the-...
Regards
Steve
info@lecdenkenya.com
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin [nb 1] (9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Soviet Air Forces pilot and cosmonaut who became the first human to journey into outer space, achieving a major milestone in the Space Race; his capsule Vostok 1 completed one orbit of Earth on 12 April 1961. Gagarin became an international celebrity and was awarded many medals and titles, including Hero of the Soviet Union, his nation's highest honour.
Vostok 1 was Gagarin's only spaceflight but he served as the backup crew to the Soyuz 1 mission, which ended in a fatal crash, killing his friend and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Gagarin later served as the deputy training director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre, which was subsequently named after him. He was elected as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union in 1962 and then to the Soviet of Nationalities, respectively the lower and upper chambers of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Gagarin died in 1968 when the MiG-15 training jet he was piloting with his flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin crashed near the town of Kirzhach.
Contents
1 Early life and education
2 Soviet Air Force service
3 Soviet space program
3.1 Selection and training
3.2 Vostok 1
4 After the Vostok 1 flight
5 Personal life
6 Death
7 Awards and honours
7.1 Medals and orders of merit
7.2 Tributes
7.3 Statues and monuments
7.4 50th anniversary
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Early life and education
Yuri Gagarin was born 9 March 1934 in the village of Klushino,[1] near Gzhatsk (renamed Gagarin in 1968 after his death).[2] His parents worked on a collective farm:[3] Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina as a dairy farmer.[nb 2][4] Yuri was the third of four children: his siblings were brothers Valentin (1924) and Boris (1936), and sister Zoya (1927).[5][6]
Like millions of Soviet Union citizens, the Gagarin family suffered during the Nazi occupation of Russia during World War II. Klushino was occupied in November 1941 during the German advance on Moscow and a German officer took over the Gagarin residence. The family were allowed to build a mud hut approximately 3 by 3 metres (10 by 10 ft) inside on the land behind their house, where they spent twenty-one months until the end of the occupation.[7] His two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour in 1943 and did not return until after the war in 1945.[5][8] In 1946, the family moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his secondary education.[7]
In 1950, aged 16, Gagarin began an apprenticeship as a foundryman at the Lyubertsy steel plant near Moscow,[5][8] and enrolled at a local "young workers" school for seventh-grade evening classes.[9] After graduating in 1951 from both the seventh grade and the vocational school with honours in mouldmaking and foundry work,[9] he was selected for further training at the Saratov Industrial Technical School, where he studied tractors.[5][8][10] While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered at a local flying club for weekend training as a Soviet air cadet, where he trained to fly a biplane, and later a Yak-18.[8][10] He earned extra money as a part-time dock labourer on the Volga River.[7]
Soviet Air Force service
In 1955, Gagarin was accepted to the 1st Chkalovsky Higher Air Force Pilots School, a flight school in Orenburg.[11][12] He initially began training on the Yak-18 already familiar to him and later graduated to training on the MiG-15 in February 1956.[11] Gagarin twice struggled to land the two-seater trainer aircraft, and risked dismissal from pilot training. However, the commander of the regiment decided to give him another chance at landing. Gagarin's flight instructor gave him a cushion to sit on, which improved his view from the cockpit, and he landed successfully. Having completed his evaluation in a trainer aircraft,[13] Gagarin began flying solo in 1957.[5]
On 5 November 1957, Gagarin was commissioned a lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces having accumulated 166 hours and 47 minutes of flight time. He graduated from flight school the next day and was posted to the Luostari airbase close to the Norwegian border in Murmansk Oblast for a two-year assignment with the Northern Fleet.[14] On 7 July 1959, he was rated Military Pilot 3rd Class.[15] After expressing interest in space exploration following the launch of Luna 3 on 6 October 1959, his recommendation to the Soviet space program was endorsed and forward by Lieutenant Colonel Babushkin.[14][16] By this point, he had accumulated 265 hours of flight time.[14] Gagarin was promoted to the rank of senior lieutenant on 6 November 1959,[15] three weeks after he was interviewed by a medical commission for qualification to the space program.[14]
Soviet space program
Selection and training
See also: Vostok programme
Vostok I capsule on display at the RKK Energiya museum
