View allAll Photos Tagged polychrome
Foothills of the Polychrome glaciers, Denali National Park. Taken from the north-western edge of Unit 8
South Italian, Apulian, early Hellenistic period, late 4th c. BCE
Attributable to the Group of the Skylla Askoi
Probably made and found at Canosa (see Canusium on Pleiades)
In the collection of, and photographed on display at, the University of Missouri Museum of Art and Archaeology, Columbia, Missouri, USA
At the time the museum was located at Mizzou North
Inv. 2008.172 (Weinberg and Gilbreath-McLorn Museum Funds)
maacollections.missouri.edu/ArgusNET/Portal.aspx?lang=en-...
The basement of the Tallinn City Museum houses a vast collection of crockery.
Called the Open Depository, it contains the two thousand porcelain and ceramic objects that make up the collection of the Tallinn City Museum. It also contains the same number of stove tiles and about 600 wall tiles.
The bulk of the collection consists of tableware used in Tallinn homes over the centuries.
The crown jewel of the collection is the tableware made in Tallinn at Carl Christian Fick's Faience manufactory in the eighteenth century and the eighteenth and nineteenth century Delft ceramics from the Netherlands and other European countries.
The display of the Open Depository is based on the countries the items come from, focusing on china and faience items made or decorated in Estonia.
It contains products of Russian, Nordic, Western and Central European countries bigger manufactories and factories, and, as an additional small collection, items from China and Japan.
The majority of the collection has been displayed, whereas the reproductions have been stored in cupboards and drawers.
The stove and wall tiles have been topically chosen.
Every item bears a receipt number and has been stored in the museum's electronic information system, MuLS.
Source: Museum label.
A closer look at four of the figures of saints on the stained glass in the Chapel of the Magi.
St John, the Evangelist, is identified as the figure at the lower left here. On his knees is a parchment with the first words of his Gospel, “In the Beginning”.
The top of the wooden Triptych by Jacopo di Paolo is just visible in the foreground.
San Petronio, Bologna; March 2017
This fragment retains part of the frame of a mosaic, which was probably a wall mosaic, given the considerable number of glass tesserae used in the composition. The decoration features a series of motifs consisting of a meandering band, a running wave motif and an undulated ribbon that unfolds on a white background with green petals inside the weave, It is closed by a notched frame at the bottom.
3rd century CE
Polychrome marble and vitreous paste tesserae
From Rome
Capitoline Museums, Antiquarium (AC VM 52)
*Photographed at a special exhibition at Centrale Montemartini
Canon EOS 5D Mark III, Canon EF 100mm f/2.8 L Macro IS USM, processed in Lightroom.
Aegina, Temple of Aphaia, West Pediment, ca. 500BCE: a reconstruction of the archer in the last photo., as it might have been when the temple was new. Not just the figures, but the stone of the temple was painted - traces of pigments evidence this. Analysis of these traces informs us of the various colours achieved.
Glyptothek München - Room VII, Room of the West Pediment Group from the Temple on Aegina
Wikipedia (edited): "When looking at artworks and architecture from antiquity and the European Middle Ages, people tend to believe that they were monochrome. In reality, the pre-Renaissance past was full of colour, and all the Greco-Roman sculptures and Gothic cathedrals, that are now white, beige, or grey, were initially painted in bright colours. As André Malraux stated, "Athens was never white but her statues, bereft of colour, have conditioned the artistic sensibilities of Europe... the whole past has reached us colourless."
[...]
For example, the pedimental sculptures from the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina have been demonstrated to have been painted with bold and elaborate patterns, depicting, amongst other details, patterned clothing. [...]. The availability of modern digital methods and techniques have allowed the reconstruction and visualisation of ancient 3D polychromy in a scientifically sound method and many projects have explored these possibilities in the last years"
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychrome
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychrome#/media/File:NAMABG-Aphai...
smarthistory.org/east-and-west-pediments-from-the-temple-...
www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifactBrowser?object=Sculp...
As an example: www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact?name=Aegina+W+1&...
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyptothek_(München)
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyptothek
www.antike-am-koenigsplatz.mwn.de/index.php/de/glyptothek
www.antike-am-koenigsplatz.mwn.de/index.php/en/glyptothek-en
from a nice bear sighting on Polychrome Pass. The bear was digging roots against the road embankment. But as is common this time of year they rarely look up from their primary job of eating.
Evening Dress, 1960
Cristóbal Balenciaga
White silk satin emboridered with crystals and polychrome silk and metal thread
Taken in the 'China: Through the Looking Glass' exhibition (May-September 2015).
This exhibition explores the impact of Chinese aesthetics on Western fashion and how China has fueled the fashionable imagination for centuries. In this collaboration between The Costume Institute and the Department of Asian Art, high fashion is juxtaposed with Chinese costumes, paintings, porcelains, and other art, including films, to reveal enchanting reflections of Chinese imagery.
From the earliest period of European contact with China in the sixteenth century, the West has been enchanted with enigmatic objects and imagery from the East, providing inspiration for fashion designers from Paul Poiret to Yves Saint Laurent, whose fashions are infused at every turn with romance, nostalgia, and make-believe. Through the looking glass of fashion, designers conjoin disparate stylistic references into a pastiche of Chinese aesthetic and cultural traditions.
