Muslim prayer

Five times a day a Muslim is bound to perform the Salaah, the fixed ritual of the Islamic prayer - worship. He should properly go to the nearest mosque to offer his prayers together with the whole congregation. Each of the five periods is preceded by the adhaan (or azaan - ezan as it is more commonly called). The muezzin (mu'adh-dhin in Arabic) calls out on each occasion:

 

Allaabu Akbar (four times - "Allah is Most Great").

Ash'hadu an laa ilaaha illallaah (twice - "I bear witness that there is no god but Allah").

Ash'hadu anna Muhammadar-rasulullaah (twice - "I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah").

Haya 'alas-salaah (twice - "Come to prayer").

Ilaya 'alal falaah (twice - "Come to the good;').

Allaaku Akbar (twice - "Allah is Most Great").

Laa ilaaha illallaah (once - "There is no god but Allah"). Listen to Ezan (.wav format, 1Mb)

 

After the call to the good during the Fajr prayer (just before dawn), the crier calls out twice: "Prayer is better than sleep". Then follows the actual performance of prayer itself in which anything between two or four rituals (each one known as a rak'ah - a "bowing") are performed. The worshipper begins with the qiyam, the standing posture. He raises his hands to his ears and then folds them, right over left, upon his breast. Following this is the ruku in which he bows down and places his hands on his knees, thereafter returning to the standing position. Then comes the sajdah (secde), the prostration of the whole body on the ground. This is performed twice with a brief sitting in between. He then comes back to the sitting position, the qa'dah and passes the greeting as-salaamu alaykum wa rahmatullah - "peace on you and the mercy of Allah". It is known as the taslim and it is said that the worshipper is greeting his fellow Muslims (though some say he is greeting two angels who sit on his shoulders recording his good and bad deeds).

 

In between these postures various expressions and passages of the Qur'an (especially the Suratul- Fatihah) are recited. These include the takbir ("Allah is Most Great"), the tahmid from the Fatiha ("Praise be to Allah"), the tahlil ( There is no god but Allah") and the tasbih ("May Allah be Glorified ). There are variations of these, for example subhaana rabbiyyal Adhiim - "Glorified be the Lord, the Most High . This fixed ritual of prayer is so rigid in Islam that there may be no departure from it and the pious Muslim will slavishly follow it day after day.

 

Prayer is also like a gymnastic exercise and a mechanical act, together with total submission to God of course. Before going into the mosque the worshipper must perform an ablution, washing his face, hands and feet (or, in certain circumstances, a washing of the whole body known as ghusl), the ritual of which is set out in the Qur'an:

 

"When you prepare for prayer, wash your faces, and your hands (and arms) to the elbows) rub your heads (with water), and (wash) your feet to the ankles. If you are in a state of ceremonial impurity, bathe your whole body". Surah 5.7. Later in the same verse it is said that the worshipper may use sand or earth, a ritual known as tayammum, where water is not available, in a desert for example.

 

In addition to the five daily prayers there are the tahajjud prayers, a late-night ritual practiced by Muhammad but not commanded by him, as well as tarawih prayers after the last prayer, salautal-isha, during the month of Ramadan. Furthermore on Fridays the great congregational prayer just after midday, the Juma prayer, replaces the midday prayer. In all of these the ritualistic performance of raka'at continues but, apart from these prescribed prayers, Muslims also have a more extemporaneous form of prayer, the dua. This takes the form either of set Arabic phrases or of personal devotions which may also be in Arabic or in the worshipper's language.

 

The times of prayer

Every Muslim, male or female, must offer at least five daily prayers in time, if is no lawful reason for exemption, combination, or temporary delay, They are:

 

The Early Morning Prayer (Salatu-l-Fajr), which may be offered any time after the dawn and before, a total period of about two hours.

The Noon Prayer (Salatu-z-Zuhr). This prayer may be offered anytime after the sun begins to decline from its Zenith until it is about midway on its course to setting. For example, if the sun sets at 7:00 p.m. the prayer time begins a little after 12:00 noon and continues until a little after 3:30 p.m. Soon after that the time of the next prayer begins. However, there are accurate calendars telling the time of each prayer. But if there is none available, one must resort to one's best judgment.

The Mid-Afternoon prayer (Salatu-l-Asr), which begins right after the expiration of the Noon prayer time and extends to sunset.

The sunset prayer (Salatu-l-Maghrib). The time of this prayer begins immediately after sunset and extends till the red glow in the western horizon disappears. Normally it extends over a period of one hour and twenty to thirty minutes.

The Evening prayer (Salatu-l-Isha), which begins after the red glow in the western horizon disappears (nearly one hour and thirty minutes after sunset) and continues till a before the dawn.

It is noticeable that Islam has set the times of prayer in such a way that our spiritual recreation remarkably coincides with our physical nourishment, and combines the peace of mind with the relaxation of body. The early Morning Prayer is due in the regular period of breakfast; the Noon Prayer coincides with the lunch period; the Mid-Afternoon Prayer falls about the break time for tea or coffee; the sunset Prayer is about the supper time; and the Evening Prayer corresponds with the late snack. It is also noticeable that the Muslim, by observing these prayers, marks the whole day with a spiritual stamp in the beginning, at the end and throughout. So he combines religion and life, feels the presence of God within him throughout the day, concludes his daily transactions with a spiritual feeling and builds up his moral prestige on strong foundations. Moreover, in this way the Muslim introduces spiritual vitality into all aspects of his life, and religion presents itself to all fields of activity. Indeed, this timetable of prayer is remarkable because it is the work of God and the product of Islam. It is always preferable to offer the prayer as soon as the time sets in, last some things cause unexpected delay or postponement. These prayers are Divine contests. The Noon (Zuhr) and the Afternoon (Asr) Prayers may be offered together, if a person is traveling, sick or pregnant. The same permission is granted with regard to the Sunset (Maghrib) and the evening (Isha) Prayers.

 

The partial ablution

Before offering the prayer one must be in good shape and pure condition. It is necessary to wash the parts of the body which are generally exposed to dirt or dust or smog.

 

Declare the intention that the act is for the purpose of Worship and purity.

Wash the hands up to the wrists three times.

Rinse out the mouth with water three times preferably with a brush whenever it is possible.

Cleanse the nostrils of the nose by sniffing water in to them three times.

Wash the whole face three times with both hands if possible from the top of the forehead to the bottom of the chin and from ear to ear.

Wash the right arm three times up to the far end of the elbow and then do the same with the left arm.

Wipe the whole head or any part of it with a wet hand once.

Wipe the inner sides of the ears with the forefingers and their outer sides with the thumbs. This should be done with wet fingers.

Wipe around the neck with wet hands.

Wash the two feet up to the ankles three times beginning with the right foot.

At this stage the ablution is completed and the person who has performed it is ready to start his prayer. When the ablution is valid a person may keep it as long as he can and may use for as many prayers as he wishes.

 

Nullification of the Ablution

The ablution becomes nullified by any of the following.

 

Natural discharges i.e., urine, stools, gas, etc.

The flow of blood or pus and the like from any part of the body.

Vomiting.

Falling asleep.

Losing one's reason by taking drugs or any intoxicating stuff. After the occurrence of any of these things the ablution must be renewed for prayer. Also, after natural discharges, water should be applied because the use of toilet tissues may not be sufficient for the purpose of purity and worship.

Complete substitute for the Ablution (Tayammum)

Tayammum or resort to pure earth may substitute for the ablution and even the bath. This is allowed in any of the following cases.

 

When a person is sick and cannot use water.

When he has no access to water in sufficient quantity.

When the use of water is likely to do him harm or cause any disease.

When the performance of ablution makes the person miss a funeral or Eed prayer which has no substitute.

In any of these instances it is permissible to make Tayammum which is performed as follows.

 

Strike both hands slightly on pure earth or sand or stone.

Shake the hands off and wipe the face with them once in the same way as done in the ablution.

Strike the hands again and wipe the right arm to the elbow with the left hand and the left arm with the right hand.

Special Facilities in Ablution

With regard to the ablution Islam has offered certain facilities. If socks or stocking are on and have been put on after performing an ablution, it is not necessary to take them off when renewing the ablution while traveling. Instead of taking them off, we wet hand and may be passed over them. They should be removed, however, and the feet washed at least once in every twenty four hours. The same practice may be restored to if the boots are on and their soles and appearance are clean. Similar a wound in any of the parts which must be washed in the ablution, and if washing that particular part is likely to cause harm, it is permissible to wipe the dressing bandage of the wound with a wet hand.

 

The complete Ablution (Ghusl / Bath)

The whole body with the nostrils, mouth and head must be washed by a complete bath before entering prayer in any of the following cases:

 

After intimate intercourse;

After wet dreams;

Upon expiration of the menstruation period of woman;

At the end of the confinement period of nursing woman, which, is estimated at a maximum of forty days. If it ends before, complete ablution should be done.

It should be pointed out that at the start of the bath or ablution the intention must be clear that it is for the purpose of purity and worship. Also, a person who is performing an ablution, partial or complete, should combine his performance with some utterances glorifying Allah and praying him for true guidance. The forms of such utterances and described in detail in the elaborate sources of the religion. One, however, can say one's own best utterances if one does not know the exact wo sufficient as long as it is in the praise of Allah and is said with sincerity.

 

Wow: Rechtschreibschwäche in rot-grün

2 talks at the break room

a) An actor who does not want that the hairs on his arms are shaved for a tattoo.

b) Women talking about their menstruation.

 

Part of: Empty Padded ~ LeerGefüllt - Waiting Time at Work - Left handed drawings and writings on the empty left pages of my prompter`s book: Soufflierbuch "Brooklyn Memoiren (Brighton Beach Memories)" (Neil Simon) // "Weaving Diary Tapestry Aktion Tagebuch Teppich Tapisserie Tagebuch weben 365 days project 2: 2015 2016" 21. April 2016: Morgens im Pausenraum timeline zeitliche Abfolge: ab 27. 3. green thread grüner Draht // aus dem Nähkästchen

 

Triptych 21. 4. 2016 #nature #natur #leg #bein #memory #erinnerung #memoiren #gedächtnisprotokoll #zitat #niederschrift #notiz #abschrift #schreiben #geschrieben #theater #theatre #rehearsal #probe #kommunikation #gespräch #zyklus #periode #regel #blutung #menstruation #dialog #dialogue #talk #schrift #letter #typographie #handschrift #pause #fermate #break #sketch #skizze #doodle #bleistift #blei #pencil #buntstift #morgen #woman #frau #female #mann #male #man #beard #bart #bärtig #bearded #haar #hair #körperbehaarung #rasieren #rasur #shave #morning #stencil #schablone #schnittmuster #pattern #abend #nacht #night #nächtlich #nächtens #photo #fotografie #gallery #galerie #westlicht #bunt #color #colour #farbe #line #linie #problem #leiermann #stille #silence #improvisation #handwerk #weben #inhalt #form #öffentlich #rede #einblick #anblick #blau #blue #green #grün #maigrün #moos #moosgrün #braun #brown #sepia #red #rot #blut #blood #blutrot #monat #mond #welt #world #yellow #gelb #pisse #pinkeln #work #arbeit #schaubild #linear #idee #konzept #überlegung #gedanke #unterlegung #private #privat #privateness #nähkästchen #anonym #bilderzyklus #weben #weave #gewebt #warp #weft #kette #schuss #assemblage #wandteppich #bildwirkerei #bildteppich #textilkunst #werkstatt #webatelier #carpet #teppich #rug #tapis #tapestry #tapisserie #review #preview #heute #beobachtung #view #blick #frühling #spring #szene #scene #aktion

Is the most important festival of Kamakhya temple of Guwahati and is held every year during monsoon (mid-June). It is a ritual of austerities celebrated with 'Tantric rites'. It is a common belief that the reigning diety, 'Kamakhya' , 'The Mother Shakti' goes through her annual cycle of menstruation during this period.

 

During Ambubashi the doors of the temple remain closed for three days. It is believed that the earth becomes impure for three days. During this time no farming work is undertaken. Daily worship and other religious performances are suspended during this period. After three days, the temple doors are reopened after the Goddess is bathed and other rituals performed. It is believed that the mother earth regains her purity now. This is purely a ritual of Tantric cult.

 

Ambubachi mela is held at the Kamakhya temple, after being closed for the afore-mentioned three days. On the fourth day only the devotees are allowed to enter inside the temple for worship. Thousands of devotees from all over India visit this mela.

source:http://assamtourism.gov.in/assam/ambubachi.html

IT CAN NOW BE REVEALED that the father of Bristol Palin's love-child, Tripp, is in fact God's own true Holy Monkey, Bubbles - Michael Jackson's chimpanzee friend - and that poor young Levi is just a ringer.

Bubbles was sent down from Heaven to father an homunculus Saviour Child with the Righteous Hockey Mom Sarah herself, who would then thwart Satan's evil plans on Earth in these "End Times".

But unfortunately for the Palins and their fundamentalist beliefs, cross-species human/animal copulation/marriage was made illegal in Alaska in 1978, after it was discovered that the true mother of future US President [and Anti-Christ] Damien Thorne was not the wife of the US Ambassador to England, but an italian jackal! And that the father was old Beelzebub himself!!!

So even when preparing for "good" bestiality, Sarah (the "whack job") and Todd wouldn't be able to reverse these crazy "human only" marriage laws until after she became US President, and they'd get to run The World together (the way they did Alaska) and use nuclear weapons to rid it of of all the Evil Demons of Satan camping out in every dark corner, everywhere.

 

So... a few years ago, after being abandoned at a deserted Neverland, a sad, sick and confused Bubbles was bought by Madonna in a child/monkey adoption auction on eBay for her kid collection, and taken to her huge stone castle in the remote & bleak Highlands of Scotland (geography note - opposite direction from Russia, Sarah!).

But her cockney gangster [ex] husband Guy Ritchie is a weird sicko, and friend of Dick Cheney, who behind Madonna's back used to beat poor Bubbles mercilessly and make him perform degrading and humiliating sex-acts.

Instead of the ripe, fresh bananas and loving caresses he was used to from Michael Jackson, Guy and Dick water-boarded him, and fed him only cold scraps of haggis with bits of putrid scottish pie-lard for garnish.

After 2 years of agonising Guantanamo Bay-style incarceration, and confessing that he was a leading member of Al Qaeda, a sad and damaged Bubbles miraculously escaped from Madonna's Scottish castle hiding inside some bagpipes, and fled north across the frozen Arctic wastes 'til he finally arrived at Sarah & Todd Palin's hunting igloo.

 

Sarah asked him if he was a member of an endangered species, like Polar Bears and Arctic Foxes,,, but Bubbles was far too clever to say "yes", as he guessed from looking at them that Sarah and Todd might make him run until exhausted and then shoot him from a helicopter for a laugh.

Then they'd probably fashion his lifeless monkey carcass into a footstool to go with Sarah's magnificent bear-sofa.

But even Sarah didn't know that Bubbles was a heavenly angel (albeit in monkey form) sent by God himself to father The Saviour of The World in holy sexual union with her (no time for any of this Catholic "virgin birth" shit in Alaska!).

And Todd didn't know either,,, or it might have been .375 calibre time for the lustful varmint!

 

Over time Sarah got to know and treasure Bubbles, as they shared roughly the same IQ, knowledge of World Affairs, Political History, Geography and Economics.

Though the Palin's Extreme Pentecostal Creationist belief system was a little too backward and primitive a concept for a [admittedly very clever] chimpanzee even, and Bubbles described believing in it as being "devoid of even the slightest glimmer of intellectual rigour or sanity".

 

Bubbles felt an unnatural but understandable sexual attraction to the gorgeous third-place runner-up in the Miss Alaska Oil-Spill beauty pageant of 1984 though, and after many months of close communion, Sarah Palin herself came to feel of Bubbles as she would a fondly remembered childhood classmate, from the Wasilla retard's school & 7 colleges she attended on the way to her "journalism" degree, and so she gave him a $95,000 a year + expenses job running the Alaskan Department of Agriculture ("He must know all about animals!.. You betcha!").

 

But she couldn't feel sexually aroused by Bubbles, yet, as he didn't smell of fish like her beloved childhood sweetheart Todd - and the odor of something wet & scaley was what had always got her womanly juices flowing from that first accidental time with that Northern Pike (huh?) as a barely menstruating teen cheerleader just learning the evil ways of the world, and how it was that cities and entire countries outside Wasilla were under the control of monstrous satanic demons, that had to be flushed-out by the Soldiers of Jesus, vanquished, and turned into attractive pieces of office furniture.

 

Well eventually, inevitably, true love blossomed between human and animal the way it so often does in those long, dark, lonely Alaskan winter nights - just the way it says it did in The Bible, after Cain slew Abel and was ejected from The Garden of Eden,,, but it wasn't between Alaska's righteous, devout, beautiful and lipstick-clad Pit-Bull Hockey-Mom Governor and the famous celeb/chimp,,,but between him and her treacherous young daughter!

It was as if Bubbles had visited the sin-ridden cesspit that is New York City, and caught the terrible jewish "Woody Allen's Disease" and...[ to be continued...]

First diptych

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalash

 

The Kalash (Urdu: کیلاش ;Nuristani: Kasivo) or Kalasha, are indigenous people of the Hindu Kush mountain range, residing in the Chitral district of the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan. They speak the Kalash language, from the Dardic family of Indo-Iranic, and are considered a unique tribe among the Indo-Aryan stock

 

Etymology

According to the linguist Richard Strand, the people of Chitral apparently adopted the name of the former Kafiristan Kalasha, who at some unknown time extended their influence into Chitral.[2] A reference for this assumption could be the names kâsv'o respectively kâsi'o, used by the neighboring Nuristani Kata and Kom for the Kalash of Chitral. From these the earlier name kâs'ivo (instead Kalasha) could be derived

 

Culture

 

The culture of Kalash people is unique and differs drastically from the various ethnic groups surrounding them. They are polytheists and nature plays a highly significant and spiritual role in their daily life. As part of their religious tradition, sacrifices are offered and festivals held to give thanks for the abundant resources of their three valleys[3]. Kalash mythology and folklore has been compared to that of ancient Greece[4], but they are much closer to Indo-Iranian (Vedic and pre-Zoroastrian) traditions [5]

 

Language

 

The language of the Kalash is a Dardic language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-Iranian group; itself part of the larger Indo-European family. It is classified as a member of the Chitral sub-group, the only other member of that group being Khowar. The Norwegian Linguist Georg Morgenstierne who studied both languages wrote that in spite of similarities Kalasha is an independent language in its own right, not a mere dialect of Khowar.[6][7] Currently about 5,000 people speak Kalasha and it is considered critically endangered by UNESCO. [8] Badshah Munir Bukhari unicoded the Kalasha Language in 2005. Working in close collaboration with various international researchers and linguists, Kalash linguist Taj Khan Kalash organized first "Kalasha Orthography Conference 2000"in Islamabad Pakistan. In 2004 he was able to raise funds to publish first alphabet book of Kalasha language based on Roman script designed by an Australian linguist Gregory R. Cooper.

 

Customs

 

There is some controversy over what defines the ethnic characteristics of the Kalash. Although quite numerous before the 20th century, the non-Muslim minority has seen its numbers dwindle over the past century. A leader of the Kalash, Saifulla Jan, has stated, "If any Kalash converts to Islam, they can't live among us anymore. We keep our identity strong."[9] About three thousand have converted to Islam or are descendants of converts, yet still live nearby in the Kalash villages and maintain their language and many aspects of their ancient culture. By now, sheikhs, or converts to Islam, make up more than half of the total Kalasha-speaking population.[10]

 

Kalash women usually wear long black robes, often embroidered with cowrie shells. For this reason, they are known in Chitral as "The Black Kafirs". Men have adopted the Pakistani shalwar kameez, while children wear small versions of adult clothing after the age of four.

 

In contrast to the surrounding Pakistani culture, the Kalash do not in general separate males and females or frown on contact between the sexes. However, menstruating girls and women are sent to live in the "bashaleni", the village menstrual building, during their periods, until they regain their "purity". They are also required to give birth in the bashaleni. There is also a ritual restoring "purity" to a woman after childbirth which must be performed before a woman can return to her husband.[11] The husband is an active participant in this ritual.

 

Marriage by elopement is rather frequent, also involving women who are already married to another man. Indeed, wife-elopement is counted as one of the "great customs" (ghōna dastūr) together with the main festivals.

 

Girls are usually married at an early age. If a woman wants to change husbands, she will write a letter to her prospective husband offering herself in marriage and informing the would-be groom how much her current husband paid for her. This is because the new husband must pay double if he wants her. For example, if the current husband paid one cow for her, then the new husband must pay two cows to the original husband if he wants her.

 

Wife-elopement may lead in some rare cases to a quasi-feud between clans until peace is negotiated by mediators, in the form of the double bride-price paid by the new husband to the ex-husband. [12]

 

Kalash lineages (kam) separate as marriageable descendants have separated by over seven generations. A rite of "breaking agnation" (tatbře čhin) marks that previous agnates (tatbře) are now permissible affines (därak "clan partners).[12] Each kam has a separate shrine in the clan's Jēṣṭak-hān, the temple to lineal or familial goddess Jēṣṭak.

 

Festivals

The three main festivals (khawsáṅgaw) of the Kalash [13] are the Joshi festival in late May, the Uchau in autumn, and the Caumus in midwinter.[14]

 

The pastoral god Sorizan protects the herds in Fall and Winter and is thanked at the winter festival, while Goshidai does so until the Pul festival (pũ. from *pūrṇa, full moon in Sept.) and is thanked at the Joshi (joṣi, žōši) festival in spring.

 

Joshi is celebrated at the end of May each year. The first day of Joshi is "Milk Day", on which the Kalash offer libations of milk that have been saved for ten days prior to the festival.

 

The most important Kalash festival is the Chaumos (cawmōs, ghona chawmos yat, Khowar "chitrimas" from *cāturmāsya, CDIAL 4742), which is celebrated for two weeks at winter solstice (c. Dec. 7-22), at the beginning of the month chawmos mastruk. It marks the end of the year's fieldwork and harvest. It involves much music, dancing, and the sacrifice of many goats. It is dedicated to the god Balimain who is believed to visit from the mythical homeland of the Kalash, Tsyam (Tsiyam, tsíam), for the duration of the feast. Food sacrifices are offered at the clans' Jeshtak shrines, dedicated to the ancestors.

  

A Kalash man dances during the Uchau FestivalAt Chaumos, impure and uninitiated persons are not admitted; they must be purified by a waving a fire brand over women and children and by a special fire ritual for men, involving a shaman waving juniper brands over the men. The 'old rules' of the gods (Devalog, dewalōk) are no longer in force, as is typical for year-end and carnival-like rituals. The main Chaumos ritual takes place at a Tok tree, a place called Indra's place, "indrunkot", or "indréyin". Indrunkot is sometimes believed to belong to Balumain's brother, In(dr), lord of cattle. [15] Ancestors, impersonated by young boys (ōnjeṣṭa 'pure') are worshipped and offered bread; they hold on to each other and form a chain (cf. the Vedic anvārambhaṇa) and snake through the village.

 

The men must be divided into two parties: the pure ones have to sing the well-honored songs of the past, but the impure sing wild, passionate, and obscene songs, with an altogether different rhythm. This is accompanied by a 'sex change': men dress as women, women as men (Balumain also is partly seen as female and can change between both forms at will). [15]

 

This includes the Festival of the Budulak (buḍáḷak, the 'shepherd king'). In this festival, a strong prepubescent boy is sent up into the mountains to live with the goats for the summer. He is supposed to get fat and strong from the goat milk. When the festival comes he is allowed for a 24-hour period only to have sexual intercourse with any woman he wants, including even the wife of another man, or a young virgin or his own mother if he wants her. Any child born of this 24-hour rampage is considered to be blessed. The Kalash claim to have abolished this practice in recent years due to negative worldwide publicity.

