+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Skorpion was the result of the dire need for powerfully armed medium tanks when it was clear in 1944 that the German army would be faced with increasing numbers of Allied tanks. The favored solution would have been an update of the Panzer IV with the powerful 7.5 cm KwK 42 L/70 cannon, but the hull could not carry a turret that was gig enough to house this weapon - it should take several years until an satisfatory update would appear with the Panzer IV K. The alternative were self-propelled weapon carriers and the turret-less Jagdpanzer IV, which could take the long L70 gun, but both were not the tanks the Wehrmacht was looking for.

 

As a stopgap measure and to fill the ranks of the new Panzer V Panther, Krupp proposed a radically different layout: mounting the KwK 42 cannon with the Panther turret on the chassis of the Geschützwagen III/IV, which took elements of both the Panzer III (driving and steering system) and Panzer IV chassis (suspension and engine). This chassis ahd originally been developed for self-propelled artillery project, with the engine moved from the back of the hull to a front position next to the driver, so that the rear offered space for a combat section. The same chassis was already used for the Nashorn tank destroyer (with an 8,8cm PaK) and the Hummel mobile artillery support (with a 15cm howitzer) for the tank force. Both had an open-topped superstructure, built up around the respective large guns to give the crew some protection, and armor was relatively light, too, as these verhicles were not intended for direct confrontation with tanks.

 

However, the Panzer III/IV chassis was proven and already in production, and the Panther turret was available, too. For the SdKfz. 168 the open compartment of the Nashorn and Hummel was replaced by a closed, armored deck, which was large enough to carry a ring bearing for the Panther turret and it's drive. Overall armor, esp. on the new tank's front, was beefed up with extra plating, reaching up to 90mm. The crew was reduced to four, since the engine now took the position of the former Panzer IV radio/MG operator next to the driver.

 

In order to improve the tanks agility and speed, a torsion bar suspension and larger, double-interleaved rubber-rimmed steel roadwheels was proposed, but production started with the spring leaf suspension from the Panzer IV.

 

The rear turret's rear position had already been proposed for some heavy tank designs (e.g. by Porsche for the Tiger I proposals, which eventually evolved into the Ferdinand/Elefant tank hunter) but had never been employed before. Due to the unusual layout of the tank, the SdKfz. 168 was quickly dubbed "Skorpion".

 

One of the benefits were a more even weight distribution and a more compact size of the tank, since the long gun barrel did not protrude much over the hull's front end. Another indirect benefit was additional protection for the turret crew through the engine. Loading of ammuntion was also made easier through a rear hatch in the turret as well as in the lower hull that allowed direct access to the shell bunkers under the turret.

 

Drawbacks were an impaired field of view for the commander, esp. when the vehicle was hidden behind corners, and the field of fire was also limited in such ambush situations. The high silhouette was a tactical weakness, too, but this was regarded as acceptable, as this was a little price to pay for being able to carry the KwK 42/L70.

 

The Rheinmetall-Borsig 7.5 cm KwK 42 (L/70) featured semi-automatic shell ejection and a supply of 72 rounds). It used three different types of ammunition: APCBC-HE (Pzgr. 39/42), HE (Sprgr. 42) and APCR (Pzgr. 40/42), the last of which was usually in short supply.

 

While it was of a calibre common on Allied tanks, the Panther's gun was one of the most powerful of World War II, due to the large propellant charge and the long barrel, which gave it a very high muzzle velocity and excellent armour-piercing qualities. This 75 mm gun had actually more penetrating power than the main gun of the Tiger I heavy tank, the 8.8 cm KwK 36 L/56, although the larger 88 mm projectile might inflict more damage if it did penetrate.

Additionally, a MG 34 machine gun was located co-axially with the main gun on the gun mantlet, and another MG 34 was carried on board for close range and anti-aircraf defense.

 

A status report on 15 December 1944 already listed 41 Skorpion tanks assigned to the Western Front, with 36 operational (87 percent). This was one day before the start of the Battle of the Bulge. The Skorpion demonstrated its prowess in open country, where it could hit its targets at long range with near-impunity, but it also showed its vulnerability in the close-in fighting of the small towns of the Ardennes, where they suffered heavy losses. A status report on 15 January 1945 showed only 17 operational SdKfz. 168 left in the units involved in the operation, out of 82 still in their possession at that time.

 

In February 1945, all Skorpion tanks were transferred from the West to the Eastern Front, where they filled gaps in the ranks of the Panther battalions. None of the roundabout 180 built and converted SdKfz. 168 survived the hostitilities.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Four (commander, gunner, loader, driver)

Weight: 25.8 tonnes (28.4 short tons; 25.4 long tons)

Length: 6.48 metres (21 ft 2 3/4 in) (hull only)

7.81 metres (25 ft 7 in) with gun forward

Width: 2.95 m (9 ft 8 in)

Height: 2.84 metres (9 ft 4 in) w/o AA machine gun

Suspension: Leaf spring

Fuel capacity: 470 l (120 US gal)

 

Armor:

20 – 90 mm (0.78 – 3.54 in)

 

Performance:

Maximum road speed: 42 km/h (26.71 mph)

Sustained road speed: 38 km/h (24 mph)

Operational range: 235 km (146 mi)

Power/weight: 12 PS/t

 

Engine:

Maybach HL 120 TRM V12 petrol engine with 300 PS (296 hp, 221 kW)

 

Transmission:

ZF Synchromesh SSG 77 gear with 6 forward and 1 reverse ratios

 

Armament:

1× 7.5 cm KwK 42 L/70 with 72 rounds

1× co-axial 7.92 mm Maschinengewehr 34 with 3.000 rounds

Provision for a MG 34 as anti-aircraft gun on the commander's cupola with 2.000 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

The "Skorpion" was partly inspired by thoughts about alternative tank designs like the Merkava, and also by available donation parts in the kit pile, where I found a leftover Panther Ausf. D, earmarked for another conversion, esp. with a new turret.

 

The Panther turret is big (like the whole tank itself), and the problem to mount more powerful cannons on the Panzer IV chassis could have led to some unusual, if not improvised designs.

The Panzer III/IV chassis for self-propelled artillery was the perfect basis, so I dedided to combine both for an alternative late WWII tank, conceptionally between a classic battle tank and a self-propelled gun carrier. The Panther turret just fits on the wide back section of the Hummel, even though proportions looks odd and the armor with many vertical surfaces is not very good. But, after all, this is intended to be a second choice concept and not a clean sheet battle tank design.

 

The chassis comes from an ESCI "Hummel", while the Panther turret is from a Hasegawa kit. The Hummel was more or less built OOB, just the open rear section was "clipped" at driver roof level and faired over with styrene sheet. Then, an opening for the Panther turret was cut out, and finally, once the rotation radius was clear, some more details added.

 

Another deviation from the OOB kit is the vinyl track. This ESCI kit came with styrene segment tracks, and IIRC it originally came with a silver, very stiff vinyl track when I built the Hummel for the first time many years ago - not a pleasant experience. Anyway, I decided to go the the Pavla replacement vinyl tracks, because they are very delicate and soft, moulded in a matt dark grey rubber.

 

Painting and markings:

This one looks rather wild - and it's a design experiment. The camouflage is a typical Hinterhalt (Ambush) paint scheme in Dark Yellow, Olive Green and Red Brown, onto which spots in light gray and dark brown have been added, for an even more disruptive effect in urban environment - slightly inspired by the unique British Forces Berlin scheme.

Basic tones are Humbrol 63, 160 and 117, plus extra spots with Humbrol 28 and 173. Then the model was weathered with a light black ink wash and dry-brushing with mid-stone and light gray, some acrylic paint to simulate dust and rust, and finally some dry pigments around the suspension and on the hull that simulate mud.

 

Markings are minimal, just some German crosses on the hull and the tactical code in red on a dedicated beige background - otherwise, it would not have been recognizable at all on the disruptive scheme!

 

The tracks, made from black, soft vinyl, received a paint treatment in order to get rid of that shiny vinyl look: at first, with a mix of black, sienna and silver, which was immediately wiped off again, and later with a second, similar turn with silver and dark brown.

  

An odd concept, and the result looks rather weird - be it the tank concept and the parts used in it, but also the totally fragmented paint scheme which looks gaudy and almost clown-esques, but succesfully breaks up the lines of the boxy vehicle. So, why not?

With the increased trend of urbanisation, the SAF has moved forward to raise our competencies in Urban Operations. Recently, the 34/17 Infantry Professional Term Cadets embarked on a 3 days and 2 nights Urban Operations training in the Murai Urban Training Facility. The training equipped the cadets with Section Urban Operations tactics as well as competencies in specialised Urban fighting equipment.

 

Photos:Specialist Cadet School

WOMEN IN NUCLEAR

 

Despite increases in female enrolment in both secondary and higher education, women remain underrepresented in science, technology, engineering and mathematics, commonly referred to as “STEM” subjects.

 

We know that seeing role models in these fields can help counter stereotypes and unconscious biases about what a nuclear scientist looks like. This International Women’s Day, some IAEA colleagues with STEM backgrounds shared their stories, hoping to inspire young women to pursue STEM careers.

