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U.S. Marines with Battalion Landing Team, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marine Regiment, 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit, board AAV-7 Amphibious Assault Vehicles in order to disembark the USS Rushmore (LSD 47) off the coast of Camp Pendleton, Calif., Jan. 25, 2015. The 15th MEU was embarked aboard the three ships of the Essex Amphibious Ready Group - the USS Essex (LHD 2), USS Anchorage (LPD 23), and USS Rushmore – from Jan. 22-25 to familiarize themselves with the ships as they continue to prepare for their upcoming deployment this spring. (U.S. Marine Corps photo by Cpl. Steve H. Lopez/Released)
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
Slovenian contact with military aviation began during World War I, when the army and navy air services of Austria-Hungary conscripted large numbers of personnel from throughout the Empire. As the Empire began to collapse during 1918, Slovenian aircrew and ground crew switched their allegiance to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Aircraft found on Slovenian territory were taken over by the Slovenian authorities and formed into a fledgling air arm. The new air arm was soon involved in the conflict with Austria over the border provinces of Carinthia and south Styria. Later in 1919, the Slovenian air units were absorbed into the Royal Yugoslav Air Force.
In 1968 a reserve volunteer force, the Teritorialna Obramba (Territorial Defence of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia), was established to defend local key locations in time of crisis. The Slovenian Territorial Defence HQ had a small auxiliary aviation unit stationed at Ljubljana-Polje airfield by 1969, when Government Factories Type 522 advanced trainers were being operated. These aircraft were borrowed from the Yugoslav Air Force and not owned by Slovenia. Slovenian Territorial Defence ceased to be a part of the Yugoslavian auxiliary forces on 21 June 1991, (four days prior of the proclamation of independence), when the Yugoslav army seized 12 Soko J-20 Kraguj aircraft from them.
On 28 June 1991 a Yugoslav Air Force Gazelle defected to Slovenia, providing the first helicopter for the Territorial Defence Force. During the war, it also was equipped with three ex-Police Bell 412s and an Agusta A-109A. On 9 June 1992 the Air Force Unit of the Slovenian Army was renamed into 15 Brigada Vojaskega Letalstva. The 15 Brigada was divided into two squadrons, one fixed-wing and one helicopter squadron, flying from two bases, Brnik airport and Cerklje ob Krki.
Slovenia’s independence and the aftershock of the war in Yugoslavia soon led to a major expansion of the Slovenian Air Force’s capabilities through the acquisition of 18 former East German MiG 21M and MF fighters, which had recently been retired as a consequence of the re-unification of Germany and the dissolution of the NVA-LSK. As armament, Wympel R-60 (NATO reporting name AA-8 “Aphid") IR-guided short range AAMs were bought from German surplus stock, too.
The machines were disassembled and transported by train to Romania in 1995, where 12 of them were re-built and outfitted with modern avionics from Israel, bringing them more or less to the Romanian Air Force’s “Lancer C” standard and capable of carrying Western weapons like the AIM-9 Sidewinder or the Rafael Python (even though the Wympel R-60, also procured from ex-East German stocks, was the interceptor’s prime weapon. The rest of the airframes were kept as spares and for potential replacements.
In Slovenian service, the MiG-21 became, under the newly introduced military serial number system, designated “L21” (L for Letalska = Aircraft). The first machines were delivered in 1996 and exclusively operated as interceptors. In this role, they were allocated to the newly founded Slovenian Air Force’s interceptor squadron, which was at that time still part of the 15 Brigada. In 1997, this new unit made its first deployment outside of the country: two aircraft were sent to the Mildenhall Air Fete in the UK.
When Slovenia joined NATO in 2004, the country took over most of the responsibility for protecting Slovenian airspace from other NATO units, even though foreign forces’ deployments were still frequent. In order to prolong the L21’s service life and ensure interoperability with friendly, foreign forces, the Slovenian Fishbed fleet was overhauled and updated by Aerostar in Romania in 2003 with NATO-compatible avionics (primarily communication and IFF systems), similar to the Croatian Air Force’s MiG-21BisD/UMD standard.
On 8 November 2004 the 15 Brigada was officially disbanded, and four new units were formed in its place: the 15 Helicopter Battalion, the Air Force School, the Air Force Base and the Interceptor Squadron.
The 151st Rotary Wing Squadron is located at the Brnik air base and the unit is equipped with eight Bell 412 helicopters as well as four AS-532 Cougar helicopters. The unit’s duties are to organize training courses for pilots and technical staff, to organize search and rescue missions and operate within the System of Civil Protection, Help and Rescue, to secure cargo transportation to mountain areas, to extinguish fires, and to provide air support for SAF units.
The Air Force Military School is located at the Cerklje ob Krki air base. The school conducts the basic and advance training programs for future air force pilots in two Zlin 142L and eight Zlin 242L planes and four Bell 206 Jet Ranger helicopters, organizes practices for air force pilots, provides fire support, and carries out various tasks for other branches of the armed forces by using the two PC-9 and nine PC-9M planes. A part of the Air Force Military School is also the parachute squad, located at the Brnik air base, which organizes basic and advanced parachute training for SAF members.
The Air Force Base, located at the Cerklje ob Krki air base and designated 152nd Fixed Wing Squadron, carries out logistic support, such as fuel supply. The unit is equipped with two PC-6 planes and one L-410 plane. The Air Force Base unites the air supply squad and the technical support unit whose main tasks are to plan and conduct the second stage of aircraft maintenance, carry out technical personnel training, update aircraft documentation, etc.
Finally, Cerklje ob Krki also became the home of the country’s sole jet fighter squadron, officially the 154th Fixed Wing Squadron, but semi-officially and more commonly dubbed “Letalska Lovec Eskadrila” (= Interceptor Squadron). From Cerklje ob Krki, the Slovenian Air Force conducts airspace patrols in close collaboration with and support from Italian and Hungarian air forces, since the Slovenian fleet of twelve L21s is not big enough to ensure an independent 24/7 fulfillment of this task.