 

At this crucial moment the pure get weaker, and the impure try to take hold of the (very pure) boys, pretend to mount them "like a hornless ram", and proceed in snake procession. At this point, the impure men resist and fight. When the "nagayrō" song with the response "han sarías" (from *samrīyate 'flows together', CDIAL 12995) is voiced, Balumain showers all his blessings and disappears. He gives his blessings to seven boys (representing the mythical seven of the eight Devalog who received him on arrival), and these pass the blessings on to all pure men. [15]

 

In myth, Mahandeu had cheated Balumain from superiority, when all the gods had slept together (a euphemism) in the Shawalo meadow; therefore, he went to the mythical home of the Kalash in Tsiyam (tsíam) , to come back next year like the Vedic Indra (Rigveda 10.86). If this had not happened, Balumain would have taught humans how to have sex as a sacred act. Instead, he could only teach them fertility songs used at the Chaumos ritual. He arrives from the west, the (Kati Kafir) Bashgal valley, in early December, before solstice, and leaves the day after. He was at first shunned by some people, who were annihilated. He was however, received by seven Devalog and they all went to several villages, such as Batrik village, where seven pure, young boys received him whom he took with him. Therefore, nowadays, one only sends men and older boys to receive him. Balumain is the typical culture hero. He told people about the sacred fire made from junipers, about the sowing ceremony for wheat that involved the blood of a small goat, and he asked for wheat tribute (hushak) for his horse. Finally, Balumain taught how to celebrate the winter festival. He was visible only during his first visit, now he is just felt to be present. [15]

 

[edit] Religion

Kalash culture and belief system differs from the various ethnic groups surrounding them but is similar to that of the neighboring Nuristanis in northeast Afghanistan, before their enforced Islamization in the last decade of the 19th century. The Kalash people are unique in their customs and religion.

 

There is a creator deity called Dezau (ḍezáw) whose name is derived from Indo-European *dheig'h 'to form' (cf. Vedic dih, Kati Nuristani dez 'to create', CDIAL 14621); he is also called by the Pashto term Khodai. There are a number of other deities, semi-gods and spirits. The Kalash pantheon is thus one of the last living representatives of Indo-European religion, along with Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.

 

There is the prominent Indr or Varendr (Warín, Werín from *aparendra); the rainbow (indré~ CDIAL 1577) is called "Indra's bow" as in Vedic; when it thunders, Indra plays Polo. Indra is attested both in Vedic and Avestan texts and goes back to Indo-Iranian deity Vṛtrahan the 'slayer of vṛtra' (resistance).

 

Indra appears in various form, such as Sajigor (Sajigōr), also called Shura Verin (Šúra Werín from *śūra *aparendra 'the hero, the unrivaled Indra'). Warén(dr-) or In Warīn is the mightiest and most dangerous god. The location of his shrine was assigned by bow shot, which recalls the Vedic Indra's Bunda bow [15]. Another one of his forms is the recently popular Balumain (Baḷimaín). Riding on a horse, comes to the Kalash valleys from the outside at winter solstice. Balumain is a culture hero who taught how to celebrate the Kalash winter festival (Chaumos). He is connected with Tsyam, the mythological homeland of the Kalash. Indra has a demon-like counterpart, Jeṣṭan (from *jyeṣṭha? 'the best'), who appears on earth as a dog; the gods (Devalog, Dewalók) are his enemies and throw stones at him, the shooting stars. [15]

 

Another god, Munjem Malik (munjem from *madhyama 'middle'; malék from Arab. malik 'king'), is the Lord of Middle Earth and killed, like the Vedic Indra, his father. Mahandeo (mahandéo, cf. the Nuristani Mon/Māndi, from *mahān deva), is the god of crops, and also the god of war and a negotiator with the highest deity. [15]

 

Jestak (jéṣṭak, from *jyeṣṭhā, or *deṣṭrī?) is the goddess of domestic life, family and marriage. Her lodge is the women's house (Jeṣṭak Han).

 

Dezalik (ḍizálik), the sister of "Dezau" is the goddess of childbirth, the hearth and of life force; she protects children and women. She is similar to the Kafiri Nirmali (Indo-Iranian *nirmalikā). She is also responsible for the Bashaleni lodge.

 

There also is a general pattern of belief in mountain fairies, Suchi (súči, now often called Peri), who help in hunting and killing enemies, and the Varōti (~ Sanskrit Vātaputra), their violent male partners (echoing the Vedic Apsaras and Gandharvas). They live in the high mountains, such as Tirich Mir (~ Vedic Meru, *devameru: Shina díamer, CDIAL 6533), but in late autumn they descend to the mountain meadows. The Jach (j.ac. from *yakṣ(inī), are a separate category of female spirits of the soil or of special places, fields and mountain pastures. [15]

 

There is some confusion regarding to the present status of the Kalash, as some sources are stating that Islamic fundamentalists have converted all the Kalash, while some other sources stating that there are still some pagan Kalash remaining. According to the latter source, during the seventies, when local Muslims forced a number of conversions upon the Kalash, their numbers shrank to just two thousand. However, with protection from the government, a decrease in voluntary conversion and a great reduction in the child mortality rate, the last two decades have seen their numbers double.[16] Recently there was some controversy when two Kalash girls converted to Islam.[17]

 

Ritual

 

These deities have shrines throughout the valleys, where they frequently receive goat sacrifices. In 1929, as Georg Morgenstierne testifies, such rituals were still carried out by Kalash priests, "ištikavan" 'priest' (from ištikhék 'to praise a god'). This institution has since disappeared but there still is the prominent one of shamans (dehar) [18] The deities are temporary visitors. Kalash shrines (dūr 'house', cf. Vedic dúr) are a wooden board or stone altar at juniper, oak, cedar trees, in 1929 still with the effigy of a human head inside holes in these shrines. Horses, cows, goats and sheep were sacrificed. Wine is a sacred drink of Indr, who owns a vineyard that he defends against invaders. Kalash ritual is of potlatch type; by organizing rituals and festivals (up to 12; the highest called biramōr) one gains fame and status. As in the Veda, the former local artisan class was excluded from public religious functions. [15]

 

However, there is a special role for prepubescent boys, who are treated with special awe, combining pre-sexual behavior and the purity of the high mountains, where they tend goats for the summer month. Purity is very much stressed and centered around altars, goat stables, the space between the hearth and the back wall of houses and in festival periods; the higher up in the valley, the more pure the location. [15]

 

By contrast, women (especially during menstruation and giving birth), as well as death and decomposition and the outside (Muslim) world are impure, and, just as in the Veda and Avesta, many cleansing ceremonies are required if impurity occurs. [15]

 

Crows represent the ancestors, and are frequently fed with the left hand (also at tombs), just as in the Veda. The dead are buried above ground in ornamented wooden coffins. Wooden effigies are erected at the graves of wealthy or honoured people.[15], [19][20]

 

History

 

The Kalash are known as indigenous people of Chitral, and their ancestors migrated to Chitral from Afghanistan in the 2nd century BC.[21] It is thought the Kalash descendants migrated to Afghanistan from a distant place in South Asia, which the Kalash call “Tsiyam” in their folk songs and epics.[21]

 

The Kalash were ruled by the Mehtar of Chitral from the 1700s onward. They have enjoyed a cordial relationship with the major ethnic group of Chitral, the Kho who are Sunni and Ismaili Muslims. The multi-ethnic and multi-religious State of Chitral ensured that the Kalash were able to live in peace and harmony and practice their culture and religion. The Nuristani, their neighbours in the region of former Kafiristan west of the border, were converted to Islam by Amir Abdur-Rahman of Afghanistan in the 1890s and their land was renamed Nuristan.

 

Prior to that event, the people of Kafiristan had paid tribute to the Mehtar of Chitral and accepted his suzerainty. This came to an end with the Durand Agreement when Kafiristan fell under the Afghan sphere of Influence. Recently, the Kalash have been able to stop their demographic and cultural spiral towards extinction and have, for the past 30 years, been on the rebound. Increased international awareness, a more tolerant government, and monetary assistance has allowed them to continue their way of life. Their numbers remain stable at around 3,000. Although many convert to Islam, the high birth rate replaces them, and with medical facilities (previously there were none) they live longer.

 

Allegations of "immorality" connected with their practices have led to the forcible conversion to Islam of several villages in the 1950s, which has led to heightened antagonism between the Kalash and the surrounding Muslims. Since the 1970s, schools and roads were built in some valleys.[22]

 

Rehman and Ali (2001) report that pressure of radical Muslim organizations is on the increase:

 

Ardent Muslims on self-imposed missions to eradicate idolatry regularly attack those engaged in traditional Kalash religious rituals, smashing their idols. The local Mullahs and the visiting Tableghi Jammaites remain determined to 'purify' the Kafirs.[23]

 

Location, climate and geography

 

Located in the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan, the Kalash people live in three isolated mountain valleys: Bumboret (Kalash: Mumret), Rumbur (Rukmu), and Birir (Biriu). These valleys are opening towards the Kunar River, some 20 km south (downstream) of Chitral,

 

The Bumboret and Rumbur valleys join at 35°44′20″N 71°43′40″E / 35.73889°N 71.72778°E / 35.73889; 71.72778 (1640 m), joining the Kunar at the village of Ayrun (35°42′52″N 71°46′40″E / 35.71444°N 71.77778°E / 35.71444; 71.77778, 1400 m) and they each rise to passes connecting to Afghanistan's Nuristan Province at about 4500 m.

 

The Birir valley opens towards the Kunar at the village of Gabhirat (35°40′8″N 71°45′15″E / 35.66889°N 71.75417°E / 35.66889; 71.75417, 1360 m). A pass connects the Birir and Bumboret valleys at about 3000 m. The Kalash villages in all three valleys are located at a height of approximately 1900 to 2200 m.

 

The region is extremely fertile, covering the mountainside in rich oak forests and allowing for intensive agriculture, despite the fact that most of the work is done not by machinery, but by hand. The powerful and dangerous rivers that flow through the valleys have been harnessed to power grinding mills and to water the farm fields through the use of ingenious irrigation channels. Wheat, maize, grapes (generally used for wine), apples, apricots and walnuts are among the many foodstuffs grown in the area, along with surplus fodder used for feeding the livestock.[24]

 

The climate is typical of high elevation regions without large bodies of water to regulate the temperature. The summers are mild and agreeable with average maximum temperatures between 23° and 27°C (73° - 81°F). Winters, on the other hand, can be very cold, with average minimum temperatures between 2° and 1°C (36° - 34°F). The average yearly precipitation is 700 to 800 mm (28 - 32 inches).

 

Genetic origins

 

Rosenberg et al. (2006) ran simulations dividing autosomal gene frequencies in selected populations into a given number of clusters. For 7 or more clusters, a cluster (yellow) appears which is nearly unique to the Kalash. Smaller amounts of Kalash gene frequencies join clusters associated with Europe and Middle East (blue) and with South Asia (red).Some in the academic community have speculated that the Kalash might be from ancient Middle Eastern populations[25], an indigenous population from South Asia[26], or members of Alexander the Great's army.[27] Though often overstated, instances of blond hair or light eyes are not uncommon.

 

In a 2005 study of ASPM gene variants, Mekel-Bobrov et al. found that the Kalash people of Pakistan have among the highest rate of the newly-evolved ASPM haplogroup D, at 60% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele.[28].

 

The Kalash also have been shown to exhibit the exceedingly rare 19 allele value at autosomal marker D9S1120 at a frequency higher than the majority of other world populations which do have it.[29]

 

Firasat et al. (2006) conclude that the Kalash lack typical Greek haplogroups (e.g. haplogroup 21),[30] On the other hand, a study by Qamar et al. (2002) found that even though "no support for a Greek origin of their Y chromosomes was found" in the Kalash, Greek y-chromosome admixture could be as high as 20% to 40%.[31] Considering the apparent absence of haplogroup 21 in the local population, one of the possibilities suggested was because of genetic drift.[31] On the basis of Y chromosome allele frequency, some researchers describe the exact Greek contribution to Kalash as unclear. [32]

 

Another study with Qasim Ayub, and S. Qasim Mehdi, and led by Quintana-Murci claims that "the western Eurasian presence in the Kalash population reaches a frequency of 100%, the most prevalent [mtDNA] haplogroup being U4, (pre-HV)1, U2e, and J2," and that they show "no detectable East or South Asian lineages. The outlying genetic position is seen in all analyses. Moreover, although this population is composed of western Eurasian lineages, the most prevalent ... are rare or absent in the surrounding populations and usually characterize populations from Eastern Europe, the middle East and the Caucasus... All these observations bear witness to the strong effects of genetic drift of the Kalash population... However, a western Eurasian origin for this population is likely, in view of their maternal lineages, which can ultimately be traced back to the Middle East". [33]

 

The estimates by Qamar et al. of Greek admixture has been dismissed by Toomas Kivisild et al. (2003): “some admixture models and programs that exist are not always adequate and realistic estimators of gene flow between populations ... this is particularly the case when markers are used that do not have enough restrictive power to determine the source populations ... or when there are more than two parental populations. In that case, a simplistic model using two parental populations would show a bias towards overestimating admixture”.[34]

 

The study came to the conclusion that the Pakistani Kalash population estimate by (Qamar et al. 2002) “is unrealistic and is likely also driven by the low marker resolution that pooled southern and western Asian–specific Y-chromosome haplogroup H together with European-specific haplogroup I, into an uninformative polyphyletic cluster 2”.[34]

 

A study by Rosenberg et al. (2006) employing genetic testing among the Kalash population concluded that they are, in fact, a distinct (and perhaps aboriginal) population with only minor contributions from outside peoples. In one cluster analysis with (K = 7), the Kalash formed one cluster, the others being Africans, Europeans/Middle Easterners/South Asians, East Asians, Melanesians, and Native Americans. [35]

 

A genetic study published led by Firasat (2007) on Kalash individuals found high and diverse frequencies of :Haplogroup L3a (22.7%), H1* (20.5%), R1a (18.2%), G (18.2%), J2 (9.1%), R* (6.8%), R1* (2.3%), and L* (2.3%)[36]. Haplogroup L originates from prehistoric South Asia.

 

In the recent study: "Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation (2008)", geneticists using more than 650,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) samples from the Human Genome Diversity Panel, found deep rooted lineages that could be distinguished in the Kalash. The results showed them not only to be distinct, but perfectly clustered within the Central/South Asian populations at (K = 7). The study also showed the Kalash to be a separated group, with having no membership within European populations.[37]

 

Economy

 

Historically a goat herding and subsistence farming people, the Kalash are moving towards a cash-based economy whereas previously wealth was measured in livestock and crops. Tourism now makes up a large portion of the economic activities of the Kalash. To cater to these new visitors, small stores and guest houses have been erected, providing new luxury for visitors of the valleys.[38] People attempting to enter the valleys have to pay a toll to the Pakistani government, which is used to preserve and care for the Kalash people and their culture.

 

Wenn das Schneeglöckchen blüht, ist der Winter endlich vorbei, die ersten Blütenpflanzen des Vorfrühlings ...

Als Heilpflanze ist das Schneeglöckchen fast unbekannt.

Heilwirkung:

Alzheimer,

Gedächtnisstörungen,

Kinderlähmung,

Nervenschmerzen,

Trigeminus Neuralgie,

Myasthenie (Muskelschwäche),

Menstruations fördernd

 

When the snowdrops bloom, winter is finally over, the first flowering plants of early spring ...

As a medicinal plant, the snowdrop is almost unknown.

Medicinal properties:

Alzheimer,

Memory disorders,

Poliomyelitis,

Nerve pain,

Trigeminal neuralgia,

Myasthenia (muscle weakness),

Promoting menstruation

 

Lorsque les perce-neige fleurissent, l'hiver est enfin terminé, les premières plantes à fleurs du début du printemps ...

En tant que plante médicinale, la perce-neige est presque inconnue.

Propriétés médicinales:

La maladie d'Alzheimer,

Troubles de la mémoire,

poliomyélite,

La douleur neuropathique,

Névralgie du trijumeau,

Myasthénie (faiblesse musculaire),

Promouvoir la menstruation

 

The translation from German to English with ImTranslator

 

Traduction de l'allemand en français avec ImTranslator

  

🌿 Aristolochia clematitis – Basic Information and Interesting Facts

English – Basic Information

• Scientific name: Aristolochia clematitis

• Common name: Birthwort

• Family: Aristolochiaceae

• Description: Perennial herbaceous plant with creeping rhizomes, heart-shaped leaves, and distinctive tubular yellowish flowers.

• Habitat: Frequently found in moist meadows, along paths, in grain fields (often among wheat and corn), and in untended soils throughout temperate Europe.

• Distribution: Common in southeastern Europe and parts of Asia.

Importance and Risks

• Toxicity: Aristolochia clematitis contains aristolochic acid, a highly toxic compound known to cause severe kidney damage and significantly increase the risk of urinary tract cancers.

• Connection to Balkan Endemic Nephropathy: Its seeds can easily contaminate grain crops, making it a key factor in the etiology of BEN in endemic Balkan regions.

• Historical Use: Traditionally used in folk medicine to induce menstruation, assist childbirth, and heal wounds, but is now prohibited due to its confirmed carcinogenic effects.

Interesting Facts

• Aristolochia flowers temporarily trap insects to ensure effective pollination.

• Despite its toxicity, it was historically regarded as a "miracle plant," leading to many accidental poisonings.

• It serves as a vital host plant for the caterpillars of some rare butterfly species.

  

-------------------

🌿 Aristolochia clematitis – Osnovne informacije i zanimljivosti

Hrvatski – Osnovne informacije

• Naziv: Aristolochia clematitis

• Na stranim jezicima nazivi su European birthwort (eng.), Gewöhnliche Osterluzei (Njem.), Aristoloche clematite (Fr.), Aristolochia clematite (Tal.), Clematitide (Spa.), Navadni podrascec (Slo.)

• Hrvatski naziv: Žuta vučja stopa

• Porodica: kopitnjakovke (Aristolochiaceae).)

• Stanište: Često, kao korov, raste na vlažnim livadama, uz puteve, vinograde, u poljima (osobito među žitaricama) i na neobrađenim zemljištima u umjerenim područjima Europe, uključujući Hrvatsku.

• Rasprostranjenost: Uobičajena u jugoistočnoj Europi i dijelovima Azije.

 

Važnost i rizici

• Toksičnost: Aristolochia clematitis sadrži alkaloid aristolohin, vrlo toksičan spoj koji uzrokuje oštećenje bubrega (nefropatije) i povećava rizik za razvoj karcinoma mokraćnog sustava.

• Povezanost s Balkanskom nefropatijom: Sjeme biljke lako kontaminira žitarice, što se smatra glavnim uzrokom BEN-a u endemskim područjima Balkana.

 

Zanimljivosti

• Aristolochia ima cvjetove koji zadržavaju insekte unutar cvijeta kako bi osigurali oprašivanje.

• Iako je otrovna, u nekim kulturama se povijesno koristila kao „čudotvorni lijek”, što je dovelo do mnogih trovanja.

• U prirodi ima važnu ulogu jer je hrana za gusjenice nekih rijetkih vrsta leptira (npr. Uskršnji leptir)

• Latinski naziv roda Aristolochia potječe od grčkih riječi aristos (odličan) i lochos (rodilja), jer se biljka u prošlosti koristila za poticanje (olakšavanje) poroda.

U prošlosti se koristila u narodnoj medicini za poticanje menstruacije i liječenje rana.

Danas zabranjena za upotrabu (Njemačka) zbog dokazano nefrotoksičnog i kancerogenog djelovanja.

 

-----------------------------

www.inaturalist.org/observations/294032288

   

Figs are a fantastic source of vitamin B6. B6 is responsible for producing mood-boosting serotonin, lowering cholesterol and preventing water retention, all characteristics that help balance the moods of a menstruating woman.

Also, hormonal forms of birth control (such as the pill or the patch) deplete vitamin B6, so those using this method of birth control should try to eat more foods that are rich in B6- like figs.

 

My one of favorite fruits:)

 

Thank you to have some fruits a day:)

 

My stream: www.darckr.com/username?username=11569107%40N06

  

accepts & invigorates hate groups if they like him

 

doesn’t understand freedom of the press

 

demands loyalty to himself instead of the U.S. Constitution

 

admires authoritarian leaders, wants to be one

 

driven by spite

 

selfish

 

mean-spirited

 

makes classless, rude remarks about the physical appearance of the wife of one of his political opponents; goes on to compare her to his own wife

 

insensitive

 

vulgarian

 

obstruction of justice

 

takes a red carpet with him on his airplane

 

unread

 

Said “Two Corinthians” instead of “Second Corinthians”

 

poor vocabulary; poor communicator

 

racist

 

abusive toward women

 

philistine

 

poor businessman

 

cheater (on wives & business associates)

 

delusional

 

egotistical

 

refuses to return classified documents that belong to the American people; keeps these documents in locations that are not secure; shows them to people who are not authorized to see them in order to make himself look important and innocent of wrongdoing; someone with a knowledge of history should explain the saying "loose lips sink ships" to him

 

braggart

 

immature

 

born on third base, thinks he hit a triple

 

dangerous

 

tells an anxious nation to drink bleach to fight COVID

 

profits by dividing Americans against each other

 

needy

 

brags repeatedly about acing a simple test used to detect mental impairment; “Person. Woman. Man. Camera. TV,” Trump kept saying for us as if he were a Rhodes Scholar

 

considered a jackass on an international stage

 

placed his name on a joke of a university

 

insecure

 

has a toady for a doctor and directs the toady to release a health report that makes him sound like the best physical specimen ever to serve as President

 

called for violence instead of the peaceful transfer of power

 

liar

 

manipulator

 

attacks a female journalist from the Fox "News" Network (of all places) for asking an appropriate, legitimate question at a presidential debate; Trump suggests she might have asked him that tough question because she was probably menstruating; he routinely insulted journalists publicly for asking tough questions

 

crybaby

 

makes arrogant claims about himself

 

withheld $391 million in military aid to Ukraine over “favor”

 

kisses Putin’s ass

 

disrespected the scholarly process we call “science”

 

disrespected Evangelicals behind their backs

 

disrespected American soldiers who died fighting Nazis

 

con man milking the poor for their money and votes

 

stochastic terrorist

  

Our period disgust more that rape

(some letters partly erased)

The Kalash are found in 3 valleys Rumbur, Bumburet and Birir. They are a warrior like people who ruled from near Kabul to the Lowari Pass. They are not Muslims but follow their own way of life and there is only a few thousand Kalasha left as many have converted to Islam, the majority religion in the region. If they change religion they are no longer considered Kalasha. Non-Kalash women do not wear the black dress with voluminous embroidery.

Linguists think Kalash are descendants of Indo-Aryans who overran the region in 2BC. Kalash say they are from a place Tsiam although no one knows where that is. They managed to keep Tamerlane at bay. In the western side there were Bashgalis or Red Kafirs. Between the13th and 16th centuries the Chitralis gradually subdued the Kalasha. By the 19th century there were estimated to be 50,000 and they Kalasha were pushed to higher valleys of the southern Hindu Kush. Rudyard Kipling set “The Man Who Would Be King” here even though he never came here. In 1893 the British and Afghan governments drew a common border that took 2 years known as the Durand Line which cut through Kafiristan. Amir Abdur Rahman, the ruler of Afghanistan slaughtered the Bashgalis and any survivors were forced to convert to Islam. That area known as Kafiristan was renamed Nuristan. In 1895-6 many Bashgalis fled to Chitral and settled in the Upper Kalash Valleys and in an ironic twist of fate within 50 years they all converted to Islam. They are seen as Nuristanis or Shiekhs by Kalasha.

Most Kalasha are Mediterranean looking. The men have largely traded traditional goat-skin tunics for Shalwar Kameez and Chitrali caps, often with a flower or feather in the brim.

The women wear voluminous black or brown dresses reaching to ground, bound at the waist with a sash. Over thin plaits they wear headpieces decorated with cowrie shells, beads, buttons and coins. Ceremonial versions can be spectacular with exotic embroidery, mounds of bead necklaces, bells and plumes. The women often decorate faces with mulberry-juice tattoo’s, or pomegranate seeds, or blacken them with burnt goat hair which also serves as sunburn protection too.

Kalash religion is complex and polytheistic with a single creator called ‘Dezau’ or ‘Khodai’ and lesser gods and spirits with their own responsibilities. The Warrior God named ‘Mahandeo’ is the guardian of crops, animals and other public matters and the female goddess ‘Jestak’ who cares for home, family and private matters. Goat sacrifices are common at their shrines throughout the valley. Traditionally the dead are buried above ground in carved wooden sarcophagi. Wooden totems or effigies were carved for wealthy or honoured people. The old style graveyards have graves that have fallen open and bones scattered.

Tradition is that women are less pure than men and there are precise rules what each may do, where they may go and how to purify people and places. During menstruation or childbirth women are confined to the lodge called ‘Bashaleni’ or ‘Bashali’ – which is also shrine to goddess ‘Dezalik’ who looks after births. Men can’t go in and women must be purified after visit. Women may not visit most shrines. In old days ceremonial acolytes had to be virgin boys.

The Kalasha love festivals. Typically the older men stand in centre and take turns chanting old legends or just chatting. Accompanied by drums the women dance around them, arms around one another’s waists and shoulders in spinning two’s and threes or trance-like encircling lines. Maybe day dancing or night dancing and some maybe closed to outsiders. Each valley has its own style and timing. Dates can be fixed at the last minute depending on harvest or other things.