 

We asked them about how they got interested in their academic subjects, challenges or highlights in their careers, and what advice they would give to youth considering careers in STEM.

 

Captions: Shant Krikorian, IAEA Associate Communication Officer, Department of Nuclear Energy

 

Photo Credit: Dean Calma / IAEA

Marker pens lie on a large "Friends of Al Aqsa" campaign flag which is covered in protesters' signatures and messages of support.

 

"Protest for Palestine" at Israeli embassy as violence increases in East Jerusalem: London 17/10/2015

 

Following weeks of escalating violence in Israel since the provocative invasion by armed Israeli jews and soldiers into the Al Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem - a tactic used several times in the past by the right-wing Likud party around election time guaranteed to inflame tensions and spark violence - which has since resulted in many violent, tragic deaths and tit-for-tat revenge attacks, a large crowd of London-based pro-Palestinian campaigners protested outside the Israeli embassy calling for the Israeli government to stop their provocation

 

All photos © Pete Riches

Do not reproduce, alter, re-transmit or blog my images without my written permission. I remain at all times the copyright owner of this image.

 

Media buyers and publications can access this story on Demotix. Standard industry rates apply.

 

Hi-Res, un-watermarked versions of these files are available on application solely at my discretion

If you want to use any image found in my Flickr Photostream, please Email me directly.

 

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March Point. Padilla Bay/Fidalgo Bay.

"One of the largest Great Blue Heron colonies in Western North America, this island of forest sits between Padilla and Fidalgo Bays. Vera and Bud Kinney donated this property to Skagit Land Trust in 1994 to protect the nesting herons. With the cooperation of neighboring landowners, each year, Skagit Land Trust conducts a nest count in the heronry. 546 heron nests were counted in 2016 in this relatively small area, which provides easy access to feeding grounds for the herons. Unfortunately, the Trust does not have access to all neighboring property, and therefore some heron nests are uncounted. The overall trend, however, shows increasing number of heron nests in the colony on Skagit Land Trust property and the property to which we have access -- and there are likely to be hundreds more nests on the adjacent property to which we do not have access." March Point Heronry

Local self help groups, often run by grandmothers like Malati (pictured), supply nutritional food supplements to the community health centres.

 

Such initiatives increase employment and give a boost to the local economy, as well as providing vulnerable mums-to-be, babies and children across the state with vital nutrition.

 

In the last three years, the Odisha government has ensured nearly 50,000 more vulnerable children receive nutritional services.

 

Background

 

Britain is working with the Government of Odisha, one of India's poorest states, and UNICEF to save the lives of thousands of mums and babies.

 

Find out more at www.dfid.gov.uk/changinglives

 

Picture: Pippa Ranger/Department for International Development

 

Terms of use

 

This image is posted under a Creative Commons - Attribution Licence, in accordance with the Open Government Licence. You are free to embed, download or otherwise re-use it, as long as you credit the source as 'Pippa Ranger/Department for International Development'.

Greater Manchester Police held a community engagement day in Bramhall, Cheadle Hulme and Heald Green on Thursday 13 June to offer crime prevention advice and get feedback on how the community feel their area is being policed.

 

There tends to be an increase in burglaries over summer due to more people leaving doors and windows open, as well as a rise in shed and garage break-ins, and so officers delivered home security packs to raise awareness.

 

They also told residents about the good work being done with Stockport Council to tackle crime and antisocial behaviour, and will inform people how they can work more closely with police to improve their neighbourhood by joining a key individual network (KIN).

 

A free service to secure vehicle registration plates will be offered to residents, and officers will use the home visits to promote the Ringmaster scheme, as well as the Crimestoppers number 0800 555 111 on streets where known offenders live.

 

The day saw police staging an outdoor briefing session with Age UK representatives and council officers from Community Safety, Trading Standards and Environmental Services teams.

 

This involved police addressing officials from other agencies about the day’s activities, and was held at Bramhall.

 

Inspector Peter Smith of the Stockport West Neighbourhood Policing Team (NPT) said: “Community engagement days are a really useful way for local people to share intelligence with us, and raise any concerns they may have about policing or crime where they live.

 

“They’re also an ideal opportunity for us to hand out seasonal crime prevention advice, and to raise awareness of any schemes that may help people to avoid becoming victims of crime.

 

“This two-way exchange of information helps us to police more effectively.”

 

Councillor Mark Weldon, Deputy Leader of Stockport Council and Executive Member for Corporate, Customer and Community Services, said: “We are committed to working in partnership with the police to reduce crime in Stockport and make it an even better place to live, work and visit.

 

“Crime has continued to fall year-on-year in Stockport over the past eight years. However, we are not complacent and community engagement events like this are a great way of providing residents with crime prevention advice and engaging with the public.”

 

For non-emergency calls or to report a crime call police on 101, or for more information visit gmp.police.uk/stockport

 

Alternatively, call Crimestoppers anonymously on 0800 555 111.

 

Use 999 only in emergencies where there is a threat to life or property or a crime in progress.

    

Top 10 tips to secure your garden:

 

Secure your garage or shed. These are easy targets and need protecting to stop a burglar stealing your gardening equipment or using these tools to break into your home. Think about whether your garage or shed is the best place to store expensive items. Use window locks on all opening garage and shed windows and replace or repair any broken glass. Fit steel mesh or grilles internally and a curtain or nets so that items cannot be seen.

 

Lock it up! Don't make it easy for the burglar by leaving your tools out while you are not in the garden. A garden spade could be used to break in through a door, and patio furniture left out overnight could be stolen or used to help a burglar gain access to an upstairs window. Keep your possessions locked up and, if possible, secured together by a padlock and chain in case your shed or garage is broken into. Fit a good quality hasp, staple and padlock to the door of the shed or garage.

 

Use or install security lighting. Motion sensor lighting could stop a burglar in their tracks.

 

Add gravel to your paths. This low cost (and low maintenance) technique will deter a burglar because gravel is so noisy. The sound of someone walking on gravel at night will carry very well and could easily wake someone or a family dog.

 

Use prickly plants. Plants with thorns and sharp edges can also be used to keep burglars at bay, such as roses or hawthorn. Prickly plants can provide extra protection, as would-be burglars won't want to injure themselves trying to clamber over them.

 

Use an alarm. Battery operated alarms are freely available and can act as a deterrent. If you have a house alarm, you could have it upgraded to include your shed or garage.

 

Get insured. Does your contents insurance cover the shed and garage and all the equipment you store there? If not, perhaps it is time to upgrade your policy to include these things.

 

Keep a list. Do you have a list of what you keep in the garage or shed? Have you security marked your garden tools and possessions with a bold marker pen, including your postcode and house number? Lawn mowers and other tools are less attractive to a thief if you write your postcode and house number across the top.

 

Watch out! Ask your neighbours to keep an eye on your shed and your house and offer to do the same for them in return. If you are out enjoying the sun in the garden, have you left any windows in your house open that could invite a burglar to pop in and steal something? Remember, 1 in 3 burglaries happen when doors and windows are left open or unlocked - even when you're at home.

 

Keep it clear. If your shed is hidden behind plants, cut down the foliage so you're not providing cover for a thief. Make sure that there are no hiding places in your garden for any would-be burglar. Keep front walls, hedges and fences at 3ft tall so that you can see anyone approaching your home.

  

** Ringmaster is a computerised messaging system which informs local residents and businesses about crime and events in their area. The service is free and you don’t need to be involved in Neighbourhood Watch to join.

 

You can receive information via email, view your messages online, or receive messages via phone at a time to suit you.

 

To join Ringmaster, call the Stockport West NPT on 0161 856 9770 or email stockportwest@gmp.police.uk

 

You can also register online at: ssp.community-messaging.net

 

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Spartan was born as a humanoid-type weapon from the United Nations Military ambulatory weapons program. The MBR-07 Spartan was the second-place participant, the winning design became the Main Battle Robot-Series 04 family of Destroids that included the Tomahawk and specialized variants like the Defender and the Phalanx. The Spartan and its unique chassis had been specifically designed for close hand-to-hand combat, and therefore produced a less prolific family of battle robots for the U.N. Spacy - even though it filled a vital, tactical niche that the 04 family simply could not fill.

 

Unlike the MBR-04 series, the MBR-07 Spartan series was developed jointly by Centinental and the Kransmann Group. Another significant divergence from the MBR-04 series was the absence of any auxiliary generator, due to the increased power of the main engine. The rugged silhouette had a wide range of motion in addition to the swivel capability of the waist and wrists, making the 07 chassis much more agile than the rather static 04 basis, and its structure could absorb a lot of physical punishment.

 

Development of the MBR-07 followed one year and two months after the first MBR-04 series Destroids began design in 2003. The Spartan then entered trial production in February 2005, and, by January 2008, the first serial production Mk. I units were rolled out and handed over to frontline units.

 

The Spartan Mk. I was, true to its original design and mission philosophy, fully dedicated to hand-to-hand combat. As such, the initial Mk. I variant relied - except for a pair of Bifors missile launcher clusters with 12 self-guided short/mid-range rockets per launcher in the shoulders - on direct enemy contact with hand strikes, blocks and kicks. Only a massive combat mace was available as an optional auxiliary weapon, the Destroid’s large hands precluded the use of other hand weapons like the GU-11 gun pod from the VF-1 Valkyrie fighter.