Gagarin's selection for the Vostok programme was overseen by the Central Flight Medical Commission led by Major General Konstantin Fyodorovich Borodin of the Soviet Army Medical Service. He underwent physical and psychological testing conducted at Central Aviation Scientific-Research Hospital, in Moscow, commanded by Colonel A.S. Usanov, a member of the commission. The commission also included Colonel Yevgeniy Anatoliyevich Karpov, who later commanded the training centre, Colonel Vladimir Ivanovich Yazdovskiy, the head physician for Gagarin's flight, and Major-General Aleksandr Nikolayevich Babiychuk, a physician flag officer on the Soviet Air Force General Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Air Force.[17]
From a pool of 154 qualified pilots short-listed by their Air Force units, the military physicians chose 29 cosmonaut candidates, of which 20 were approved by the Credential Committee of the Soviet Government. The first twelve including Gagarin were approved on 7 March 1960 and eight more were added in a series of subsequent orders issued until June.[18] Gagarin began training at the Khodynka Airfield in downtown Moscow on 15 March 1960. The training regiment involved vigorous and repetitive physical exercises which Alexei Leonov, a member of the initial group of twelve, described as akin to training for the Olympics Games.[19] In April 1960, they began parachute training in Saratov Oblast and each completed about 40 to 50 jumps from both low and high altitude, and over land and water.[20]
Gagarin was a candidate favoured by his peers. When they were asked to vote anonymously for a candidate besides themselves they would like to be the first to fly, all but three chose Gagarin.[21] One of these candidates, Yevgeny Khrunov, believed that Gagarin was very focused and was demanding of himself and others when necessary.[22] On 30 May 1960, Gagarin was further selected for an accelerated training group, known as the Vanguard Six or Sochi Six,[23][nb 3] from which the first cosmonauts of the Vostok programme would be chosen. The other members of the group were Anatoliy Kartashov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, German Titov, and Valentin Varlamov. However, Kartashov and Varlamov were injured and replaced by Khrunov and Grigoriy Nelyubov.[25]
As several of the candidates selected for the program including Gagarin did not have higher education degrees, they were enrolled into a correspondence course program at Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy. Gagarin enrolled in the program in September 1960 and did not earn his specialist diploma until early 1968.[26][27] Gagarin was also subjected to experiments that were designed to test physical and psychological endurance including oxygen starvation tests in which the cosmonauts were locked in an isolation chamber and the air slowly pumped out. He also trained for the upcoming flight by experiencing g-forces in a centrifuge.[28][25] Psychological tests included placing the candidates in an anechoic chamber in complete isolation; Gagarin was in the chamber on July 26 – August 5.[29][20] In August 1960, a Soviet Air Force doctor evaluated his personality as follows:
Modest; embarrasses when his humor gets a little too racy; high degree of intellectual development evident in Yuriy; fantastic memory; distinguishes himself from his colleagues by his sharp and far-ranging sense of attention to his surroundings; a well-developed imagination; quick reactions; persevering, prepares himself painstakingly for his activities and training exercises, handles celestial mechanics and mathematical formulae with ease as well as excels in higher mathematics; does not feel constrained when he has to defend his point of view if he considers himself right; appears that he understands life better than a lot of his friends.[21]
The Vanguard Six were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961[25] and entered a two-day examination conducted by a special interdepartmental commission led Lieutenant-General Nikolai Kamanin, tasked with ranking of the candidates based on their mission readiness for the first human Vostok mission. On 17 January 1961, they were tested in a simulator at the M. M. Gromov Flight-Research Institute on a full-size mockup of the Vostok capsule. Gagarin, Nikolayev, Popovich, and Titov all received excellent marks on the first day of testing in which they were required to describe the various phases of the mission followed by questions from commission.[22] On the second day, they were given a written examination following which the special commission ranked Gagarin as the best candidate the first mission. He and the next two highest-ranked cosmonauts, Titov and Nelyubov, were sent to Tyuratam for final preparations.[22] Gagarin and Titov were selected to train in the flight-ready spacecraft on 7 April 1961. Historian Asif Siddiqi writes of the final selection:[30]
In the end, at the State Commission meeting on April 8, Kamanin stood up and formally nominated Gagarin as the primary pilot and Titov as his backup. Without much discussion, the commission approved the proposal and moved on to other last-minute logistical issues. It was assumed that in the event Gagarin developed health problems prior to liftoff, Titov would take his place, with Nelyubov acting as his backup.
Vostok 1
Main article: Vostok 1
Poyekhali!