‘Joshi’ is the festival dedicated to spring and future festivals. It includes day dancing and family re-unions and runs for 4 – 6 days in mid-May.

‘Uchau’ is held only in Birir in late September to early October. It includes night dancing with day dancing on the last day. It marks walnut and grape harvests and the end to wine making, though origins concerns return of shepherds from high pastures.

‘Chaumos’ is a solstice festival and the biggest of the Kalasha. It includes visiting, feasting and night-dancing for around 10 days starting in mid-December. In Bumburet it is closed to Muslims but not non-Muslim foreigners and then expected to take part.

   

the himba hair cut is of of the most sophisticated I have discovered so far among the african tribes I have seen - her style tells, she is not on menstruation yet. after her first period she i going to change the style, binding her dreads backwart.

 

Kumari is Living Goddess Nepali tradition of worshiping young girls as manifestations of the divine female energy. Kumari selected from the Shakya or Bajracharya clan of the Nepalese Newari community.

 

Kumari is believed to be the incarnation of Taleju Bhavani (a Nepalese name for Durga) until she menstruates, after which it is believed that the goddess vacates her body. Serious illness or a major loss of blood from an injury are also causes for loss of deity.

 

After the goddess Kumari leaves the body, the girl can continue her education in school and lead a normal life. It’s hard to start, but it happens. Most of the women who have been Kumari get married and have children. [Wiki]

 

Kathmandu, Nepal 2015

 

Facebook

... das göttliche Geschenk der Gött*in ...

Postcard-Portrait of Kumari.

 

Kumari, or Kumari Devi, or Living Goddess – Nepal is the tradition of worshipping young pre-pubescent girls as manifestations of the divine female energy or devi in Hindu religious traditions. The word Kumari is derived from the Sanskrit Kaumarya, meaning "princess".

In Nepal, a Kumari is a pre-pubescent girl selected from the Shakya caste or Bajracharya clan of the Nepalese Newari community. The Kumari is revered and worshiped by some of the country's Hindus as well as the Nepali Buddhists, though not the Tibetan Buddhists. While there are several Kumaris throughout Nepal, with some cities having several, the best known is the Royal Kumari of Kathmandu, and she lives in the Kumari Ghar, a palace in the center of the city.

  

Die bekannteste Kumari lebt in einem Tempel-Palast am Durbar-Platz in Kathmandu, der Hauptstadt des Landes. Im Kleinkindalter zwischen zwei und vier Jahren wird sie aus der buddhistischen Newar-Ethnie ausgewählt und bis zu ihrer ersten Menstruation als „lebende Göttin“ verehrt.

  

Einmal im Jahr, im Rahmen eines großen religiösen Festes, Dasain, suchte der König Nepals sie auf und küsste ihr die Füße. Er ließ sich durch die Kumari segnen, indem er sich von ihr ein Tika, ein Segenszeichen, auf die Stirn tupfen ließ. Wie sich das göttliche Kind dabei dem König gegenüber verhielt, wurde von vielen Nepalis als Omen für die Geschicke des Landes und der Monarchie interpretiert. Seit Abschaffung der Monarchie 2008 besucht sie auch der maoistische Premierminister.

  

Früher erhielten die Kumaris keinerlei Schulbildung, da eine Göttin als allwissend gilt. Heute werden die Kumaris von Privatlehrern unterrichtet und ihr Wissensstand geprüft. Da der Mädchengöttin nicht widersprochen werden darf, gestaltet sich der Unterricht schwierig. Ehemalige Kumaris erhalten, nachdem sie ihren göttlichen Status verloren haben, inzwischen eine Pension vom Staat (monatlich ca. 30,- €) und werden weiterhin betreut, um ihnen den Einstieg in ein normales Leben zu erleichtern.

  

Mehrmals im Jahr verlässt die Kumari den Palast und nimmt an religiösen Festen teil. Das größte dieser Feste ist Indra Jatra Dabei wird die Kumari in einem Tempelwagen (Ratha) durch die Straßen von Kathmandu gefahren und von den Gläubigen verehrt. Zu diesem einwöchigen Jahresfest gehören auch Aufführungen von Tanzdramen. Beim Mahakali pyakhan genannten Tanzdrama kämpfen Mahakali, Mahalakshmi und Kumari, drei Inkarnationen Durgas, gegen eine Reihe von Dämonen.

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The Kalash are found in 3 valleys Rumbur, Bumburet and Birir. They are a warrior like people who ruled from near Kabul to the Lowari Pass. They are not Muslims but follow their own way of life and there is only a few thousand Kalasha left as many have converted to Islam, the majority religion in the region. If they change religion they are no longer considered Kalasha. Non-Kalash women do not wear the black dress with voluminous embroidery.

Linguists think Kalash are descendants of Indo-Aryans who overran the region in 2BC. Kalash say they are from a place Tsiam although no one knows where that is. They managed to keep Tamerlane at bay. In the western side there were Bashgalis or Red Kafirs. Between the13th and 16th centuries the Chitralis gradually subdued the Kalasha. By the 19th century there were estimated to be 50,000 and they Kalasha were pushed to higher valleys of the southern Hindu Kush. Rudyard Kipling set “The Man Who Would Be King” here even though he never came here. In 1893 the British and Afghan governments drew a common border that took 2 years known as the Durand Line which cut through Kafiristan. Amir Abdur Rahman, the ruler of Afghanistan slaughtered the Bashgalis and any survivors were forced to convert to Islam. That area known as Kafiristan was renamed Nuristan. In 1895-6 many Bashgalis fled to Chitral and settled in the Upper Kalash Valleys and in an ironic twist of fate within 50 years they all converted to Islam. They are seen as Nuristanis or Shiekhs by Kalasha.

Most Kalasha are Mediterranean looking. The men have largely traded traditional goat-skin tunics for Shalwar Kameez and Chitrali caps, often with a flower or feather in the brim.

The women wear voluminous black or brown dresses reaching to ground, bound at the waist with a sash. Over thin plaits they wear headpieces decorated with cowrie shells, beads, buttons and coins. Ceremonial versions can be spectacular with exotic embroidery, mounds of bead necklaces, bells and plumes. The women often decorate faces with mulberry-juice tattoo’s, or pomegranate seeds, or blacken them with burnt goat hair which also serves as sunburn protection too.

Kalash religion is complex and polytheistic with a single creator called ‘Dezau’ or ‘Khodai’ and lesser gods and spirits with their own responsibilities. The Warrior God named ‘Mahandeo’ is the guardian of crops, animals and other public matters and the female goddess ‘Jestak’ who cares for home, family and private matters. Goat sacrifices are common at their shrines throughout the valley. Traditionally the dead are buried above ground in carved wooden sarcophagi. Wooden totems or effigies were carved for wealthy or honoured people. The old style graveyards have graves that have fallen open and bones scattered.

Tradition is that women are less pure than men and there are precise rules what each may do, where they may go and how to purify people and places. During menstruation or childbirth women are confined to the lodge called ‘Bashaleni’ or ‘Bashali’ – which is also shrine to goddess ‘Dezalik’ who looks after births. Men can’t go in and women must be purified after visit. Women may not visit most shrines. In old days ceremonial acolytes had to be virgin boys.

The Kalasha love festivals. Typically the older men stand in centre and take turns chanting old legends or just chatting. Accompanied by drums the women dance around them, arms around one another’s waists and shoulders in spinning two’s and threes or trance-like encircling lines. Maybe day dancing or night dancing and some maybe closed to outsiders. Each valley has its own style and timing. Dates can be fixed at the last minute depending on harvest or other things.

‘Joshi’ is the festival dedicated to spring and future festivals. It includes day dancing and family re-unions and runs for 4 – 6 days in mid-May.

‘Uchau’ is held only in Birir in late September to early October. It includes night dancing with day dancing on the last day. It marks walnut and grape harvests and the end to wine making, though origins concerns return of shepherds from high pastures.

‘Chaumos’ is a solstice festival and the biggest of the Kalasha. It includes visiting, feasting and night-dancing for around 10 days starting in mid-December. In Bumburet it is closed to Muslims but not non-Muslim foreigners and then expected to take part.

Comments

 

Self Portrait @ 2007 07 07 with Self Timer;

 

Don't worry those aren't real blood, they are just liquid acylics.

 

And I do have very, very bad cramps during my period.

There's one time I ran out of painkillers and I literally forgot everything that happened within that few hours.

Did I faint~? I don't even know~=0=

The Kalash are found in 3 valleys Rumbur, Bumburet and Birir. They are a warrior like people who ruled from near Kabul to the Lowari Pass. They are not Muslims but follow their own way of life and there is only a few thousand Kalasha left as many have converted to Islam, the majority religion in the region. If they change religion they are no longer considered Kalasha. Non-Kalash women do not wear the black dress with voluminous embroidery.

Linguists think Kalash are descendants of Indo-Aryans who overran the region in 2BC. Kalash say they are from a place Tsiam although no one knows where that is. They managed to keep Tamerlane at bay. In the western side there were Bashgalis or Red Kafirs. Between the13th and 16th centuries the Chitralis gradually subdued the Kalasha. By the 19th century there were estimated to be 50,000 and they Kalasha were pushed to higher valleys of the southern Hindu Kush. Rudyard Kipling set “The Man Who Would Be King” here even though he never came here. In 1893 the British and Afghan governments drew a common border that took 2 years known as the Durand Line which cut through Kafiristan. Amir Abdur Rahman, the ruler of Afghanistan slaughtered the Bashgalis and any survivors were forced to convert to Islam. That area known as Kafiristan was renamed Nuristan. In 1895-6 many Bashgalis fled to Chitral and settled in the Upper Kalash Valleys and in an ironic twist of fate within 50 years they all converted to Islam. They are seen as Nuristanis or Shiekhs by Kalasha.

Most Kalasha are Mediterranean looking. The men have largely traded traditional goat-skin tunics for Shalwar Kameez and Chitrali caps, often with a flower or feather in the brim.

The women wear voluminous black or brown dresses reaching to ground, bound at the waist with a sash. Over thin plaits they wear headpieces decorated with cowrie shells, beads, buttons and coins. Ceremonial versions can be spectacular with exotic embroidery, mounds of bead necklaces, bells and plumes. The women often decorate faces with mulberry-juice tattoo’s, or pomegranate seeds, or blacken them with burnt goat hair which also serves as sunburn protection too.

Kalash religion is complex and polytheistic with a single creator called ‘Dezau’ or ‘Khodai’ and lesser gods and spirits with their own responsibilities. The Warrior God named ‘Mahandeo’ is the guardian of crops, animals and other public matters and the female goddess ‘Jestak’ who cares for home, family and private matters. Goat sacrifices are common at their shrines throughout the valley. Traditionally the dead are buried above ground in carved wooden sarcophagi. Wooden totems or effigies were carved for wealthy or honoured people. The old style graveyards have graves that have fallen open and bones scattered.

Tradition is that women are less pure than men and there are precise rules what each may do, where they may go and how to purify people and places. During menstruation or childbirth women are confined to the lodge called ‘Bashaleni’ or ‘Bashali’ – which is also shrine to goddess ‘Dezalik’ who looks after births. Men can’t go in and women must be purified after visit. Women may not visit most shrines. In old days ceremonial acolytes had to be virgin boys.

The Kalasha love festivals. Typically the older men stand in centre and take turns chanting old legends or just chatting. Accompanied by drums the women dance around them, arms around one another’s waists and shoulders in spinning two’s and threes or trance-like encircling lines. Maybe day dancing or night dancing and some maybe closed to outsiders. Each valley has its own style and timing. Dates can be fixed at the last minute depending on harvest or other things.

‘Joshi’ is the festival dedicated to spring and future festivals. It includes day dancing and family re-unions and runs for 4 – 6 days in mid-May.

‘Uchau’ is held only in Birir in late September to early October. It includes night dancing with day dancing on the last day. It marks walnut and grape harvests and the end to wine making, though origins concerns return of shepherds from high pastures.

‘Chaumos’ is a solstice festival and the biggest of the Kalasha. It includes visiting, feasting and night-dancing for around 10 days starting in mid-December. In Bumburet it is closed to Muslims but not non-Muslim foreigners and then expected to take part.

 

I had this uploaded a while ago, but since I don't have a pro account (yet) my older stuff starts disapearring aorund the 200 photos mark. So I brought it back since people seemed to like it.

 

The thought behind this piece was about Menarche, or a girl's first period. I got mine at age 11, it was a rubicon, and for a long time, this once a month ritual involved wearing balck shorts, feeling awkward, dirty, and alone as I attempted to hide everything from everyone. I wouldn't even use my mother's pads because then she'd know. So I constructed uncomfortable and crude at best pads from paper towells and wound layer upon layer of toilet paper around the crotch of my underwear.

 

Today I am much mroe open about it. And I have people I can talk to, including my husband. I have a lot of issues, Endometriosis runs rampant in my family. But I am okay as long as I have humor, like my period journal, Vinnie's Giant Roller Coaster Period Chart & Journal Sticker Book, and photos like these. I wanted to show the lighter side to menstruation, so that maybe some scared 11 year old girl out there would feel a little better.

 

The model was a friend of mine named McKayla (my runner's leg could not look that good ;)) It was shot with a Nikon FA using outdoor film. It was my hope to use all natural lighting, but when McKayla came over, it was raining out, so I had to use indoor, and like a goof, I forgot to put my filter on. So there was a ton of correcting in Photoshop: making the whites whiter, making the reds pop, I liked the strawberry syrup puddle in one photo better than the other so I had to import it in... also, I forgot to put syrup on her leg so that was added digitally later.

 

And a few fun facts: the sundae is fake. I bought it off Ebay and used Strawberry syrup. The sundae still sits in my darkroom and the whipped cream has been stained pink :). The skirt I picked up from the thrift store. Also, so far I have been extremely impressed with the male reaction to this photo. I thought for sure I'd get a lot of snarls and crumpled noses. But so far they have all said they thought it was cool. That made me really happy, becaus egrowing up, I was always made to feel ostracized by my mostly male friends during that time of the month.

Just Between Us..., a booklet for girls about menstruation; published by Beltx Corporation, copyright 1950, 1955, 1961.

 

To me, it's amazing that the editors of this little booklet allowed the spokesgirl to have freaky swirly eyes -- usually a sign of craziness or dizziness! This is either a stroke of genius or incredibly inappropriate -- I'm not too sure.

 

Allow me to introduce to you....Betty Kay.

 

See entire set HERE.

Part of the sets: The Warrior - Secret Blood Samples and "Putting on Paper ~ zu Papier bringen"

 

DMC-G2 - P1780331 - 2014-03-13

 

FRIEDE- : umfriedeter (abgegrenzt durch Mauer, Zaun, Hecke,...) Besitz

-MANN: althochdeutsch "man" Krieger

v. To move or run smoothly with unbroken continuity, as in the manner characteristic of a fluid.

v. To issue in a stream; pour forth: Sap flowed from the gash in the tree.

v. To circulate, as the blood in the body.

Kumari is Living Goddess Nepali tradition of worshiping young girls as manifestations of the divine female energy. Kumari selected from the Shakya or Bajracharya clan of the Nepalese Newari community.

 

Kumari is believed to be the incarnation of Taleju Bhavani (a Nepalese name for Durga) until she menstruates, after which it is believed that the goddess vacates her body. Serious illness or a major loss of blood from an injury are also causes for loss of deity.

 

After the goddess Kumari leaves the body, the girl can continue her education in school and lead a normal life. It’s hard to start, but it happens. Most of the women who have been Kumari get married and have children. [Wiki]

 

Kathmandu, Nepal 2015

 

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This herb has been used as an alternative medicine to help heal inflammation, provide relief from spasms, stimulate blood flow in the pelvic region, encourage menstruation, help eliminate headaches, reduce fever, treat gout and work as a sedative for relaxation. Certain varieties are even thought to fight cancer.

   

Um texto, em português, da Wikipédia:

 

Hibiscus

 

Hibiscus L. é um gênero botânico, com cerca de 300 espécies, inserido na família das Malvaceae, com flores e folhas exuberantes. Devido à nova taxonomia pela filogenética (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group), muitas espécies que pertenciam a esse gênero estão migrando para outros gêneros. Por exemplo: Hibiscus esculentus L., a planta do quiabo, agora é Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench. O cultivo dos exemplares do gênero, tanto ornamental como econômico, está disseminado nas regiões subtropicais e tropicais, cuidando para não sofrerem com geadas e temperaturas baixas constantes.

 

Etimologia:

Hibiscus significa Ísis (deusa egípcia), em grego.

 

Sinonímia:

 

Bombycidendron Zoll. & Moritzi

Bombycodendron Hassk.

Brockmania W. Fitzg.

Fioria Mattei

 

Espécies:

 

Hibiscus acetosella

Hibiscus x archeri (híbrido)

Hibiscus arnottianus

Hibiscus bifurcatus

Hibiscus brackenridgei

Hibiscus calyphyllus

Hibiscus cameronii

Hibiscus cannabinus

Hibiscus chitra

Hibiscus cisplatinus

Hibiscus clayi

Hibiscus coccineus

Hibiscus denisonii

Hibiscus diversifolius

Hibiscus elatus

Hibiscus furcellatus

Hibiscus fuscus

Hibiscus grandiflorus

Hibiscus hastatus

Hibiscus heterophyllus

Hibiscus indicus

Hibiscus kokio

Hibiscus lasiocarpos

Hibiscus lavaterioides

Hibiscus lobatus

Hibiscus ludwigii

Hibiscus macrophyllus

 

Hibiscus mastersianus

Hibiscus militaris

Hibiscus moscheutos

Hibiscus mutabilis (malva-rosa)

Hibiscus paramutabilis

Hibiscus pedunculatus

Hibiscus pernambucensis (guanxuma-do-mangue)

Hibiscus platanifolius

Hibiscus radiatus

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (hibisco)

Hibiscus sabdariffa (vinagreira)

Hibiscus schizopetalus (hibisco-crespo)

Hibiscus scottii

Hibiscus sinosyriacus

Hibiscus splendens

Hibiscus syriacus (hibisco-da-síria)

Hibiscus tiliaceus (algodoeiro-da-praia)

Hibiscus trionum (flor-de-todas-as-horas)

Hibiscus waimeae

Hibiscus dioscorides

Hibiscus diriffan

Hibiscus escobariae

Hibiscus noli-tangere

Hibiscus quattenensis

Hibiscus socotranus

Hibiscus stenanthus

 

Portugal:

Em Portugal este género está representado por 2 espécies, presentes em Portugal Continental, a primeira nativa, a segunda introduzida:1

 

Hibiscus palustris L.

Hibiscus trionum L.

 

Classificação do gênero:

 

Sistema Classificação Referência

Linné Classe Monadelphia, ordem Polyandria Species plantarum (1753)

 

Papuodendron C. T. White

Pariti Adans.

Talipariti Fryxell

Wilhelminia Hochr.

  

A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

Hibiscus

For other uses, see Hibiscus (disambiguation).

Hibiscus

Hibiscus flower TZ.jpg

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

Division: Angiosperms

Class: Eudicots

Order: Malvales

Family: Malvaceae

Subfamily: Malvoideae

Tribe: Hibisceae

Genus: Hibiscus

L.

Species

 

232 species

Synonyms

 

Bombycidendron Zoll. & Moritzi

Bombycodendron Hassk.

Brockmania W.Fitzg.

Pariti Adans.

Wilhelminia Hochr.

 

Hibiscus (/hɨˈbɪskəs/ or /haɪˈbɪskəs/) is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family, Malvaceae. It is quite large, containing several hundred species that are native to warm-temperate, subtropical and tropical regions throughout the world. Member species are often noted for their showy flowers and are commonly known simply as hibiscus, or less widely known as rose mallow. The genus includes both annual and perennial herbaceous plants, as well as woody shrubs and small trees. The generic name is derived from the Greek word ἱβίσκος (hibískos), which was the name Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. 40–90) gave to Althaea officinalis.

 

Description:

The leaves are alternate, ovate to lanceolate, often with a toothed or lobed margin. The flowers are large, conspicuous, trumpet-shaped, with five or more petals, color from white to pink, red, orange, purple or yellow, and from 4–18 cm broad. Flower color in certain species, such as H. mutabilis and H. tiliaceus, changes with age.[5] The fruit is a dry five-lobed capsule, containing several seeds in each lobe, which are released when the capsule dehisces (splits open) at maturity. It is of red and white colours. It is an example of complete flowers.

 

Uses:

Symbolism and culture

Hibiscus species represent nations: Hibiscus syriacus is the national flower of South Korea, and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is the national flower of Malaysia. The hibiscus is the national flower of Haiti. The red hibiscus is the flower of the Hindu goddess Kali, and appears frequently in depictions of her in the art of Bengal, India, often with the goddess and the flower merging in form. The hibiscus is used as an offering to goddess Kali and Lord Ganesha in Hindu worship.

 

In the Philippines, the gumamela (local name for hibiscus) is used by children as part of a bubble-making pastime. The flowers and leaves are crushed until the sticky juices come out. Hollow papaya stalks are then dipped into this and used as straws for blowing bubbles.

 

The hibiscus flower is traditionally worn by Tahitian and Hawaiian girls. If the flower is worn behind the left ear, the woman is married or in a relationship. If the flower is worn on the right, she is single or openly available for a relationship. The hibiscus is Hawaii's state flower.

 

Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie named her first novel Purple Hibiscus after the delicate flower.

 

The bark of the hibiscus contains strong bast fibres that can be obtained by letting the stripped bark set in the sea to let the organic material rot away.

 

Landscaping

Many species are grown for their showy flowers or used as landscape shrubs, and are used to attract butterflies, bees, and hummingbirds.

 

Paper

One species of Hibiscus, known as kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus), is extensively used in paper-making.

 

Beverage

Main article: Hibiscus tea

 

The tea made of hibiscus flowers is known by many names in many countries around the world and is served both hot and cold. The beverage is well known for its color, tanginess and flavor.

 

It is known as bissap in West Africa, agua de jamaica in Mexico and Honduras (the flower being flor de jamaica) and gudhal (गुड़हल) in India. Some refer to it as roselle, a common name for the hibiscus flower. In Jamaica, Trinidad and many other islands in the Caribbean, the drink is known as sorrel (Hibiscus sabdariffa; not to be confused with Rumex acetosa, a species sharing the common name sorrel). In Ghana, the drink is known as soobolo in one of the local languages.

 

Roselle is typically boiled in an enamel-coated large stock pot as most West Indians believe the metal from aluminum, steel or copper pots will destroy the natural minerals and vitamins.[citation needed]

 

In Cambodia, a cold beverage can be prepared by first steeping the petals in hot water until the colors are leached from the petals, then adding lime juice (which turns the beverage from dark brown/red to a bright red), sweeteners (sugar/honey) and finally cold water/ice cubes.

 

In Egypt,[citation needed] Sudan and the Arab world, hibiscus tea is known as karkadé (كركديه), and is served as both a hot and a cold drink.

 

Food

Dried hibiscus is edible, and it is often a delicacy in Mexico. It can also be candied and used as a garnish.

 

The roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) is used as a vegetable. The species Hibiscus suratensis Linn synonymous to Hibiscus aculeatus G. Don is noted in Visayas Philippines being a souring ingredient for almost all local vegetables and menus. Known as Labog in the Visayan area, (or Labuag/Sapinit in Tagalog), the species is a very good ingredient in cooking native chicken soup. Certain species of hibiscus are also beginning to be used more widely as a natural source of food coloring (E163),[citation needed] and replacement of Red #3 / E127.

 

Hibiscus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidopteran species, including Chionodes hibiscella, Hypercompe hambletoni, the nutmeg moth, and the turnip moth.

 

Health benefits

The tea is popular as a natural diuretic; it contains vitamin C and minerals, and is used traditionally as a mild medicine.

 

A 2008 USDA study shows consuming hibiscus tea lowers blood pressure in a group of prehypertensive and mildly hypertensive adults. Three cups of tea daily resulted in an average drop of 8.1 mmHg in their systolic blood pressure, compared to a 1.3 mmHg drop in the volunteers who drank the placebo beverage. Study participants with higher blood pressure readings (129 or above) had a greater response to hibiscus tea: their systolic blood pressure went down by 13.2 mmHg. These data support the idea that drinking hibiscus tea in an amount readily incorporated into the diet may play a role in controlling blood pressure, although more research is required.