The exhibition features more than 140 examples of haute couture and avant-garde ready-to-wear alongside Chinese art. Filmic representations of China are incorporated throughout to reveal how our visions of China are framed by narratives that draw upon popular culture, and also to recognize the importance of cinema as a medium through which to understand the richness of Chinese history.
[Exhibition description]
In the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 5th Avenue, New York
Polychrome glass cosmetics vessel in the form of a 'bulti'-fish: this is the most spectacular of a small group of fish-form vessels, all representing the 'bulti'-fish common in the Nile and a standard feature of Egyptian decorative art.
It was found in a medium-sized private house at El-Amarna, buried under a plaster floor together with two glass jugs and some metal objects.
Fish-form vessels were common in many media at this time - the glass examples are but versions of others - but how they were used is not evident. They seem to have been ointment vessels and must have been furnished with stands as they are incapable of standing by themselves.
Egypt, El-Amarna, 18th Dynasty (1550/1549 to 1292 BCE).
British Museum, London (EA55193)
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Terracotta head of Leucothea, the "white goddess" of the sea (Thesan, for the Etruscans).
The female head must have been part of the high relief which covered the front end of the ridge beam of the roof of temple A in its 350 BCE reconstruction in the sanctuary of Pyrgi (Santa Severa), the ancient port of Caere (Cerveteri).
Greek sources recall the terrible pillage by Dionysius of Syracuse (384 BCE) of temple A, which was dedicated to Thesan, the Etruscan goddess of Dawn. The temple was also attributed by Greek writers to Leucothea (literally the "white goddess"), assimilated by the Romans to Mater Matuta, a goddess deeply linked to the rites of passage and transition, such as birth and, therefore, also the dawn.
The head seems to refer to this goddess, who gives us an image in strong movement with curly hair moved by the wind and a"pathetic" expression given by the open mouth.
Almost one hundred years after the relief with Tydeus and Capaneus, the new decoration of the temple introduces another myth of the Theban saga, in which Ino/Leucothea and her son Palemone, as Ovid tells us, are welcomed by Heracles, whose crowned torso is displayed in the same showcase, after fleeing from Thebes because of the persecution of Hera.
It is a sculpture in terracotta, modeled by hand, and of an exceptional artistic level which shows traces of the art of the sculptor Praxiteles. 340-330 BCE.
Cerveteri, Temple A, front
Pediment high relief
340-330 BCE
National Etruscan Museum, Villa Giulia (inv. 53889)
Found on the Salita del Grillo, a tiny street behind the Markets of Trajan, this marble statue of Dionysus sports beautiful flowing hair and a large wreath with ivy leaves, ivy berries, and clusters of grapes. It also has quite a few areas of visible pigments - mostly reds, oranges, and some pinks. It would be an excellent subject for some multi-spectrum imaging (MSI), to discover what we can’t see.
Roman
2nd half of the 2nd century CE
Marble with pigments
Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome
(photo by James Cheshire)
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(downstream is to the left)
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In the background is Polychrome Mountain, a multihued mass in south-central Alaska's Denali National Park. The rocks are weathered volcanics, ranging from felsic to mafic in composition.
In the foreground is a braided river called the Toklat River. Braided rivers (braided streams) consist of small scale to large scale anastomosing channel networks. They have high sediment loads (usually rich in gravel, but sometimes mostly sand) and are typically wide and shallow. Braided rivers are common in mountainous areas.
Locality: looking east from the western side of the Toklat River, near the Denali Highway bridge over the Toklat River, Denali National Park, south-central Alaska, USA (vicinity of 63° 31' 18.54" North latitude, 150° 02' 29.69" West longitude)
Polychrome paintings of hunting scenes.
The paintings were discovered by Juan Jiménez Llamas in 1914, and caused great interest amongst specialists in prehistoric art on account of the huge number of figures and their thematic and stylistic variety. The Minateda paintings are located in five caves. Animal-based hunting themes predominate. They are dated between 6,000 and 1,000 BC. They have the World Heritage designation as part of Mediterranean Prehistoric Rock Art.
Polychrome paintings of hunting scenes.
The paintings were discovered by Juan Jiménez Llamas in 1914, and caused great interest amongst specialists in prehistoric art on account of the huge number of figures and their thematic and stylistic variety. The Minateda paintings are located in five caves. Animal-based hunting themes predominate. They are dated between 6,000 and 1,000 BC. They have the World Heritage designation as part of Mediterranean Prehistoric Rock Art.
Detail of a reconstruction of the decoration of the pediment in polychrome terracotta of a Roman temple of the mid 2nd century BCE, discovered in the late 19th century in Via San Gregorio, in the valley between the Palatine and the Caelian Hill, while working on the implementation of a large sewer project. The terracottas were found in the middle of the street below a layer covering the debris of Nero’s fire in 64 CE.
This reconstruction represents the most complete example of a closed terracotta pediment of the late Republican age discovered in Rome so far.
The high-relief pediment depicts a scene of sacrifice to Mars and two female deities: celebrated by an officiant wearing a toga to whom three bare-chested servants lead six animals in two rows starting from the two extremities of the pediment.
The scene captures the moment after the initial phase (praefatio), when wine and incense are poured on the altar, and immediately before the animal consecration to the gods (immolation). The animals presented to the officiant are sprinkled with a special mixture of spelt and salt (mola salsa) and with wine on their snouts, they are also symbolically marked with a knife from head to tail. The killing will take place immediately after and parts of their bodies will be offered to the deities on the altar.