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Gagarin's voice
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On 12 April 1961, 6:07 am UTC, the Vostok 3KA-3 (Vostok 1) spacecraft was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome. Aboard was Gagarin, the first human to travel into space, using the call sign Kedr (Russian: Кедр, Siberian pine or Cedar).[31] The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:
Korolev: Preliminary stage ... intermediate... main... LIFT-OFF! We wish you a good flight. Everything's all right.
Gagarin: Off we go! Goodbye, until [we meet] soon, dear friends.[32][33]
Gagarin's farewell to Korolev using the informal phrase Poyekhali! (Russian: Поехали!)[nb 4] later became a popular expression in the Eastern Bloc that was used to refer to the beginning of the Space Age.[35][36] The five first-stage engines fired until the first separation event, when the four side-boosters fell away, leaving the core engine. The core stage then separated while the rocket was in a suborbital trajectory, and the upper stage carried it to orbit. Once the upper stage finished firing, it separated from the spacecraft, which orbited for 108 minutes before returning to Earth in Kazakhstan.[37] Gagarin became the first to orbit the Earth.[31]
File:1961-04-19 First Pictures-Yuri Gagarin-selection.ogvPlay media
An April 1961 newsreel of Gagarin arriving in Moscow to be greeted by First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev.
"The feeling of weightlessness was somewhat unfamiliar compared with Earth conditions. Here, you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended", Gagarin wrote in his post-flight report.[38] He also wrote in his autobiography released the same year that he sang the tune "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows" (Russian: "Родина слышит, Родина знает") during re-entry.[39] Gagarin was qualified a Military Pilot 1st Class and promoted to the rank of major in a special order given during his flight.[15][39]
At about 23,000 feet (7,000 m), Gagarin ejected from the descending capsule as planned and landed using a parachute. There were concerns Gagarin's spaceflight record would not be certified by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing body for setting standards and keeping records in the field, which at the time required that the pilot land with the craft.[40] Gagarin and Soviet officials initially refused to admit that he had not landed with his spacecraft,[41] an omission which became apparent after Titov's subsequent flight on Vostok 2 four months later. Gagarin's spaceflight records were nonetheless certified and again reaffirmed by the FAI, which revised it rules, and acknowledge that the crucial steps of the safe launch, orbit, and return of the pilot had been accomplished. Gagarin continues to be internationally recognised as the first human in space and first to orbit the Earth.[42]
After the Vostok 1 flight
Gagarin in Warsaw, 1961
Gagarin's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space program and he became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, as well as a worldwide celebrity. Newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. He was escorted in a long motorcade of high-ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the Kremlin where, in a lavish ceremony, Nikita Khrushchev awarded him the title Hero of the Soviet Union. Other cities in the Soviet Union also held mass demonstrations, the scale of which were second only to World War II Victory Parades.[43]
Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova (seated to his right) sign autographs in 1964
Gagarin gained a reputation as an adept public figure and was noted for his charismatic smile.[44][45][46] On 15 April 1961, accompanied by official from the Soviet Academy of Sciences, he answered questions at a press conference in Moscow reportedly attended by 1,000 reporters.[47] Gagarin visited the United Kingdom three months after the Vostok 1 mission, going to London and Manchester.[48][44] While in Manchester, despite heavy rain, he refused an umbrella, insisted that the roof of the convertible car he was riding in remain open, and stood so the cheering crowds could see him.[44][49] Gagarin toured widely abroad, accepting the invitation of about 30 countries.[50] In just the first four months, he also went to Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, and Iceland.[51]
In 1962, Gagarin began serving as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union,[52] and was elected to the Central Committee of the Young Communist League. He later returned to Star City, the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a lieutenant colonel of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of colonel on 6 November 1963.[15] On 20 December 1963, Gagarin became Deputy Training Director of the Star City cosmonaut training base.[53] Soviet officials, including cosmonaut overseerer Nikolai Kamanin, tried to keep Gagarin away from any flights, being worried about losing their hero in an accident noting that he was "too dear to mankind to risk his life for the sake of an ordinary space flight".[54] Kamanin was also concerned by Gagarin's drinking and believed the sudden rise to fame had taken its toll on the cosmonaut. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker", his touring schedule placed him in social situations in which he was increasingly expected to drink alcohol.[5][10]
Gagarin with U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey, French Prime Minister Georges Pompidou and the Gemini 4 astronauts at the 1965 Paris Air Show
Two years later, he was re-elected as a deputy of the Soviet Union but this time to the Soviet of Nationalities, the upper chamber of legislature.[52] The following year, he began to re-qualify as a fighter pilot[55] and was backup pilot for his friend Vladimir Komarov on the Soyuz 1 flight after five years without piloting duty. Kamanin had opposed Gagarin's reassignment to cosmonaut training; he had gained weight and his flying skills had deteriorated. Despite this, he remained a strong contender for Soyuz 1 until he was replaced by Komarov in April 1966 and reassigned to Soyuz 3.[56]