In 2014 the Slovenian MiG-21s were refurbished again, after two of the original machines had been lost in accidents. They were replaced with material from the mothballed airframe stock and the L21 fleet will probably remain in active use until 2019/2020, when they will be replaced by a new 4th generation fighter – candidates are F-16C/Ds, bought from US surplus stocks, or leased Saab Gripen (JAS 39C), similar to the Czech and Hungarian Air Force.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 15.76 m (51 ft 7½ in) incl. pitot
Wingspan: 7.15 m (23 ft 6 in)
Height: 4.13 m (13 ft 6½ in)
Wing area: 23.0 m² (247.3 ft²)
Empty weight: 6,000 kg (13,215 lb)
Gross weight: 8,200 kg (18,060 lb)
Max. TOW: 9,400 kg (20,700 lb)
Powerplant:
1× Tumansky R-13-300 turbojet, rated at 40,30 kN (9,040 lbf) dry thrust
and 60,70 kN (13,650 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: 2,230 km/h (1,385 mph/1,205 kts) at 11.000 m
1,300 km/h (807 mph/702 kts) at sea level
Cruising speed: 1,200 km/h (745 mph/650 kts)
Landing speed: 350 km/h (217 mph/190 kts)
Range: (internal fuel) 1,210 km (751 miles)
Combat radius with two AAMs and three drop tanks: 465 ml (750 km)
Service ceiling: 19,000 m (62,200 ft)
Rate of climb: 180 m/s (35,375 ft/min)
Thrust-to-weight ration: 1.03 maximum
Armament:
1x internal 23 mm GSh-23 cannon with 200 rounds
5x hardpoints for a wide range of ordnance of up to 3.310 lb (1.500 kg);
Typically, the Slowenian L21 carried a pair of Wympel R-60 IR-guided short range AAMs
and 1-3 supersonic PTB-490 drop tanks.
The kit and its assembly:
A relatively simple project, just a cosmetic whif. It is actually based on a CG skin, created by user “Thor77” and posted at digitalcombatsimulator.com, upon which I came across when I was browsing for the Slovenian Air Force’s current paint scheme and information concerning its colors. Among several whiffy creations (including an A-10 and a Mirage 2000) there was a MiG-21MF, and it caught my attention because it appeared very plausible. Since I was curious about the “new” Kopro MiG-21 with modernized molds from the company’s era under the KP label, I used this inspiration for a build.
The vintage KP MiG-21MF was/is actually a very good model of the aircraft, even though the production finish has never been very good and the original kit came with raised surface details, (lots of) flash and sinkholes here and there.
In order to see how the modernized Kopro kit compares, it was built mostly OOB with just minor changes or additions (air scoops, antennae, canopy cut into two pieces for display).
The “new” kit is really nice – its sprues and parts are virtually identical with the old KP molds, and you still get raised panel lines, what might let certain people wrinkle their noses. But these details are very fine and crisp, no more sinkholes - but there’s still a lot of flash that calls for careful and thorough cleaning. And even though the fuselage halves did not match properly (one half turned out to be 0.5mm wider than the other), the Kopro kit is a noticeable step forward and IMHO the best of the many incarnations of this MiG-21MF kit that I have come across so far. It reminds me very much of a classic Heller kit! Just with flash, though.
The ordnance consists of a PTB-490 drop tank (OOB) on the ventral hardpoint, and I gave the Slovenian MiG-21, inspired by Croatian machines, an armament consisting of R-60 AAMs carried on the inner underwing pylons. As a personal twist, however, I increase the missile number to four (all of them taken from an ESCI Ka-34 “Hokum” kit) on double pylons, inspired by real world NVA-LSK equipment. The new launch rails were scratched from styrene profile material.
Painting and markings:
Well, the original reason for this build was the pretty unique paint scheme of Slovenian military aircraft: a rather murky three-tone camouflage, consisting of a deep red brown, forest green and a dull olive green, paired with light grey undersides. This does not sound spectacular, but, like the Austrian two-tone green scheme, it is pretty characteristic.
My build was inspired by a concrete flight simulator skin, but I did not adopt this CG pattern because it looked too “simple” for my personal taste, with only a few bands of different colors that were also extended at right angles from the fuselage onto the wings. Instead, the applied scheme is a personal, more sophisticated guesstimate, based primarily on Slovenian PC-6 transport aircraft and on PC-9 trainers.
My choice for the basic colors fell on Humbrol 170 (Brown Bess), 195 (Satin Dark Green, actually RAL 6020; Chromoxidgrün) and Modelmaster 2015 (Faded Olive Drab), plus Humbrol 129 (FS 36440) for the undersides. The Faded Olive Drab tone turned out to be too light, but I stuck with it since I found the bigger contrast between the upper colors to be quite attractive.
A black anti glare panel was added in front of the cockpit and, instead of the classic bright green, the air intake shock cone became black, too – inspired by the CG benchmark. Other dielectric panels were painted very dark grey, or in the case of the fin, in a slightly different brown tone, matching the surrounding camouflage.
The cockpit interior was painted in an individually mixed greenish-blue tone (great contrast to the murky exterior!), with some dashboards in medium grey.
The landing gear wells were painted in zinc chromate yellow (Humbrol 81), while the legs became light grey (Humbrol 167, Barley Grey) and the wheel discs bright green (Humbrol 2).
The markings come mostly from a very nice Blue Rider Publications sheet for various aircraft in Slovenian and Macedonian service. The booklet that comes with it yields some valuable information about other markings – e.g. the fact, that most Slovenian military aircraft carry city names and their respective crests. While I had to rely on the sheet’s material for this detail, I adopted it for my L21, and my choice fell on the town of Celje, primarily because of its blue and yellow crest.