 

While this form of martial arts attacks delivered critical blows to Zentraedi and their mecha, this rather limited tactical configuration soon turned out to leave the initial Spartans vulnerable to air and mid-range attacks. In consequence, the armament suite was quickly augmented, leading to the Spartan Mk. II, which became the primary production and service variant. The Mk. II update included a pair of Mauler RQV-10 anti-aircraft laser guns, mounted in a remote-controlled barbette on top of the hull that covered the complete upper hemisphere, and a retractable Astra TZ-IV gun cluster featuring a laser gun, a 32 mm machine cannon, a 180 mm grenade launcher, a 12.7 mm Machine Gun and a flamethrower – the same installation that was also used in the MBR-04 Tomahawk. Since close combat was still the Spartan’s primary mission, the versatile weapon array was hidden and protected under a newly designed forward central hatch, which necessitated a reconstructed upper body section with a set-back cockpit. In this form, the Spartan Mk. II entered mass production, and all early Mk. I units produced until May 2008 were later, during normal overhauls or during repairs, upgraded to Mk. II units. However, these converted Mk. Is remained easy to recognize because they typically retained the original leg design with four horizontal ribs on the lower legs instead of just two oblique reinforcements on the Mk. II production models. However, there was no differentiating designation between the old and new Mk. II Spartans, since the Destroids were all the same “under the hood”.

 

From the start, the Spartan was popular among its pilots and maintenance crews, and it was easy for a VF pilot to handle because the VF Battroid mode cockpit was actually based upon the MBR-07’s design concept. Although the Spartan achieved high mobility performance, problems developing the engine and power transmission system delayed production and early models were prone to fail under harsh battle conditions that called for sustained high-power output. With the introduction of the Mk. II, however, these problems had been eradicated. Considerable numbers of Spartans were built and deployed to the front lines due to high acclaim for its operation, which combined heavy armor, high mobility and a good protection level for the pilot. The Spartan was also actively used in suppression of Zentraedi insurgencies (e. g. during the Highlander City airport incident in late 2011) and served with U.N. Spacy frontline units until 2012.

  

General characteristics:

Equipment Type: main battle robot, series 07

Government: U.N. Spacy

Manufacturer: Centinental/Kransmann

Introduction: June 2008

Accommodation: 1 pilot only

 

Dimensions:

Height: 11.31 meters (to shoulder), 11.27 meters (overall)

Length: 6.1 meters

Width: 8.3 meters

Mass: 28.2 metric tons

 

Power Plant:

Gigenheimer Roy DT2004 thermonuclear reactor, developing 3.200 shp

 

Propulsion:

1x quadruple rocket nozzle installed beneath the engine cover in the rear chassis,

for increased mobility, plus several vernier nozzles around the hull for Zero-G manoeuvers

 

Armament:

2x Norman Banks CH2-TYPED claw hand with 5-finger manipulators

2x Bifors close-in self-guided rocket launcher with 12 rockets per launcher

1x optional metallic club (for hand-to-hand combat)

  

The kit and its assembly:

This modified 1:100 Destroid Spartan was inspired by a line art drawing found in the source book “Macross Perfect Memory”, showing an early Mk. I variant of this unique and somewhat odd-looking mecha. I had this build on my agenda for a while (read: at least 10 years…) and already stashed away a vintage Arii kit from the 15th Macross anniversary edition released in the late Nineties.

 

Apparently, the Spartan Mk. I primarily differs from its better-known later sibling through a simplified central body section, giving it an even more hunchbacked silhouette, and upon closer inspection of the benchmark drawing I also found detail differences on the lower legs. Otherwise, the Mk. II kit could be used OOB, just with some general detail upgrades, since the vintage Arii kit is not without (a lot of) weaknesses.

 

For the different legs, the original oblique ribs in the calves were sanded away, the surfaces evened-out, and four more or less horizontal ribs per calf were added, made from styrene profile material. The same stuff was also used to add vertical ribs on front and back of the calves – a general Spartan detail that the 1:100 kit lacks.

 

Creating the new central body section was more demanding. In order to retain the original attachment points, I just cut away the central body’s front half, retaining the rounded, lower “floor” plate as a connection to the hips, which remained OOB. The new front end was fully scratched; at its core it consists of a (clear) protective cover for a Philips Sonicare electric toothbrush head, with a slit cut out. A round insert, a piece from an aircraft model display, was glued into the opening from behind. In order to blend this core donor part into the rest of the body and to mimic the Mk. I’s outlines from the drawing, I added side fairings that were cut from 1.5mm styrene sheet, plus a chin fairing made of 0.5mm sheet. The rest was filled with putty and sculpted as good as possible after the only benchmark sketch of the Spartan Mk. I had at hand. While the result looks a little tweedy (the visor slit appears to be a little too large and the chin became quite wide and edgy), I think that the overall look is not too bad for such a scratch attempt?

 

The Spartan Mk. II’s laser barbette disappeared and more ribs, again made from styrene profiles, were added to the lower “cheeks”. The cockpit hatch came from the Mk. II kit and was blended into the upper hull through PSR – the benchmark drawing does not show it, but the perspective might hide it and I’d assume that the Mk. I Spartan would certainly have a similar cockpit to the Mk. II. The small sensor “head unit” behind the cockpit was fully scratched, too, from styrene profile material and some leftover bits.

 

So far, so good, but some general words of warning concerning the Arii Spartan kit: while the small model already features “modern” details like vinyl caps for many of its joints, this is neither an easy nor a pretty build. Fit is mediocre at best and you will have to PSR practically every seam. Furthermore, the model generally lacks some important surface details which apparently fell victim to an easy production – even the bigger 1:72 kit is missing them!

Furthermore, the green styrene of my specimen turned out to be quite brittle – this might the a sign of age, though, since my model was more than 20 years old. For instance, the bolts that hold the arms in their vinyl-capped joints immediately sheared off upon first dry-fitting! Critical damage… The same happened to the pen that holds the upper body to the hip section with a ball joint (actually not providing much mobility, though). Oh, and, by the way, the legs do notoriously not hold well (if at all) to their hip joints – they simply tend to fall off. Together with a rather concave/toed-in leg position from the hips downwards, this is another general flaw of the 1:100 kit – except for major modifications I have no other idea how to improve this. On this build I did not do anything about this problem, though.

 

In order to save the arms and keep the mobile I rigorously drilled up the original joints with the hidden vinyl caps and replaced them fully with 6mm styrene tubes. The bolts on the inner arms were also fully replaced with 4mm styrene tubes that fit snuggly into the new 6mm fairings. The broken hip ball joint was replaced by a prosthetic carved from more durable sprue material, glued to the central pen. Nerve-wrecking, but fortunately invisible problems.

 

While opening the shoulder rocket launchers is a general option for any Spartan kit (the interior would have to be fully scratched, though), I did not invest the work into this Mk. I conversion – primarily because I already did this stunt on an authentic/improved Mk. II model.

Concerning armament, builders should be warned that the 1:100 kit (also) completely lacks the retractable weapon cluster that is hidden under the openable “nose hood”. This has to be scratched if the builder wants to display the Spartan Mk. II with blazing internal guns. The 1:72 kit is better in this respect, the gun cluster is even retractable, but even this model has lots of space for improvement.

A further weak point is the interior of the missile launchers’ exhaust ports: a vertical seam runs through them, and there’s hardly a chance to avoid that visible flaw unless you replace the interior or, as I did, hide the weak spots under some plastic mesh.

Furthermore, all Imai/Arii Spartan kits lack the Destroid’s optional but very characteristic battle mace – and since the Mk. I only carries limited internal weaponry, I decided to scratch one for my model. It was created from styrene tubes and profiles, plus parts from a syringe needle protective cover. It was built in two parts, so that it can be put into the Spartan’s hands on demand.

  

Painting and markings:

The Destroid Spartan comes almost invariably in an overall dark green livery, with (very) light grey hands and missile launcher covers and a red “nose hood” for the hidden weapon cluster. However, in episode 15 of the Macross TV series, a blue Spartan Mk. II makes an appearance, and I used this alternative livery as an inspiration for my Mk. I conversion.

 

The paint scheme remained simple, though, and I went for an overall dark petrol blue (Humbrol 77 Navy Blue) as basic color. The light grey highlights were painted with RAL 7035 (Humbrol 196). Since the Mk.I lacks the Mk II’s characteristic red “nose hood”, I also painted the missile launcher exhausts in light grey for more overall contrast. The visor and the optic in the sensor turret were laid out with silver and painted with translucent green paint. Visible joint covers on the legs (hips and knees) were covered with paper tissue, drenched with thinned white glue, in order to add some volume and fill the wide gaps esp. in the knee openings, and painted black (Revell 06, RAL 7021 Tar Black) for good contrast to the dark blue hull.