The Soyuz 1 launch was rushed due to implicit political pressures[57] and despite Gagarin's protests that additional safety precautions were necessary.[58] Gagarin accompanied Komarov to the rocket before launch and relayed instructions to Komarov from ground control following multiple system failures aboard the spacecraft.[59] Despite their best efforts, Soyuz 1 crash landed after its parachutes failed to open, killing Komarov instantly.[60] After the Soyuz 1 crash, Gagarin was permanently banned from training for and participating in further spaceflights.[61] He was also grounded from flying aircraft solo, a demotion he worked hard to lift. He was temporarily relieved of duties to focus on academics with the promise that he would be able to resume flight training.[62] On 17 February 1968, Gagarin successfully defended his aerospace engineering thesis on the subject of spaceplane aerodynamic configuration and graduated cum laude from Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy.[27][63][62]
Personal life
Gagarin and his wife Valentina clapping at a concert in Moscow in 1964.
Gagarin and his wife Valentina at a concert in Moscow in 1964.
Gagarin was a keen sportsman and fond of ice hockey as a goal keeper.[64] He was also a basketball fan and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being a referee.[65]
In 1957, while a cadet in flight school, Gagarin met Valentina Goryacheva at the May Day celebrations at the Red Square in Moscow.[66] She was a medical technician who graduated from Orenburg Medical School.[8][10] They were married on 7 November 1957,[8] the same day Gagarin graduated from Orenburg, and they had two daughters.[67][68] Yelena Yurievna Gagarina, born 1959,[68] is an art historian who has worked as the director-general of the Moscow Kremlin Museums since 2001;[69][70] and Galina Yurievna Gagarina, born 1961,[68] is a professor of economics and the department chair at Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow.[69][71] Following his rise to fame, at a Black Sea resort in September 1961, he was reportedly caught by his wife during a liaison with a nurse who had aided him after a boating incident. He attempted to escape through a window and jumped off a second floor balcony. The resulting injury left a permanent scar above his left eyebrow.[5][10]
Death
Plaque on a brick wall with inscription: Юрий Алексеевич Гагарин, 1934-03-09–1968-03-27
Plaque indicating Gagarin's interment in the Kremlin Wall
On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, Gagarin and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died when their MiG-15UTI crashed near the town of Kirzhach. The bodies of Gagarin and Seryogin were cremated and their ashes were buried in the walls of the Kremlin.[72] Wrapped in secrecy, the cause of the crash that killed Gagarin is uncertain and became the subject of several theories.[73][74] At least three investigations into the crash were conducted separately by the Air Force, official government commissions, and the KGB.[75][76] According to a biography of Gagarin by Jamie Doran and Piers Bizony, Starman: The Truth Behind the Legend of Yuri Gagarin, the KGB worked "not just alongside the Air Force and the official commission members but against them."[75]
The KGB's report declassified in March 2003 dismissed various conspiracy theories and instead indicated the actions of airbase personnel contributed to the crash. The report states that an air-traffic controller provided Gagarin with outdated weather information and that by the time of his flight, conditions had deteriorated significantly. Ground crew also left external fuel tanks attached to the aircraft. Gagarin's planned flight activities needed clear weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation concluded Gagarin's aircraft entered a spin, either due to a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the out-of-date weather report, the crew believed their altitude was higher than it was and could not react properly to bring the MiG-15 out of its spin.[76] Another theory, advanced in 2005 by the original crash investigator, hypothesizes that a cabin air vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, leading to oxygen deprivation and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft.[73] A similar theory, published in Air & Space magazine, is that the crew detected the open vent and followed procedure by executing a rapid dive to a lower altitude. This dive caused them to lose consciousness and crash.[74]
On 12 April 2007, the Kremlin vetoed a new investigation into the death of Gagarin. Government officials said they saw no reason to begin a new investigation.[77] In April 2011, documents from a 1968 commission set up by the Central Committee of the Communist Party to investigate the accident were declassified. The documents revealed that the commission's original conclusion was that Gagarin or Seryogin had manoeuvered sharply, either to avoid a weather balloon or to avoid "entry into the upper limit of the first layer of cloud cover", leading the jet into a "super-critical flight regime and to its stalling in complex meteorological conditions".[78]
A Russian MiG-15UTI, the same type as Gagarin was flying
Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, a member of a state commission established to investigate Gagarin's death, was conducting parachute training sessions that day and heard "two loud booms in the distance". He believes that a Sukhoi Su-15 was flying below its minimum altitude and, "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier". The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG-15UTI into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov said the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing.[79] In a June 2013 interview with Russian television network RT, Leonov said a report on the incident confirmed the presence of a second, "unauthorized" Su-15 flying in the area. However, as a condition of being allowed to discuss the declassified report, Leonov was barred from disclosing the name of the Su-15 pilot who was 80 years old and in poor health as of 2013.[80]
Awards and honours
Medals and orders of merit
Jânio Quadros, President of Brazil, decorated Gagarin in 1961.