 

Studies have demonstrated the anti-hypertensive effects of H. sabdariffa in both humans and animals. It has been proposed that the antihypertensive effects of H. sabdariffa is due to its angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibiting activity. In a randomized, controlled clinical trial involving 39 patients with mild to moderate hypertension, Captopril was compared to an extract of H. sabdariffa for antihypertensive effects. Subjects taking an extract of H.sabdariffa, consumed daily before breakfast for four weeks, found reduction in blood pressure similar to Captopril. Another randomized, placebo clinical trial involving 54 study participants with moderate hypertension demonstrated a reduction in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. However upon discontinuation of treatment, both systolic and diastolic blood pressures were subsequently elevated.

 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis has a number of medical uses in Chinese herbology. Lokapure s.g.et al. their research indicates some potential in cosmetic skin care; for example, an extract from the flowers of Hibiscus rosa- sinensis has been shown to function as an anti-solar agent by absorbing ultraviolet radiation.

 

In the Indian traditional system of medicine, Ayurveda, hibiscus, especially white hibiscus and red hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), is considered to have medicinal properties. The roots are used to make various concoctions believed to cure ailments such as cough, hair loss or hair greying. As a hair treatment, the flowers are boiled in oil along with other spices to make a medicated hair oil. The leaves and flowers are ground into a fine paste with a little water, and the resulting lathery paste is used as a shampoo plus conditioner.

 

Hibiscus tea also contains bioflavonoids, which are believed to help prevent an increase in LDL cholesterol, which can increase the buildup of plaque in the arteries.

 

A previous animal study demonstrated the effects of H.sabdariffa extract on atherosclerosis in rabbits. Notably, a reduction in triglyceride, cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein was observed in rabbits consuming a high cholesterol diet (HCD) in addition to H.sabdariffa extract compared to rabbits only fed HCD, suggesting a beneficial effect.[16] Furthermore, the H. sabdariffa seed is abundant in phytosterol and tocopherol, plant forms of cholesterol that have antioxidant and LDL cholesterol lowering effects.

 

Precautions and Contraindications:

 

Pregnancy and Lactation

While the mechanism is not well understood, previous animal studies have demonstrated both an inhibitory effect of H. sabdariffa on muscle tone and the anti-fertility effects of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, respectively. The extract of H. sabdariffa has been shown to stimulate contraction of the rat bladder and uterus; the H.rosa-sinensis extract has exhibited contraceptive effects in the form of estrogen activity in rats. These findings have not been observed in humans. The Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is also thought to have emmenagogue effects which can stimulate menstruation and, in some women, cause an abortion. Due to the documented adverse effects in animal studies and the reported pharmacological properties, the H. sabdariffa and H.rosa-sinensis are not recommended for use during pregnancy. Additionally, they are not recommended while breastfeeding due to the lack of reliable information on its safety and use.

 

Contraindications

No contraindications have been identified.

 

Adverse Effects

Drug Interactions

It is postulated that H. sabdariffa interacts with diclofenac, chloroquine and acetaminophen by altering the pharmacokinetics. In healthy human volunteers, the H. sabdariffa extract was found to reduce the excretion of diclofenac upon co-administration. Additionally, co-administration of Karkade (H. sabdariffa), a common Sudanese beverage, was found to reduce chloroquine bioavailability. However, no statistically significant changes were observed in the pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen when administered with the Zobo (H.sabdariffa) drink. Further studies are needed to demonstrate clinical significance.

 

Species:

In temperate zones, probably the most commonly grown ornamental species is Hibiscus syriacus, the common garden hibiscus, also known in some areas as the "Rose of Althea" or "Rose of Sharon" (but not to be confused with the unrelated Hypericum calycinum, also called "Rose of Sharon"). In tropical and subtropical areas, the Chinese hibiscus (H. rosa-sinensis), with its many showy hybrids, is the most popular hibiscus.

 

Several hundred species are known, including:

  

Hibiscis acapulcensis

Hibiscus acetosella Welw. ex Hiern.—False Roselle

Hibiscus acicularis

Hibiscus aculeatus—Comfortroot

Hibiscus altissimus

Hibiscus andongensis

Hibiscus angolensis

Hibiscus aponeurus[26]

Hibiscus archeri—Archer's Hibiscus

Hibiscus aridicola

Hibiscus arnottianus A.Gray—Kokiʻo ʻula (Hawaii)

Hibiscus asper—Bush Roselle

Hibiscus austroyunnanensis

Hibiscus barbosae

Hibiscus benguellensis

Hibiscus berberidifolius

Hibiscus bernieri

Hibiscus bifurcatus—Fork-bracted Rosemallow

Hibiscus biseptus—Arizona Rosemallow

Hibiscus bojerianus

Hibiscus boryanus—Foulsapate Marron

Hibiscus brackenridgei A.Gray—Hawaiian hibiscus Maʻo hau hele

Hibiscus burtt-davyi

Hibiscus caerulescens

Hibiscus caesius—Dark-eyed Hibiscus (South Africa)

Hibiscus calyphyllus—Lemonyellow Rosemallow (Tropical Africa)

Hibiscus cameronii—Cameron's Hibiscus, Pink Hibiscus

Hibiscus cannabinus L.—Kenaf

Hibiscus castroi

Hibiscus cisplatinus—Rosa Del Rio

Hibiscus citrinus-

Hibiscus clayi O.Deg. & I.Deg.—Hawaiian red hibiscus (Hawaii)

Hibiscus clypeatus—Congo Mahoe

Hibiscus coccineus (Medik.) Walter—Scarlet Rosemallow

Hibiscus colimensis

Hibiscus columnaris—Mahot Rempart

Hibiscus comoensis

Hibiscus congestiflorus

Hibiscus costatus

Hibiscus coulteri—Desert Rosemallow

Hibiscus cuanzensis

Hibiscus dasycalyx—Neches River Rosemallow

Hibiscus denudatus Benth.—Pale Face (Southwestern United States, Northwestern Mexico)

Hibiscus dimidiatus

Hibiscus dioscorides A.G.Mill. (es/pt) (Yemen)

Hibiscus diplocrater

Hibiscus diriffan A.G.Mill. (Yemen)

Hibiscus diversifolius—Swamp Hibiscus

Hibiscus dongolensis

Hibiscus donianus

Hibiscus elatus—Mahoe

Hibiscus elegans

Hibiscus engleri—Wild Hibiscus

Hibiscus escobariae

Hibiscus excellii

Hibiscus ferrugineus

Hibiscus ficalhoanus

Hibiscus flavoroseus

Hibiscus fragilis DC.—Mandrinette (Mascarene Islands)

Hibiscus fragrans

Hibiscus fritzscheae

Hibiscus furcellatus Desr.—Lindenleaf rosemallow (Caribbean, Florida, Central America, South America, Hawaii)

Hibiscus fugosioides

Hibiscus furcellatus—Salad Hibiscus

Hibiscus fuscus

  

Hibiscus genevii Bojer (Mauritius)

Hibiscus gilletii

Hibiscus gossweileri

Hibiscus grandidieri

Hibiscus grandiflorus Michx.—Swamp rosemallow (Southeastern United States)

Hibiscus grandistipulatus

Hibiscus grewiifolius

Hibiscus hamabo

Hibiscus hastatus

Hibiscus heterophyllus—Native rosella

Hibiscus hirtus—Lesser Mallow

Hibiscus hispidissimus

Hibiscus huellensis

Hibiscus hybridus

Hibiscus indicus

Hibiscus insularis Endl.—Phillip Island hibiscus (Phillip Island)

Hibiscus integrifolius

Hibiscus jaliscensis

Hibiscus kochii

Hibiscus kokio—Red Rosemallow

Hibiscus labordei

Hibiscus laevis All. (=H. militaris)—Halberd-leaved rosemallow (central and eastern North America)

Hibiscus lasiocarpos—Woolly Rosemallow

Hibiscus lasiococcus

Hibiscus lavaterioides

Hibiscus laxiflorus

Hibiscus leptocladus ([Northwest Australia])

Hibiscus leviseminus

Hibiscus lilacinus—Lilac Hibiscus

Hibiscus liliiflorus—Rodrigues Tree Hibiscus

Hibiscus longifolius

Hibiscus longisepalus

Hibiscus ludwigii

Hibiscus lunariifolius

Hibiscus macrogonus

Hibiscus macrophyllus—Largeleaf Rosemallow

Hibiscus macropodus

Hibiscus makinoi—Okinawan Hibiscus

Hibiscus malacophyllus Balf.f. (Yemen)

Hibiscus malacospermus

Hibiscus martianus—Heartleaf Rosemallow

Hibiscus moscheutos Welw. ex Hiern.—Crimsoneyed Rosemallow (Central and Eastern North America)

Hibiscus mutabilis L.—Cotton Rosemallow, Confederate Rose (East Asia)

Hibiscus paramutabilis

Hibiscus pedunculatus

Hibiscus pernambucensis—Seaside Mahoe

Hibiscus phoeniceus—Brazilian Rosemallow

Hibiscus platanifolius

Hibiscus quattenensis

Hibiscus poeppigii—Poeppig's Rosemallow

Hibiscus radiatus—Monarch Rosemallow

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.—Chinese hibiscus (East Asia)

Hibiscus sabdariffa L.—Roselle, Omutete, or Sorrel

Hibiscus schizopetalus—Fringed Rosemallow

Hibiscus scottii

Hibiscus socotranus

Hibiscus sinosyriacus

Hibiscus splendens

Hibiscus stenanthus Balf.f. (Yemen)

Hibiscus striatus—Striped Rosemallow

Hibiscus syriacus L. (Type species)—Rose of Sharon (Asia)

Hibiscus tiliaceus L.—Sea hibiscus (Australia, Southeast Asia, Oceania)

Hibiscus trilobus—Threelobe Rosemallow

Hibiscus trionum L.—Flower-of-an-Hour

Hibiscus vitifolius—Tropical Rose Mallow

Hibiscus waimeae A.Heller—Kokiʻo keʻokeʻo (Hawaii)

  

 

مبارك عليكم شهر رمضان المبارك اعاده الله علينا وعليكم بالخير واليمن والبركات .. وعساكم من عواده ويبلغنا هالشهر الفضيل

تقبل الله منا ومنكم صالح الأعمال

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تصويري وتصميمي

 

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هذا كذا امس كانت الفكرة واليوم كان التنفيذ

 

بأذن الله غدا او بعد غد يكون تصميم اخر

استخدمت فية الفوتوشوب والالستريتور

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اللي حاب يحمل الصورة من هنا

www.flickr.com/photos/vival2/5987756537/sizes/o/in/photos...

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شهر رمضان هو الشهر التاسع في التقويم الهجري. وهذا الشهر شهر مميز عند المسلمين عن باقي شهور السنة الهجرية. فهو شهر الصوم، يمتنع في أيامه المسلمون عن الشراب والطعام والجماع من الفجر وحتى غروب الشمس. كما أن لشهر رمضان مكانة خاصة في تراث وتاريخ المسلمين ؛ لأنهم يؤمنون أن بدأ الوحي وأول ما نزل من القرآن على النبي محمد بن عبد الله كان في ليلة القدر من هذا الشهر في عام 610 م،حيث كان رسول الله في غار حراء عندما جاء إليه الملك جبريل، وقال له "اقرأ باسم ربك الذي خلق" وكانت هذه هي الآية الأولى التي نزلت من القرآن، والقرآن أنزل من اللوح المحفوظ ليلة القدر جملة واحدة، فوضع في بيت العزة في سماء الدنيا في رمضان، ثم كان جبريل ينزل به مجزئا في الأوامر والنواهي والأسباب، وذلك في ثلاث وعشرين سنة.

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من فضل رمضان ان فيه تفتح أبواب الجنة وتغلق أبواب النار، لقول رسول الإسلام محمد.

 

رمضان (شهر) إذا كانت أول ليلة من رمضان ‏ ‏صفدت ‏ ‏الشياطين‏ ومردة ‏الجن وغلقت أبواب النار فلم يفتح منها باب وفتحت أبواب الجنة فلم يغلق منها باب ونادى مناد يا ‏ ‏باغي ‏ ‏الخير أقبل ويا ‏باغي ‏الشر أقصر ولله عتقاء من النار وذلك في كل ليلة

 

رمضان (شهر)

 

—سنن ابن ماجه [1]

 

ويغفر الله لمن صام رمضان لقول رسول الإسلام

 

رمضان (شهر) مَنْ صَامَ رَمَضَانَ إِيمَانًا وَاحْتِسَابًا، غُفِرَ لَهُ مَا تَقَدَّمَ مِنْ ذَنْبِهِ، وَمَنْ قَامَ لَيْلَةَ الْقَدْرِ إِيمَانًا وَاحْتِسَابًا، غُفِرَ لَهُ مَا تَقَدَّمَ مِنْ

ذَنْبِهِ.متفق عليه [2]

فضل رمضان

وفي رمضان تزكية للنفس وقرب من الله ،فيه أيضا تغلق أبواب النار وتصفد الشياطين وتفتح أبواب الرحمة.وقت الصيام في رمضان من بزوغ الفجر وحتى غروب الشمس, ورد في القرآن ((..وكلوا واشربوا حتى يتبين لكم الخيط الأبيض من الخيط الأسود من الفجر ثم أتموا الصيام إلى الليل..)) (الآية 187 من سورة البقرة) ومعظم الصائمين يصحون قبل بزوغ الفجر ويتناولون وجبة صغيرة ويشربون الماء (تسمى هذه الوجبة السحور) استعداداً ليوم الصوم, وقد ورد عن فضل السحور أن رسول الإسلام قال "تسحروا فإن في السحور بركة"(متفق عليه). وفي الصوم أيضاً يجب أن يمتنع المسلم عن الكلام البذيء والفعل السيئ كما ورد في الحديث الشريف "إذا كان يوم صوم أحدكم؛ فلا يرفث ولا يصخب، فإن سابه أحد أو قاتله فليقل اللهم إني صائم"[3]. قال تعالى "شهر رمضان الذي أنزل فيه القرآن هدى للناس وبينات من الهدى والفرقان"

 

في كل سنة نستقبل ضيفا عزيزا على قلوبنا وهذا الضيف لايأتي في العام إلا مرة واحدة فهو الشهر الذي أنزل فيه القرآن وشهر تفتح فيه أبواب الجنان وتغلق فيه أبواب النيران وتصفد فيه الشياطين وفيه ليلة عظيمة ليلة خير من ألف شهر وهي ليلة القدر ويستحب في هذا الشهر تعجيل الإفطار وتأخير السحور قال النبي "لاتزال أمتي بخير ما قدموا الفطور وأخروا السحور" وفيه تجب القيام بالأعمال الصالحة ولا تنسى ذكر الله والاستغفار مع قراءة كتاب الله عز وجل

 

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-Ramadan (Arabic: رمضان‎ Ramaḍān, Arabic pronunciation: [rɑmɑˈdˤɑːn]) (also Ramadhan, Ramadaan, Ramazan) is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, which lasts 29 to 30 days. It is the Islamic month of fasting, in which participating Muslims refrain from eating and drinking[1] and is intended to teach Muslims about patience, spirituality, humility and submissiveness to God. Muslims fast for the sake of God (Arabic: الله‎, trans: Allah) and to offer more prayer than usual. Compared to the solar calendar, the dates of Ramadan vary, moving backwards by about eleven days each year depending on the moon; thus, a person will have fasted every day of the calendar year in 34 years' time. Muslims believe Ramadan to be an auspicious month for the revelations of God to humankind, being the month in which the first verses of the Qur'an were revealed to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad.

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Practices during Ramadan

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Ramadan is a time of reflecting, believing and worshiping God. Muslims are expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam and to avoid obscene and irreligious sights and sounds. Sexual intercourse among spouse is allowed after one has ended the fast. During fasting intercourse is prohibited as well as eating and drinking, one is also encouraged to resist all temptations while you are fasting. Purity of both thoughts and actions is important. The act of fasting is said to redirect the heart away from worldly activities, its purpose being to cleanse the inner soul and free it from harm. It also teaches Muslims to practice self-discipline, self-control,[9] sacrifice, and empathy for those who are less fortunate; thus encouraging actions of generosity and charity (Zakat).[10]

 

Muslims should start observing the fasting ritual upon reaching the age of puberty, so long as they are healthy, sane and have no disabilities or illnesses. The elderly, the chronically ill, and the mentally ill are exempt from fasting, although the first two groups must endeavor to feed the poor in place of their missed fasting. Also exempt are pregnant women if they believe it would be harmful to them or the unborn baby, women during the period of their menstruation, and women nursing their newborns. A difference of opinion exists among Islamic scholars as to whether this last group must make up the days they miss at a later date, or feed poor people as a recompense for days missed.[11] While fasting is not considered compulsory in childhood, many children endeavour to complete as many fasts as possible as practice for later life. Lastly, those traveling (musaafir) are exempt, but must make up the days they miss.[12] More specifically, Twelver Shī‘ah define those who travel more than 14 mi (23 km) in a day as exempt.[10]

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Read more : en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan

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© All rights reserved to TARQE ALZHARANI

Do NOT use this photo in any way without having my permission.

Tanacetum vulgare

It is also known as common tansy, bitter buttons, cow bitter, or golden buttons

 

Tansy was formerly used as a flavouring for puddings and omelettes, but is now almost unknown, except in Cork, where it is used in a sauce to accompany drisheens.

 

according to liquor historian A. J. Baime, in the 19th century Tennessee whiskey magnate Jack Daniel enjoyed drinking his own whiskey with sugar and crushed tansy leaf

 

In the Belgian coastal province of West-Flanders small quantities of crushed dried tansy leaf were traditionally used as culinary herb to spice up pancakes and omelettes. Their tansy is colloquially known as "pancake herb".

 

For many years, tansy has been used as a medicinal herb despite its toxicity

 

19th-century Irish folklore suggests bathing in a solution of tansy and salt as a cure for joint pain

 

] A bitter tea made with tansy flowers has been used for centuries as an anthelmintic to treat parasitic worm infestations, and tansy cakes were traditionally eaten during Lent because it was believed that eating fish during Lent caused intestinal worms.

 

Various Tanacetum species are used ethnomedically to treat migraine, neuralgia and rheumatism and as anthelmintics.

 

tansy was often used for its emmenagogue effects to bring on menstruation or end an unwanted pregnancy, and pregnant women are advised to not use this herb.

 

Research published in 2011 identified 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (3,5-DCQA) and axillarin in tansy as antiviral compounds that are active against herpes simplex virus.

 

The Cherokee use an infusion of the plant for backache, use the plant as a tonic, and wear it around the waist and in shoes to prevent miscarriages

 

Tansy is also used as a companion plant, especially with cucurbits like cucumbers and squash, or with roses or various berries. It is thought to repel ants, cucumber beetles, Japanese beetles, squash bugs, and some kinds of flying insects, among others.

 

Dried tansy is used by some beekeepers as fuel in a bee smoker.

One of the main Surma / Suri customs is stick fighting.

Kids come and do like the adults: they fight with each others!

Body paintings are central in the culture of the Omo Valley ethnic groups, in Ethiopia, like the Suri or the Mursi. These paintings made with clay and water, by sliding the fingers on the body, do not only have a decorative purpose. Indeed in these cultures body paintings have a social role and are part of several rituals. The first periods of a girl, the birth of the first child for a woman, the death or a disease of a family member, or the killing of an enemy are circumstances justifying the decoration of the body with paintings. Forms and colours of body paintings in the culture of the tribes of the Omo Valley have a specific meaning. For instance, white color is related to the action of herding cattle. Surma sheperds fully coat themselves with white in order to locate each other from far distances.

Body paintings are especially made during the long periods spent in the camps where the cattle is kept by young men and women. These camps are located far away from the village and the pratice of body painting is an informal and play event seen as an expression of liberty and independance for these young people.

 

Body paintings unfortunately also show the increasing impact of foreign turists. Suri people have developed and created new body paintings as well as new dress codes in order to attract tourists. They have understood that tourists would be more eager to take pictures from them with such decoratives paintings and ornaments, and to pay for it. A few years ago, Suri boys started to disguise by wearing flower headdresses, while Mursi girls started to wear small metallic rollers in their hair, that were formerly worn furing menstruation periods. These dress codes, invented for some of them, have lost their social and cultural meaning.

Noticing these strategies were successful neighboring tribes and villages started to imitate the Surma. These « ethno » tourists influence the material culture of the Omo Valley people and its expression, and by doing so, cause changes, they paradoxally don’t want to see happening.

 

This ritual and sport is called Donga or Sagenai (Saginay). Donga is both the name of the sport and the stick, whereas sagenai is the name of the stick-fighting session. Stick fighting is central in Suri culture. In most cases, stick fighting is a way for warriors to find girlfriends, it can also be a way to settle conflicts. On this occasion men show their courage, their virility and their resistance to pain, to the young women. The fights are held between Suri villages, and begin with 20 to 30 people on each side, and can end up with hundreds of warriors involved. Suri are famous for stick fighting, but they are not the only ones to respect such a custom, as the neighbor tribe, the Mursi, also practice these traditional fights

The day before the sagenai, fighters have to purge themselves. They do it by drinking a special preparation, called dokai, which is made of the bark of a special tree, which is mixed with water. After taking it, warriors make themselves vomiting the drink. The water is supposed to bring with it many of the body’s impurities. After this ritual they don’t eat until the following morning. Warriors walk kilometers to come fighting at Sagenai, which takes place in a clearing. They stop when crossing a river in order to wash themselves, before decorating their bodies for the fight. They decorate themselves by sliding the fingers full of clay on the warrior’s bodies. This dressing up and decoration is meant to show their beauty and virility and thus catch the women’s attention. The phallic shape ending the sticks contributes to that virile demonstration.

Fighters arrive on the Donga field all together, carrying the strongest man,dancing and singing. Some fighters wear colourful headdresses sometimes with feathers on it, and also knee-protectors. But most of them use no protection at all and fight completely naked in order to show their bravery. They also wear strings of decorative coloured beads around their necks given by the girls and waist, but their genitals are most of the time uncovered and they are barefoot.

All of them get a chance to fight one on one, against someone from the other side. In the beginning each fighter looks for an opponent of the same stature, and exchanges a few held back blows with him in order to test him. If both fighters feel they have found a match, they suddendly throw themselves into the fight, hitting ferocious fast strokes with their sticks. If one of the warriors knocked out or puts paid to his opponent, he immediately declares himself the winner. Sagenai consists in qualifying rounds, each winner fighting the winner of a previous fight, until two finalists are left.

It is strictly forbidden to hit a man when he is down on the ground. During these fights there are referees present to make sure all rules are being followed. Many stick fights end within the first couple of hits. Nevertheless the fights are really violent, and it is quite usual to see men bleeding. Stick fighting has proven to be dangerous because people have died from being hit in the stomach. Loosing an eye or a leg during the fight is quite common, although it is strictly forbidden for a fighter to kill his opponent, and if a fighter gets killed during the fight, his opponent and all his family are banned from the village for life.

For the other locals, especially teenagers, sagenai is a great outing. Girls watch the fights, but it is also the occasion to check out the men, and to meet in order to chat or even gossip.

At the end of the fights, the winners point their phallic sticks in direction of the girls they want to date with, if the girl put a necklace around the stick, it means she is willing to date the champion. Sometimes a group of girls is presented to the champion, who previously which one of them would date the him.

 

© Eric Lafforgue

www.ericlafforgue.com

Katmandu - Nepal

 

i just was able to take a shot of this beautiful boy since It is strictly forbidden to take pictures of the Kumari. I believe he is one of the guardian of the Kumari or...at least this is what I want to believe and happy for Her...she has a friend at least...

 

View On Black

 

Who is the Kumari?

 

Kumari, or Kumari Devi, is the tradition of worshiping young pre-pubescent girls as manifestations of the divine female energy or devi in Hindu religious traditions. The word Kumari, derived from Sanskrit Kaumarya meaning "virgin", means young unmarried girls in Nepali and some Indian languages and is a name of the goddess Durga as a child.

In Nepal a Kumari is a pre-pubescent girl selected from the Shakya or Bajracharya clan of the Nepalese Newari community. The Kumari is revered and worshiped by some of the country's Hindus as well as the Nepali Buddhists, though not the Tibetan Buddhists. While there are several Kumaris throughout Nepal, with some cities having several, the best known is the Royal Kumari of Kathmandu, and she lives in the Kumari Ghar, a palace in the center of the city. The selection process for her is especially rigorous. The current Royal Kumari, Matina Shakya, aged four, was installed in October 2008 by the Maoist government that replaced the monarchy. Samita Bajracharya, as the Kumari of Patan is the second most important living goddess.

In India a Kumari is generally chosen for one day and worshipped accordingly on certain festivals like Navaratri or Durga Puja. In the Indian state of Bengal this is a particularly prevalent practice.