 

The hull was thoroughly weathered with a heavier black ink wash and a total of three dry brushing turns: the first, generous treatment with Revell 79 (RAL 7031, a rather bluish blue-grey), followed by the second turn around the edges with Humbrol 79 (Blue Grey, quite similar to RAL 7031 but more greyish). Decals followed next, mostly taken from the OOB sheet, just with a few extra stencils, the red tactical code from a Destroid Tomahawk on the “nose”, and the "Martha Ann” nose art on the left calf (which belongs to a WWII A-26 Invader, taken from a PrintScale sheet). On top of that, a final dry-brushing turn, this time with Humbrol 157 (RAF Azure Blue), was added, before the model was sealed with acrylic matt varnish.

 

At this late stage I eventually added some fine red lines to the calves, cut from 1mm decal stripes. I found after dry-fitting the major components, that the model lacked some color contrast to the all-over blue (the lack of the red nose hood changes the Spartan’s look considerably), and I think these small red highlights help somewhat? These markings appear on the Spartan Mk. II (too), but they are not included in the OOB sheet, so that I had to improvise again.

Before final assembly, I additionally dry-brushed the lower leg and arm edges with aluminum and light grey, simulating wear from close combat. Dust on the lower hull areas was finally simulated with grey-brown mineral pigments, carefully dabbed onto the model with a dry, soft brush.

  

The result of this model conversion turned out to be a little ambiguous: creating a Mk. I Spartan is not too easy, and my built is certainly not perfect – but I think that the model conveys the general outlines well. After all, I only had limited reference material at hand, and the donor parts define to a certain degree what can be achieved. The blue livery suits the Spartan well, even though – due to the lack of the characteristic red nose hood – it looks a little dull and uniform? Nevertheless, a nice addition to my Macross mecha collection, also as a sister ship to my (authentic) Spartan Mk. II model. The Destroid family keeps growing. :D

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With a huge red lei around his neck and a wide grin that could have stretched across Oahu, Larry Fitzgerald held up the gleaming, silver MVP trophy. It sparkled in the sunshine as much as his game.

 

The only problem: It wasn't the Lombardi Trophy.

 

Fitzgerald caught five passes for 81 yards and two touchdowns, 44-year-old John Carney kicked two fourth-quarter field goals, and the NFC rallied to a 30-21 victory over the AFC. The Arizona Cardinals' All-Pro receiver, coming off a record-breaking postseason and a spectacular Super Bowl in a loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers, earned MVP honors.

 

But he said the victory over the AFC, which featured three members of the Steelers' defense, didn't ease the pain from the Super Bowl.

 

"No, not one bit," he said.

 

Fitzgerald also took home keys to a new Cadillac.

 

"I'm just glad we won, that's the most important thing," he said.

 

On a sweltering day, with 60 percent humidity, Kurt Warner started for the NFC and played just one series before making way for Brees. Warner was just 1-of-2 for 8 yards.

 

"I would've liked to have won last week and not this week, if I could switch them out," he said.

 

Fitzgerald caught a 46-yard scoring pass from Drew Brees before the half and a 2-yard TD pass from Eli Manning for the go-ahead score with 4:07 to play.

 

The NFC defense took care of the rest.

 

Manning, making his Pro Bowl debut, was 8-of-14 for 111 yards. While big brother Peyton had better stats, 12-of-17 for 151 yards and a TD, Eli got the win.

 

"He didn't play the whole second half, so it's not about beating my brother, it's just about having fun," Eli Manning said.

 

The Manning brothers were the first quarterback brothers in Pro Bowl history. And Carney, who was a perfect 3-for-3, became the oldest player in the game's history. He booted a 48-yarder with 2:06 remaining to make it 27-21 and sealed the win with a 26-yarder with 32 seconds to go.

 

Sunday's all-star game ended a successful 30-year run at Aloha Stadium, with a sellout every year. The Pro Bowl will be played in Miami next year, a week before the Super Bowl. The NFL, which has been looking to increase the profile of the game, hopes to bring the game back to Hawaii.

 

The players, who spent most of the week by the beach and sipping umbrella-adorned mai tais, were pretty unanimous in wanting the game to return.

 

For Warner, the question now is whether this was his final game in the NFL or, as a free agent, will he opt to continue playing at age 38?

 

"I don't know right now," Warner said. "Again, when I have a feeling one way or the other, I'll let everyone else know. I don't have a time frame. This is the first time right now that I am done having to think about football for a while, and I'm going to enjoy that part of it, enjoy my wife, enjoy my kids and then we'll make a decision as soon as we can."

 

The AFC was looking to hula dance into halftime with a comfortable 14-3 cushion after Kerry Collins connected with Owen Daniels on a 9-yard scoring pass with 28 seconds left in the half.

 

However, that was more than enough the time for the NFC, with all its weapons.

 

The NFC took over at its 45 with 19 seconds left after a nice kickoff return by Clifton Smith. They ran two plays before Larry Fitzgerald hauled in Brees' 46-yard bomb with fellow All-Pro Cortland Finnegan on his back as time expired to pull the NFC to 14-10.

 

It made for two huge end-of-the-half plays in consecutive weeks for Fitzgerald. But this time, rather than trying -- and failing -- to chase down James Harrison on his 100-yard interception returned for a TD, Fitzgerald was the one celebrating.

 

Fitzgerald also beat Finnegan on his second score.

 

"These guys are such elite players, it doesn't take much time to get in the groove with these players," Fitzgerald said. "These guys were great."

 

The usual high-scoring affair surprisingly also featured plenty of defense. Despite rules such as no blitzing linebackers and safeties, the quarterbacks were feeling the heat, at times buried by the defensive line. None of the passes had any room for error on throws against the speedy defensive backs.

 

The AFC had a chance to take the lead late, but Julius Peppers got in the way. Down by six, the AFC started its drive on its 20 with 4:03 remaining and got to midfield. Peppers then swatted a pass by Jay Cutler with his left hand and came up with the interception that led to Carney's 48-yard field goal.

 

There were three straight drives ending with a turnover in a span of about 2 minutes in the third quarter alone, including two by Collins.

 

The second led to the NFC's first lead of the game, 17-14, late in the third quarter. Jared Allen stripped Collins from behind and scooped up the bouncing ball at the AFC 10. All-Pro Adrian Peterson, last year's Pro Bowl MVP, finished it off with a 10-yard run.

 

Pinned on its 4, the AFC came out firing behind the league MVP. Peyton Manning completed passes of 20, 18, 22, 4, and 6 yards to five players before hitting Tony Gonzalez for the score on a high-arcing, 19-yard pass.

 

Gonzalez easily outmaneuvered Seattle linebacker Julian Peterson before hauling in the pass and tiptoeing into the end zone. Gonzalez, also an All-Pro, finished with six catches for 98 yards.

 

On the ensuing series, Robert Mathis stripped Brees and gave possession back to the AFC.

 

Manning then completed a 22-yarder to Colts teammate Reggie Wayne before the NFC finally started playing some defense.

 

After the AFC reached the NFC's 31, Peppers squashed Manning -- and gave him a hand to get back up. It is, after all, the Pro Bowl.

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Skorpion was the result of the dire need for powerfully armed medium tanks when it was clear in 1944 that the German army would be faced with increasing numbers of Allied tanks. The favored solution would have been an update of the Panzer IV with the powerful 7.5 cm KwK 42 L/70 cannon, but the hull could not carry a turret that was gig enough to house this weapon - it should take several years until an satisfatory update would appear with the Panzer IV K. The alternative were self-propelled weapon carriers and the turret-less Jagdpanzer IV, which could take the long L70 gun, but both were not the tanks the Wehrmacht was looking for.

 

As a stopgap measure and to fill the ranks of the new Panzer V Panther, Krupp proposed a radically different layout: mounting the KwK 42 cannon with the Panther turret on the chassis of the Geschützwagen III/IV, which took elements of both the Panzer III (driving and steering system) and Panzer IV chassis (suspension and engine). This chassis ahd originally been developed for self-propelled artillery project, with the engine moved from the back of the hull to a front position next to the driver, so that the rear offered space for a combat section. The same chassis was already used for the Nashorn tank destroyer (with an 8,8cm PaK) and the Hummel mobile artillery support (with a 15cm howitzer) for the tank force. Both had an open-topped superstructure, built up around the respective large guns to give the crew some protection, and armor was relatively light, too, as these verhicles were not intended for direct confrontation with tanks.

 

However, the Panzer III/IV chassis was proven and already in production, and the Panther turret was available, too. For the SdKfz. 168 the open compartment of the Nashorn and Hummel was replaced by a closed, armored deck, which was large enough to carry a ring bearing for the Panther turret and it's drive. Overall armor, esp. on the new tank's front, was beefed up with extra plating, reaching up to 90mm. The crew was reduced to four, since the engine now took the position of the former Panzer IV radio/MG operator next to the driver.

 

In order to improve the tanks agility and speed, a torsion bar suspension and larger, double-interleaved rubber-rimmed steel roadwheels was proposed, but production started with the spring leaf suspension from the Panzer IV.

 

The rear turret's rear position had already been proposed for some heavy tank designs (e.g. by Porsche for the Tiger I proposals, which eventually evolved into the Ferdinand/Elefant tank hunter) but had never been employed before. Due to the unusual layout of the tank, the SdKfz. 168 was quickly dubbed "Skorpion".