On 14 April 1961, Gagarin was honoured with a 12-mile (19 km) parade attended by millions of people that concluded at the Red Square. After a short speech, he was bestowed the Hero of the Soviet Union,[81][82] Order of Lenin,[81] Merited Master of Sports of the Soviet Union[83] and the first Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR.[82] On 15 April, the Soviet Academy of Sciences awarded him with the Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Gold Medal, named after the Russian pioneer of space aeronautics.[84] Gagarin had also been awarded four Soviet commemorative medals over the course of his career.[15]
He was honoured as a Hero of Socialist Labor (Czechoslovakia) on 29 April 1961,[85][86] and Hero of Socialist Labor (Bulgaria, including the Order of Georgi Dimitrov) on 24 May.[15][chronology citation needed] On the eighth anniversary of the beginning of Cuban Revolution (26 July), President Osvaldo Dorticos of Cuba presented him with the first Commander of the Order of Playa Girón, a newly created medal.[87]
Gagarin was also awarded the 1960 Gold Air Medal and the 1961 De la Vaulx Medal from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in Switzerland.[88] He received numerous awards from other nations that year, including the Star of the Republic of Indonesia (2nd Class), the Order of the Cross of Grunwald (1st Degree) in Poland, the Order of the Flag of the Republic of Hungary, the Hero of Labor award from Democratic Republic of Vietnam,[15] the Italian Columbus Day Medal,[89] and a Gold Medal from the British Interplanetary Society.[90][91] President Jânio Quadros of Brazil decorated Gagarin on 2 August 1961 with the Order of Aeronautical Merit, Commander grade.[92] During a tour of Egypt in late January 1962, Gagarin received the Order of the Nile[93] and the golden keys to the gates of Cairo.[50] On 22 October 1963, Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova were honoured with the Order of Karl Marx from the German Democratic Republic.[94]
Tributes
The date of Gagarin's space flight, 12 April, has been commemorated. Since 1962, it has been celebrated in the USSR and most of its former territories as Cosmonautics Day.[95] Since 2000, Yuri's Night, an international celebration, is held annually to commemorate milestones in space exploration.[96] In 2011, it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations.[97]
Yuri Gagarin statue at the Royal Greenwich Observatory in London
A number of buildings and locations have been named for Gagarin. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, was named on 30 April 1968.[98] The launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome from which Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1 were launched is now known as Gagarin's Start. Gagarin Raion in Sevastopol, Ukraine, was named after him during the period of the Soviet Union. The Russian Air Force Academy was renamed Gagarin Air Force Academy in 1968.[99] A street in Warsaw, Poland, is called Yuri Gagarin Street.[100] The town of Gagarin, Armenia was renamed in his honour in 1961.[101]
Gagarin has been honoured on the Moon by astronauts and astronomers. During the American space program's Apollo 11 mission in 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left a memorial satchel containing medals commemorating Gagarin and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov on the Moon's surface.[102][103] In 1971, Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin left the small Fallen Astronaut sculpture at their landing site as a memorial to the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who died in the Space Race; the names on its plaque included Yuri Gagarin and 14 others.[104][105] In 1970, a 262 km (163 mi)-wide crater on the far side after him.[106] Gagarin was inducted as a member of the 1976 inaugural class of the International Space Hall of Fame in New Mexico.[107]
Gagarin is memorialised in music; a cycle of Soviet patriotic songs titled The Constellation Gagarin (Russian: Созвездье Гагарина, tr. Sozvezdie Gagarina) was written by Aleksandra Pakhmutova and Nikolai Dobronravov in 1970–1971.[108] The most famous of these songs refers to Gagarin's poyekhali!: in the lyrics, "He said 'let's go!' He waved his hand".[35][108] He was the inspiration for the pieces "Hey Gagarin" by Jean-Michel Jarre on Métamorphoses, "Gagarin" by Public Service Broadcasting, and "Gagarin, I loved you" by Undervud.[109]