A little relief depicting of the myth of Hercules versus the sea monster to save Hesione, daughter of King Laomedon of Troy and sister of Priam, was situated on the top of the roof and applied to the central panels of the brightly painted cornice that fringed the eaves.
Roman
ca. 2nd century CE
Painted terracotta
Hall of the Pediment, Musei Capitolini, Rome
Polychrome paintings of hunting scenes.
The paintings were discovered by Juan Jiménez Llamas in 1914, and caused great interest amongst specialists in prehistoric art on account of the huge number of figures and their thematic and stylistic variety. The Minateda paintings are located in five caves. Animal-based hunting themes predominate. They are dated between 6,000 and 1,000 BC. They have the World Heritage designation as part of Mediterranean Prehistoric Rock Art.
I purchased the wonderful bead from Polychrome Beads on Etsy. It has a sterling silver core. It makes a pretty fancy bead whorl!
Polychrome figures (Sancai), 618–907 C.E. (Tang Dynasty), white clay, lead oxide flux and glazes colored with copper, iron, manganese, and cobalt; fired at 800 degrees celsius (Shanghai Museum)
ollowing their return to Florence in 1512 after being exiled in 1494, the Medici family sought to reassert their power. This painted terracotta bust of Giovanni de’ Medici documents the centrality of art to the family’s strategy. The head projects out over the chest, making the face more prominent when viewed from below. This feature suggests it was designed to be viewed from below and was perhaps placed above a doorway or in a niche above eye level (Boucher 2001).
Giovanni is identifiable as a cardinal by his clerical cap (biretta), which was originally dark purple, and cloak (cassock). Given Cardinal Giovanni became Pope Leo X in March 1513, the bust was probably made between his return to Florence in 1512 and the papal election.
The face was cast from a life mask of Giovanni, while the rest of the bust was modelled. The use of a life mask is evident from the firing fissure running around the face, where the mould was attached to the modelled head and neck. Modelled and cast clay have different densities which results in different drying rates, sometimes causing firing cracks, as here. The modelled upper body was hollowed out to an even wall thickness, and tool and finger marks attesting to this procedure are visible from the underside of the bust (Boucher 2001). This method allowed for even drying of the clay, to prevent further cracking due to differences in the water content of the clay.
The process of life casting, which entailed taking a plaster mould of the patron’s face for cast reproductions, was popular throughout the Renaissance. Tuscan painter Cennino Cennini (1370 – c. 1440) wrote detailed instructions for life casting in his 1390s Libro dell'Arte (The Craftsman’s Handbook).
Life-size painted terracotta busts and other votive images, often made of wax, were popular in fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Italy and both materials were used to make casts of face masks. This bust is attributed to the workshop of Antonio de’Benintendi. Trained by his father Orsino de’ Benintendi, a wax sculptor who specialized in these votive images, Antonio would have been familiar with the appropriate techniques for making both life-cast terracotta busts and wax ex-votos.
The Benintendi workshop, first run by Orsino and later by Antonio, was the principal producer of effigies of the Medici family from the late 1400s onwards (Boucher 2001).
Clay analysis determined that the bust is likely made of loessic clay (Boucher et al. 1996; Analysis report and notes; Hubbard and Motture in Boucher 2001). This is a non-swelling type of clay, meaning it has lower water absorption and therefore shrinks less than most other types of clay when fired. Analysis using x-ray diffraction determined that the bust was fired between 500°c and 800°c, which would have further helped the clay retain its size (Boucher et al. 1996). Such material and technical considerations were important for portrait busts made from life masks or death masks, as the effigy needed to retain its life size.
The bust has undergone two conservation treatments since it entered the V&A. Two layers of overpaint have been removed in these campaigns, revealing well-preserved original polychromy.
Pigment and material analysis carried out by the V&A science section in collaboration with a conservator from the National Gallery revealed that the paint had traces of egg, likely used as a binding medium or to seal the paint. Traces of oil were also found, which slowed the drying time and facilitated the blending of pigments. This technique allowed the painter to achieve highly naturalistic flesh tones. Particular care was taken in painting the lips and stubble to give the bust a life-like appearance.
The bust is an important surviving example of fifteenth-century Florentine effigy and votive production. The material knowledge and technical skill employed demonstrate the specialized expertise of sculptors and painters in the Italian Renaissance. Using a life cast and naturalistic polychromy achieved a close likeness, speaking to the period interest in realism (Boucher 2001; Panzanelli 2008).
Italian, Florentine, workshop of Antonio de'Benintendi (probably), ca. 1512. Polychrome terracotta.
Height: 38.5cm (15.16 in.)
Width: 39cm (15.4 in.)
Depth: 30cm (12 in.)
V&A Museum, South Kensington, London (A.29-1982)
La Cattedrale di Santa Maria Fiore - Duomo, Firenze (Florença)
www.google.com/maps?q=florença%20italia&layer=c&...
Following, a text, in english, from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia:
The Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore (English: Basilica of Saint Mary of the Flower) is the cathedral church of Florence, Italy. The Duomo, as it is ordinarily called, was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style to the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and completed structurally in 1436 with the dome engineered by Filippo Brunelleschi. The exterior of the basilica is faced with polychrome marble panels in various shades of green and pink bordered by white and has an elaborate 19th century Gothic Revival façade by Emilio De Fabris.