 

One of the benefits were a more even weight distribution and a more compact size of the tank, since the long gun barrel did not protrude much over the hull's front end. Another indirect benefit was additional protection for the turret crew through the engine. Loading of ammuntion was also made easier through a rear hatch in the turret as well as in the lower hull that allowed direct access to the shell bunkers under the turret.

 

Drawbacks were an impaired field of view for the commander, esp. when the vehicle was hidden behind corners, and the field of fire was also limited in such ambush situations. The high silhouette was a tactical weakness, too, but this was regarded as acceptable, as this was a little price to pay for being able to carry the KwK 42/L70.

 

The Rheinmetall-Borsig 7.5 cm KwK 42 (L/70) featured semi-automatic shell ejection and a supply of 72 rounds). It used three different types of ammunition: APCBC-HE (Pzgr. 39/42), HE (Sprgr. 42) and APCR (Pzgr. 40/42), the last of which was usually in short supply.

 

While it was of a calibre common on Allied tanks, the Panther's gun was one of the most powerful of World War II, due to the large propellant charge and the long barrel, which gave it a very high muzzle velocity and excellent armour-piercing qualities. This 75 mm gun had actually more penetrating power than the main gun of the Tiger I heavy tank, the 8.8 cm KwK 36 L/56, although the larger 88 mm projectile might inflict more damage if it did penetrate.

Additionally, a MG 34 machine gun was located co-axially with the main gun on the gun mantlet, and another MG 34 was carried on board for close range and anti-aircraf defense.

 

A status report on 15 December 1944 already listed 41 Skorpion tanks assigned to the Western Front, with 36 operational (87 percent). This was one day before the start of the Battle of the Bulge. The Skorpion demonstrated its prowess in open country, where it could hit its targets at long range with near-impunity, but it also showed its vulnerability in the close-in fighting of the small towns of the Ardennes, where they suffered heavy losses. A status report on 15 January 1945 showed only 17 operational SdKfz. 168 left in the units involved in the operation, out of 82 still in their possession at that time.

 

In February 1945, all Skorpion tanks were transferred from the West to the Eastern Front, where they filled gaps in the ranks of the Panther battalions. None of the roundabout 180 built and converted SdKfz. 168 survived the hostitilities.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Four (commander, gunner, loader, driver)

Weight: 25.8 tonnes (28.4 short tons; 25.4 long tons)

Length: 6.48 metres (21 ft 2 3/4 in) (hull only)

7.81 metres (25 ft 7 in) with gun forward

Width: 2.95 m (9 ft 8 in)

Height: 2.84 metres (9 ft 4 in) w/o AA machine gun

Suspension: Leaf spring

Fuel capacity: 470 l (120 US gal)

 

Armor:

20 – 90 mm (0.78 – 3.54 in)

 

Performance:

Maximum road speed: 42 km/h (26.71 mph)

Sustained road speed: 38 km/h (24 mph)

Operational range: 235 km (146 mi)

Power/weight: 12 PS/t

 

Engine:

Maybach HL 120 TRM V12 petrol engine with 300 PS (296 hp, 221 kW)

 

Transmission:

ZF Synchromesh SSG 77 gear with 6 forward and 1 reverse ratios

 

Armament:

1× 7.5 cm KwK 42 L/70 with 72 rounds

1× co-axial 7.92 mm Maschinengewehr 34 with 3.000 rounds

Provision for a MG 34 as anti-aircraft gun on the commander's cupola with 2.000 rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

The "Skorpion" was partly inspired by thoughts about alternative tank designs like the Merkava, and also by available donation parts in the kit pile, where I found a leftover Panther Ausf. D, earmarked for another conversion, esp. with a new turret.

 

The Panther turret is big (like the whole tank itself), and the problem to mount more powerful cannons on the Panzer IV chassis could have led to some unusual, if not improvised designs.

The Panzer III/IV chassis for self-propelled artillery was the perfect basis, so I dedided to combine both for an alternative late WWII tank, conceptionally between a classic battle tank and a self-propelled gun carrier. The Panther turret just fits on the wide back section of the Hummel, even though proportions looks odd and the armor with many vertical surfaces is not very good. But, after all, this is intended to be a second choice concept and not a clean sheet battle tank design.

 

The chassis comes from an ESCI "Hummel", while the Panther turret is from a Hasegawa kit. The Hummel was more or less built OOB, just the open rear section was "clipped" at driver roof level and faired over with styrene sheet. Then, an opening for the Panther turret was cut out, and finally, once the rotation radius was clear, some more details added.

 

Another deviation from the OOB kit is the vinyl track. This ESCI kit came with styrene segment tracks, and IIRC it originally came with a silver, very stiff vinyl track when I built the Hummel for the first time many years ago - not a pleasant experience. Anyway, I decided to go the the Pavla replacement vinyl tracks, because they are very delicate and soft, moulded in a matt dark grey rubber.

 

Painting and markings:

This one looks rather wild - and it's a design experiment. The camouflage is a typical Hinterhalt (Ambush) paint scheme in Dark Yellow, Olive Green and Red Brown, onto which spots in light gray and dark brown have been added, for an even more disruptive effect in urban environment - slightly inspired by the unique British Forces Berlin scheme.

Basic tones are Humbrol 63, 160 and 117, plus extra spots with Humbrol 28 and 173. Then the model was weathered with a light black ink wash and dry-brushing with mid-stone and light gray, some acrylic paint to simulate dust and rust, and finally some dry pigments around the suspension and on the hull that simulate mud.

 

Markings are minimal, just some German crosses on the hull and the tactical code in red on a dedicated beige background - otherwise, it would not have been recognizable at all on the disruptive scheme!

 

The tracks, made from black, soft vinyl, received a paint treatment in order to get rid of that shiny vinyl look: at first, with a mix of black, sienna and silver, which was immediately wiped off again, and later with a second, similar turn with silver and dark brown.

  

An odd concept, and the result looks rather weird - be it the tank concept and the parts used in it, but also the totally fragmented paint scheme which looks gaudy and almost clown-esques, but succesfully breaks up the lines of the boxy vehicle. So, why not?

This statue by Henry Baerer (1837–1908) honors Brooklynite and Civil War hero Brigadier General Edward Fowler (1828–1896).

 

Fowler was born in Manhattan, and his family moved to Brooklyn when he was still an infant. He studied to be an accountant at Brooklyn Gaslight before a youthful military career; by 18 he was a first sergeant. In 1847, Fowler - then a lieutenant - began a long association with the 14th Regiment of the New York State National Guard. The regiment was largely comprised of Brooklyn tradesmen, businessmen or members of the Brooklyn Fifth Fire Brigade. In 1852, then-Lieutenant Colonel Fowler married Annie Cook at the Methodist church on Hanson Place, Fort Greene; they would have three children - Sara Emma (1853), Robert (1854) and William (1869).

 

At the outbreak of the Civil War, the 14th Regiment was under Fowler’s command and stationed in Fort Greene Park. Two months later, Fowler’s regiment was engaged in combat at the Bull Run in Virginia. Their ferocity in battle, coupled with their distinctive bright red breeches, earned them the name, the “Red-Legged Devils.” The regiment was well-regarded for its spirit and camaraderie, and was fiercely loyal to Fowler, affectionately known as “Ned.” They subsequently fought at the Battle of Manassas, also called Second Bull Run, on August 30, 1862, and there the regiment was nearly destroyed, losing 860 of its 960 members. Fowler survived, though he was hospitalized with “a lot of lead” in his thigh from skirmishes at Groveton. While convalescing at Alexandria, he was promoted to full Colonel and named commandant of the military hospital. Poet Walt Whitman (1819–1892), was sending dispatches from Washington to the Brooklyn Eagle at the time, and mentioned Fowler in the descriptions of his encounters with wounded Brooklyn men.

 

Fowler returned to the field in January 1863, and the Union forces were in disarray. In early July 1863, the Red-Legged Devils were involved in the horrific Battle of Gettysburg. Though suffering great losses, their participation with the First Army Corps helped the Union troops stand their ground against overwhelming odds on the first day of battle. Fowler’s regiment went on to distinguish itself at the Battle of Mine Run (November 1863), the Wilderness campaign, and at Spotsylvania (May 1864). A monument to the 14th Regiment was erected at Culp’s Hill at Gettysburg, and the inscription recounts 22 military engagements. When the regiment was mustered out of active duty, Fowler was brevetted a Brigadier General on June 6, 1864.

 

Returning to Brooklyn, Fowler resided first at 208 and then 178 Fort Greene Place (later razed for the Atlantic Terminal). Retaining an affiliation with the 14th Regiment for two more years, he worked as an officer of the Long Island Savings Bank, treasurer of Atlantic & Pacific Company, and auditor of Commercial Cable Company. Fowler also served as chief clerk of the Brooklyn Board of Audit, and was a member of the Kings County 11th Ward Board of Supervisors.

 

Fowler died at his 47 Brevoort Place home on January 16, 1896. His body lay in state at Brooklyn Borough Hall, and he was buried in full regalia at Greenwood Cemetery. On May 18, 1902, the City of Brooklyn dedicated the sculpture of Fowler in Fort Greene Park. Positioned on a cylindrical granite pedestal, the statue depicts the general in military garb, cap in his left hand and sword in his right.