Russian ten-ruble commemorating Gagarin in 2001
Vessels have been named for Gagarin; Soviet tracking ship Kosmonavt Yuri Gagarin was built in 1971[110] and the Armenian airline Armavia named their first Sukhoi Superjet 100 in his honour in 2011.[111]
Two commemorative coins were issued in the Soviet Union to honour the 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: a one-ruble coin in copper-nickel (1981) and a three-ruble coin in silver (1991). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in Russia; it consisted of a two-ruble coin in copper-nickel, a three-ruble coin in silver, a ten-ruble coin in brass-copper and nickel, and a 100-ruble coin in silver.[112] In 2011, Russia issued a 1,000-ruble coin in gold and a three-ruble coin in silver to mark the 50th anniversary of his flight.[113]
In 2008, the Kontinental Hockey League named their championship trophy the Gagarin Cup.[114] In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Gagarin was ranked as the sixth-most-popular space hero, tied with Star Trek's fictional James T. Kirk.[115] A Russian docudrama titled Gagarin: First in Space was released in 2013. Previous attempts at portraying Gagarin were disallowed; his family took legal action over his portrayal in a fictional drama and vetoed a musical.[116]
Statues and monuments
There are statues of Gagarin and monuments to him located in Gagarin (Smolensk Oblast), Orenburg, Cheboksary, Irkutsk, Izhevsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, and Yoshkar-Ola in Russia, as well as in Nicosia, Cyprus, Druzhkivka, Ukraine, Karaganda, Kazakhstan, and Tiraspol, Moldova. On 4 June 1980, Monument to Yuri Gagarin in Gagarin Square, Leninsky Avenue, Moscow, was opened.[117] The monument is mounted to a 38 m (125 ft) tall pedestal and is constructed of titanium. Beside the column is a replica of the descent module used during his spaceflight.[118]
Bust of Gagarin at Birla Planetarium in Kolkata, India
In 2011, a statue of Gagarin was unveiled at Admiralty Arch in The Mall in London, opposite the permanent sculpture of James Cook. It is a copy of the statue outside Gagarin's former school in Lyubertsy.[119] In 2013, the statue was moved to a permanent location outside the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.[120]
In 2012, a statue was unveiled at the site of NASA's original spaceflight headquarters on South Wayside Drive in Houston. The sculpture was completed in 2011 by artist and cosmonaut Alexei Leonov and was a gift to Houston by various Russian organisations. Houston Mayor Annise Parker, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak were present for the dedication.[121][122] The Russian Federation presented a bust of Gagarin to several cities in India including one that was unveiled at the Birla Planetarium in Kolkata in February 2012.[123]
In April 2018, a bust of Gagarin erected on the street in Belgrade, Serbia, that bears his name was removed, after less than week. A new work was commissioned following the outcry over the disproportionately small size of its head which locals said was an "insult" to Gagarin.[124][125] Belgrade City Manager Goran Vesic stated that neither the city, the Serbian Ministry of Culture, nor the foundation that financed it had prior knowledge of the design.[126]
50th anniversary
50th anniversary stamp of Ukraine
The 50th anniversary of Gagarin's journey into space was marked in 2011 by tributes around the world. A film titled First Orbit was shot from the International Space Station, combining sound recordings from the original flight with footage of the route taken by Gagarin.[127] The Russian, American, and Italian crew of Expedition 27 aboard the ISS sent a special video message to wish the people of the world a "Happy Yuri's Night", wearing shirts with an image of Gagarin.[128]
The Central Bank of the Russian Federation released gold and silver coins to commemorate the anniversary.[129] The Soyuz TMA-21 spacecraft was named Gagarin with the launch in April 2011 to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the first manned space mission.