The cathedral complex, located in Piazza del Duomo, includes the Baptistery and Giotto's Campanile. The three buildings are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site covering the historic centre of Florence and are a major attraction to tourists visiting the region of Tuscany. The basilica is one of Italy's largest churches, and until development of new structural materials in the modern era, the dome was the largest in the world. It remains the largest brick dome ever constructed.
The cathedral is the mother church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Florence, whose archbishop is currently Giuseppe Betori.
he Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore was built on the site of an earlier cathedral dedicated to Saint Reparata.[1] The ancient building, founded in the early 5th century and having undergone many repairs, was crumbling with age, as attested in the 14th century Nuova Cronica of Giovanni Villani,[2] and was no longer large enough to serve the growing population of the city.[2] Other major Tuscan cities had undertaken ambitious reconstructions of their cathedrals during the Late Medieval period, as seen at Pisa and particularly Siena where the enormous proposed extensions were never completed.
The new church was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and approved by city council in 1294. Arnolfo di Cambio was also architect of the church of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio. He designed three wide naves ending under the octagonal dome, with the middle nave covering the area of Santa Reparata. The first stone was laid on September 9, 1296 by Cardinal Valeriana, the first papal legate ever sent to Florence. The building of this vast project was to last 170 years, the collective efforts of several generations; Arnolfo's plan for the eastern end, although maintained in concept, was greatly expanded in size.
After Arnolfo died in 1302, work on the cathedral slowed for the following thirty years. The project obtained new impetus, when the relics of Saint Zenobius were discovered in 1330 in Santa Reparata. In 1331, the Arte della Lana, the [=[Guilds of Florence|guild of wool merchants]], took over exclusive patronage for the construction of the cathedral and in 1334 appointed Giotto to oversee the work. Assisted by Andrea Pisano, Giotto continued di Cambio's design. His major accomplishment was the building of the campanile. When Giotto died in 1337, Andrea Pisano continued the building until work was again halted due to the Black PDeath in 1348.
In 1349 work resumed on the cathedral under a series of architects, commencing with Francesco Talenti, who finished the campanile and enlarged the overall project to include the apse and the side chapels. In 1359 Talenti was succeeded by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini (1360–1369) who divided the center nave in four square bays. Other architects were Alberto Arnoldi, Giovanni d'Ambrogio, Neri di Fioravante and Andrea Orcagna. By 1375 the old church Santa Reparata was pulled down. The nave was finished by 1380, and by 1418 only the dome remained incomplete.
On 19 August 1418, the Arte della Lana announced a structural design competition for erecting Neri's dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, who was supported by Cosimo de Medici. Ghiberti had been winner of a competition for a pair of bronze doors for the Baptistery in 1401 and lifelong competition between the two remained acute. Brunelleschi won and received the commission.[3]
Ghiberti, appointed coadjutator, was drawing a salary equal to Brunelleschi's and, though neither was awarded the announced prize of 200 florins, would potentially earn equal credit, while spending most of his time on other projects. When Brunelleschi became ill, or feigned illness, the project was briefly in the hands of Ghiberti. But Ghiberti soon had to admit that the whole project was beyond him. In 1423 Brunelleschi was back in charge and took over sole responsibility.[4]
Work started on the dome in 1420 and was completed in 1436. The cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on March 25, 1436 (the first day of the year according to the Florentine calendar). It was the first 'octagonal' dome in history to be built without a temporary wooden supporting frame: the Roman Pantheon, a circular dome, was built in 117–128 AD with support structures. It was one of the most impressive projects of the Renaissance. During the consecration service in 1436, Guillaume Dufay's similarly unique motet Nuper rosarum flores was performed. The structure of this motet was strongly influenced by the structure of the dome.
The decoration of the exterior of the cathedral, begun in the 14th century, was not completed until 1887, when the polychrome marble façade was completed to the design of Emilio De Fabris. The floor of the church was relaid in marble tiles in the 16th century.
The exterior walls are faced in alternate vertical and horizontal bands of polychrome marble from Carrara (white), Prato (green), Siena (red), Lavenza and a few other places. These marble bands had to repeat the already existing bands on the walls of the earlier adjacent baptistery the Battistero di San Giovanni and Giotto's Bell Tower. There are two lateral doors, the Doors of the Canonici (south side) and the Door of the Mandorla (north side) with sculptures by Nanni di Banco, Donatello, and Jacopo della Quercia. The six lateral windows, notable for their delicate tracery and ornaments, are separated by pilasters. Only the four windows closest to the transept admit light; the other two are merely ornamental. The clerestory windows are round, a common feature in Italian Gothic.
During its long history, this cathedral has been the seat of the Council of Florence (1439), heard the preachings of Girolamo Savonarola and witnessed the murder of Giuliano di Piero de' Medici on Sunday, 26 April 1478 (with Lorenzo Il Magnifico barely escaping death) in the Pazzi conspiracy.
Exterior
Plan and structure
The cathedral of Florence is built as a basilica, having a wide central nave of four square bays, with an aisle on either side. The chancel and transepts are of identical polygonal plan, separated by two smaller polygonal chapels. The whole plan forms a Latin cross. The nave and aisles are separated by wide pointed Gothic arches resting on composite piers.
The dimensions of the building are enormous: length 153 metres (502 ft), width 38 metres (124 ft), width at the crossing 90 metres (295 ft). The height of the arches in the aisles is 23 metres (75 ft). The height from pavement to the opening of the lantern in the dome is also 90 metres (295 ft).