 

Sculptor Henry Baerer was born in Kirscheim, Germany, and came to the United States in 1854. He was especially well-known as a portrait sculptor, and contributed six sculptures to the parks of New York City, including statues of composer Ludwig van Beethoven in Prospect and Central Parks, General Gouveneur Kemble Warren in Grand Army Plaza, Brooklyn, and a bust of industrialist Conrad Poppenhusen in College Point, Queens.

 

Over time, this monument suffered environmental corrosion and vandalism, and by the 1960s was stored for protection. In 1976, it was reinstalled at its present location at Fowler Gore (formerly Lafayette Square). Plans are underway to conserve the sculpture, and replicate missing decorative and dedicatory bronze elements through a City-funded capital project. The Fort Greene Association has raised additional funds for ongoing care of the statue. As an unidentified author commented in the Brooklyn Eagle in 1902, “Dear old ‘Ned,’ when in the flesh, would have been embarrassed could prophetic eyes have realized the imperishable bronze, but his heart would have been gladdened by a practical recognition of his services also.”

 

Fort Greene Historic District (Boundary Increase) National Register #84002451 (1984)

Singapore (Listeni/ˈsɪŋɡəpɔːr/), officially the Republic of Singapore, and often referred to as the Lion City, the Garden City, and the Red Dot, is a global city and sovereign state in Southeast Asia and the world's only island city-state. It lies one degree (137 km) north of the equator, at the southernmost tip of continental Asia and peninsular Malaysia, with Indonesia's Riau Islands to the south. Singapore's territory consists of the diamond-shaped main island and 62 islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its total size by 23% (130 km2), and its greening policy has covered the densely populated island with tropical flora, parks and gardens.

 

The islands were settled from the second century AD by a series of local empires. In 1819, Sir Stamford Raffles founded modern Singapore as a trading post of the East India Company; after the company collapsed, the islands were ceded to Britain and became part of its Straits Settlements in 1826. During World War II, Singapore was occupied by Japan. It gained independence from Britain in 1963, by uniting with other former British territories to form Malaysia, but was expelled two years later over ideological differences. After early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its human capital.

 

Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub. Its standings include: "easiest place to do business" (World Bank) for ten consecutive years, most "technology-ready" nation (WEF), top International-meetings city (UIA), city with "best investment potential" (BERI), 2nd-most competitive country (WEF), 3rd-largest foreign exchange centre, 3rd-largest financial centre, 3rd-largest oil refining and trading centre and one of the top two busiest container ports since the 1990s. Singapore's best known global brands include Singapore Airlines and Changi Airport, both amongst the most-awarded in their industry; SIA is also rated by Fortune surveys as Asia's "most admired company". For the past decade, it has been the only Asian country with the top AAA sovereign rating from all major credit rating agencies, including S&P, Moody's and Fitch.

 

Singapore ranks high on its national social policies, leading Asia and 11th globally, on the Human Development Index (UN), notably on key measures of education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, housing. Although income inequality is high, 90% of citizens own their homes, and the country has one of the highest per capita incomes, with low taxes. The cosmopolitan nation is home to 5.5 million residents, 38% of whom are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. Singaporeans are mostly bilingual in a mother-tongue language and English as their common language. Its cultural diversity is reflected in its extensive ethnic "hawker" cuisine and major festivals - Chinese, Malay, Indian, Western - which are all national holidays. In 2015, Lonely Planet and The New York Times listed Singapore as their top and 6th best world destination to visit respectively.

 

The nation's core principles are meritocracy, multiculturalism and secularism. It is noted for its effective, pragmatic and incorrupt governance and civil service, which together with its rapid development policies, is widely cited as the "Singapore model". Gallup polls shows 84% of its residents expressed confidence in the national government, and 85% in its judicial systems - one of the highest ratings recorded. Singapore has significant influence on global affairs relative to its size, leading some analysts to classify it as a middle power. It is ranked as Asia's most influential city and 4th in the world by Forbes.

 

Singapore is a unitary, multiparty, parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The People's Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959. One of the five founding members of the ASEAN, Singapore is also the host of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Secretariat, and a member of the East Asia Summit, Non-Aligned Movement, and the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

ETYMOLOGY

The English name of Singapore is derived from the Malay word, Singapura, which was in turn derived from Sanskrit (Singa is "lion", Pura "city"; Sanskrit: सिंहपुर, IAST: Siṃhápura), hence the customary reference to the nation as the Lion City, and its inclusion in many of the nation's symbols (e.g., its coat of arms, Merlion emblem). However, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island; Sang Nila Utama, who founded and named the island Singapura, most likely saw a Malayan tiger. It is also known as Pulau Ujong, as far back as the 3rd century, literally 'island at the end' (of the Malay Peninsula) in Malay.

 

Since the 1970s, Singapore has also been widely known as the Garden City, owing to its extensive greening policy covering the whole island, a priority of its first prime minister Lee Kuan Yew, dubbed the nation's "Chief Gardener". The nation's conservation and greening efforts contributed to Singapore Botanic Gardens being the only tropical garden to be inscribed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The nickname, Red Dot, is a reference to its size on the map, contrasting with its achievements. In 2015, Singapore's Golden Jubilee year, the celebratory "SG50" branding is depicted inside a red dot.

 

HISTORY

Temasek ('Sea Town' in the Malay language), an outpost of the Sumatran Srivijaya empire, is the earliest written record relating to the area now called Singapore. In the 13th century, the Kingdom of Singapura was established on the island and it became a trading port city. However, there were two major foreign invasions before it was destroyed by the Majapahit in 1398. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was nominally part of the Johor Sultanate and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries, while the wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control.

 

BRITISH COLONISATION 1819-1942

In 1819, Thomas Stamford Raffles arrived and signed a treaty with Sultan Hussein Shah of Johor, on behalf of the British East India Company, to develop the southern part of Singapore as a British trading post. In 1824, the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, becoming the regional capital in 1836.

 

Prior to Raffles' arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860, the population had swelled to more than 80,000 and more than half were Chinese. Many immigrants came to work at rubber plantations and, after the 1870s, the island became a global centre for rubber exports.

 

After the First World War, the British built the large Singapore Naval Base. Lieutenant General Sir William George Shedden Dobbie was appointed General Officer Commanding of the Malaya Command on 8 November 1935, holding the post until 1939;

 

WORLD WAR II AND JAPANESE OCCUPATION 1942-45

in May 1938, the General Officer Commanding of the Malaya Command warned how Singapore could be conquered by the Japanese via an attack from northern Malaya, but his warnings went unheeded. The Imperial Japanese Army invaded British Malaya, culminating in the Battle of Singapore. When the British surrendered on 15 February 1942, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill called the defeat "the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history". Between 5,000 and 25,000 ethnic Chinese people were killed in the subsequent Sook Ching massacre.

 

From November 1944 to May 1945, the Allies conducted an intensive bombing of Singapore.

 

RETURN OF BRITISH 1945-59

After the surrender of Japan was announced in the Jewel Voice Broadcast by the Japanese Emperor on 15 August 1945 there was a breakdown of order and looting and revenge-killing were widespread. The formal Japanese Occupation of Singapore was only ended by Operation Tiderace and the formal surrender on 12 September 1945 at Singapore City Hall when Lord Louis Mountbatten, Supreme Allied Commander of Southeast Asia Command, accepted the capitulation of Japanese forces in Southeast Asia from General Itagaki Seishiro.

 

A British Military Administration was then formed to govern the island. On 1 April 1946, the Straits Settlements were dissolved and Singapore became a separate Crown Colony with a civil administration headed by a Governor. Much of the infrastructure had been destroyed during the war, including the harbour, electricity, telephone and water supply systems. There was also a shortage of food leading to malnutrition, disease, and rampant crime and violence. High food prices, unemployment, and workers' discontent culminated into a series of strikes in 1947 causing massive stoppages in public transport and other services. In July 1947, separate Executive and Legislative Councils were established and the election of six members of the Legislative Council was scheduled for the following year. By late 1947, the economy began to recover, facilitated by a growing demand for tin and rubber around the world, but it would take several more years before the economy returned to pre-war levels.

 

The failure of Britain to defend Singapore had destroyed its credibility as an infallible ruler in the eyes of Singaporeans. The decades after the war saw a political awakening amongst the local populace and the rise of anti-colonial and nationalist sentiments, epitomized by the slogan Merdeka, or "independence" in the Malay language.

 

During the 1950s, Chinese Communists with strong ties to the trade unions and Chinese schools carried out armed uprising against the government, leading to the Malayan Emergency and later, the Communist Insurgency War. The 1954 National Service Riots, Chinese middle schools riots, and Hock Lee bus riots in Singapore were all linked to these events.

 

David Marshall, pro-independence leader of the Labour Front, won Singapore's first general election in 1955. He led a delegation to London, but Britain rejected his demand for complete self-rule. He resigned and was replaced by Lim Yew Hock, whose policies convinced Britain to grant Singapore full internal self-government for all matters except defence and foreign affairs.