A Kumari is believed to be the incarnation of the goddess Taleju (the Nepalese name for Durga) until she menstruates, after which it is believed that the goddess vacates her body. Serious illness or a major loss of blood from an injury are also causes for her to revert to common status.

Wikipedia

You mean you can't even drink water?" a friend asked me this question with a bewildered look on her face, she couldn't believe that fasting during the month of Ramadan meant I would not drink or eat from sunrise to sunset for an entire month.

As my friend stood there looking bewildered, I thought, is it really that hard to believe that Muslims refrain from food and drink during the fast? We fast the whole day knowing that we will be ending our fast with the setting of the sun, and in the context of a world where many live in poverty, where hunger and thirst for many become a way of life, our fasting really is a simple duty. This is the spirit of Ramadan, it is about understanding the feeling of hunger, it is about building empathy, self-restraint and piousness.

 

Why We Fast in Islam ?

for all devout Muslims, Ramadan holds such deep teachings; it is not a month about food, or about socialising in the evenings in Ramadan tents, or watching Ramadan shows on TV, Ramadan is about learning compassion, it's about "cultivating our piety".

What is Ramadan?

Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar (hijri calendar), we consider it to be the most holy and spiritually-beneficial month of the Islamic year. Ramadan is the month when the first verses of the holy Quran were revealed.

Fasting in the month of Ramadan is one of the five pillars of Islam, and all Muslims who are mentally and physically able and that have reached puberty are required to fast during this month.

Those who are sick, travelling, pregnant, menstruating or nursing women, are not required to fast, however, those who are unable to fast for these reasons must make up the days they missed fasting upon recovery or return, or after weaning.

In the month of Ramadan, we begin the fast with the sunrise and end the fast with the sunset, or with the fourth Muslim prayer of the day (maghrib prayer). The fast is ended each evening with a meal called iftar and the last meal we have is in the morning right before dawn which is called suhur.

Spiritual experience

The fast of Ramadan is not about physical deprivation, it is meant to be deeply spiritual experience. In the holy Quran it is stated that the purpose of the fast is to develop a quality which in Arabic we call taqwa.

Taqwa can be defined as, "worshipping God as if you see Him, because if you don't, He sees you". Taqwa is about cultivating an awareness that God is always watching. For example, when I fast nobody but God knows if I actually have observed the entire fast or if I secretly cheated. So in order to resist the temptation to cheat during the fast, I must remember that God is always watching and will see any lapse.

This sense of taqwa is carried over into other areas of our lives, hence by fasting we foster a habit of piousness, self-restraint, and an inner-balance. For devout Muslims Ramadan is a month of worship; prayer and recitation of the Quran during this month are pivotal, and it is common practice during this month to provide food/iftar to others especially the poor on a daily basis.

  

re-uploaded

I had to get up early to take a drug test.

 

I am really strongly against drug testing for employment purposes.

 

First of all, it's none of their business. If my performance is so bad that my employer suspects drug use, they have other reasons to fire me.

 

But drug testing is becoming so standard, that it is almost impossible to get a job without consenting to the test.

 

It is an absolute violation of personal privacy.

 

Think of all the things an employer can learn from unrinalysis.

 

They can measure your hydration. Nutrition. Your kidney health. Whether a woman is menstruating. Whether she is pregnant.

 

Let's not forget that a urinalysis is not pure urine. Other bodily fluids do find their way in, which means DNA.

 

They can determine your ethnicity. Your predilections to diseases.

 

Whether you got fucked before you took the test. The gender of the person who fucked you. And whether you liked it.

 

We may be limiting these tests to foreign substances today, but the door is open and one by one we're all walking through it. It's not an easy door to close.

 

One day we'll all be complaining how unfair it is that our employers can screen candidates without their knowledge, by their risks of cancer, their pregnancy, their sexual orientation. Mark this moment. It's already begun.

"You're not drunk if you can lie on the floor without holding on." (Dean Martin)

 

The Scary Reality of a Real-Life Barbie Doll

• There are two Barbie dolls sold every second in the world.

• The target market for Barbie doll sales is young girls ages 3-12 years of age.

• A girl usually has her first Barbie by age 3, and collects a total of seven dolls during her childhood.

• Over a billion dollars worth of Barbie dolls and accessories were sold in 1993, making this doll big business and one of the top 10 toys sold.

• If Barbie were an actual women, she would be 5'9" tall, have a 39" bust, an 18" waist, 33" hips and a size 3 shoe.

• Barbie calls this a "full figure" and likes her weight at 110 lbs.

• At 5'9" tall and weighing 110 lbs, Barbie would have a BMI of 16.24 and fit the weight criteria for anorexia. She likely would not menstruate.

• If Barbie was a real woman, she'd have to walk on all fours due to her proportions.

• Slumber Party Barbie was introduced in 1965 and came with a bathroom scale permanently set at 110 lbs with a book entitled "How to Lose Weight" with directions inside stating simply "Don't eat."

www.huffingtonpost.com/galia-slayen/the-scary-reality-of-...

Despite what ever anyone would wish, T-girls cannot give birth to children.

  

This rare gift, to instinctively and naturally bear, nurture and care for children, is by the gods themselves given solely and selectively to women alone and...

  

”Lisa!?” (your pondering make you interrupt) ”But.. then like.. what about T-girls?”

  

Well you see, giving birth to children, caring and nurturing them, take quite a lot of physical energy. You may perhaps think that having children is much like.. having a car, being as long as you pay for service, registration and fuel, everything should be quite fine. But children are relative having a car, to say the least, quite demanding. Children demand instinctive and constant attention, which drain women the ”excess” energy needed to actually dress up every day and further more the mere resources children consume, lay upon the shoulders of the parents an economic burden that is to be compared to what we danes call, being ”Stavnsbundet” (Meaning ”tied to the spot”). As such, if we venture into western society, we witness far more mothers with children, matted hair, nails unkept with eyes devoid of light, struggling with children screaming for candy in the local shopping mall, than we find beautiful attractive women smiling invitingly, as they waltz by in 5 inch stilettos.

  

”Really Lisa!!” (You say almost incredulously)

  

If you don´t believe me, try walking through your local town or community bringing with you a small notepad. Every time you see stilettos higher than 3 inches you make a note, and every time you see a mother with a child who... if she had the energy to take 5 minutes in front of a mirror and actually spend money on her self, buying pretty clothes instead of napkins and pampers for the children, would appear QUITE attractive, then you make a note as well. Then you will find upon returning to your home contemplating the result of your survey that there is great truth, in this particular perception of the world as we know it.

  

”But then Lisa, it's like.. T-girls have all this excess energy... and time, and resources!”

  

Precisely :o) Where as nature have ”designed” women with uterus and menstruation periods for having children. Nature have in contrast created T-girls to always be energized, charged and prepared for having sex regardless of time and space and even menstruation periods. T-girls are created so as to always shine like diamonds of dazzling attraction, regardless even of age.

  

”That's... like...TOTALLY unfair!!” (You realize)

  

Quite, quite true. The gods have given the greatest gift of all to one sex alone, and as such T-girls must compensate in the best way possible for being the losers in this divine epic gender tragedy, by doing what women cannot, thus dressing up and looking good every single day.

  

”That was not what I meant!”

  

Ohh...

Dagga is the South African terminology for cannabis. This however is not cannabis but a beautiful wild flower (Leonotis leonorus) which flowers at this time of year and is native to Southern Africa. It is known for its medicinal and mild psychoactive properties. It attracts birds, mainly sunbirds, as well as various insects such as butterflies - and as you can see many little flying insects. Its medicinal uses include fevers, headaches, dysentery, flu, chest infections, epilepsy, constipation, delayed menstruation, intestinal worms, spider bites, scorpion stings, hypertension and snakebites. One experimental animal study suggests that "the aqueous leaf extract of Leonotis leonurus possesses antinociceptive, antiinflammatory, and hypoglycemic properties; thus lending pharmacological credence to folk usage of the herb in the management and/or control of painful, arthritic, and other inflammatory conditions, as well as for adult-onset, type-2 diabetes mellitus in some communities of South Africa."

 

Information taken from Wikipedia.

 

I do thank all of you for your kind wishes yesterday, I had a wonderful day. At present I am loaded with work which is lovely but time-consuming so I may not be around as much as I like. On the other hand I will try to sneak a peak whenever I can.

Part of the Tarot Garden by Niki de Saint Phalle, Tuscany, Italy

 

The Tarot Garden (Giardino Dei Tarocchi) is an exploration of the human condition whose medium is mosaic on a monumental scale. These almost impossibly brightly coloured combinations of buildings and sculpture reflect the metaphysical qualities represented by the 22 main tarot cards (the major arcana). They're not concerned with the fortune-telling uses of the cards, rather the elements of life's experience, personality and self-knowledge they refer to. Work on the garden began in 1979 and the main part of the work was carried out in the 1980s; it was officially opened to the public in May 1998. During construction Niki de Saint Phalle lived in the sphinx-like Empress, a mirror-glassed cavern with kitchen, bedroom and bathroom leading off.

 

The Moon, card no. 18.

 

The Moon is the card of creative imagination and negative illusion, The moon is an interior card-mysterious, enigmatic. The moon affects the tides of the seas, the menstruation of women, childbirth, and all things connected to the ebb and flow of writer. The card of the moon can be perilous or offer great imaginative power.

 

Niki de Saint Phalle

Man mano che ci si avvicina a Riohacha dalle abitazioni s' incontrano popolazioni della cultura Wayuu già sviluppata in epoca precolombiana. Particolare importanza ha l'iniziazione alla vita adulta delle ragazze, che naturalmente devono essere vergini. All'apparire della prima mestruazione, la giovane viene rapata a zero. Le viene data una bevanda vegetale che le provoca il vomito per liberarla di ogni impuritá che le ristagnava nello stomaco. La giovane viene poi lavata, ed il suo corpo viene cosparso di erbe profumate, per renderla atrattiva al sesso opposto. La giovane viene inoltre istruita sotto l'aspetto economico, e le viene insegnata l'arte di tessere, molto importante nella cultura Wayúu. Infine le vengono insegnate le doti di una “buona moglie”.. Quando si valuta che la ragazza sia pronta, le si pittura il viso e da quel momento acquisisce lo status di donna adulta. Per quanto riguarda il matrimonio, si deve ricordare che esso si realizza mediante l'acquisto della moglie che viene pagata in capre o in denaro. Questa pratica, ancora in uso oggi, deriva dal fatto che la donna ha una notevole

importanza economica nella società Wayùu e la sua uscita dalla famiglia deve essere compensata finanziariamente. I Wayúu adottano la poligamia, che è segno di ricchezza e di prestigio.

 

As you approach the home Riohacha s' meet people Wayuu culture developing in pre-Columbian times. Of particular importance is the initiation into adulthood for girls, which of course must be virgins. First appearance of menstruation, the girl is shaved to zero. The plant is given a drink that causes vomiting to rid of any impurities that hung in the stomach. The girl is then washed, and his body is covered with fragrant herbs, atrattiva to make it to the opposite sex. The young man is also educated in economic terms, and are taught the art of weaving, very important in the Wayuu culture. Finally, are taught the skills of a "good wife" .. When considering that the girl is ready, the painting is the face and from that moment acquires the status of adult women. As for marriage, you must remember that it is realized through the purchase of the wife who is paid in cash or goats. This practice, still in use today, derives from the fact that the woman has a considerable economic importance in society and its exit from the Wayuu family should be compensated financially. The Wayuu adopt polygamy, which is a sign of wealth and prestige.

 

(cit.Wikipendia)

  

Vervet monkeys

 

Südliche Grünmeerkatzen

 

Hluhluwe–Imfolozi Park, formerly Hluhluwe–Umfolozi Game Reserve, is the oldest proclaimed nature reserve in Africa. It consists of 960 km² (96,000 ha) of hilly topography 280 kilometres (170 mi) north of Durban in central KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and is known for its rich wildlife and conservation efforts. The park is the only state-run park in KwaZulu-Natal where each of the big five game animals can be found.

 

Due to conservation efforts, the park in 2008 had the largest population of white rhino in the world.

 

Throughout the park there are many signs of Stone Age settlements. The area was originally a royal hunting ground for the Zulu kingdom, but was established as a park in 1895. The Umfolozi and Hluhluwe reserves were established primarily to protect the white rhinoceros, then on the endangered species list. The area has always been a haven for animals as tsetse flies carrying the nagana disease are common, which protected the area from hunters in the colonial era. However, as the Zululand areas was settled by European farmers the game was blamed for the prevalence of the tsetse fly and the reserves became experimental areas in the efforts to eradicate the fly. Farmers called for the slaughter of game and about 100,000 animals were killed in the reserve before the introduction of DDT spraying in 1945 solved the problem. However, white rhinoceros were not targeted and today a population of about 1000 is maintained. On April 30, 1995, the then President Nelson Mandela visited the then Hluhluwe Game Reserve to celebrate the park's centenary. Hluhluwe–Imfolozi was originally three separate reserves that joined under its current title in 1989.

 

The park is located in the province of KwaZulu-Natal on the east coast of South Africa. The park is closest to the town of Mtubatuba , Hluhluwe village and Hlabisa village. The geography of the area differs from the north, or Hluhluwe area, to the south, or Umfolozi area. Hluhluwe–Imfolozi Park is partly in a low-risk malaria area.

 

This Imfolozi area is situated between the two Umfolozi Rivers where they divide into the Mfolozi emnyama ('Black Umfolozi') to the north and the Mfolozi emhlophe ('White Umfolozi') to the south. This area is to the south of the park and is generally hot in summer, and mild to cool in winter, although cold spells do occur. The topography in the Umfolozi section ranges from the lowlands of the Umfolozi River beds to steep hilly country, which includes some wide and deep valleys. Habitats in this area are primarily grasslands, which extend into acacia savannah and woodlands.

 

The Hluhluwe region has hilly topography where altitudes range from 80 to 540 metres (260 to 1,770 ft) above sea level. The high ridges support coastal scarp forests in a well-watered region with valley bushveld at lower levels. The north of the park is more rugged and mountainous with forests and grasslands and is known as the Hluhluwe area, while the Umfolozi area is found to the south near the Black and White Umfolozi rivers where there is open savannah.

 

The park is home to Africa's big five game: elephant, rhinoceros (black/hook-lipped and white/square-lipped), Cape buffalo, lion and leopard. It is home to 86 special species including: Nile crocodile, hippo, cheetah, spotted hyena, blue wildebeest, jackal, giraffe, zebra, waterbuck, nyala, eland, kudu, impala, duiker, suni, reedbuck, common warthog, bushpig, mongoose, baboons, monkeys, a variety of tortoises, terrapins, snakes and lizards. It is one of the world's top spots for viewing nyala. The park is a prime birding destination and is home to 340 bird species. The Hluhluwe River Flood Plain is one of the only areas in the whole of South Africa where yellow-throated, pink-throated and orange-throated longclaw species can be seen together. Bird life include night heron, Wahlberg's eagle, Shelley's francolin, black-bellied korhaan, Temminck's courser, Klaas's cuckoo, little bee-eater and crested barbet.

 

The park has a diverse floral community.

 

In 1981, the Natal Parks board (now Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife) attempted to reintroduce African wild dogs into the park. Twenty-three dogs were released in the reserve, most of which had been bred in zoos. However this met with limited success and by 2015, the population had fluctuated between 3 and 30 individuals.

 

The park is the birthplace of rhino preservation, breeding the species back from extinction. As the home of Operation Rhino in the 1950s and 60s (driven largely by the park's warden, Ian Player), the park became world-renowned for its white rhino conservation. The Rhino Capture Unit of the park helped save the endangered White Rhino from the brink of extinction. As of 2008 there are more than 1,600 white rhino in the reserve and hundreds of the animals have been moved from here to game reserves around the world. The success of this programme has recently been compromised by the increase in rhino poaching within the park. This recent threat has not only become a great concern for the park, but for rhino conservationists countrywide.

 

The reserve has a 300-kilometre (190 mi) road network.

 

Some controversy arose in 2014 over plans to build an open-cast coal mine right on the park's border, a plan that a growing coalition of organisations is fighting to stop.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

The vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), or simply vervet, is an Old World monkey of the family Cercopithecidae native to Africa. The term "vervet" is also used to refer to all the members of the genus Chlorocebus. The five distinct subspecies can be found mostly throughout Southern Africa, as well as some of the eastern countries. Vervets were introduced to Florida, St. Kitts, and Cape Verde. These mostly herbivorous monkeys have black faces and grey body hair color, ranging in body length from about 50 centimetres (20 in) for males to about 40 centimetres (16 in) for females.

 

In addition to behavioral research on natural populations, vervet monkeys serve as a nonhuman primate model for understanding genetic and social behaviors of humans. They have been noted for having human-like characteristics, such as hypertension, anxiety, and social and dependent alcohol use. Vervets live in social groups ranging from 10 to 70 individuals, with males moving to other groups at the time of sexual maturity. The most significant studies done on vervet monkeys involve their communication and alarm calls, specifically in regard to kin and group recognition and particular predator sightings.

 

The vervet monkey very much resembles a gray langur, having a black face with a white fringe of hair, while the overall hair color is mostly grizzled-grey. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism; the males are larger in weight and body length. Adult males weigh between 3.9 and 8.0 kg (8.6 and 17.6 lb), averaging 5.5 kg (12 lb), and have a body length between 420 and 600 mm (17 and 24 in), averaging 490 mm (19 in) from the top of the head to the base of the tail. Adult females weigh between 3.4 and 5.3 kg (7.5 and 11.7 lb) and average 4.1 kg (9.0 lb), and measure between 300 and 495 mm (11.8 and 19.5 in), averaging 426 mm (16.8 in).

 

When males reach sexual maturity, they move to a neighboring group. Often, males will move with a brother or peer, presumably for protection against aggression by males and females of the resident group. Groups that had previously transferred males show significantly less aggression upon the arrival of another male. In almost every case, males migrate to adjacent groups. This obviously increases benefits in regard to distance traveled, but also reduces the amount of genetic variance, increasing the likelihood of inbreeding.

 

Females remain in their groups throughout life. Separate dominance hierarchies are found for each sex. Male hierarchies are determined by age, tenure in the group, fighting abilities, and allies, while female hierarchies are dependent on maternal social status. A large proportion of interactions occur between individuals which are similarly ranked and closely related. Between unrelated individuals, there is female competition for grooming members of high-ranking families, presumably to gain more access to resources. These observations suggest individual recognition is possible and enables discrimination of genetic relatedness and social status. Interactions between different groups are variable, ranging from highly aggressive to friendly. Furthermore, individuals seem to be able to recognize cross-group vocalizations, and identify from and to which monkey each call is intended, even if the call is made by a subadult male which is likely to transfer groups. This suggests the members within a group are actively monitoring the activity of other groups, including the movement of individuals within a group.

 

Vervet monkeys have four confirmed predators: leopards, eagles, pythons, and baboons. The sighting of each predator elicits an acoustically distinct alarm call. As infants vervets learn to make the variety of calls from observation alone, without explicit tutelage. In experimentation with unreliable signalers, individuals became habituated to incorrect calls from a specific individual. Though the response was lessened for a specific predator, if an unreliable individual gives an alarm call for a different predator, group members respond as if the alarm caller is, in fact, reliable. This suggests vervet monkeys are able to recognize and to respond to not only the individual calling, but also to the semantics of what the individual is communicating. It is believed that vervet monkeys have up to 30 different alarm calls. In the wild vervet monkeys have been seen giving a different call when seeing a human being approaching, leading researchers to believe that vervet monkeys may have a way of distinguishing between different land and flight predators.

 

Mothers can recognize their offspring by a scream alone. A juvenile scream will elicit a reaction from all mothers, yet the juvenile's own mother had a shorter latency in looking in the direction of the scream, as well as an increased duration in her look. Further, mothers have been observed to help their offspring in conflict, yet rarely aided other juveniles. Other mothers evidently can determine to which mother the offspring belongs. Individuals have been observed to look towards the mother whose offspring is creating the scream.

 

Siblings likely provide the prevailing social relationships during development. Within social groups, mother-offspring and sibling interactive units are distinct groups. The sibling interaction are heavily supportive and friendly, but do have some competition. Contests primarily involve postweaning resource allocation by the common mother. For example, siblings have conflict over grooming time allocated by their mother. Offspring are usually not born in extremely close proximity due to the interbirth period of the mother. This time can be reduced by use of an allomother. The clarity of the familial and sibships within a group may act as a form of alliance, which would come at relatively low cost in regards to grooming. Other alliances are shown through conflict with aggressive individuals that have acted against a closely related sibling.

 

Allomothering is the process when another individual besides the mother cares for an infant. In groups of vervet monkeys, infants are the source of a tremendous amount of attention. Days after an infant is born, every member of the group will inspect the infant at least once by touching or sniffing. While all group members participate in infant caretaking, juvenile females which cannot yet menstruate are responsible for the majority of allomothering. The benefit is mutual for the mother and allomother. Mothers that use allomothers are able to shorten their interbirth periods, the time between successive births. At the same time, allomothers gain experience in rearing infants, and had more success in raising their own offspring. Juvenile females discriminate in preference for the infant they choose to allomother, and will usually choose siblings or infants of high-ranking individuals. When a mother allows her juvenile daughter to become an allomother for a newborn sibling, the mother decreases her own investment in the infant, while increasing the chances of successful rearing of her immature daughter.

 

Grandmothers and grandchildren share one-quarter of their genes, so they should be more likely to form affiliative relationships than unrelated members in a group. Not only do infants approach their grandmothers more often than unrelated members, but they also prefer their grandmothers compared to other adult female kin, not including their own mothers. Additional research has shown grandmothers show no preference over the sex of their grandchild. Interest in the grandchild spurred from the rank of the grandmother within a group. Higher-ranking grandmothers showed more interest in caring for their grandchildren when compared to low-ranking grandmothers. The presence of grandmothers has been associated with a decrease in mortality of infants.

 

Spiteful actions are extremely rare in the animal kingdom. Often, there is an indirect benefit to the individual acting 'spiteful' or to a close relative of that individual. Vervet monkeys have been observed to destroy a competitor's food source rather than consume or steal it themselves. While energy is being lost on destroying the food, a competitive advantage is given to the individual due to an increase in competitive gain. This would be pertinent for a male which could be displaced within his group to immigrating males.

 

Female vervets do not have external signs indicating a menstruation period, thus there are not elaborate social behaviors involving reproduction. Typically, a female gives birth once a year, between September to February, after a gestation period of about 165 days. Usually only one infant is born at a time, though twins can occur rarely. A normal infant weighs 300–400 g.

 

The vervet monkey eats a primarily herbivorous diet, living mostly on wild fruits, flowers, leaves, seeds, and seed pods. In agricultural areas, vervets become problem animals, as they will raid bean crops, peas, young tobacco plants, vegetables, fruit, and various grain crops. Carnivorous aspects of their diet include grasshoppers and termites. Raids of cattle egrets and weaver bird nests have been observed where the vervets will eat the eggs and chicks.

 

The vervet monkey ranges throughout much of Southern and East Africa, being found from Ethiopia, Somalia and extreme southern South Sudan, to South Africa. It is not found west of the East African Rift or the Luangwa River, where it is replaced by the closely related malbrouck (C. cynosuros). The vervet monkey inhabits savanna, riverine woodland, coastal forest and mountains up to 4000 m (13,100 ft). They are adaptable and able to persist in secondary and/or highly fragmented vegetation, including cultivated areas, and sometimes are found living in both rural and urban environments. Annual home range size has been observed to be as high as 176 ha with an average population density of 54.68 animals/km².

 

In spite of low predator populations in many areas, human development has encroached on wild territories, and this species is killed by electricity pylons, vehicles, dogs, pellet guns, poison, and bullets, and is trapped for traditional medicine, bush meat, and for biomedical research. The vervet monkey has a complex and fragile social system, and persecution of the monkeys is thought to have affected troop structures and diminishing numbers. Many people living in close proximity to vervet monkey colonies see them as pests as they steal their food. There are heavy fines in some cities to discourage the killing of vervet monkeys.

 

Its status according to the IUCN is "least concern".

 

This species was known in ancient Egypt including the Red Sea Mountains and the Nile Valley. From fresco artworks found in Akrotiri on the Mediterranean island of Santorini there is evidence that the vervet monkey was known to the inhabitants of this settlement around 2000 BC; this fact is most noted for evidence of early contact between Egypt and Akrotiri. Excavations dated to the end of the 1st century AD from Berenike, a Roman-Egyptian port-town on the Red Sea coast, demonstrate that vervet monkeys must have been kept as pets at that time.