Dome
By the beginning of the fifteenth century, after a hundred years of construction, the structure was still missing its dome. The basic features of the dome had been designed by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1296. His brick model, 4.6 metres (15 ft) high 9.2 metres (30 ft) long, was standing in a side isle of the unfinished building, and had long ago become sacrosanct.[5] It called for an octagonal dome higher and wider than any that had ever been built, with no external buttresses to keep it from spreading and falling under its own weight.
The Duomo viewed from the heights of Piazzale Michelangelo
The commitment to reject traditional Gothic buttresses had been made when Neri di Fioravante's model was chosen over a competing one by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini.[6] That architectural choice, in 1367, was one of the first events of the Italian Renaissance, marking a break with the Medieval Gothic style and a return to the classic Mediterranean dome. Italian architects regarded Gothic flying buttresses as ugly makeshifts, in addition to being a style favored by central Italy's traditional enemies to the north.[7] Neri's model depicted a massive inner dome, open at the top to admit light, like Rome's Pantheon, but enclosed in a thinner outer shell, partly supported by the inner dome, to keep out the weather. It was to stand on an unbuttressed octagonal drum. Neri's dome would need an internal defense against spreading (hoop stress), but none had yet been designed.
The building of such a masonry dome posed many technical problems. Brunelleschi looked to the great dome of the Pantheon in Rome for solutions. The dome of the Pantheon is a single shell of concrete, the formula for which had long since been forgotten. A wooden form had held the Pantheon dome aloft while its concrete set, but for the height and breadth of the dome designed by Neri, starting 52 metres (171 ft) above the floor and spanning 44 metres (144 ft), there was not enough timber in Tuscany to build the scaffolding and forms.[8] Brunelleschi chose to follow such design and employed a double shell, made of sandstone and marble. Brunelleschi would have to build the dome out of bricks, due to its light weight compared to stone and easier to form, and with nothing under it during construction. To illustrate his proposed structural plan, he constructed a wooden and brick model with the help of Donatello and Nanni di Banco and still displayed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo. The model served as a guide for the craftsmen, but was intentionally incomplete, so as to ensure Brunelleschi's control over the construction.
Brunelleschi's solutions were ingenious. The spreading problem was solved by a set of four internal horizontal stone and iron chains, serving as barrel hoops, embedded within the inner dome: one each at the top and bottom, with the remaining two evenly spaced between them. A fifth chain, made of wood, was placed between the first and second of the stone chains. Since the dome was octagonal rather than round, a simple chain, squeezing the dome like a barrel hoop, would have put all its pressure on the eight corners of the dome. The chains needed to be rigid octagons, stiff enough to hold their shape, so as not to deform the dome as they held it together.
Each of Brunelleschi's stone chains was built like an octagonal railroad track with parallel rails and cross ties, all made of sandstone beams 43 centimetres (17 in) in diameter and no more than 2.3 metres (7.5 ft) long. The rails were connected end-to-end with lead-glazed iron splices. The cross ties and rails were notched together and then covered with the bricks and mortar of the inner dome. The cross ties of the bottom chain can be seen protruding from the drum at the base of the dome. The others are hidden. Each stone chain was supposed to be reinforced with a standard iron chain made of interlocking links, but a magnetic survey conducted in the 1970s failed to detect any evidence of iron chains, which if they exist are deeply embedded in the thick masonry walls. He was also able to accomplish this by setting vertical "ribs" on the corners of the octagon curving towards the center point. The ribs had slits, where platforms could be erected out of and work could progressively continue as they worked up,a system for scaffolding.[9]
A circular masonry dome, such as that of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul can be built without supports, called centering, because each course of bricks is a horizontal arch that resists compression. In Florence, the octagonal inner dome was thick enough for an imaginary circle to be embedded in it at each level, a feature that would hold the dome up eventually, but could not hold the bricks in place while the mortar was still wet. Brunelleschi used a herringbone brick pattern to transfer the weight of the freshly laid bricks to the nearest vertical ribs of the non-circular dome.[10]
The outer dome was not thick enough to contain embedded horizontal circles, being only 60 centimetres (2 ft) thick at the base and 30 centimetres (1 ft) thick at the top. To create such circles, Brunelleschi thickened the outer dome at the inside of its corners at nine different elevations, creating nine masonry rings, which can be observed today from the space between the two domes. To counteract hoop stress, the outer dome relies entirely on its attachment to the inner dome at its base; it has no embedded chains.[11]
A modern understanding of physical laws and the mathematical tools for calculating stresses was centuries into the future. Brunelleschi, like all cathedral builders, had to rely on intuition and whatever he could learn from the large scale models he built. To lift 37,000 tons of material, including over 4 million bricks, he invented hoisting machines and lewissons for hoisting large stones. These specially designed machines and his structural innovations were Brunelleschi's chief contribution to architecture. Although he was executing an aesthetic plan made half a century earlier, it is his name, rather than Neri's, that is commonly associated with the dome.
Brunelleschi's ability to crown the dome with a lantern was questioned and he had to undergo another competition. He was declared the winner over his competitors Lorenzo Ghiberti and Antonio Ciaccheri. His design was for an octagonal lantern with eight radiating buttresses and eight high arched windows (now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo). Construction of the lantern was begun a few months before his death in 1446. Then, for 15 years, little progress was possible, due to alterations by several architects. The lantern was finally completed by Brunelleschi's friend Michelozzo in 1461. The conical roof was crowned with a gilt copper ball and cross, containing holy relics, by Verrocchio in 1469. This brings the total height of the dome and lantern to 114.5 metres (375 ft). This copper ball was struck by lightning on 17 July 1600 and fell down. It was replaced by an even larger one two years later.