 

SELF-GOVERNMENT 1959-1963

During the May 1959 elections, the People's Action Party won a landslide victory. Singapore became an internally self-governing state within the Commonwealth, with Lee Kuan Yew as its first Prime Minister. Governor Sir William Allmond Codrington Goode served as the first Yang di-Pertuan Negara (Head of State), and was succeeded by Yusof bin Ishak, who became the first President of Singapore in 1965.

 

MERGER WITH MALAYSIA 1963-65

As a result of the 1962 Merger Referendum, on 31 August 1963 Singapore joined with the Federation of Malaya, the Crown Colony of Sarawak and the Crown Colony of North Borneo to form the new federation of Malaysia under the terms of the Malaysia Agreement. Singaporean leaders chose to join Malaysia primarily due to concerns over its limited land size, scarcity of water, markets and natural resources. Some Singaporean and Malaysian politicians were also concerned that the communists might form the government on the island, a possibility perceived as an external threat to the Federation of Malaya.However, shortly after the merger, the Singapore state government and the Malaysian central government disagreed on many political and economic issues, and communal strife culminated in the 1964 race riots in Singapore. After many heated ideological conflicts between the two governments, on 9 August 1965, the Malaysian Parliament voted 126 to 0 to expel Singapore from Malaysia with Singaporean delegates not present.

 

INDEPENDENCE 1965 TO PRESENT

Singapore gained independence as the Republic of Singapore (remaining within the Commonwealth of Nations) on 9 August 1965. Race riots broke out once more in 1969. In 1967, the country co-founded ASEAN, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and in 1970 it joined the Non-Aligned Movement. Lee Kuan Yew became Prime Minister, leading its Third World economy to First World affluence in a single generation. His emphasis on rapid economic growth, support for business entrepreneurship, limitations on internal democracy, and close relationships with China set the new nation's policies for the next half-century.

 

In 1990, Goh Chok Tong succeeded Lee as Prime Minister, while the latter continued serving in the Cabinet as Senior Minister until 2004, and then Minister Mentor until May 2011. During Goh's tenure, the country faced the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the 2003 SARS outbreak and terrorist threats posed by Jemaah Islamiyah.

 

In 2004, Lee Hsien Loong, the eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew, became the country's third Prime Minister. Goh Chok Tong remained in Cabinet as the Senior Minister until May 2011, when he was named Emeritus Senior Minister despite his retirement. He steered the nation through the 2008 global financial crisis, resolved the disputed 79-year old Malayan railways land, and introduced integrated resorts. Despite the economy's exceptional growth, PAP suffered its worst election results in 2011, winning 60% of votes, amidst hot-button issues of high influx of foreign workers and cost of living. Lee initiated a major re-structuring of the economy to raise productivity, improved universal healthcare and grants, especially for the pioneer generation of citizens, amongst many new inclusive measures.

 

On 23 March 2015, its founding prime minister, Lee Kuan Yew, who had 'personified Singapore to the world' for nearly half a century died. In a week of national mourning, 1.7 million residents and guests paid tribute to him at his lying-in-state at Parliament House and at community sites around the island.

 

Singapore celebrated its Golden jubilee in 2015 – its 50th year of independence, with a year-long series of events branded SG50. The PAP maintained its dominance in Parliament at the September general elections, receiving 69.9% of the popular vote, its second-highest polling result behind the 2001 tally of 75.3%.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Singapore consists of 63 islands, including the main island, Pulau Ujong. There are two man-made connections to Johor, Malaysia: the Johor–Singapore Causeway in the north and the Tuas Second Link in the west. Jurong Island, Pulau Tekong, Pulau Ubin and Sentosa are the largest of Singapore's smaller islands. The highest natural point is Bukit Timah Hill at 163.63 m. April and May are the hottest months, with the wetter monsoon season from November to January.

 

From July to October, there is often haze caused by bush fires in neighbouring Indonesia, usually from the island of Sumatra. Although Singapore does not observe daylight saving time (DST), it follows the GMT+8 time zone, one hour ahead of the typical zone for its geographical location.

 

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Singapore is a parliamentary republic with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government representing constituencies. The country's constitution establishes a representative democracy as the political system. Executive power rests with the Cabinet of Singapore, led by the Prime Minister and, to a much lesser extent, the President. The President is elected through a popular vote, and has veto powers over a specific set of executive decisions, such as the use of the national reserves and the appointment of judges, but otherwise occupies a largely ceremonial post.

 

The Parliament serves as the legislative branch of the government. Members of Parliament (MPs) consist of elected, non-constituency and nominated members. Elected MPs are voted into the Parliament on a "first-past-the-post" (plurality) basis and represent either single-member or group representation constituencies. The People's Action Party has won control of Parliament with large majorities in every election since self-governance was secured in 1959.

 

Although the elections are clean, there is no independent electoral authority and the government has strong influence on the media. Freedom House ranks Singapore as "partly free" in its Freedom in the World report, and The Economist ranks Singapore as a "flawed democracy", the second best rank of four, in its "Democracy Index". Despite this, in the 2011 Parliamentary elections, the opposition, led by the Workers' Party, increased its representation to seven elected MPs. In the 2015 elections, PAP scored a landslide victory, winning 83 of 89 seats contested, with 70% of popular votes. Gallup polls reported 84% of residents in Singapore expressed confidence in the government, and 85% in its judicial systems and courts – one of the highest ratings in the world.

 

Singapore's governance model eschews populist politics, focusing on the nation's long-term interest, and is known to be clean, effective and pragmatic. As a small nation highly dependent on external trade, it is vulnerable to geo-politics and global economics. It places great emphasis on security and stability of the region in its foreign policies, and applies global best practices to ensure the nation's attractiveness as an investment destination and business hub.

 

The legal system of Singapore is based on English common law, but with substantial local differences. Trial by jury was abolished in 1970 so that judicial decisions would rest entirely in the hands of appointed judges. Singapore has penalties that include judicial corporal punishment in the form of caning, which may be imposed for such offences as rape, rioting, vandalism, and certain immigration offences.There is a mandatory death penalty for murder, as well as for certain aggravated drug-trafficking and firearms offences.

 

Amnesty International has said that some legal provisions of the Singapore system conflict with the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty, and that Singapore has "... possibly the highest execution rate in the world relative to its population". The government has disputed Amnesty's claims. In a 2008 survey of international business executives, Singapore received the top ranking with regard to judicial system quality in Asia. Singapore has been consistently rated among the least corrupt countries in the world by Transparency International.

 

In 2011, the World Justice Project's Rule of Law Index ranked Singapore among the top countries surveyed with regard to "order and security", "absence of corruption", and "effective criminal justice". However, the country received a much lower ranking for "freedom of speech" and "freedom of assembly". All public gatherings of five or more people require police permits, and protests may legally be held only at the Speakers' Corner.

 

EDUCATION

Education for primary, secondary, and tertiary levels is mostly supported by the state. All institutions, private and public, must be registered with the Ministry of Education. English is the language of instruction in all public schools, and all subjects are taught and examined in English except for the "mother tongue" language paper. While the term "mother tongue" in general refers to the first language internationally, in Singapore's education system, it is used to refer to the second language, as English is the first language. Students who have been abroad for a while, or who struggle with their "Mother Tongue" language, are allowed to take a simpler syllabus or drop the subject.

 

Education takes place in three stages: primary, secondary, and pre-university education. Only the primary level is compulsory. Students begin with six years of primary school, which is made up of a four-year foundation course and a two-year orientation stage. The curriculum is focused on the development of English, the mother tongue, mathematics, and science. Secondary school lasts from four to five years, and is divided between Special, Express, Normal (Academic), and Normal (Technical) streams in each school, depending on a student's ability level. The basic coursework breakdown is the same as in the primary level, although classes are much more specialised. Pre-university education takes place over two to three years at senior schools, mostly called Junior Colleges.

 

Some schools have a degree of freedom in their curriculum and are known as autonomous schools. These exist from the secondary education level and up.

 

National examinations are standardised across all schools, with a test taken after each stage. After the first six years of education, students take the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE), which determines their placement at secondary school. At the end of the secondary stage, GCE "O"-Level exams are taken; at the end of the following pre-university stage, the GCE "A"-Level exams are taken. Of all non-student Singaporeans aged 15 and above, 18% have no education qualifications at all while 45% have the PSLE as their highest qualification; 15% have the GCE 'O' Level as their highest qualification and 14% have a degree.

 

Singaporean students consistently rank at or near the top of international education assessments:

- In 2015, Singapore topped the OECD's global school performance rankings, based on 15-year-old students' average scores in mathematics and science across 76 countries.

- Singaporean students were ranked first in the 2011 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study conducted by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, and have been ranked in the top three every year since 1995.

- Singapore fared best in the 2015 International Baccalaureate exams, taken in 107 countries, with more than half of the world's 81 perfect scorers and 98% passing rate.

 

The country's two main public universities - the National University of Singapore and Nanyang Technological University - are ranked among the top 13 in the world.

 

HEALTH

Singapore has a generally efficient healthcare system, even though their health expenditures are relatively low for developed countries. The World Health Organisation ranks Singapore's healthcare system as 6th overall in the world in its World Health Report. In general, Singapore has had the lowest infant mortality rate in the world for the past two decades.