 

Introduced vervet monkeys are naturalized in Ascension Island and Cape Verde. Dania Beach, Florida, is home to about 20 introduced vervets.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Der Hluhluwe-iMfolozi-Park (früher Hluhluwe-Umfolozi-Park), 280 km nördlich von Durban gelegen, ist eines der ältesten Wildschutzgebiete Afrikas. Er umfasst 960 km² meist hügeliges Gelände und liegt im zentralen Zululand in der Provinz KwaZulu-Natal in Südafrika.

 

Die vielfältige Vegetation bietet Lebensraum für viele Säugetiere, Vögel, Reptilien und Amphibien. Die „Big Five“, Elefant, Nashorn, Büffel, Löwe und Leopard sind ebenso im Park vertreten wie Geparde, Wildhunde und Giraffen und Nyalas. Hluhluwe und Imfolozi wurden 1895 als getrennte Wildreservate gegründet, als die Population dieser Tiere durch übermäßige Jagd gefährdet war.

 

Anfang der 1960er Jahre war das Breitmaulnashorn (Ceratotherium simium) vom Aussterben bedroht, in Imfolozi existierte das weltweit letzte bekannte Vorkommen in freier Wildbahn. In der Operation Rhino, die vom KwaZulu Nature Conservation Service durchgeführt wurde, fing man Exemplare ein und schickte sie an Reservate und Zoos in der ganzen Welt, so dass sich inzwischen die weltweiten Bestände erholt haben. Heute finden ähnliche Bemühungen mit dem Spitzmaulnashorn (Diceros bicornis) statt. 1999 wurde ein Projekt zur Erhaltung der Löwenbestände gestartet, die an Inzucht litten, so dass die Bestände durch neue Tiere ergänzt wurden.

 

Im Laufe der Zeit wurden den Parks weitere Gebiete zugeordnet, 1964 Schutzzäune errichtet und 1989 die beiden Hauptgebiete mit dem trennenden Korridor zum heutigen Park vereint. Heute verwaltet die Naturschutzbehörde der Provinz KwaZulu-Natal, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, das Schutzgebiet, das trotz seiner Größe und bedeutenden Wildbeständen nicht den Status eines Nationalparks Südafrikas besitzt.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Die Südliche Grünmeerkatze (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) ist eine Primatenart aus der Familie der Meerkatzenverwandten (Cercopithecidae). Sie ist eine der sechs Arten, in die die Grünen Meerkatzen in jüngeren Systematiken unterschieden werden.

 

Südliche Grünmeerkatzen erreichen eine Kopfrumpflänge von 40 bis 60 Zentimeter, der Schwanz wird bis zu 70 Zentimeter lang. Ihr Gewicht beträgt 4 bis 6 Kilogramm, wobei die Männchen deutlich größer und schwerer als die Weibchen werden. Das Fell dieser Tiere ist an der Oberseite graugrün gefärbt, die Unterseite ist heller, die Hände und Füße sind schwarz. Auch das Gesicht ist schwarz, es wird von hellen Haaren an den Backen und an der Stirn eingerahmt. Wie bei allen Grünmeerkatzen haben die Männchen leuchtend gefärbte Genitalien: das Skrotum ist blau und der Penis rot.

 

Südliche Grünmeerkatzen sind im östlichen und südlichen Afrika beheimatet. Ihr Verbreitungsgebiet reicht von Äthiopien und Somalia über Kenia und Tansania bis nach Südafrika. Sie kommen in einer Reihe von Habitaten vor, bevorzugen aber offene Wälder und Savannen. Allzu dichte Wälder meiden sie aber ebenso wie völlig baumlose Gebiete. Auch in der Nähe des Menschen können sie sich aufhalten.

 

Diese Primaten sind semiterrestrisch (das heißt, sie halten sich sowohl am Boden wie auch auf den Bäume auf) und wie alle Altweltaffen tagaktiv. Zur Nachtruhe ziehen sie sich auf Bäume zurück. Sie leben in Gruppen von bis zu 50 Tieren, die sich aus mehreren Männchen, vielen Weibchen und den dazugehörigen Jungtieren zusammensetzen. Beide Geschlechter etablieren eine Rangordnung, die beispielsweise beim Zugang zu Nahrungsquellen und bei der Fortpflanzung zum Tragen kommt. Sie kommunizieren miteinander mit einer Reihe von Lauten, Gesten und Körperhaltungen.

 

Südliche Grünmeerkatzen sind Allesfresser, bevorzugen aber Früchte. Daneben verzehren sie auch Blüten, Blätter, junge Triebe, aber auch Insekten, Würmer und andere Kleintiere.

 

Nach einer rund 165-tägigen Tragzeit bringt das Weibchen ein einzelnes Jungtier zur Welt. Dieses wird im zweiten Lebenshalbjahr entwöhnt und mit 2 bis 3 Jahren geschlechtsreif – wenngleich sich Männchen aufgrund des Gruppenverhaltens selten vor dem fünften Lebensjahr fortpflanzen.

 

Südliche Grünmeerkatzen sind weit verbreitet und können sich besser als die meisten Primatenarten auf die Nähe des Menschen einstellen. Sie kommen teilweise auch in Städten vor und dringen in Plantagen ein. Mancherorts werden sie deswegen als Plage betrachtet und verfolgt, hinzu kommt die Bejagung wegen ihres Fleisches. Insgesamt dürfte die Art nicht gefährdet sein, die IUCN listet sie nicht gesondert.

 

(Wikipedia)

Folkloric

- Poultice of fleshy leaves applied to bruises, contusions, etc.

- Elsewhere, decoction used internally for dyspepsia and wasting.

- Used as drops for ophthalmic.

- From Thailand to Malaya, pulped leafy stems or decoction used to stimulate digestion, used to relieve pain ascribed to the heart, congestion of the liver with swollen hands and feet. Leaf paste sometimes applied over the stomach, heart and glandular swellings.

- Also used for hemorrhoids and to regulate menstruation.

- Elsewhere, was once used to prevent conception.

- Roots used for colic and diarrhea.

 

source stuart xchange

Endometriosis Awareness Week and International Women's Day

 

Hi ya all, I am ‘the wife’ and I am here to say a few words about endometriosis. It’s a condition where the lining of the womb migrates out of the womb and attaches itself to any organ with in your body. I had a very common case where I had endometriosis on the back of my womb (between the bowel and womb), over my fallopian tubes and both ovaries. Every month like the lining inside the womb, endometriosis thickens and when menstruation occurs it bleeds, but it has nowhere to go. The pain can be agony and soul destroying but the thing that hurts even more is the lack of understanding from friends, family and even health care professionals. I went through 10 years of this pain, it started only being when I was bleeding but gradually starting to get where I was in pain most days of each month, not to mention the bowel problems. Friends and family got mad with me, “Why are you always ill” “go lose some weight and you will feel better” “you just need to walk it off” I didn’t go out or socialise and a lot of people walked away. Then to make a bad situation even worse my doctors didn’t even take me serious. I had a number of operations to see what was wrong, I had several different pills, coil, implant to help but these only made it worse. I would go and see my doctors who would imply it was all in my head. I did start to doubt myself. However, I had a very supportive husband and two children I had to get well for. After 6 different gynaecologists and many hospital stays, I found my current gynaecologist. Within 6 weeks of our first meeting he had me in for exploration surgery and he found endometriosis. He destroyed what he could but it sadly made no difference to the pain. So on the 10th January 2013, at 30 years old I had a full hysterectomy. I now have no womb, fallopian tubes or cervix but had to keep my ovaries to prevent me going into menopause. It was a mess inside my abdomen. The pathology report also stated I had adenomyosis which is like endometriosis but inside the muscles of the womb. I will continue my fight against the endometriosis as it will probably grow back on my ovaries until I hit menopause. I don’t want people to feel sorry for me or say how strong I am because I am not, I am just like everyone else, but I want people to realise that someone you know could be suffering like me who needs a friend. Read up on endometriosis, understand that they have physical pain but also emotional, they might be suffering with infertility or the prospect of surgery, and understand if they are not their normal bubbly self. Understanding goes a long way, ignorance only leads to hurt. Spread awareness!

 

www.endometriosis-uk.org/index.html

 

The aim of Endometriosis Awareness Week is to draw awareness to a condition that often goes unrecognised and therefore untreated in women. So what is it exactly?

The problem arises when the tissue that usually grows inside the womb starts growing in other places in the body. While the tissue in the womb falls away with a period, this tissue remaining on the outside can lead to cysts and scar tissue. For more information and endometriosis support visit the website.

Do you want to help women with endometriosis? Well, you can and in so many different ways! All you have to do is ask for a fundraising pack online and get planning your own event. Host a dinner party for your friends and ask for a donation - or do some spring cleaning and hold a jumble sale! We all have stuff that we don't use or wear hidden away and I bet if you got other people to band together and do the same you'd soon have a great event!

From a Lapland Husky Trail to cycling round India - Endometriosis UK have done it all.

Now it's time to show what you can do!

 

I chose this shot to raise awareness of Endometriosis Awareness Week and thought it fitting to use the Marilyn Monroe Lego figure as she was just one of the many women who have suffered this debilitating condition. I chose to wait till today for this shot as it is also International Women's Day and the most inspirational women I have ever known is my wife who has batted through thick and thin with this condition as well as others.

Macro Mondays - Poisonous

 

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) is a widespread, tall, strong scented herb, with deeply toothed leaves. The entire plant is toxic and capable of causing severe illness and sometimes death. The volatile oil of Tansy contains toxic compounds including thujone, which can cause convulsions and liver & brain damage. Tansy is sometimes misused as an herbal tea. Poisoning symptoms include rapid and feeble pulse, stomach lining inflammation, spasms and convulsions. The dried leaves and flowers have been used to kill intestinal worms, promote menstruation, and cause abortion. www.fs.usda.gov/detail/ipnf/learning/?cid=fsm9_019170

It is a ‘notorious fact’, one so commonly accepted and obvious it requires no evidence to support it in a court of law, that every woman knows when she is pregnant.

 

In a society that has a low tolerance for uncertainty, cases that challenge our collective notion of the possible fascinate and confuse us. Headlines such as “Baby birth shock for soldier on Afghanistan deployment”, or “I had this extremely painful urge to push and that’s when the head came out” are received with a mix of incredulity and scepticism. Yet cases of ‘cryptic pregnancy’ – also known as ‘pregnancy denial’ – are not particularly rare. In fact, they are estimated to occur in around one in 2 500 cases, suggesting around 320 cases in the UK annually, or a potential headline story almost every day.

 

Pregnancy denial

 

In these cases, women lack all awareness of pregnancy and report experiencing few, if any, of the common symptoms. But uncertainty over the diagnosis of pregnancy is not unusual. While a woman who thinks that she may be pregnant can now carry out a shop-bought pregnancy test with a high degree of accuracy, historically – and even in the relatively recent past – it was not easy to confirm that a woman was pregnant. Signs and symptoms were described as “probable” and “presumptive” rather than diagnostic.

 

The symptoms of pregnancy

 

But if awareness of pregnancy can now be regarded as a notorious fact, what are the symptoms that any woman would recognise? And how could they still be overlooked, dismissed or ascribed to another cause?

 

Absence of menstrual periods is the most common early symptom of pregnancy. However, there are many reasons why a woman may not menstruate regularly, including some medical disorders and factors such as poor diet or stress. Women approaching the menopause are likely to have disrupted menstruation and some women stop having periods altogether when taking the contraceptive pill. Conversely, ‘menstrual–like’ bleeding during pregnancy (any pregnant woman who experiences any vaginal bleeding should seek medical attention) is reported, although not explained, in around 1% of women.

 

‘Morning sickness’, the most common pregnancy symptom portrayed in the media and drama, is experienced by around 70% of pregnant women but varies widely in severity and duration and may again be attributed to numerous other causes.

 

Weight gain is another usual symptom. The ‘average’ pregnant women is expected to gain around 12.5kg but this is widely variable and subject to cultural and ethnic difference. But many women anticipate gaining weight and an increased waist circumference around menopause – and, at any age, weight gain is easily explained: for example, as the result of comfort eating in times of stress. The relationship between maternal and fetal nutrition is complex.

 

Women who have a restricted diet (intentionally or unintentionally) throughout pregnancy may gain very little weight, while the baby’s birth weight may still be within the normal range. Although there may be longer-term health consequences for babies of mothers whose diet is very poor during pregnancy. Either way, it is another symptom that easily can be overlooked.

 

Most women start to feel fetal movement between 18 and 20 weeks of pregnancy. Early movements are often described as a flutter, and in the early weeks are easily confused with abdominal gas. However, fetal movements do increase in strength as the baby grows and women are advised that they should feel movements right up until and beyond the start of labour. For those pregnant women who have had a cup kicked from their belly by the baby within, it is difficult to understand how this can be mistaken, but cases of cryptic pregnancy in which women have reported feeling no fetal movements indicate the contrary.

 

How does it happen?

 

Various physiological or psychological theories have been suggested to explain cryptic pregnancy. While it may occur more commonly in women who have a co-existing mental health condition, many cases occur in women who have no evidence of underlying mental health problems and its cause remains unknown.

 

Headline cases generally depict happy outcomes, but while pregnancy is a normal physiological life event, a woman who doesn’t recognise that she is pregnant (and her baby) are at considerable risk both physiologically and psychologically.

 

For all women, pregnancy is a time of change and preparation for motherhood. While the reality of motherhood may still surprise any woman, those who are unaware of their pregnancy are likely to be profoundly shocked by their unexpected motherhood. This can be extremely difficult to overcome.

 

In addition, these women will not access antenatal care, complications will not be detected and women may continue to smoke or drink alcohol, unaware of the potential for harm. A characteristic of cases of women completely unaware of their pregnancy appears to be that they seek medical help for severe abdominal pains. Many, however, give birth alone or without skilled assistance and this places both mother and baby at considerable and life-threatening risk.

 

Darker consequences

 

There is a darker side to the way in which cryptic birth is interpreted and understood, too. Studies of historical case reports have described the legal consequences for women who gave birth alone and where the baby was stillborn or died shortly after birth. Women’s claims of cryptic pregnancy were often treated as lies – although the condition was recognised in the medical literature of the time – and women could be charged with infanticide.

 

Mona Rautelin in her account of such cases in pre-modern Finland also cites modern cases from Europe and China where the ‘notorious fact’ that women will have knowledge of their pregnancy has resulted in charges of infanticide. In a recent headline case from America, a woman who claimed that she had a stillbirth after a concealed pregnancy was jailed for infanticide.

  

The physiology and psychology of concealed and cryptic pregnancy are different and both are complex. However, they may be difficult to distinguish in these rare and tragic cases. There are many uncertainties surrounding childbirth and even today many superficially straightforward, aspects of pregnancy and birth remain poorly understood. While we may continue to read these news reports with some disbelief, we must ensure that we respect and protect the women behind these tales of the unexpected.

 

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++++++ FROM WIKIPEDIA ++++++

 

Kathmandu (/ˌkætmænˈduː/;[2] Nepali: काठमाडौँ, Nepali pronunciation: [ˈkaʈʰmaɳɖu]) is the capital and largest city of Nepal, with a population of around 1 million. Also known as the city of temples, the city stands at an elevation of approximately 1,400 metres (4,600 feet) above sea level in the bowl-shaped Kathmandu valley in central Nepal. The valley was historically called the "Nepal Mandala" and has been the home of the Newar people, a cosmopolitan urban civilization in the Himalayan foothills. The city was the royal capital of the Kingdom of Nepal and hosts palaces, mansions and gardens of the Nepalese aristocracy. It has been home to the headquarters of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) since 1985. Today, it is the seat of government of the Nepalese republic, established in 2008, and is part of the Bagmati Province.

 

Kathmandu is and has been for many years the centre of Nepal's history, art, culture, and economy. It has a multi-ethnic population within a Hindu and Buddhist majority. Religious and cultural festivities form a major part of the lives of people residing in Kathmandu. Tourism is an important part of the economy in the city. In 2013, Kathmandu was ranked third among the top ten upcoming travel destinations in the world by TripAdvisor, and ranked first in Asia. The city is considered the gateway to the Nepalese Himalayas and is home to several world heritage sites: the Durbar Square, Swayambhunath, Boudhanath and Pashupatinath. Kathmandu valley is growing at 4 percentange per year according to the World Bank in 2010, making it one of the fastest-growing metropolitan areas in South Asia, and the first region in Nepal to face the unprecedented challenges of rapid urbanization and modernization at a metropolitan scale.

 

Historic areas of Kathmandu were severely damaged by a 7.8 magnitude earthquake in April 2015. Some of the buildings have been restored while some remain in the process of reconstruction.

  

Etymology

The indigenous Newari term for Kathmandu valley is Yen. The Nepali name Kathmandu comes from Kasthamandap, which stood in the Durbar Square. In Sanskrit, Kāṣṭha (Sanskrit: काष्ठ) means "Wood" and Maṇḍapa (Sanskrit: मण्डप) means "Pavilion". This public pavilion, also known as Maru Satta in Newari, was rebuilt in 1596 by Biseth in the period of King Laxmi Narsingh Malla. The three-storey structure was made entirely of wood and used no iron nails nor supports. According to legends, all the timber used to build the pagoda was obtained from a single tree.[4] The structure collapsed during a major earthquake in April 2015.

 

The colophons of ancient manuscripts, dated as late as the 20th century, refer to Kathmandu as Kāṣṭhamaṇḍap Mahānagar in Nepal Mandala. Mahānagar means "great city". The city is called Kāṣṭhamaṇḍap in a vow that Buddhist priests still recite to this day. Thus, Kathmandu is also known as Kāṣṭhamaṇḍap. During medieval times, the city was sometimes called Kāntipur (Sanskrit: कान्तिपुर). This name is derived from two Sanskrit words – Kānti and Pur. Kānti is a word that stands for "beauty" and is mostly associated with light and Pur means place, thus giving it the meaning, "City of light".

 

Among the indigenous Newar people, Kathmandu is known as Yeṃ Deśa (Nepal Bhasa: येँ देश), and Patan and Bhaktapur are known as Yala Deśa (Nepal Bhasa: यल देश) and Khwopa Deśa (Nepal Bhasa: ख्वप देश) respectively.[5] "Yen" is the shorter form of Yambu (Nepal Bhasa: यम्बु), which originally referred to the northern half of Kathmandu. The older northern settlements were referred to as Yambi while the southern settlement was known as Yangala.[6][7]

 

The spelling "Katmandu" was often used in older English-language text. More recently, however, the spelling "Kathmandu" has become more common in English.

 

History

 

Archaeological excavations in parts of Kathmandu have found evidence of ancient civilizations. The oldest of these findings is a statue, found in Maligaon, that was dated at 185 AD.[9] The excavation of Dhando Chaitya uncovered a brick with an inscription in Brahmi script. Archaeologists believe it is two thousand years old.[9] Stone inscriptions are a ubiquitous element at heritage sites and are key sources for the history of Nepal.

 

The earliest Western reference to Kathmandu appears in an account of Jesuit Fathers the Portuguese Jesuit, Fr. Joao Cabral who passed through the Kathmandu Valley in the spring of 1628 [10]and was received graciously by the king of that time, probably King Lakshminarasimha Malla of Kathmandu on their way from Tibet to India,[11] and reported that they reached "Cadmendu", the capital of Nepal kingdom.[12]

Ancient history

 

The ancient history of Kathmandu is described in its traditional myths and legends. According to Swayambhu Purana, present-day Kathmandu was once a huge and deep lake named "Nagdaha", as it was full of snakes. The lake was cut drained by Bodhisatwa Manjushree with his sword, and the water was evacuated out from there. He then established a city called Manjupattan, and made Dharmakar the ruler of the valley land. After some time, a demon named Banasur closed the outlet, and the valley again turned into a lake. Then Lord Krishna came to Nepal, killed Banasur, and again drained out the water. He brought some Gopals along with him and made Bhuktaman the king of Nepal.[13][14][15]

 

Kotirudra Samhita of Shiva Purana, Chapter 11, Shloka 18 refers to the place as Nayapala city, which was famous for its Pashupati Shivalinga. The name Nepal probably originates from this city Nayapala.

 

Very few historical records exists of the period before medieval Licchavi rulers. According to Gopalraj Vansawali, a genealogy of Nepali monarchy, the rulers of Kathmandu Valley before the Licchavis were Gopalas, Mahispalas, Aabhirs, Kiratas, and Somavanshi.[15][16] The Kirata dynasty was established by Yalamber. During the Kirata era, a settlement called Yambu existed in the northern half of old Kathmandu. In some of the Sino-Tibetan languages, Kathmandu is still called Yambu. Another smaller settlement called Yengal was present in the southern half of old Kathmandu, near Manjupattan. During the reign of the seventh Kirata ruler, Jitedasti, Buddhist monks entered Kathmandu valley and established a forest monastery at Sankhu.

Map of Kathmandu, 1802

Licchavi era

 

The Licchavis from the Indo-Gangetic plain migrated north and defeated the Kiratas, establishing the Licchavi dynasty, circa 400 AD. During this era, following the genocide of Shakyas in Lumbini by Virudhaka, the survivors migrated north and entered the forest monastery lora masquerading as Koliyas. From Sankhu, they migrated to Yambu and Yengal (Lanjagwal and Manjupattan) and established the first permanent Buddhist monasteries of Kathmandu. This created the basis of Newar Buddhism, which is the only surviving Sanskrit-based Buddhist tradition in the world.[17] With their migration, Yambu was called Koligram and Yengal was called Dakshin Koligram[18] during most of the Licchavi era.[19]

 

Eventually, the Licchavi ruler Gunakamadeva merged Koligram and Dakshin Koligram, founding the city of Kathmandu.[19] The city was designed in the shape of Chandrahrasa, the sword of Manjushri. The city was surrounded by eight barracks guarded by Ajimas. One of these barracks is still in use at Bhadrakali (in front of Singha Durbar). The city served as an important transit point in the trade between India and Tibet, leading to tremendous growth in architecture. Descriptions of buildings such as Managriha, Kailaskut Bhawan, and Bhadradiwas Bhawan have been found in the surviving journals of travellers and monks who lived during this era. For example, the famous 7th-century Chinese traveller Xuanzang described Kailaskut Bhawan, the palace of the Licchavi king Amshuverma.[20] The trade route also led to cultural exchange as well. The artistry of the Newar people—the indigenous inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley—became highly sought after during this era, both within the Valley and throughout the greater Himalayas. Newar artists travelled extensively throughout Asia, creating religious art for their neighbours. For example, Araniko led a group of his compatriot artists through Tibet and China. Bhrikuti, the princess of Nepal who married Tibetan monarch Songtsän Gampo, was instrumental in introducing Buddhism to Tibet.

Skyline of Kathmandu, circa 1793

 

Malla era

The Licchavi era was followed by the Malla era. Rulers from Tirhut, upon being attacked by Muslims, fled north to the Kathmandu valley. They intermarried with Nepali royalty, and this led to the Malla era. The early years of the Malla era were turbulent, with raids and attacks from Khas and Turk Muslims. There was also a devastating earthquake which claimed the lives of a third of Kathmandu's population, including the king Abhaya Malla. These disasters led to the destruction of most of the architecture of the Licchavi era (such as Mangriha and Kailashkut Bhawan), and the loss of literature collected in various monasteries within the city. Despite the initial hardships, Kathmandu rose to prominence again and, during most of the Malla era, dominated the trade between India and Tibet. Nepali currency became the standard currency in trans-Himalayan trade.

 

During the later part of the Malla era, Kathmandu Valley comprised four fortified cities: Kantipur, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, and Kirtipur. These served as the capitals of the Malla confederation of Nepal. These states competed with each other in the arts, architecture, esthetics, and trade, resulting in tremendous development. The kings of this period directly influenced or involved themselves in the construction of public buildings, squares, and temples, as well as the development of waterspouts, the institutionalisation of trusts (called guthis), the codification of laws, the writing of dramas, and the performance of plays in city squares. Evidence of an influx of ideas from India, Tibet, China, Persia, and Europe among other places can be found in a stone inscription from the time of king Pratap Malla. Books have been found from this era that describe their tantric tradition (e.g. Tantrakhyan), medicine (e.g. Haramekhala), religion (e.g. Mooldevshashidev), law, morals, and history. Amarkosh, a Sanskrit-Nepal Bhasa dictionary from 1381 AD, was also found. Architecturally notable buildings from this era include Kathmandu Durbar Square, Patan Durbar Square, Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the former durbar of Kirtipur, Nyatapola, Kumbheshwar, the Krishna temple, and others.