Soldiers from Charlie Company, 2nd Battalion, 8th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Brigade Combat Team, 1st Cavalry Division fire ceremonial rounds from their M1A2 Abrams Tanks at the Adazi Training Area, Latvia, on November 6, 2014. The Soldiers, who are here to assist in training the Latvian Land Forces as part of Operation Atlantic Resolve, were part of an exhibit to dignitaries and local media. These rounds mark the first firing of tank rounds in Latvia since 1994. These activities are part of the U.S. Army Europe-led Operation Atlantic Resolve land force assurance training taking place across Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland to enhance multinational interoperability, strengthen relationships among allied militaries, contribute to regional stability and demonstrate U.S. commitment to NATO. (U.S. Army Photo by Sgt. 1st Class Jeremy J. Fowler)
A soldier from the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force aims at a target while conducting immediate-action drills with 1st Reconnaissance Battalion, 1st Marine Division, during Exercise Iron Fist 2014 aboard Camp Pendleton, Calif., Feb. 4, 2014. Iron Fist is an amphibious exercise that brings together Marines and sailors from the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit, other I Marine Expeditionary Force units, and soldiers from the JGSDF, to promote military interoperability and hone individual and small-unit skills through challenging, complex and realistic training. (U.S. Marine Corps photo by Cpl. Emmanuel Ramos/Released)
PACIFIC OCEAN (Aug. 12, 2021) Forward-deployed amphibious assault ship USS America (LHA 6) approaches fleet replenishment oiler USNS Rappahannock (T-AO 204) for a replenishment-at-sea. America, flagship of the America Expeditionary Strike Group, along with the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit, is operating in the U.S. 7th Fleet area of responsibility to enhance interoperability with allies and partners and serve as a ready response force to defend peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication 3rd Class Thomas Contant)
U.S. Soldiers with Battle Group Poland conduct Urban Breach training near the Bemowo Piskie Training Area, Poland, during Saber Strike 17 June 8. Saber Strike 17 is a U.S. Army Europe-led multinational combined forces exercise conducted annually to enhance the NATO alliance throughout the Baltic region and Poland. This year’s exercise includes integrated and synchronized deterrence-oriented training designed to improve interoperability and readiness of the 20 participating nations’ militaries. (U.S. Army photo by Georgios Moumoulidis)
This image is excerpted from a U.S. GAO report:
www.gao.gov/products/GAO-17-12
EMERGENCY COMMUNICATIONS: Improved Procurement of Land Mobile Radios Could Enhance Interoperability and Cut Costs
Note: The dots in the figure represent the 57 agencies we surveyed plus the FBI. The gray lines connect pairs of agencies whereby only one agency within the pair identified the need to be interoperable with the other agency, and the black lines connect pairs of agencies whereby both agencies within the pair mutually and independently identified the need to be interoperable with one another.
SASEBO, Japan (Oct. 27, 2021) Capt. Ken Ward, commanding officer of forward-deployed amphibious assault ship USS America (LHA 6), right, describes the ship's capability to Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) Capt. Koji Miyazaki, commanding officer of JMSDF ship JS Ise (DDH 182), during a tour of the ship. America, lead ship of the America Amphibious Ready Group, along with the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit, is operating in U.S. 7th Fleet to enhance interoperability with allies and partners and serve as a ready response force to defend peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Theodore C. Lee)
PHILIPPINE SEA (Nov. 14, 2022) - Ships from the U.S. Navy, Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF), Royal Navy, Royal Australian Navy and Royal Canadian Navy steam in formation during Keen Sword 23, in the Philippine Sea, Nov. 14. Keen Sword is a biennial, joint and bilateral field-training exercise involving U.S. military and JMSDF personnel, designed to increase readiness and interoperability while strengthening the ironclad Japan-U.S. alliance. USS Ronald Reagan (CVN 76), the flagship of Carrier Strike Group 5, provides a combat-ready force that protects and defends the United States, and supports alliances, partnerships and collective maritime interests in the Indo-Pacific region. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Louis Thompson Staats IV) 221114-N-PS962-1231
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Battle Group Poland U.S., U.K and 15th Mechanized Brigade Polish tactical vehicles perform river crossing training June 19 in Rukla, Lithuanian as part of the joint training exercise Iron Wolf which is held in conjunction with Saber Strike 17. The exercises include integrated and synchronized deterrence-oriented training designed to improve interoperability and readiness of the militaries of the 20 participating nations throughout the Baltic region and Poland. (U.S. Army photo by Spc. Kevin Wang/Released)
A Belgium F-16 moves into position to receive more fuel mid-air from a KC-135 Stratotanker over the Arctic Circle, June 7th, 2023. The 101st ARW is taking part in Arctic Challenge Exercise 2023, a live fly exercise that serves to advance arctic security initiatives and enhance interoperability in the increasingly dynamic and contested region. (Photo by Master Sgt. Andrew Sinclair)
EAST CHINA SEA (Feb. 8, 2020) Mineman 1st Class Shay Severns and Mineman 3rd Class Ryan Matas utilize the sonar system aboard the mine countermeasures ship USS Pioneer (MCM 9) to hunt for training mines. Pioneer, part of Mine Countermeasures Squadron 7, is operating in the 7th Fleet area of operations to enhance interoperability with partners and serve as a ready-response platform for contingency operations. (U.S. Navy photo by Lt. j.g. Alexander Fairbanks)
Marines with Scout Sniper Platoon, 1st Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment, sight down range with their M40 A5 sniper rifles as a part an unknown distance qualification range August 18 at Bradshaw Field Training Area, Northern Territory, Australia, during Exercise Koolendong 14. The range focused on increasing scout sniper's long range precision firing capabilities. The Marines challenged themselves with the M40 A5, M110 SASS and the M107 SASR. The battalion is currently deployed in part of the Marine Rotational Force Darwin. The rotational deployment of U.S. Marines affords an unprecedented combined training opportunity with their Australian allies, and improves interoperability with their forces. (Marine Corps Photo by Lance Cpl. Joey S. Holeman, Jr./ Released)
DARWIN, Australia (Sept. 1, 2022) – A U.S. Airman from the 67th Aircraft Maintenance Unit prepares an F-15C Eagle for take off during Exercise Pitch Black 2022 at Royal Australian Air Force Base Darwin, Australia, Sept. 1, 2022. PB22 is the latest in long standing, multilateral exercises designed to enhance participating countries’ air operations. This year, 17 nations are participating in PB22, and is scheduled from Aug. 19 to Sept. 8, 2022. (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Savannah L. Waters)
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Republic of Singapore air force Col. Chan Ching Hao (left), Royal Thai air force Group Capt. Supijjarn Thamwatharsaree (center), and U.S. Air Force Lt. Col. James McFarland pose for a photo during "Exercise Cope Tiger 17" at Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, March 28, 2017. The annual multilateral exercise, which involves a combined total of 76 aircraft and 43 air defense assets, is aimed at improving combined combat readiness and interoperability between the Republic of Singapore air force, Royal Thai air force, and U.S. Air Force, while concurrently enhancing the three nations' military relations.