The commission for this bronze ball [atop the lantern] went to the sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose workshop there was at this time a young apprentice named Leonardo da Vinci. Fascinated by Filippo's [Brunelleschi's] machines, which Verrocchio used to hoist the ball, Leonardo made a series of sketches of them and, as a result, is often given credit for their invention.[12]
Leonardo might have also participated in the design of the bronze ball, as stated in the G manuscript of Paris "Remember the way we soldered the ball of Santa Maria del Fiore".[13]
The decorations of the drum gallery by Baccio d'Agnolo were never finished after being disapproved by no one less than Michelangelo.
A huge statue of Brunelleschi now sits outside the Palazzo dei Canonici in the Piazza del Duomo, looking thoughtfully up towards his greatest achievement, the dome that would forever dominate the panorama of Florence. It is still the largest masonry dome in the world.[14]
The building of the cathedral had started in 1296 with the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was completed in 1469 with the placing of Verrochio's copper ball atop the lantern. But the façade was still unfinished and would remain so until the nineteenth century.
Façade
Façade of the cathedral
The original façade, designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and usually attributed to Giotto, was actually begun twenty years after Giotto's death.[citation needed] A mid-15th century pen-and-ink drawing of this so-called Giotto's façade is visible in the Codex Rustici, and in the drawing of Bernardino Poccetti in 1587, both on display in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo. This façade was the collective work of several artists, among them Andrea Orcagna and Taddeo Gaddi. This original façade was only completed in its lower portion and then left unfinished. It was dismantled in 1587-1588 by the Medici court architect Bernardo Buontalenti, ordered by Grand Duke Francesco I de' Medici, as it appeared totally outmoded in Renaissance times. Some of the original sculptures are on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo, behind the cathedral. Others are now in the Berlin Museum and in the Louvre. The competition for a new façade turned into a huge corruption scandal. The wooden model for the façade of Buontalenti is on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo. A few new designs had been proposed in later years but the models (of Giovanni Antonio Dosio, Giovanni de' Medici with Alessandro Pieroni and Giambologna) were not accepted. The façade was then left bare until the 19th century.
Main portal of the cathedral
In 1864, a competition was held to design a new façade and was won by Emilio De Fabris (1808–1883) in 1871. Work began in 1876 and completed in 1887. This neo-gothic façade in white, green and red marble forms a harmonious entity with the cathedral, Giotto's bell tower and the Baptistery, but some think it is excessively decorated.
The whole façade is dedicated to the Mother of Christ.
Main portal
The three huge bronze doors date from 1899 to 1903. They are adorned with scenes from the life of the Madonna. The mosaics in the lunettes above the doors were designed by Niccolò Barabino. They represent (from left to right): Charity among the founders of Florentine philanthropic institutions, Christ enthroned with Mary and John the Baptist, and Florentine artisans, merchants and humanists. The pediment above the central portal contains a half-relief by Tito Sarrocchi of Mary enthroned holding a flowered scepter. Giuseppe Cassioli sculpted the right hand door.
On top of the façade is a series of niches with the twelve Apostles with, in the middle, the Madonna with Child. Between the rose window and the tympanum, there is a gallery with busts of great Florentine artists.
Interior
The Gothic interior is vast and gives an empty impression. The relative bareness of the church corresponds with the austerity of religious life, as preached by Girolamo Savonarola.
Many decorations in the church have been lost in the course of time, or have been transferred to the Museum Opera del Duomo, such as the magnificent cantorial pulpits (the singing galleries for the choristers) of Luca della Robbia and Donatello.
As this cathedral was built with funds from the public, some important works of art in this church honour illustrious men and military leaders of Florence:
Dante Before the City of Florence by Domenico di Michelino (1465). This painting is especially interesting because it shows us, apart from scenes of the Divine Comedy, a view on Florence in 1465, a Florence such as Dante himself could not have seen in his time.
Funerary Monument to Sir John Hawkwood by Paolo Uccello (1436). This almost monochrome fresco, transferred on canvas in the 19th c., is painted in terra verde, a color closest to the patina of bronze.
Equestrian statue of Niccolò da Tolentino by Andrea del Castagno (1456). This fresco, transferred on canvas in the 19th c., in the same style as the previous one, is painted in a color resembling marble. However, it is more richly decorated and gives more the impression of movement. Both frescoes portray the condottieri as heroic figures riding triumphantly. Both painters had problems when applying in painting the new rules of perspective to foreshortening: they used two unifying points, one for the horse and one for the pedestal, instead a single unifying point.
Busts of Giotto (by Benedetto da Maiano), Brunelleschi (by Buggiano - 1447), Marsilio Ficino, and Antonio Squarcialupi (a most famous organist). These busts all date from the 15th and the 16th century.
Above the main door is the colossal clock face with fresco portraits of four Prophets or Evangelists by Paolo Uccello (1443). This one-handed liturgical clock shows the 24 hours of the hora italica (Italian time), a period of time ending with sunset at 24 hours. This timetable was used till the 18th century. This is one of the few clocks from that time that still exist and are in working order.