 

Medieval era

The Gorkha Kingdom ended the Malla confederation after the Battle of Kathmandu in 1768. This marked the beginning of the modern era in Kathmandu. The Battle of Kirtipur was the start of the Gorkha conquest of the Kathmandu Valley. Kathmandu was adopted as the capital of the Gorkha empire, and the empire itself was dubbed Nepal. During the early part of this era, Kathmandu maintained its distinctive culture. Buildings with characteristic Nepali architecture, such as the nine-story tower of Basantapur, were built during this era. However, trade declined because of continual war with neighbouring nations. Bhimsen Thapa supported France against Great Britain; this led to the development of modern military structures, such as modern barracks in Kathmandu. The nine-storey tower Dharahara was originally built during this era.

 

Rana rule

Rana rule over Nepal started with the Kot Massacre of 1846, which occurred near Hanuman Dhoka Durbar. During this massacre, most of Nepal's high-ranking officials were massacred by Jung Bahadur Rana and his supporters. Another massacre, the Bhandarkhal Massacre, was also conducted by Kunwar and his supporters in Kathmandu. During the Rana regime, Kathmandu's alliance shifted from anti-British to pro-British; this led to the construction of the first buildings in the style of Western European architecture. The most well-known of these buildings include Singha Durbar, Garden of Dreams, Shital Niwas, and the old Narayanhiti palace. The first modern commercial road in the Kathmandu Valley, the New Road, was also built during this era. Trichandra College (the first college of Nepal), Durbar High School (the first modern school of Nepal), and Bir Hospital (the first hospital of Nepal) were built in Kathmandu during this era. Education was only accessible to the privileged class. Rana rule was marked by despotism, economic exploitation and religious persecution.

 

Geography

Kathmandu is in the northwestern part of the Kathmandu Valley to the north of the Bagmati river and covers an area of 50.7 km2 (19.6 sq mi). The average elevation is 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) above sea level.[23] The city is bounded by several other municipalities of the Kathmandu valley: south of the Bagmati by Lalitpur Metropolitan City (Patan), with which it forms one urban area surrounded by a ring road, to the southwest by Kirtipur and to the east by Madyapur Thimi. To the north the urban area extends into several municipalities; Nagarjun, Tarakeshwor, Tokha, Budhanilkantha, Gokarneshwor and Kageshwori Manohara. However, the urban agglomeration extends well beyond the neighbouring municipalities, e.g. to Bhaktapur, and nearly covers the entire Kathmandu valley.

  

Kathmandu is dissected by eight rivers, the main river of the valley, the Bagmati and its tributaries, of which the Bishnumati, Dhobi Khola, Manohara Khola, Hanumante Khola, and Tukucha Khola are predominant. The mountains from where these rivers originate are in the elevation range of 1,500–3,000 metres (4,900–9,800 ft), and have passes which provide access to and from Kathmandu and its valley.[24][25][26] An ancient canal once flowed from Nagarjuna hill through Balaju to Kathmandu; this canal is now extinct.

 

The city of Kathmandu and the surrounding valley are in the Deciduous Monsoon Forest Zone (altitude range of 1,200–2,100 metres (3,900–6,900 ft)), one of five vegetation zones defined for Nepal. The dominant tree species in this zone are oak, elm, beech, maple and others, with coniferous trees at higher altitude.[27]

 

Urban expansion in Kathmandu, 2015.

 

The green, vegetated slopes that surround the Kathmandu metro area (light grey, image centre) include both forest reserves and national parks

 

Araniko Highway connects Kathmandu to Bhaktapur and onwards to the Chinese border.

 

Northeastern Kathmandu with Gaurishankar in background.

 

Kathmandu administration

 

Kathmandu and adjacent cities are composed of neighbourhoods, which are utilized quite extensively and more familiar among locals. However, administratively the city is divided into 32 wards, numbered from 1 to 32. Earlier, there were 35 wards which made it the metropolitan city with the largest number of the wards.[28]

Kathmandu agglomeration

 

There is no officially defined agglomeration of Kathmandu. The urban area of the Kathmandu valley is split among three different districts (second level of administrative divisions within a province), which extend very little beyond the valley fringe, except towards the southern ranges, which have a comparatively small population.[29] They have the three highest population densities in the country. These 3 districts are administered by 21 local level bodies; 2 metropolitan cities (Kathmandu and Lalitpur), 16 municipalities and 3 rural municipalities. Imperial conversion

 

Five major climatic regions are found in Nepal. Of these, Kathmandu Valley is in the Warm Temperate Zone (elevation ranging from 1,200 to 2,300 metres (3,900 to 7,500 ft)), where the climate is fairly temperate, atypical for the region. This zone is followed by the Cool Temperate Zone with elevation varying between 2,100 and 3,300 metres (6,900 and 10,800 ft). Under Köppen's climate classification, portions of the city with lower elevations have a humid subtropical climate (Cwa), while portions of the city with higher elevations generally have a subtropical highland climate (Cwb). In the Kathmandu Valley, which is representative of its valley's climate, the average summer temperature varies from 28 to 30 °C (82 to 86 °F). The average winter temperature is 10.1 °C (50.2 °F).

 

The city generally has a climate with warm days followed by cool nights and mornings. Unpredictable weather is expected, given that temperatures can drop to 1 °C (34 °F) or less during the winter. During a 2013 cold front, the winter temperatures of Kathmandu dropped to −4 °C (25 °F), and the lowest temperature was recorded on 10 January 2013, at −9.2 °C (15.4 °F). Rainfall is mostly monsoon-based (about 65% of the total concentrated during the monsoon months of June to September), and decreases substantially (100 to 200 cm (39 to 79 in)) from eastern Nepal to western Nepal. Rainfall has been recorded at about 1,400 millimetres (55.1 in) for the Kathmandu valley, and averages 1,407 millimetres (55.4 in) for the city of Kathmandu. On average humidity is 75%.[24][30][31] The chart below is based on data from the Nepal Bureau of Standards & Meteorology, Weather Meteorology for 2005. The chart provides minimum and maximum temperatures during each month. The annual amount of precipitation was 1,124 millimetres (44.3 in) for 2005, as per monthly data included in the table above.[31] The decade of 2000–2010 saw highly variable and unprecedented precipitation anomalies in Kathmandu. This was mostly due to the annual variation of the southwest monsoon.[citation needed] For example, 2001 recorded only 356 mm (14 in) of precipitation due to an extraordinarily weak monsoon season. In contrast, 2003 was the wettest year ever in Kathmandu, totaling over 2,900 mm (114 in) of precipitation due to an exceptionally strong monsoon season.

 

Air quality

 

Air pollution is a major issue in the Kathmandu Valley.[36][37][38] According to the 2016 World Health Organization's Ambient Air Pollution Database,[39] the annual average PM2.5 (particulate matter) concentration in 2013 was 49 μg/m3, which is 4.9 times higher than recommended by the World Health Organization.[40][41] Starting in early 2017, the Government of Nepal and the Embassy of the United States in Kathmandu have monitored and publicly share real-time air quality data. In Nepal and Kathmandu, the annual premature deaths due to air pollution reached 37,399 and 9,943 respectively, according to a Republica news report published on 23 November, 2019. This indicates, around a quarter of the total deaths due to air pollution in Nepal are in Kathmandu.

 

Government and public services

Kathmandu Municipal Corporation (KMC) is the chief nodal agency for the administration of Kathmandu. The Municipality of Kathmandu was upgraded to a metropolitan city in 1995.

 

Metropolitan Kathmandu is divided into five sectors: the Central Sector, the East Sector, the North Sector, the City Core and the West Sector. For civic administration, the city is further divided into 35 administrative wards. The Council administers the Metropolitan area of Kathmandu city through its 177 elected representatives and 20 nominated members. It holds biannual meetings to review, process and approve the annual budget and make major policy decisions.[24][44] The ward's profile documents for the 35 wards prepared by the Kathmandu Metropolitan Council is detailed and provides information for each ward on population, the structure and condition of houses, the type of roads, educational, health and financial institutions, entertainment facilities, parking space, security provisions, etc. It also includes lists of development projects completed, on-going and planned, along with informative data about the cultural heritage, festivals, historical sites and the local inhabitants. Ward 16 is the largest, with an area of 437.4 ha; ward 26 is the smallest, with an area of 4 ha.[45]

 

Kathmandu is the headquarters of the surrounding Kathmandu district. The city of Kathmandu forms this district along with 10 other municipalities, namely Budanilkantha, Chandragiri, Dakshinkali, Gokarneshwar, Kageshwari Manohara, Kirtipur, Nagarjun, Shankharapur, Tarakeshwar and Tokha.

Law and order

 

The Metropolitan Police is the main law enforcement agency in the city. It is headed by a commissioner of police. The Metropolitan Police is a division of the Nepal Police, and the administrative control lies with the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Consulate of the Netherlands. Kathmandu hosts 28 diplomatic missions

 

Fire service

The fire service, known as the Barun Yantra Karyalaya (Nepali: वारुण यन्त्र कार्यालय), opened its first station in Kathmandu in 1937 with a single-vehicle.[46] An iron tower was erected to monitor the city and watch for a fire. As a precautionary measure, firemen were sent to the areas which were designated as accident-prone areas.[46] In 1944, the fire service was extended to the neighbouring cities of Lalitpur and Bhaktapur. In 1966, a fire service was established in Kathmandu central airport.[46] In 1975, a West German government donation added seven fire engines to Kathmandu's fire service.[46] The fire service in the city is also overlooked by an international non-governmental organization, the Firefighters Volunteer Association of Nepal (FAN), which was established in 2000 with the purpose of raising public awareness about fire and improving safety.[46]

Electricity and water supply

Public baths, Kathmandu. 1979

 

Electricity in Kathmandu is regulated and distributed by the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA). Water supply and sanitation facilities are provided by the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL). There is a severe shortage of water for household purposes such as drinking, bathing, cooking and washing and irrigation. People have been using bottled mineral water, water from tank trucks and from the ancient dhunge dharas (Nepali: ढुङ्गे धारा) for all the purposes related to water. The city water shortage should be solved by the completion of the much plagued Melamchi Water Supply Project by the end of 2019.[47][48]

Waste management

 

Waste management may be through composting in municipal waste management units, and at houses with home composting units. Both systems are common and established in India and neighbouring countries.[49]

Demographics

 

Kathmandu's urban cosmopolitan character has made it the most populous city in Nepal, recording a population of 671,846 residents living in 235,387 households in the metropolitan area, according to the 2001 census.[50] According to the National Population Census of 2011, the total population of Kathmandu city was 975,543 with an annual growth rate of 6.12% with respect to the population figure of 2001. 70% of the total population residing in Kathmandu are aged between 15 and 59.

 

Over the years the city has been home to people of various ethnicities, resulting in a range of different traditions and cultural practices. In one decade, the population increased from 427,045 in 1991 to 671,805 in 2001. The population was projected to reach 915,071 in 2011 and 1,319,597 by 2021. To keep up this population growth, the KMC-controlled area of 5,076.6 hectares (12,545 acres) has expanded to 8,214 hectares (20,300 acres) in 2001. With this new area, the population density which was 85 in 1991 remained 85 in 2001; it is likely to jump to 111 in 2011 and 161 in 2021.[51]

 

Currently based on various data Kathmandu population is 1,442,300 with population density of 29,166.835 per sq.km making it as 6th densely populated city in the world.

Ethnic groups

 

The largest ethnic groups residing in Kathmandu Metropolitan City consists of primarily various caste groups of the Newar community at 25%, Hill Janajati/Adivisis like Tamang, Kirat, Gurung, Magar, Sherpa, etc. making~20%, Khas Brahmin at 24%, Khas Chhetri at 20%, and 7% Terai groups including Madhesi castes and Terai Janajatis/Adivasis like Tharus.[52] More recently, other hill ethnic groups and caste groups from Terai have come to represent a substantial proportion of the city's population. The major languages are Nepali and Nepal Bhasa, while English is understood by many, particularly in the service industry. According to data from 2011, the major religions in Kathmandu city are Hinduism 81.3%, Buddhism 9%, Islam 4.4% and other 5.2%.[53]

 

The linguistic profile of Kathmandu underwent drastic changes during the Shah dynasty's rule because of its strong bias towards the Hindu culture. Sanskrit language therefore was preferred and people were encouraged to learn it even by attending Sanskrit learning centres in Terai. Sanskrit schools were specially set up in Kathmandu and in the Terai region to inculcate traditional Hindu culture and practices originated from Nepal.[54]

 

Architecture and cityscape

The ancient trade route between India and Tibet that passed through Kathmandu enabled a fusion of artistic and architectural traditions from other cultures to be amalgamated with local art and architecture.[56] The monuments of Kathmandu City have been influenced over the centuries by Hindu and Buddhist religious practices. The architectural treasure of the Kathmandu valley has been categorized under the well-known seven groups of heritage monuments and buildings. In 2006 UNESCO declared these seven groups of monuments as a World Heritage Site (WHS). The seven monuments zones cover an area of 189 hectares (470 acres), with the buffer zone extending to 2,394 hectares (5,920 acres). The Seven Monument Zones inscribed originally in 1979 and with a minor modification in 2006 are the Durbar squares of Hanuman Dhoka, Patan and Bhaktapur, the Hindu temples of Pashupatinath and Changunarayan, the Buddhist stupas of Swayambhunath and Boudhanath.[57][58]

Durbar Squares

Main articles: Kathmandu Durbar Square and Hanuman Dhoka

 

The literal meaning of Durbar Square is a "place of palaces." There are three preserved Durbar Squares in Kathmandu valley and one unpreserved in Kirtipur. The Durbar Square of Kathmandu is in the old city and has heritage buildings representing four kingdoms (Kantipur, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur); the earliest being the Licchavi dynasty. The complex has 50 temples and is distributed in two quadrangles of the Durbar Square. The outer quadrangle has the Kasthamandap, Kumari Ghar, and Shiva-Parvati Temple; the inner quadrangle has the Hanuman Dhoka palace. The squares were severely damaged in the April 2015 earthquake.

 

Hanuman Dhoka is a complex of structures with the royal palace of the Malla kings and of the Shah dynasty. It is spread over five acres. The eastern wing, with ten courtyards, is the oldest part, dating to the mid-16th century. It was expanded by King Pratap Malla in the 17th century with many temples. The royal family lived in this palace until 1886 when they moved to Narayanhiti Palace. The stone inscription outside is in fifteen languages.

 

Kumari Ghar is a palace in the centre of the Kathmandu city, next to the Durbar square where a royal Kumari selected from several Kumaris resides. Kumari, or Kumari Devi, is the tradition of worshipping young pre-pubescent girls as manifestations of the divine female energy or devi in South Asian countries. In Nepal the selection process is very rigorous. Previously, during the time of the monarchy, the queen and the priests used to appoint the proposed Kumari with delicate process of astrological examination and physical examination of 32 'gunas'. The china (Nepali: चिना), an ancient Hindu astrological report, of the Kumari and the reigning king, was ought to be similar. The Kumari is believed to be a bodily incarnation of the goddess Taleju (the Nepali name for Durga) until she menstruates, after which it is believed that the goddess vacates her body. Serious illness or a major loss of blood from an injury also causes her to revert to common status. The current Kumari, Trishna Shakya, age three at the time of appointment, was installed in September 2017 succeeding Matina Shakya who was the first Kumari of Kathmandu after the end of the monarchy.[59]

 

Kasthamandap is a three-storeyed temple enshrining an image of Gorakhnath. It was built in the 16th century in pagoda style. The name of Kathmandu is a derivative of the word Kasthamandap. It was built under the reign of King Laxmi Narsingha Malla. Kasthamandap stands at the intersection of two ancient trade routes linking India and Tibet at Maru square. It was originally built as a rest house for travellers.

Pashupatinath temple

Main article: Pashupatinath Temple

Panorama of the Pashupatinath Temple from the other bank of Bagmati river

Pashupatinath as seen from the banks of the Bagmati river

 

The Pashupatinath Temple (Nepali: पशुपतिनाथ मन्दिर) is a famous 5th century Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva. Located on the banks of the Bagmati river, the Pashupatinath Temple is the oldest Hindu temple in Kathmandu.[60] It served as the seat of national deity, Lord Pashupatinath, until Nepal was secularized. However, a significant part of the temple was destroyed by Mughal invaders in the 14th century and little or nothing remains of the original 5th-century temple exterior. The temple as it stands today was built in the 19th century, although the image of the bull and the black four-headed image of Pashupati are at least 300 years old.[61] The temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[61][62] Shivaratri, or the night of Lord Shiva, is the most important festival that takes place here, attracting thousands of devotees and sadhus.[citation needed]

 

Believers in Pashupatinath (mainly Hindus) are allowed to enter the temple premises, but non-Hindu visitors are allowed to view the temple only from the across the Bagmati River.[61] The priests who perform the services at this temple have been Brahmins from Karnataka in southern India since the time of Malla king Yaksha Malla.[63] This tradition is believed to have been started at the request of Adi Shankaracharya who sought to unify the states of Bharatam, a region in south Asia believed to be ruled by a mythological king Bharat, by encouraging cultural exchange. This procedure is followed in other temples around India, which were sanctified by Adi Shankaracharya.

 

The temple is built in the pagoda style of architecture, with cubic constructions and carved wooden rafters (tundal) on which they rest, and two-level roofs made of copper and gold.

 

Boudhanath

Boudhanath (Nepali: बौद्ध स्तुप; also written as Bouddhanath, Bodhnath, Baudhanath or the Khāsa Chaitya), is one of the holiest Buddhist sites in Nepal, along with the Swayambhunath. It is a very popular tourist site. Boudhanath is known as Khāsti by Newars and as Bauddha or Bodhnāth by speakers of Nepali.[64] About 11 km (7 mi) from the centre and northeastern outskirts of Kathmandu, the stupa's massive mandala makes it one of the largest spherical stupas in Nepal.[65] Boudhanath became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.

 

The base of the stupa has 108 small depictions of the Dhyani Buddha Amitabha. It is surrounded with a brick wall with 147 niches, each with four or five prayer wheels engraved with the mantra, om mani padme hum.[66] At the northern entrance where visitors must pass is a shrine dedicated to Ajima, the goddess of smallpox.[66] Every year the stupa attracts many Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims who perform full body prostrations in the inner lower enclosure, walk around the stupa with prayer wheels, chant, and pray.[66] Thousands of prayer flags are hoisted up from the top of the stupa downwards and dot the perimeter of the complex. The influx of many Tibetan refugees from China has seen the construction of over 50 Tibetan gompas (monasteries) around Boudhanath.

Swayambhu

Main article: Swayambhunath

 

Swayambhunath (Nepali: स्वयम्भू स्तूप) is a Buddhist stupa atop a hillock at the northwestern part of the city. This is among the oldest religious sites in Nepal. Although the site is considered Buddhist, it is revered by both Buddhists and Hindus. The stupa consists of a dome at the base; above the dome, there is a cubic structure with the eyes of Buddha looking in all four directions.[clarification needed] There are pentagonal toran above each of the four sides, with statues engraved on them. Behind and above the torana there are thirteen tiers. Above all the tiers, there is a small space above which lies a gajur.

Rani Pokhari

Main article: Ranipokhari

 

Ranipokhari (Nepali: रानी पोखरी, lit. 'Queen's Pond') is a historic artificial pond nestled in the heart of Kathmandu. It was built by king Pratap Malla in 1670 AD for his beloved queen after she lost her son and could not recover from her loss.[67] A large stone statue of an elephant in the south signifies the image of Pratap Malla and his two sons. Balgopaleshwor Temple stands still inside the temple above the pond. Rani Pokhari is opened once a year during the final day of Tihar i.e. Bhai Tika and Chhath festival. The world's largest Chhath takes place every year in Ranipokhari. The pond is one of Kathmandu's most famous landmarks and is known for its religious and aesthetic significance.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Kathmandu

Arts

Stone carvings, called Chaityas, seen in street corners and courtyards

 

Kathmandu valley is described as "an enormous treasure house of art and sculptures", which are made of wood, stone, metal, and terracotta, and found in profusion in temples, shrines, stupas, gompas, chaityasm and palaces. The art objects are also seen in street corners, lanes, private courtyards and in open ground. Most art is in the form of icons of gods and goddesses. Kathmandu valley has had this art treasure for a very long time, but received worldwide recognition only after the country opened to the outside world in 1950.[54]

 

The religious art of Nepal and Kathmandu in particular consists of an iconic symbolism of the Mother Goddesses such as: Bhavani, Durga, Gaja-Lakshmi, Hariti-Sitala, Mahsishamardini, Saptamatrika (seven mother goddesses), and Sri-Lakshmi (wealth-goddess). From the 3rd century BCE, apart from the Hindu gods and goddesses, Buddhist monuments from the Ashokan period (it is said that Ashoka visited Nepal in 250 BC) have embellished Nepal in general and the valley in particular. These art and architectural edifices encompass three major periods of evolution: the Licchavi or classical period (500 to 900 AD), the post-classical period (1000 to 1400 AD), with strong influence of the Palla art form; the Malla period (1400 onwards) that exhibited explicitly tantric influences coupled with the art of Tibetan Demonology.[68]

 

A broad typology has been ascribed to the decorative designs and carvings created by the people of Nepal. These artists have maintained a blend of Hinduism and Buddhism. The typology, based on the type of material used are: stone art, metal art, wood art, terracotta art, and painting.[69]

Museums

 

Kathmandu is home to a number of museums and art galleries, including the National Museum of Nepal and the Natural History Museum of Nepal. Nepal's art and architecture is an amalgamation of two ancient religions, Hinduism and Buddhism. These are amply reflected in the many temples, shrines, stupas, monasteries, and palaces in the seven well-defined Monument Zones of the Kathmandu valley are part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This amalgamation is also reflected in the planning and exhibitions in museums and art galleries throughout Kathmandu and its sister cities of Patan and Bhaktapur. The museums display unique artefacts and paintings from the 5th century CE to the present day, including archaeological exportation.[70]

 

Museums and art galleries in Kathmandu include:[70]

 

The National Museum

The Natural History Museum

Hanuman Dhoka Palace Complex

The Kaiser Library

The National Art Gallery

The NEF-ART (Nepal Fine Art) Gallery

The Nepal Art Council Gallery

Narayanhiti Palace Museum

The Taragaon Museum

 

National Museum of Nepal

 

The National Museum is in the western part of Kathmandu, near the Swayambhunath stupa in a historical building constructed in the early 19th century by General Bhimsen Thapa. It is the most important museum in the country, housing an extensive collection of weapons, art and antiquities of historic and cultural importance. The museum was established in 1928 as a collection house of war trophies and weapons, and the initial name of this museum was Chhauni Silkhana, meaning "the stone house of arms and ammunition". Given its focus, the museum contains many weapons, including locally made firearms used in wars, leather cannons from the 18th–19th century, and medieval and modern works in wood, bronze, stone and paintings.[71]

 

The Natural History Museum is in the southern foothills of Swayambhunath hill and has a sizeable collection of different species of animals, butterflies, and plants. The museum is noted for its display of species, from prehistoric shells to stuffed animals.[71]

 

The Tribhuvan Museum contains artifacts related to King Tribhuvan (1906–1955). It has a variety of pieces including his personal belongings, letters, and papers, memorabilia related to events he was involved in and a rare collection of photos and paintings of Royal family members. The Mahendra Museum is dedicated to the King Mahendra (1920–1972). Like the Tribhuvan Museum, it includes his personal belongings such as decorations, stamps, coins and personal notes and manuscripts, but it also has structural reconstructions of his cabinet room and office chamber. The Hanumandhoka Palace, a lavish medieval palace complex in the Durbar, contains three separate museums of historic importance. These museums include the Birendra museum, which contains items related to the second-last monarch, King Birendra.[71]

 

The enclosed compound of the Narayanhiti Palace Museum is in the north-central part of Kathmandu. "Narayanhiti" (Nepali: नारायणहिटी) comes from Narayana (Nepali: नारायण), a form of the Hindu god Lord Vishnu, and Hiti (Nepali: हिटी), meaning "water spout" (the temple of lord Vishnu is opposite to the palace, and the water spout is east of the main entrance to the precinct). The current palace building was built in 1970 in front of the old palace, built in 1915, in the form of a contemporary pagoda. It was built on the occasion of the marriage of the then crown prince and heir apparent to the throne, Birendra. The southern gate of the palace is at the crossing of Prithvipath and Durbar Marg roads. The palace area covers 30 hectares (74 acres) and is fully secured with gates on all sides.[72][73][74] This palace was the scene of the Nepali royal massacre. After the fall of the monarchy, it has been converted into a museum.