Republic of Singapore air force Col. Chan Ching Hao (left), Royal Thai air force Group Capt. Supijjarn Thamwatharsaree (center) and U.S. Air Force Lt. Col. James McFarland, exercise directors for "Exercise Cope Tiger 17" (CT17) pose for a photo at Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, March 28, 2017. The annual multilateral exercise, which involves a combined total of 76 aircraft and 43 air defense assets, is aimed at improving combined combat readiness and interoperability between the Republic of Singapore air force, Royal Thai air force, and U.S. Air Force, while concurrently enhancing the three nations' military relations.
SASEBO, Japan (July 16, 2022) Air Traffic Controller 2nd Class Kyle Lindley, from Las Cruces, N.M., assigned to forward-deployed assault carrier USS America (LHA 6), charts the final decent of simulated aircraft during an air traffic simulation. America, lead ship of America Amphibious Ready Group (ARG), operates in U.S. 7th Fleet to enhance interoperability with allies and partners and serve as a ready response force to defend peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Thomas B. Contant)
U.S. soldiers with 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team prepare to board a U.S. Marine Corps MV-22 Osprey with Marine Medium Tiltrotor Squadron 263, Special-Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force-Crisis Response- Africa during exercise Sky Soldier, La Felipe drop zone, Spain, Feb. 27, 2016. SPMAGTF-CR-AF participated in exercise Sky Soldier which promotes interoperability between Marine Corps Aviation assets and American and Spanish Airborne and Air Mobile forces. (U.S. Marine Corps photo by Sgt. Kassie L. McDole/Released)
SOUTH CHINA SEA (Oct. 2, 2022) Royal Canadian Navy Halifax-class frigate HMCS Winnipeg (FFH 338) cruises behind Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer USS Higgins (DDG 76) while conducting operations in the South China Sea. Higgins is participating in multilateral exercises in the South China Sea in support of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force’s Indo-Pacific deployment, along with the Royal Canadian Navy. Routine multilateral exercises like this strengthen interoperability and our mutual commitment to maintaining a free and open Indo-Pacific. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Donavan K. Patubo)
Marines with Marine Attack Squadron (VMA) 311 perform post-flight maintenance checks on McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) AV-8B "Harrier II's" during Exercise Northern Lightning at Volk Field Counterland Training Center, Camp Douglas, Wis., Aug. 13. Exercise Northern Lightning 2018 allows the Air Force, Marine Corps and Navy to strengthen interoperability between services and gives the different branches a greater understanding of aviation capabilities within a joint fighting force.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) AV-8B Harrier II is a single-engine ground-attack aircraft that constitutes the second generation of the Harrier Jump Jet family. Capable of vertical or short takeoff and landing (V/STOL), the aircraft was designed in the late 1970s as an Anglo-American development of the British Hawker Siddeley Harrier, the first operational V/STOL aircraft. The aircraft is primarily employed on light attack or multi-role missions, ranging from close air support of ground troops to armed reconnaissance. The AV-8B is used by the United States Marine Corps (USMC), the Spanish Navy, and the Italian Navy. A variant of the AV-8B, the British Aerospace Harrier II, was developed for the British military, while another, the TAV-8B, is a dedicated two-seat trainer.
The project that eventually led to the AV-8Bs creation started in the early 1970s as a cooperative effort between the United States and United Kingdom (UK), aimed at addressing the operational inadequacies of the first-generation Harrier. Early efforts centered on a larger, more powerful Pegasus engine to dramatically improve the capabilities of the Harrier. Due to budgetary constraints, the UK abandoned the project in 1975.
Following the withdrawal of the UK, McDonnell Douglas extensively redesigned the earlier AV-8A Harrier to create the AV-8B. While retaining the general layout of its predecessor, the aircraft incorporates a new wing, an elevated cockpit, a redesigned fuselage, one extra hardpoint per wing, and other structural and aerodynamic refinements. The aircraft is powered by an upgraded version of the Pegasus, which gives the aircraft its V/STOL ability. The AV-8B made its maiden flight in November 1981 and entered service with the USMC in January 1985. Later upgrades added a night-attack capability and radar, resulting in the AV-8B(NA) and AV-8B Harrier II Plus, respectively. An enlarged version named Harrier III was also studied, but not pursued. The UK, through British Aerospace, re-joined the improved Harrier project as a partner in 1981, giving it a significant work-share in the project. After corporate mergers in the 1990s, Boeing and BAE Systems have jointly supported the program. Approximately 340 aircraft were produced in a 22-year production program that ended in 2003.