The church is particularly notable for its 44 stained glass windows, the largest undertaking of this kind in Italy in the 14th and 15th century. The windows in the aisles and in the transept depict saints from the Old and the New Testament, while the circular windows in the drum of the dome or above the entrance depict Christ and Mary. They are the work of the greatest Florentine artists of their times, such as Donatello, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Paolo Uccello and Andrea del Castagno.
Christ crowning Mary as Queen, the stained-glass circular window above the clock, with a rich range of coloring, was designed by Gaddo Gaddi in the early 14th century.
Donatello designed the stained-glass window (Coronation of the Virgin) in the drum of the dome (the only one that can be seen from the nave).
The beautiful funeral monument of Antonio d'Orso (1323), bishop of Florence, was made by Tino da Camaino, the most important funeral sculptor of his time.
The monumental crucifix, behind the Bishop's Chair at the high altar, is by Benedetto da Maiano (1495–1497). The choir enclosure is the work of the famous Bartolommeo Bandinelli. The ten-paneled bronze doors of the sacristy were made by Luca della Robbia, who has also two glazed terracotta works inside the sacristy: Angel with Candlestick and Resurrection of Christ.
In the back of the middle of the three apses is the altar of Saint Zanobius, first bishop of Florence. Its silver shrine, a masterpiece of Ghiberti, contains the urn with his relics. The central compartment shows us one his miracles, the reviving of a dead child. Above this shrine is the painting Last Supper by the lesser-known Giovanni Balducci. There was also a glass-paste mosaic panel The Bust of Saint Zanobius by the 16th century miniaturist Monte di Giovanni, but it is now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo.
Many decorations date from the 16th-century patronage of the Grand Dukes, such as the pavement in colored marble, attributed to Baccio d'Agnolo and Francesco da Sangallo (1520–26). Some pieces of marble from the façade were used, topside down, in the flooring (as was shown by the restoration of the floor after the 1966 flooding).
It was suggested that the interior of the 45 metre (147 ft) wide dome should be covered with a mosaic decoration to make the most of the available light coming through the circular windows of the drum and through the lantern. Brunelleschi had proposed the vault to glimmer with resplendent gold, but his death in 1446 put an end to this project, and the walls of the dome were whitewashed. Grand Duke Cosimo I de' Medici decided to have the dome painted with a representation of The Last Judgment. This enormous work, 3,600 metres² (38 750 ft²) of painted surface, was started in 1568 by Giorgio Vasari and Federico Zuccari and would last till 1579. The upper portion, near the lantern, representing The 24 Elders of Apoc. 4 was finished by Vasari before his death in 1574. Federico Zuccari and a number of collaborators, such as Domenico Cresti, finished the other portions: (from top to bottom) Choirs of Angels; Christ, Mary and Saints; Virtues, Gifts of the Holy Spirit and Beatitudes; and at the bottom of the cuppola: Capital Sins and Hell. These frescoes are considered Zuccari's greatest work. But the quality of the work is uneven because of the input of different artists and the different techniques. Vasari had used true fresco, while Zuccari had painted in secco. During the restoration work ended in 1995, the entire pictorial cycle of the The Last Judgment was photographed with specially designed equipment and all the information collected in a catalogue. All the restoration information along with reconstructed images of the frescos were stored and managed in the Thesaurus Florentinus computer system.
Crypt
The cathedral underwent difficult excavations between 1965 and 1974. The subterranean vaults were used for the burial of Florentine bishops throughout the centuries.
Recently[when?] the archaeological history of this huge area was reconstructed through the work of Dr Franklin Toker: remains of Roman houses, an early Christian pavement, ruins of the former cathedral of Santa Reparata and successive enlargements of this church. Close to the entrance, in the part of the crypt open to the public, is the tomb of Brunelleschi. While its location is prominent, the actual tomb is simple and humble. That the architect was permitted such a prestigious burial place is proof of the high esteem he was given by the Florentines.
Also buried in the former cathedral of Santa Reparata was Conrad II of Italy.
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia a Enciclopédia Livre:
A Basílica di Santa Maria del Fiore é a catedral, ou Duomo[1], da Arquidiocese da Igreja Católica Romana de Florença. Notabilizada por sua monumental cúpula - obra do celebrado arquiteto renascentista Brunelleschi - e pelo campanário, de Giotto, é uma das obras da arte gótica e da primeira renascença italiana, considerada de fundamenal importância para a História da Arquitetura, registro da riqueza e do poder da capital da Toscana nos séculos XIII e XIV. Seu nome (cuja tradução é Santa Maria da Flor) parece referir-se ao lilium, símbolo de Florença, mas, documento [2] do Século XV, por outro lado, informa que “flor”, no caso, refere a Cristo.
História
O Duomo de Florença, como o vemos hoje, é o resultado de um trabalho que se estendeu por seis séculos. Seu projeto básico foi elaborado por Arnolfo di Cambio no final do século XIII, sua cúpula é obra de Filippo Brunelleschi, e sua fachada teve de esperar até o século XIX para ser concluída. Ao longo deste tempo uma série de intervenções estruturais e decorativas no exterior e interior enriqueceriam o monumento, dentre elas a construção de duas sacristias e a execução de esculturas e afrescos por Paolo Uccello, Andrea del Castagno, Giorgio Vasari e Federico Zuccari, autor do Juízo Final no interior da cúpula. Foi construída no lugar da antiga catedral dedicada a Santa Reparata, que funcionou durante nove séculos até ser demolida completamente em 1375.