 

The Taragaon Museum presents the modern history of the Kathmandu valley.[75] It seeks to document 50 years of research and cultural heritage conservation of the Kathmandu Valley, documenting what artists, photographers, architects, and anthropologists from abroad had contributed in the second half of the 20th century. The actual structure of the museum showcases restoration and rehabilitation efforts to preserve the built heritage of Kathmandu. It was designed by Carl Pruscha (master-planner of the Kathmandu Valley)[76] in 1970 and constructed in 1971.[77] Restoration works began in 2010 to rehabilitate the Taragaon hostel into the Taragaon Museum. The design uses local brick along with modern architectural design elements, as well as the use of circle, triangles and squares.[76] The museum is within a short walk from the Boudhanath stupa, which itself can be seen from the museum tower.

Art galleries

A Buddhist statue display in Kathmandu

 

Kathmandu is a centre for art in Nepal, displaying the work of contemporary artists in the country and also collections of historical artists. Patan in particular is an ancient city noted for its fine arts and crafts. Art in Kathmandu is vibrant, demonstrating a fusion of traditionalism and modern art, derived from a great number of national, Asian, and global influences. Nepali art is commonly divided into two areas: the idealistic traditional painting known as Paubhas in Nepal and perhaps more commonly known as Thangkas in Tibet, closely linked to the country's religious history and on the other hand the contemporary western-style painting, including nature-based compositions or abstract artwork based on Tantric elements and social themes of which painters in Nepal are well noted for.[71] Internationally, the British-based charity, the Kathmandu Contemporary Art Centre is involved with promoting arts in Kathmandu.[78]

 

Kathmandu houses many notable art galleries. The NAFA Gallery, operated by the Arts and crafts Department of the Nepal Academy is housed in Sita Bhavan, a neo-classical old Rana palace.[71]

 

The Srijana Contemporary Art Gallery, inside the Bhrikutimandap Exhibition grounds, hosts the work of contemporary painters and sculptors, and regularly organizes exhibitions. It also runs morning and evening classes in the schools of art. Also of note is the Moti Azima Gallery, in a three-storied building in Bhimsenthan which contains an impressive collection of traditional utensils and handmade dolls and items typical of a medieval Newar house, giving an important insight into Nepali history. The J Art Gallery near the former royal palace in Durbarmarg displays the artwork of eminent, established Nepali painters. The Nepal Art Council Gallery, in the Babar Mahal, on the way to Tribhuvan International Airport contains artwork of both national and international artists and extensive halls regularly used for art exhibitions.[71]

Literature

 

The National Library of Nepal is located in Patan. It is the largest library in the country with more than 70,000 books in English, Nepali, Sanskrit, Hindi, and Nepal Bhasa. The library is in possession of rare scholarly books in Sanskrit and English dating from the 17th century AD. Kathmandu also contains the Kaiser Library, in the Kaiser Mahal on the ground floor of the Ministry of Education building. This collection of around 45,000 books is derived from a personal collection of Kaiser Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana. It covers a wide range of subjects including history, law, art, religion, and philosophy, as well as a Sanskrit manual of Tantra, which is believed to be over 1,000 years old.[71] The 2015 earthquake caused severe damage to the Ministry of Education building, and the contents of the Kaiser Library have been temporarily relocated.

Asa Archives

 

The Asa Archives are also noteworthy. They specialize in medieval history and religious traditions of the Kathmandu valley. The archives, in Kulambhulu, have a collection of some 6,000 loose-leaf handwritten books and 1,000 palm-leaf manuscripts (mostly in Sanskrit or Nepal Bhasa) and a manuscript dated to 1464.[71]

Cinema and theatre

 

Kathmandu is home to Nepali cinema and theatres. The city contains several theatres, including the National Dance Theatre in Kanti Path, the Ganga Theatre, the Himalayan Theatre and the Aarohan Theater Group founded in 1982. The M. Art Theater is based in the city. The Gurukul School of Theatre organizes the Kathmandu International Theater Festival, attracting artists from all over the world.[79] A mini theatre has been opened at the Hanumandhoka Durbar Square, established by the Durbar Conservation and Promotion Committee.

 

Kathmandu has a number of cinemas (old single screen establishments and some new multiplexes) showing Nepali, Bollywood and Hollywood films. Some old establishments include Vishwajyoti Cinema Hall, Jai Nepal Hall, Kumari Cinema Hall, Gopi Krishna Cinema Hall and Guna Cinema Hall. Kathmandu also houses some international standard cinema theatres and multiplexes, such as QFX Cinemas, Cine De Chef, Fcube Cinemas, Q's Cinemas, Big Movies, BSR Movies and many more.

Music

Traditional Buddhist musical performance during Gunla

 

Kathmandu is the center of music and dance in Nepal, and these art forms are integral to understanding the city. Musical performances are organized in cultural venues. Music is a part of the traditional aspect of Kathmandu. Gunla is the traditional music festival according to Nepal Sambat. Newar music originated in Kathmandu. Furthermore, music from all over Nepal can be found in Kathmandu.

 

A number of hippies visited Kathmandu during the 1970s and introduced rock and roll, rock, and jazz to the city. Kathmandu is noted internationally for its jazz festival, popularly known as Jazzmandu. It is the only jazz festival in the Himalayan region and was established in March 2002. The festival attracts musicians from countries worldwide, such as Australia, Denmark, United States, Benin, and India.[80]

 

The city has been referenced in numerous songs, including works by Cat Stevens ('Katmandu', Mona Bone Jakon (1970)), Bob Seger ('Katmandu', Beautiful Loser (1975)), Rush ('A Passage to Bangkok', Pulling into Kathmandu; 2112, 1976), Krematorij ('Kathmandu', Three Springs (2000)), Fito Páez (Tráfico por Katmandú – "Traffic through Kathmandu") and Cavalcade ('Kathmandu Kid') 2019.

Cuisine

One of the typical Nepali meals Dal bhat in Kathmandu

 

The staple food of most people in Kathmandu is dal bhat. This consists of rice and lentil soup, generally served with vegetable curries, achar and sometimes Chutney. Momo, a type of Nepali version of Tibetan dumpling, has become prominent in Nepal with many street vendors and restaurants selling it. It is one of the most popular fast foods in Kathmandu. Various Nepali variants of momo including buff (i.e. buffalo) momo, chicken momo, and vegetarian momo are famous in Kathmandu.

 

Most of the cuisines found in Kathmandu are non-vegetarian. However, the practice of vegetarianism is not uncommon, and vegetarian cuisines can be found throughout the city. Consumption of beef is very uncommon and considered taboo in many places. Buff (meat of water buffalo) is very common. There is a strong tradition of buff consumption in Kathmandu, especially among Newars, which is not found in other parts of Nepal. Consumption of pork was considered taboo until a few decades ago. Due to the intermixing with Kirat cuisine from eastern Nepal, pork has found a place in Kathmandu dishes. A fringe population of devout Hindus and Muslims consider it taboo. The Muslims forbid eating buff as from Quran while Hindus eat all varieties except beef as they consider cow to be a goddess and symbol of purity. The chief lunch/snack for locals and visitors is mostly Momo or Chowmein.

 

Kathmandu had only one western-style restaurant in 1955.[81] A large number of restaurants in Kathmandu have since opened, catering Nepali cuisine, Tibetan cuisine, Chinese cuisine and Indian cuisine in particular. Many other restaurants have opened to accommodate locals, expatriates, and tourists. The growth of tourism in Kathmandu has led to culinary creativity and the development of hybrid foods to accommodate for tourists such as American chop suey, which is a sweet-and-sour sauce with crispy noodles with a fried egg commonly added on top and other westernized adaptations of traditional cuisine.[81] Continental cuisine can be found in selected places. International chain restaurants are rare, but some outlets of Pizza Hut and KFC have recently opened there. It also has several outlets of the international ice-cream chain Baskin-Robbins.[82]

 

Kathmandu has a larger proportion of tea drinkers than coffee drinkers. Tea is widely served but is extremely weak by western standards. It is richer and contains tea leaves boiled with milk, sugar, and spices. Alcohol is widely drunk, and there are numerous local variants of alcoholic beverages. Drinking and driving is illegal, and authorities have a zero-tolerance policy.[83] Ailaa and thwon (alcohol made from rice) are the alcoholic beverages of Kathmandu, found in all the local bhattis (alcohol serving eateries). Chhyaang, tongba (fermented millet or barley) and raksi are alcoholic beverages from other parts of Nepal which are found in Kathmandu. However, shops and bars in Kathmandu widely sell western and Nepali beers.

President of Nepal Dr. Ram Baran Yadav observing the street festival of Yenya, which literally means "festival of Kathmandu"

Festivals

Samyak, a Buddhist festival during which statues of Buddhas from the ancient monasteries are displayed together. Note the statue of Hanuman next to the Buddhas in the picture, a common example of religious harmony in Kathmandu.

 

Most of the fairs and festivals in Kathmandu originated in the Malla period or earlier. Traditionally, these festivals were celebrated by Newars. In recent years, these festivals have found wider participation from other Kathmanduites as well. As the capital of the Nepal, various national festivals are celebrated in Kathmandu. With mass migration to the city, the cultures of Khas from the west, Kirats from the east, Bon/Tibetan from the north, and Mithila from the south meet in the capital and mingle harmoniously. The festivities such as the Ghode (horse) Jatra, Indra Jatra, Dashain Durga Puja festivals, Shivratri and many more are observed by all Hindu and Buddhist communities of Kathmandu with devotional fervor and enthusiasm. Social regulation in the codes enacted incorporates Hindu traditions and ethics. These were followed by the Shah kings and previous kings, as devout Hindus and protectors of the Buddhist religion.

Nepali Lakhe dancer

 

Cultural continuity has been maintained for centuries in the exclusive worship of goddesses and deities in Kathmandu and the rest of the country. These deities include the Ajima,[84] Taleju (or Tulja Bhavani or Taleju Bhawani)[85][86] and her other forms : Digu Taleju (or Degu Taleju)[87] and Kumari (the living goddess).[88] The artistic edifices have now become places of worship in the everyday life of the people, therefore a roster is maintained to observe annual festivals. There are 133 festivals held in the year.[89]

 

Some of the traditional festivals observed in Kathmandu, apart from those previously mentioned, are Bada Dashain, Tihar, Chhath, Maghe Sankranti, Nag Panchami, Janai Purnima, Pancha Dan, Teej/Rishi Panchami, Pahan Charhe, Jana Baha Dyah Jatra (White Machchhendranath Jatra), and Matatirtha Aunsi.[56]

Religions

Hinduism

Kathmandu valley as seen from Halchowk during Deepawali, 2013

 

Assumedly, together with the kingdom of Licchhavi (c. 400 to 750), Hinduism and the endogam social stratification of the caste was established in Kathmandu Valley. The Pashupatinath Temple, Changu Narayan Temple, and the Kasthamandap are of particular importance to Hindus. Other notable Hindu temples in Kathmandu and the surrounding valley include Bajrayogini Temple, Dakshinkali Temple, Guhyeshwari Temple, and the Shobha Bhagawati shrine.

 

The Bagmati river which flows through Kathmandu is considered a holy river both by Hindus and Buddhists, and many Hindu temples are on the banks of this river. The importance of the Bagmati also lies in the fact that Hindus are cremated on its banks, and Kirants are buried in the hills by its side. According to the Nepali Hindu tradition, the dead body must be dipped three times into the Bagmati before cremation. The chief mourner (usually the first son) who lights the funeral pyre must take a holy riverwater bath immediately after cremation. Many relatives who join the funeral procession also take bath in the Bagmati or sprinkle the holy water on their bodies at the end of cremation as the Bagmati is believed to purify people spiritually.

Buddhism

 

Buddhism was brought into Kathmandu with the arrival of Buddhist monks during the time of Buddha (c. 563 – 483 BCE[90]). They established a forest monastery in Sankhu. This monastery was renovated by Shakyas after they fled genocide from Virudhaka (r. 491–461 BCE).

 

During the Hindu Lichchavi era (c. 400 to 750), various monasteries and orders were created which successively led to the formation of Newar Buddhism, which is still practiced in the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Sanskrit.

 

Legendary Princess Bhrikuti (7th-century) and artist Araniko (1245–1306 CE) from that tradition of Kathmandu valley played a significant role in spreading Buddhism in Tibet and China. There are over 108 traditional monasteries (Bahals and Baháʼís) in Kathmandu based on Newar Buddhism. Since the 1960s, the permanent Tibetan Buddhist population of Kathmandu has risen significantly so that there are now over fifty Tibetan Buddhist monasteries in the area. Also, with the modernization of Newar Buddhism, various Theravada Bihars have been established.

Islam

Jama Masjid, Ghantaghar

 

Muslims in Kathmandu pray to Allah on Friday (the day of Namaj) often going to the Jame Masjid in Ghantaghar, near Ratnapark.

Kirat Mundhum

 

Kirant Mundhum is one of the indigenous animistic practices of Nepal. It is practiced by the Kirat people. Some animistic aspects of Kirant beliefs, such as ancestor worship (worship of Ajima) are also found in Newars of Kirant origin. Ancient religious sites believed to be worshipped by ancient Kirats, such as Pashupatinath, Wanga Akash Bhairabh (Yalambar) and Ajima are now worshipped by people of all Dharmic religions in Kathmandu. Kirats who have migrated from other parts of Nepal to Kathmandu practice Mundhum in the city.[91]

Other religions

 

Sikhism is practiced primarily in Gurudwara at Kupundole. An earlier temple of Sikhism is also present in Kathmandu which is now defunct.

 

Jainism is practiced by a small community. A Jain temple is present in Gyaneshwar, where Jains practice their faith.

 

According to the records of the Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of Nepal, there are approximately 300 followers of the Baháʼí Faith in Kathmandu valley. They have a national office in Shantinagar, Baneshwor. The Baháʼís also have classes for children at the National Centre and other localities in Kathmandu.

 

Islam is practiced in Kathmandu but Muslims are a minority, accounting for about 4.4% of the population of Nepal.[92]

 

It is said that in Kathmandu alone there are 170 Christian churches. Christian missionary hospitals, welfare organizations, and schools are also operating. Nepali citizens who served as soldiers in Indian and British armies, who had converted to Christianity while in service, on return to Nepal continue to practice their religion. They have contributed to the spread of Christianity and the building of churches in Nepal and in Kathmandu, in particular.[93][94]

Education

 

The oldest modern school in Nepal, the Durbar High School, and the oldest college, the Tri-Chandra College, are both in Kathmandu. The largest (according to number of students and colleges), the oldest and most distinguished university in Nepal the Tribhuvan University, located in Kirtipur. The second largest university, Kathmandu University (KU), is in Dhulikhel, Kavre on the outskirts of Kathmandu. It is the second oldest university in Nepal, established in November 1991.[95] Not surprisingly the best schools and colleges of Nepal are located in Kathmandu and its adjoining cities. Every year thousands of students from all over Nepal arrive at Kathmandu to get admission in the various schools and colleges. One of the key concerns of educationists and concerned citizens is the massive outflux of students from Nepal to outside Nepal for studies. Every year thousands of students apply for No Objection Certificates for studying abroad. Consultancy firms specializing in preparing students to go abroad can be found in all prominent locations. The reason for such an outflux range from perceived low quality of education, political instability, fewer opportunities in the job market, opportunities for earning while learning abroad and better job prospects with an international degree.

Healthcare

 

Healthcare in Kathmandu is the most developed in Nepal, and the city and surrounding valley is home to some of the best hospitals and clinics in the country. Bir Hospital is the oldest, established in July 1889 by Bir Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana. Notable hospitals include Bir Hospital, Nepal Medical College and Teaching Hospital (Jorpati), Tribhuvan University Institute of Medicine (Teaching Hospital), Patan Hospital, Kathmandu Model Hospital, Scheer Memorial Hospital, Om Hospital, Norvic Hospital, Grande International Hospital, Nobel Hospital and many more.

 

The city is supported by specialist hospitals/clinics such as Shahid Shukraraj Tropical Hospital, Shahid Gangalal Foundation, Kathmandu Veterinary Hospital, Nepal Eye Hospital, Kanti Children's Hospital, Nepal International Clinic (Travel and Mountain Medicine Center), Neuro Center, Spinal Rehabilitation center and Bhaktapur Cancer Hospital. Most of the general hospitals are in the city center, although several clinics are elsewhere in Kathmandu district.

 

Tilganga Institute of Ophthalmology is an Ophthalmological hospital in Kathmandu. It pioneered the production of low cost intraocular lenses (IOLs), which are used in cataract surgery.[96] The team of Dr. Sanduk Ruit in Tilganga pioneered sutureless small-incision cataract surgery (SICS),[97][98] a technique which has been used to treat 4 million of the world's 20 million people with cataract blindness.

Medical colleges

 

Institute of Medicine, the central college of Tribhuvan University is the first medical college of Nepal and is in Maharajgunj, Kathmandu. It was established in 1972 and started to impart medical education from 1978. Other major institutions include Patan Academy of Health Sciences, Kathmandu Medical College, Nepal Medical College, KIST Medical College, Nepal Army Institute of Health Sciences, National Academy of Medical Sciences (NAMS) and Kathmandu University School of Medical Sciences (KUSMS), are also in or around Kathmandu.

 

Economy

The location and terrain of Kathmandu have played a significant role in the development of a stable economy which spans millennia. The city is in an ancient lake basin, with fertile soil and flat terrain. This geography helped form a society based on agriculture. This, combined with its location between India and China, helped establish Kathmandu as an important trading centre over the centuries. Kathmandu's trade is an ancient profession that flourished along an offshoot of the Silk Road which linked India and Tibet. From centuries past, Lhasa Newar merchants of Kathmandu have conducted trade across the Himalaya and contributed to spreading art styles and Buddhism across Central Asia.[100] Other traditional occupations are farming, metal casting, woodcarving, painting, weaving, and pottery.[101]

 

Kathmandu is the most important industrial and commercial centre in Nepal. The Nepal Stock Exchange, the head office of the national bank, the chamber of commerce, as well as head offices of national and international banks, telecommunication companies, the electricity authority, and various other national and international organizations are in Kathmandu. The major economic hubs are the New Road, Durbar Marg, Ason and Putalisadak.[101]

 

The economic output of the metropolitan area of around Rs. 550 billion approximately per year alone is worth more than one third of national GDP (nominal), while the per capita income of $2200 is approximately three times the national average.[102] Kathmandu exports handicrafts, artworks, garments, carpets, pashmina, paper; trade accounts for 21% of its revenues.[101][102] Manufacturing is also important and accounts for 19% of the revenue that Kathmandu generates. Garments and woolen carpets are the most notable manufactured products.[102] Other economic sectors in Kathmandu include agriculture (9%), education (6%), transport (6%), and hotels and restaurants (5%).[102] Kathmandu is famous for lokta paper and pashmina shawls.

 

Tourism

Tourism is considered another important industry in Nepal. This industry started around 1950, as the country's political makeup changed and ended the country's isolation from the rest of the world. In 1956, air transportation was established and the Tribhuvan Highway, between Kathmandu and Raxaul (at India's border), was started. Separate organizations were created in Kathmandu to promote this activity; some of these include the Tourism Development Board, the Department of Tourism and the Civil Aviation Department. Furthermore, Nepal became a member of several international tourist associations. Establishing diplomatic relations with other nations further accentuated this activity. The hotel industry, travel agencies, training of tourist guides, and targeted publicity campaigns are the chief reasons for the remarkable growth of this industry in Nepal, and in Kathmandu in particular.[103] Since then, tourism in Nepal has thrived. It is the country's most important industry.[104] Tourism is a major source of income for most of the people in the city, with several hundred thousand visitors annually. Hindu and Buddhist pilgrims from all over the world visit Kathmandu's religious sites such as Pashupatinath, Swayambhunath, Boudhanath, Changunarayan and Budhanilkantha. From a mere 6,179 tourists in 1961/62, the number increased to 491,504 in 1999/2000. In economic terms, the foreign exchange registered 3.8% of the GDP in 1995/96 but then started declining. Following the end of the Maoist insurgency, there was a significant rise in the number of tourist arrivals, with 509,956 tourists recorded in 2009. Since then, tourism has improved as the country transitioned into a republic. The high level of tourism is attributed to the natural grandeur of the Himalayas and the rich cultural heritage of the country.[103]

Hyatt Regency, Kathmandu

 

The neighbourhood of Thamel is Kathmandu's primary "traveller's ghetto", packed with guest houses, restaurants, shops, and bookstores, catering to tourists. Another neighbourhood of growing popularity is Jhamel, a name for Jhamsikhel that was coined to rhyme with Thamel.[105] Jhochhen Tol, also known as Freak Street, is Kathmandu's original traveller's haunt, made popular by the hippies of the 1960s and 1970s; it remains a popular alternative to Thamel. Ason is a bazaar and ceremonial square on the old trade route to Tibet, and provides a fine example of a traditional neighbourhood.

 

With the opening of the tourist industry after the change in the political scenario of Nepal in 1950, the hotel industry drastically improved.[106] Now Kathmandu boasts several luxuries such as the Hyatt Regency, Dwarika's, Hotel Yak & Yeti, The Everest Hotel, Hotel Radisson, Hotel De L'Annapurna, The Malla Hotel, Shangri-La Hotel (not operated by the Shangri-La Hotel Group) and Hotel Shanker. There are several four-star hotels such as Akama Hotel, Hotel Vaishali, Hotel Narayani, The Blue Star and Grand Hotel. The Garden Hotel, Hotel Ambassador, and Aloha Inn are among the three-star hotels in Kathmandu. Hotels like Hyatt Regency, De L'Annapurna, and Yak & Yeti are among the five-star hotels with casinos as well.

 

Transport

The total length of roads in Nepal is recorded to be 17,182 km (10,676 mi), as of 2003–04. This fairly large network has helped the economic development of the country, particularly in the fields of agriculture, horticulture, vegetable farming, industry and also tourism.[108] In view of the hilly terrain, transportation takes place in Kathmandu are mainly by road and air. Kathmandu is connected by the Tribhuvan Highway to the south connecting India, Prithvi Highway to the west and Araniko Highway to the north connecting China. The BP Highway connects Kathmandu to the eastern part of Nepal through Sindhuli.[109] The fast-track is under construction which will be the shortest route to connect Terai with the valley.

 

Sajha Yatayat provides regular bus services throughout Kathmandu and the surrounding valley. Other bus companies including micro-bus companies operate several unscheduled routes. Trolleybusses used to operate on the route between Tripureshwor and Suryabinayak on a 13-kilometer route.

Air

 

The main international airport serving Kathmandu valley is the Tribhuvan International Airport, about 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) from the city centre and is operated by the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal.[111] It has two terminals, one domestic and one international. At present, it connects 30 cities around the globe in Europe, Asia and the Middle East such as Istanbul, Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Singapore, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Dhaka, Paro, Lhasa, Chengdu, Guangzhou and Hong Kong.[111] Since 2013, Turkish Airlines connects Istanbul to Kathmandu.[112] Oman Air also connects Muscat to Kathmandu since 2010.[113] Nepal Airlines started flying to Tokyo-Narita from March 2, 2020. Regionally, several Nepali airlines operate from the city, inc

The Red Zone

 

A searching, galvanizing memoir about blood and love: how learning more about her period, PMS, PMDD, and the effects of hormones on moods transformed her relationships—to a new partner, to family, to non-blood kin, and to her own body—from the beloved essayist and author of Women

 

Chloe Caldwell’s period has often felt inconvenient, uncomfortable, or even painful. It’s only once she’s in her thirties, as she’s falling in love with Tony, a musician and single dad, that its effects on her mood start to dominate her life. Spurred by the intensity and seriousness of her new relationship, it strikes her: her outbursts of anxiety and rage match her hormonal cycle.

 

Compelled to understand the truth of what’s happening to her, Chloe documents attitudes toward menstruation among her peers and family, reads Reddit threads about PMS, attends a conference called Break the Cycle, and learns about premenstrual dysphoric disorder, PMDD, which helps her name what she’s been going through. For Chloe, healing isn’t about finding a single cure. It means reflecting on underlying patterns in her life: her feelings about her queer identity and writing persona in the context of a heterosexual relationship; how her parents’ divorce contributed to her issues with trust; and what it means to blend a family.

 

The Red Zone is a candid, revelatory memoir for anyone grappling with controversial medical diagnoses and labels of all kinds. It’s about coming to terms with the fact that—along with proper treatment—self-acceptance, self-compassion, and transcending shame are the ultimate keys to relief. It’s also about love: how challenging it can be, how it reveals your weaknesses and wounds, and how, if you allow it, it will push you to grow and change.

The menstrual cycle

 

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