Typically operated from small aircraft carriers, large amphibious assault ships and simple forward operating bases, AV-8Bs have participated in numerous military and humanitarian operations, proving themselves versatile assets. U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf named the USMC Harrier II as one of several important weapons in the Gulf War. The aircraft took part in combat during the Iraq War beginning in 2003. The Harrier II has served in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan since 2001, and was used in Operation Odyssey Dawn in Libya in 2011. Italian and Spanish Harrier IIs have taken part in overseas conflicts in conjunction with NATO coalitions. During its service history, the AV-8B has had a high accident rate, related to the percentage of time spent in critical take-off and landing phases. USMC and Italian Navy AV-8Bs are to be replaced by the Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II, with the former expected to operate its Harriers until 2025.
Development
Origins
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the first-generation Harriers entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and United States Marine Corps (USMC), but were handicapped in range and payload. In short takeoff and landing configuration, the AV-8A (American designation for the Harrier) carried less than half the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) payload of the smaller Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, over a more limited radius. To address this issue, Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas began joint development of a more capable version of the Harrier in 1973. Early efforts concentrated on an improved Pegasus engine, designated the Pegasus 15, which was being tested by Bristol Siddeley. Although more powerful, the engine's diameter was too large by 2.75 in (70 mm) to fit into the Harrier easily.
In December 1973, a joint American and British team completed a project document defining an Advanced Harrier powered by the Pegasus 15 engine. The Advanced Harrier was intended to replace the original RAF and USMC Harriers, as well as the USMC's A-4. The aim of the Advanced Harrier was to double the AV-8's payload and range, and was therefore unofficially named AV-16. The British government pulled out of the project in March 1975 owing to decreased defense funding, rising costs, and the RAF's insufficient 60-aircraft requirement. With development costs estimated to be around £180–200 million (1974 British pounds), the United States was unwilling to fund development by itself, and ended the project later that year.
Despite the project's termination, the two companies continued to take different paths toward an enhanced Harrier. Hawker Siddeley focused on a new larger wing that could be retrofitted to existing operational aircraft, while McDonnell Douglas independently pursued a less ambitious, though still expensive, project catering to the needs of the US military. Using knowledge gleaned from the AV-16 effort, though dropping some items—such as the larger Pegasus engine—McDonnell Douglas kept the basic structure and engine for an aircraft tailored for the USMC.
Designing and testing
As the USMC wanted a substantially improved Harrier without the development of a new engine, the plan for Harrier II development was authorized by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) in 1976. The United States Navy (USN), which had traditionally procured military aircraft for the USMC, insisted that the new design be verified with flight testing. McDonnell Douglas modified two AV-8As with new wings, revised intakes, redesigned exhaust nozzles, and other aerodynamic changes; the modified forward fuselage and cockpit found on all subsequent aircraft were not incorporated on these prototypes. Designated YAV-8B, the first converted aircraft flew on 9 November 1978, at the hands of Charles Plummer. The aircraft performed three vertical take-offs and hovered for seven minutes at Lambert–St. Louis International Airport. The second aircraft followed on 19 February 1979, but crashed that November due to engine flameout; the pilot ejected safely. Flight testing of these modified AV-8s continued into 1979. The results showed greater than expected drag, hampering the aircraft's maximum speed. Further refinements to the aerodynamic profile yielded little improvement. Positive test results in other areas, including payload, range, and V/STOL performance, led to the award of a development contract in 1979. The contract stipulated a procurement of 12 aircraft initially, followed by a further 324.
Between 1978 and 1980, the DoD and USN repeatedly attempted to terminate the AV-8B program. There had previously been conflict between the USMC and USN over budgetary issues. At the time, the USN wanted to procure A-18s for its ground attack force and, to cut costs, pressured the USMC to adopt the similarly-designed F-18 fighter instead of the AV-8B to fulfill the role of close air support (both designs were eventually amalgamated to create the multirole F/A-18 Hornet). Despite these bureaucratic obstacles, in 1981, the DoD included the Harrier II in its annual budget and five-year defense plan. The USN declined to participate in the procurement, citing the limited range and payload compared with conventional aircraft.
In August 1981 the program received a boost when British Aerospace (BAe) and McDonnell Douglas signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU), marking the UK's re-entry into the program. The British government was enticed by the lower cost of acquiring Harriers promised by a large production run, and the fact that the US was shouldering the expense of development. Under the agreement BAe was relegated to the position of a subcontractor, instead of the full partner status that would have been the case had the UK not left the program. Consequently, the company received, in man-hours, 40 percent of the airframe work-share. Aircraft production took place at McDonnell Douglas' facilities in suburban St. Louis, Missouri, and manufacturing by BAe at its Kingston and Dunsfold facilities in Surrey, England. Meanwhile, 75 percent work-share for the engine went to Rolls-Royce, which had previously absorbed Bristol Siddeley, with the remaining 25 percent assigned to Pratt & Whitney. The two companies planned to manufacture 400 Harrier IIs, with the USMC expected to procure 336 aircraft and the RAF, 60.
Four full-scale development (FSD) aircraft were constructed. The first of these (BuNo 161396), used mainly for testing performance and handling qualities, made its maiden flight on 5 November 1981, piloted by Plummer. The second and third FSD aircraft, which introduced wing leading-edge root extensions and revised engine intakes, first flew in April the following year; the fourth followed in January 1984. The first production AV-8B was delivered to the Marine Attack Training Squadron 203 (VMAT-203) at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point (MCAS Cherry Point) on 12 December 1983, and officially handed over one month later. The last of the initial batch of 12 was delivered in January 1985 to the front-line Marine Attack Squadron 331 (VMA-331). The engine used for these aircraft was the F402-RR-404A, with 21,450 lb (95.4 kN) of thrust; aircraft from 1990 onwards received upgraded engines.