Em 1293, durante a República Florentina, o notário Ser Mino de Cantoribus sugeriu a substituição de Santa Reparata por uma catedral ainda maior e mais magnificente, de tal forma que "a indústria e o poder do homem não pudessem inventar ou mesmo tentar nada maior ou mais belo", e estava preparado para finaciar a construção. Entretanto, esperava-se que a população contribuísse, e todos os testamentos passaram a incluir uma cláusula de doação para as obras. O projeto foi confiado a Arnolfo em 1294, e ele cerimoniosamente lançou a pedra fundamental em 8 de setembro de 1296.
Arnolfo trabalhou na construção até 1302, ano de sua morte, e embora o estilo dominante da época fosse o gótico, seu projeto foi concebido com uma grandiosiddade clássica. Arnolfo só pôde trabalhar em duas capelas e na fachada, que ele teve tempo de completar e decorar só em parte. Com a morte do arquiteto o trabalho de construção sofreu uma parada. Um novo impulso foi dado quando em 1330 foi descoberto o corpo de São Zenóbio em Santa Reparata, que ainda estava parcialmente de pé. Giotto di Bondone então foi indicado supervisor em 1334, e mesmo que não tivesse muito tempo de vida (morreu em 1337) ele decidiu concentrar suas energias na construção do campanário. Giotto foi sucedido por Andrea Pisano até 1348, quando a peste reduziu a população da cidade de 90 mil para 45 mil habitantes.
Sob Francesco Talenti, supervisor entre 1349 e 1359, o campanário foi concluído e preparou-se um novo projeto para o Duomo, com a colaboração de Giovanni di Lapo Ghini: a nave central foi dividida em quatro espaços quadrangulares com duas alas retangulares, reduzindo o número de janelas planejadas por Arnolfo. Em 1370 a construção já estava bem adiantada, o mesmo se dando com o novo projeto para a abside, que foi circundada por tribunas que amplificaram o trifólio de Arnolfo. Por fim Santa Reparata terminou de ser demolida em 1375. Ao mesmo tempo continuou-se o trabalho de revestimento externo com mármores e decoração em torno das entradas laterais, a Porta dei Canonici (sul) e a Porta della Mandorla (norte), esta coroada com um relevo da Assunção, última obra de Nanni di Banco.
Contudo, o problema da cúpula ainda não fora resolvido. Brunelleschi fez seu primeiro projeto em 1402, mas o manteve em segredo. Em 1418, a Opera del Duomo, a centenária empresa administradora dos trabalhos na Catedral, anunciou um concurso que Brunelleschi haveria de vencer, mas o trabalho não iniciaria senão dois anos mais tarde, continuando até 1434. A Catedral foi consagrada pelo Papa Eugênio IV em 25 de março (o Ano Novo florentino) de 1436, 140 anos depois do início da construção. Os arremates que ainda esperavam conclusão eram a lanterna da cúpula (colocada em 1461) e o revestimento externo com mármores brancos de Carrara, verdes de Prato, e vermelhos de Siena, de acordo com o projeto original de Arnolfo.
A fachada
A fachada original, desenhada por Arnolfo di Cambio, só foi começada em meados do século XV, realizada de fato por vários artistas em uma obra coletiva, mas de toda forma só foi terminada até o terço inferior. Esta parte foi desmantelada por ordem de Francesco I de Medici entre 1587 e 1588, pois era considerada totalmente fora de moda naquela altura. O concurso que foi aberto para a criação de uma nova fachada acabou em um escândalo, e os desenhos subseqüentes que foram apresentados não foram aceitos. A fachada ficou, então, despida até o século XIX, mas estatuária e ornamentos originais sobrevivem no Museu Opera del Duomo e em museus de Paris e Berlim.
Em 1864, Emilio de Fabris venceu um concurso para uma nova fachada, que é a que vemos hoje, um enorme e magistral trabalho de mosaico em mármores coloridos em estilo neogótico, com uma volumetria dinâmica e harmoniosa. Pronta em 1887, foi dedicada à Virgem Maria, e é ricamente adornada com estatuária de elegante e austero desenho. Em 1903 terminaram-se as monumentais portas de bronze, com várias cenas em relevo e outras decorações.
Interior
Sua planta é basilical, com três naves, divididas por grandes arcos suportados por colunas monumentais. Tem 153 metros de comprido por 38 metros de largo, e 90 metros no transepto. Seus arcos se elevam até 23 metros de altura, e o cume da cúpula, a 90 metros.
Suas decorações internas são austeras, e muitas se perderam no curso dos séculos. Alguns elementos acharam abrigo no Museu Opera del Duomo, como os coros de Luca della Robbia e Donatello. Subsistem também os monumentos a Dante, a John Hawkwood, a Niccolò da Tolentino, a Antonio d'Orso, e os bustos de Giotto (de Benedetto da Maiano), Brunelleschi (de Buggiano - 1447), Marsilio Ficino, e Antonio Squarcialupi.
Sobre a porta de entrada há um relógio colossal com decoração em pintura de Paolo Uccello, e acertado de acordo com a hora italica, uma divisão do tempo comumente empregada na Itália até o século XVIII, que dava o por-do-sol como o início do dia.
Os vitrais são os maiores em seu gênero na Itália entre os séculos XIV e XV, com imagens de santos do Velho e Novo Testamento. O crucifixo é obra de Benedetto da Maiano, a talha do coro de Bartolommeo Bandinelli, e as portas da sacristia são de Luca della Robbia.