PHILIPPINE SEA (Sept. 24, 2021) - Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson (CVN 70) approaches Henry J. Kaiser-class fleet replenishment oiler USNS Rappahannock (T-AO 204) for a fueling-at-sea, Sept. 24, 2021. Carl Vinson Carrier Strike Group is on a scheduled deployment in the U.S. 7th Fleet area of operations to enhance interoperability through alliances and partnerships while serving as a ready-response force in support of a free and open Indo-Pacific region. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Haydn N. Smith) 210924-N-HS181-1002
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M1A1 Abrams tanks of Alpha Company, 3rd Battalion, 69th Armor Regiment arrive at the demonstration field before the opening ceremony of exercise Letzlingen Freedom Shock at the German Army Combat Training Center in Letzlingen, Germany, April 22, 2015. Exercise Letzlingen Freedom Shock demonstrates interoperability between the German and American training organizations while highlighting U.S. Army Europe's rapid deployment capabilities. (U.S. Army photo by Sgt. Ian Schell/Not Reviewed)
U.S. Marine Corps Staff Sgt. Jerad L. Wilcox, a platoon sergeant with Echo Battery, 2nd Battalion, 11th Marine Regiment, observes a firing mission during exercise Iron Fist 2014 at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, Calif., Feb. 6, 2014. Iron Fist is a three-week bilateral training event held annually between the U.S. Marine Corps and the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force designed to increase interoperability between the two services while aiding the Japanese in their continued development of amphibious capabilities. (DoD photo by Sgt. Jamean R. Berry, U.S. Marine Corps/Released)
U.S. Marines and Sailors use rigid-hull inflatable boats to practice visit, board, search, and seizure techniques during maritime interoperability training in San Diego Bay Jan. 10, 2015. MIT prepares the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit's Maritime Raid Force for their upcoming deployment by enhancing their combat skills and teaching them techniques for boarding vessels. (U.S. Marine Corps photo by Sgt. Jamean Berry/Released)
PACIFIC OCEAN (May 29, 2021) Aviation Structural Mechanic 1st Class Jonathan Ramilo, assigned to the Archangels of Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron (HSC) 25, performs a rotor head inspection on an MH-60S Sea Hawk helicopter on flight deck of the forward-deployed amphibious assault ship USS America (LHA 6). America, lead ship of the America Amphibious Ready Group is operating in the U.S. 7th Fleet area of operations to enhance interoperability with allies and partners and serve as a ready response force to defend peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Walter Estrada)
RMYO Air experience Baltops 2016
BALTOPS 16
BALTOPS is the premier maritime exercise in the Baltic Sea region and one of the largest exercises in northern Europe. In 2016, the aim will be to demonstrate the interoperability of NATO allies and partners and to assure nations of NATO’s commitment to the security and stability of the Baltic Sea region. The latest in a series of annual exercises that have run for over 40 years, BALTOPS 16 also has the core aim of delivering high-end training across the entire spectrum of naval warfare, including AAW, ASuW, ASW and MCM, as well as Amphibious and Maritime Interdiction Operations and exercising against the Asymmetric Threat. NATO (SFN), headquartered in Lisbon, Portugal, has led the planning, coordination and execution of the exercise.
Force contributing NATO Nations: Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, UK, US. Force contributing NATO Partners: Finland, Sweden. Observer Nation: Singapore.
BASE AERIENNE 188, Djibouti (Sept. 22, 2015) U.S. Marine Lance Cpl. Brandon Satariano swims over a kayak as part of an obstacle during the swim portion of an indoctrination prior to participating in a desert survival course. Satariano is a light armored vehicle crewman with Delta Company, Light Armored Reconnaissance Detachment, 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit. Elements of the 15th MEU are training with the 5th RIAOM in Djibouti in order to improve interoperability between the MEU and the French military. (U.S. Marine Corps photo by Sgt. Steve H. Lopez/Released)
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Exercise Amitie, which is French for friendship exercise, is a multinational training exercise designed to increase interoperability, enhance mutual capabilities and support a sustained presence in the region. During Amitie, elements from the 15th MEU participated in a three-day mounted patrol, land and water obstacle courses, aviation-related evolutions and joint planning. The training was led by the French 5th Marine Regiment and included elements from the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit, French Foreign Legion, U.S. Army, U.S. Air Force and Djiboutian military. The 15th MEU is deployed as part of the Peleliu Amphibious Ready Group as a U.S. Central Command theater reserve force, providing support for maritime security operations and theater security cooperation efforts in the U.S. 5th Fleet area of responsibility.
Photo by Cpl. John Robbart III
SOUTH CHINA SEA (Oct. 2, 2022) Royal Canadian Navy Halifax-class frigate HMCS Winnipeg (FFH 338) cruises behind Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer USS Higgins (DDG 76) while conducting operations in the South China Sea. Higgins is participating in multilateral exercises in the South China Sea in support of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force’s Indo-Pacific deployment, along with the Royal Canadian Navy. Routine multilateral exercises like this strengthen interoperability and our mutual commitment to maintaining a free and open Indo-Pacific. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Donavan K. Patubo)
A Latvian Army soldier uses hand signals to communicate with his comrades during exercise Saber Junction 15 at the U.S. Army’s Joint Multinational Readiness Center in Hohenfels, Germany, April 23, 2015. Saber Junction 15 prepares NATO and partner nation forces for offensive, defensive, and stability operations and promotes interoperability among participants. Saber Junction 15 has more than 4,700 participants from 17 countries, to include: Albania, Armenia, Belgium, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Great Britain, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Sweden, Turkey and the U.S. (U.S. Army photo by Visual Information Specialist Markus Rauchenberger/Released)
PHILIPPINE SEA (March 11, 2019) Cmdr. Jonathan Hopkins, commanding officer of the Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer USS Milius (DDG 69) listens during a de-brief in the combat information center. U.S. Navy warships train together to increase the tactical proficiency, lethality, and interoperability of participating units in an era of great power competition. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Rufus Hucks/Released)
PHILIPPINE SEA (Aug. 26, 2020) A CH-53 E Super Stallion helicopter with 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) launches from the flight deck following a visit, board, search and seizure exercise aboard the amphibious dock landing ship USS Germantown (LSD 42). Germantown, part of the America Expeditionary Strike Group, 31st MEU team, is operating in the 7th Fleet area of operations to enhance interoperability with allies and partners, and serves as a ready response force to defend peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Taylor DiMartino)
161013-N-SU278-060 South China Sea (Oct. 13, 2016) - From left, the guided-missile destroyer USS Spruance (DDG 111), the amphibious dock landing ship USS Germantown (LSD 42), the Military Sealift Command (MSC) fleet oiler USNS Walter S. Diehl (T-AO 193), the amphibious assault ship USS Bonhomme Richard (LHD 6), the amphibious transport dock ship USS Green Bay, the MSC ammunition and cargo ship USNS Washington Chambers (T-AKE 11) and the guided-missile destroyer USS Decatur (DDG 73) steam in formation as part of interoperability drills between the Pacific Surface Action Group (PAC SAG) and Bonhomme Richard Expeditionary Strike Group (BHR ESG) in the South China Sea, Oct. 13, 2016. The drills are meant to enhance readiness of cruiser-destroyer ships to rapidly integrate with an amphibious task force to provide increased capability for amphibious operations in support of crisis response or disaster relief. (U.S. Navy photo by Petty Officer 2nd Class Will Gaskill)
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KORAT ROYAL THAI AIR FORCE BASE, Thailand (Mar. 28, 2017) - Republic of Singapore air force Col. Chan Ching Hao (left), Royal Thai air force Group Capt. Supijjarn Thamwatharsaree (center), and U.S. Air Force Lt. Col. James McFarland pose for a photo during exercise Cope Tiger 17 at Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base. The annual multilateral exercise, which involves a combined total of 76 aircraft and 43 air defense assets, is aimed at improving combined combat readiness and interoperability between the Republic of Singapore air force, Royal Thai air force, and U.S. Air Force, while concurrently enhancing the three nations' military relations. (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Kamaile Chan) 170328-F-QA288-0005
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U.S. Marine Capt. Peter F. Isajewicz, operations officer, 3rd Assault Amphibian Battalion, explains the capabilities of the AAV-7 Amphibious Assault Vehicle to soldiers with the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force during Exercise Iron Fist 2014 aboard Camp Pendleton, Calif., Jan. 24, 2014. Iron Fist is an amphibious exercise that brings together Marines and sailors from the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit, other I Marine Expeditionary Force units, and soldiers from the JGSDF, to promote military interoperability and hone individual and small-unit skills through challenging, complex and realistic training. (U.S. Marine Corps photo by Sgt. Jamean R. Berry/Released)
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Lithuanian army opposing forces faced a fierce defense as they attacked Camp West from Kittensee Village at Hohenfels Training Area Sept. 6. Exercise Saber Junction 2014 includes participants from the U.S., NATO allies and European security partners, conducting unified land operations at the 7th Army's Joint Multinational Training Command's Hohenfels Training Area. The exercise trains units in the simultaneous combination of offensive, defensive and stability operations while improving international interoperability, commitment to NATO and allied nations and strategic access to critical areas within the European Command's area of responsibility. More information about Saber Junction 2014 can be found at www.eur.army.mil/SaberJunction/ (U.S. Army photo by Sgt. Christina M. Dion/Released)
Military personnel and delegates from more than 40 nations gather at the Zambia Army Headquarters in Lusaka, Zambia, Aug. 7, 2013, for the opening ceremony of the Africa Endeavor (AE) 2013 exercise. AE is a U.S. Africa Command-sponsored multinational communications exercise intended to encourage interoperability and information exchange among African nations via communications networks and subsequent collaborative links with the United States, the African Union and other African nations. (DoD photo by Sgt. Bethany Fehringer, U.S. Army National Guard/Released)
WATERS NEAR OKINAWA (Nov. 2, 2017) - Landing Craft Utility 1651, assigned to Naval Beach Unit (NBU) 7, returns to the amphibious dock landing ship USS Ashland (LSD 48) as part of an amphibious assault exercise during Blue Chromite. Blue Chromite is an annual exercise held between the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps to strengthen interoperability and increase naval integration and proficiencies in amphibious warfare. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Jonathan Clay/Released) 171102-N-UX013-364
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PACIFIC OCEAN (March 1, 2022) Operations Specialist 3rd Class Branden Pelayo, left, from Oxnard, California, and U.S. Marine Staff Sgt. Kenny Bejaran, from New York City, assigned to the U.S. Marine Corps Fifth Air Naval Gun Liaison Company (5th ANGLICO), plot land targets during Naval Surface Fire Support (NSFS) communication drills in the Combat Information Center aboard Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer USS Dewey (DDG 105) while participating in bilateral advanced warfare training (BAWT). BAWT is an annual bilateral training exercise that improves the partnership between U.S. and Japanese Forces. This year’s exercise focused on enhancing readiness and interoperability of coalition forces from the U.S. and Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Benjamin Lewis)
A German Army Leopard II tank, assigned to 104th Panzer Battalion, scans the battlefield at the Joint Multinational Readiness Center during Saber Junction 2012 in Hohenfels, Germany, Oct. 25. The U.S. Army Europe's exercise Saber Junction trains U.S. personnel and 1800 multinational partners from 18 nations ensuring multinational interoperability and an agile, ready coalition force.
(U.S. Army Europe photo by Visual Information Specialist Markus Rauchenberger/released)
PHILIPPINE SEA (April 19, 2022) Sailors man a hose during a general quarters drill in the hangar bay aboard Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72). Abraham Lincoln Strike Group is on a scheduled deployment in U.S. 7th Fleet to enhance interoperability through alliances and partnerships while serving as a ready-response force in support of a free and open Indo-Pacific region. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Apprentice Julia Brockman)
Infantrymen of the 3rd Battalion, 69th Armored Regiment, 1st Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division, reach their destination in M1A2 System Enhancement Package Version 2 and Bradley fighting vehicles, on Tapa Army Base, Nov. 11. The infantrymen were on their way to the field for nine days to conduct joint training exercises with Estonian soldiers, as well as showcase their skills and allow Estonian officers and noncommissioned officers to experience firing a M1A2 SEP V2. These activities are part of the U.S. Army Europe-led Operation Atlantic Resolve land force assurance training taking place across Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland to enhance multinational interoperability, strengthen relationships among allied militaries, contribute to regional stability and demonstrate U.S. commitment to NATO. (U.S. Army photo by: Sgt Caitlyn Byrne, 10th Press Camp Headquarters)
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force soldiers provide security for a landing team during amphibious insertion training with the Expeditionary Warfare Training Group Pacific Jan. 29, 2014, during Iron Fist 2014 at Naval Amphibious Base Coronado, Calif. Iron Fist is a three-week bilateral training event held annually between the U.S. Marine Corps and the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force designed to increase interoperability between the two services while aiding the Japanese in their continued development of amphibious capabilities. (DoD photo by Cpl. Emmanuel Ramos/Released)
Battle Group Poland U.S. Soldiers prepare for a tactical movement to the field during Saber Strike 2017, at Bemowo Piskie Training Area near Orzysz, Poland, June 13, 2017. Saber Strike 17 is a U.S. Army Europe-led multinational combined forces exercise conducted annually to enhance the NATO alliance throughout the Baltic region and Poland. This year's exercise includes integrated and synchronized deterrence-oriented training designed to improve interoperability and readiness of the 20 participating nations' militaries. (U.S. Army photo by Spc. Stefan English)
Staff Sgt. Travis Surber, a native of Franklin County, VA and a paratrooper with the 173rd Brigade Combat Team’s Battle Company of the 2nd Battalion 503rd Infantry Regiment parachutes out of a C-130 Hercules Transport Aircraft and into the Ukraine sky. This marks the first time the “Sky Soldiers” of the 173rd have jumped in Ukraine and they’ll be training and conducting multinational airborne operations, a situational training exercise and a field training exercise here from through 5 Aug. as part of Rapid Trident 2011.
Rapid Trident 2011 is a U.S. Army Europe led, multi-national exercise taking place at the International Peacekeeping and Security Center in Yavoriv, Ukraine. It is designed to promote regional stability and security, strengthen international military partnering and foster trust while improving interoperability between participating nations.
Rapid Trident 2011 involves approximately 1,600 personnel. In addition to the U.S. Army Europe and Ukraine, participants include: Latvia, Belarus, Moldova, Slovenia, Canada, Poland, Serbia, the UK, Lithuania, Estonia, California and Utah National Guard and U.S. Air Force Europe.
Rapid Trident supports interoperability among Ukraine, the United States, NATO and Partnership for Peace member nations. This exercise will help prepare participants to operate successfully in a joint, multinational, integrated environment with host- nation support from civil and governmental agencies.
Rapid Trident is a part of U.S. European Command’s Joint Training and Exercise Program, designed to enhance joint combined interoperability with allied and partner nations.
The exercise also supports Ukraine’s Annual National Program to achieve interoperability with NATO and commitments made in the annual NATO-Ukraine work plan.
The 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team is one of the U.S. Army’s most highly decorated units having particularly distinguished itself during the Vietnam War and having produced fifteen Congressional Medal of Honor recipients including Staff Sgt. Salvatore Giunta, the first living recipient of the Medal of Honor since the Vietnam War.
Soldiers from Denmark participating in the Strong Europe Tank Challenge (SETC) pose for a group photo May 08, 2016 at Grafenwoehr Training Area, Germany. The SETC is co-hosted by U.S. Army Europe and the German Bundeswehr May 10-13, 2016. The competition is designed to foster military partnership while promoting NATO interoperability. Seven platoons from six NATO nations are competing in SETC - the first multinational tank challenge at Grafenwoehr in 25 years. For more photos, videos and stories from the Strong Europe Tank Challenge, go to www.eur.army.mil/tankchallenge/ (U.S. Army photo by Visual Information Specialist Markus Rauchenberger/released)
A German Army Leopard II tank, assigned to 104th Panzer Battalion, moves by a U.S. Army Europe Stryker vehicle, assigned to 2nd Cavalry Regiment, after destroying the Stryker during Saber Junction 2012 at the Joint Multinational Readiness Center in Hohenfels, Germany, Oct. 25. The U.S. Army Europe's exercise Saber Junction trains U.S. personnel and 1800 multinational partners from 18 nations ensuring multinational interoperability and an agile, ready coalition force.
(U.S. Army Europe photo by Visual Information Specialist Markus Rauchenberger/released)
A Royal Norwegian Air Force F-16 Fighting Falcon flies off the wing of a U.S. Air Force B-52H Stratofortress during Bomber Task Force Europe 20-1, Nov. 6, 2019 over the Barents Sea region of the Arctic Circle. This deployment allows aircrews and support personnel to conduct theater integration and to improve bomber interoperability with joint partners and allied nations. (U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Duncan C. Bevan)
MANILA, Philippines (July 28, 2021) U.S. Navy Lt. Natalie Spritzer applies a training tourniquet to Hospital Corpsman 2nd Class Eric Sierra during a Pacific Partnership 21 medical discussion with Philippine Navy sailors. Pacific Partnership, now in its 16th iteration, brings nations together to prepare during calm periods to effectively respond in times of crisis. Each year, the mission team works collectively with host and partner nations to enhance regional interoperability and disaster response capabilities, increase security and stability in the region, and foster new and enduring friendships in the Indo-Pacific. (U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Ryan Brown/Released)