 

Life expectancy in Singapore is 80 for males and 85 for females, placing the country 4th in the world for life expectancy. Almost the whole population has access to improved water and sanitation facilities. There are fewer than 10 annual deaths from HIV per 100,000 people. There is a high level of immunisation. Adult obesity is below 10%

 

The government's healthcare system is based upon the "3M" framework. This has three components: Medifund, which provides a safety net for those not able to otherwise afford healthcare, Medisave, a compulsory health savings scheme covering about 85% of the population, and Medishield, a government-funded health insurance program. Public hospitals in Singapore have autonomy in their management decisions, and compete for patients. A subsidy scheme exists for those on low income. In 2008, 32% of healthcare was funded by the government. It accounts for approximately 3.5% of Singapore's GDP.

 

RELIGION

Buddhism is the most widely practised religion in Singapore, with 33% of the resident population declaring themselves adherents at the most recent census. The next-most practised religion is Christianity, followed by Islam, Taoism, and Hinduism. 17% of the population did not have a religious affiliation. The proportion of Christians, Taoists, and non-religious people increased between 2000 and 2010 by about 3% each, whilst the proportion of Buddhists decreased. Other faiths remained largely stable in their share of the population. An analysis by the Pew Research Center found Singapore to be the world's most religiously diverse nation.

 

There are monasteries and Dharma centres from all three major traditions of Buddhism in Singapore: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Most Buddhists in Singapore are Chinese and are of the Mahayana tradition, with missionaries having come into the country from Taiwan and China for several decades. However, Thailand's Theravada Buddhism has seen growing popularity among the populace (not only the Chinese) during the past decade. Soka Gakkai International, a Japanese Buddhist organisation, is practised by many people in Singapore, but mostly by those of Chinese descent. Tibetan Buddhism has also made slow inroads into the country in recent years.

 

CULTURE

Singapore has one of the lowest rates of drug use in the world. Culturally, the use of illicit drugs is viewed as highly undesirable by Singaporeans, unlike many European societies. Singaporeans' disapproval towards drug use has resulted in laws that impose the mandatory death sentence for certain serious drug trafficking offences. Singapore also has a low rate of alcohol consumption per capita and low levels of violent crime, and one of the lowest intentional homicide rate globally. The average alcohol consumption rate is only 2 litres annually per adult, one of the lowest in the world.

 

Foreigners make up 42% of the population, and have a strong influence on Singaporean culture. The Economist Intelligence Unit, in its 2013 "Where-to-be-born Index", ranks Singapore as having the best quality of life in Asia and sixth overall in the world.

 

LANGUAGES; RELIGIONS AND CULTURES

Singapore is a very diverse and young country. It has many languages, religions, and cultures for a country its size.

 

When Singapore became independent from the United Kingdom in 1963, most of the newly minted Singaporean citizens were uneducated labourers from Malaysia, China and India. Many of them were transient labourers who were seeking to make some money in Singapore and they had no intention of staying permanently. A sizeable minority of middle-class, local-born people, known as the Peranakans, also existed. With the exception of the Peranakans (descendants of late 15th and 16th-century Chinese immigrants) who pledged their loyalties to Singapore, most of the labourers' loyalties lay with their respective homelands of Malaysia, China and India. After independence, the process of crafting a Singaporean identity and culture began.

 

Former Prime Ministers of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew and Goh Chok Tong, have stated that Singapore does not fit the traditional description of a nation, calling it a society-in-transition, pointing out the fact that Singaporeans do not all speak the same language, share the same religion, or have the same customs. Even though English is the first language of the nation, according to the government's 2010 census 20% of Singaporeans, or one in five, are illiterate in English. This is a marked improvement from 1990 where 40% of Singaporeans were illiterate in English.

 

Languages, religions and cultures among Singaporeans are not delineated according to skin colour or ancestry, unlike many other countries. Among Chinese Singaporeans, one in five is Christian, another one in five is atheist, and the rest are mostly Buddhists or Taoists. One-third speak English as their home language, while half speak Mandarin Chinese. The rest speak other Chinese varieties at home. Most Malays in Singapore speak Malay as their home language with some speaking English. Singaporean Indians are much more religious. Only 1% of them are atheists. Six in ten are Hindu, two in ten Muslim, and the rest mostly Christian. Four in ten speak English as their home language, three in ten Tamil, one in ten Malay, and the rest other Indian languages as their home language.

 

Each Singaporean's behaviours and attitudes would therefore be influenced by, among many other things, his or her home language and his religion. Singaporeans who speak English as their native language tend to lean toward Western culture, while those who speak Chinese as their native language tend to lean toward Chinese culture and Confucianism. Malay speaking Singaporeans tend to lean toward the Malay culture, which itself is closely linked to the Islamic culture.

 

ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS

At the national level in Singapore, meritocracy, where one is judged based on one's ability, is heavily emphasised.

 

Racial and religious harmony is regarded by Singaporeans as a crucial part of Singapore's success, and played a part in building a Singaporean identity. Singapore has a reputation as a nanny state. The national flower of Singapore is the hybrid orchid, Vanda 'Miss Joaquim', named in memory of a Singapore-born Armenian woman, who crossbred the flower in her garden at Tanjong Pagar in 1893. Many national symbols such as the Coat of arms of Singapore and the Lion head symbol of Singapore make use of the lion, as Singapore is known as the Lion City. Other monikers by which Singapore is widely known is the Garden City and the Red Dot. Public holidays in Singapore cover major Chinese, Western, Malay and Indian festivals.

 

Singaporean employees work an average of around 45 hours weekly, relatively long compared to many other nations. Three in four Singaporean employees surveyed stated that they take pride in doing their work well, and that doing so helps their self-confidence.

 

CUISINE

Dining, along with shopping, is said to be the country's national pastime. The focus on food has led countries like Australia to attract Singaporean tourists with food-based itineraries. The diversity of food is touted as a reason to visit the country, and the variety of food representing different ethnicities is seen by the government as a symbol of its multiculturalism. The "national fruit" of Singapore is the durian.

 

In popular culture, food items belong to a particular ethnicity, with Chinese, Malay, and Indian food clearly defined. However, the diversity of cuisine has been increased further by the "hybridisation" of different styles (e.g., the Peranakan cuisine, a mix of Chinese and Malay cuisine).

 

WIKIPEDIA

Increased the contrast a bit to get more detail out of it. The sky was really very gray all around.

 

professional increases while in the excitabilityofyour face linked to lifestyle run illnesses,progress of hir,essential oil glands,hair strands involving tresses could be easily embolism,curly hair brittlenessimprovessleep conveniently happen.Too much use affecting air conditioner:Tresses are quite information about temperature Selena Gomez wavy full lace wigs and humidity of this atmosphere forfeited out air training while using the humid blowing wind potential besides chilly would be your root cause associated with the loss of hair,this gain access to into your entire world with regards to bright white tresses. Gustedacthrough the summer months and the primary out of winter weather,the following in and out of temperature and humidity significant difference sizes substantial,undesirable to the health apart from a lock.Take advantage of furthermore energy depleted very popular in addition to zesty:substantive enjoying slimymeals junk,oil glands discharge too strong preserving;consume zestylead to locks free of moisture;eat considerable amounts regarding sweets,make Selena Gomez full lace wigs microbial rising that should speed up,that could injury curly hair.Having programs:oral contraceptives including the extra oestrogen using progesterone,once consuming definitely will led to a new pseudo-pregnancy,make head of hair in excess of the amount short-termandquite possibly well ignited.Builds up ordinarily postpartumhairlossquit taking stages of oestrogen all of the sudden get rid of.Fresh womanly hair thinning as well as the rationale?Balding during life,a good many more individuals,hairloss even more young age,notably young ladies Wavy full lace wigs premature hair loss complications.Hence,what specifically the sources of gals to be able to thinning hair?The favorable your hair also to talk about the young woman's hair loss why?Hereditary variables:innate things consisting of:educational damage,a variety of syndromes,that are just that older and also unwell,allowing the wild hair wholly separate or possibly tiny;curly hair hair follicles dysplasialeadfor you to hair delicate and damaged.Ancestral thinning hair is undoubtedly an autosomalsuperiorour Selena Gomez wigs ancestors circumstance,more regular inside consanguineousmarriagescould be the kids.A good autoimmuneelements:experiments it be responsible for autoimmunealopecia areata pathogenesisofW not instant infiltrationinany diminish part your hair root beginnings related to alopecia areatawith autoantibodieswhichcomprise anti-thyroid, anti-gastric parietalwireless antibodiesmightcertain you're seen belonging to the solution about a lot of people.

   

STUDENTS DayX3 NATIONAL DAY OF ACTION

 

Protest and march against University tuition fee increases, 09th Dec. 2010

 

Over 20,000 students from around the country converged on Central London today to march for a third time to protest against the coalition government's plans to

 

massively increase University tuition fees, which will ultimately mean that far fewer students from poorer backgrounds will be able to even consider a University

 

education because of the massive debts incurred which will follow them for the rest of their working lives.

 

I joined the days proceedings in the afternoon as they were assembling in Trafalgar Square. To throw the police off-guard they suddenly took off, en mass, through

 

Admiralty Arch in a bid to get to Parliament Square, which had been forbidden. That evening the House of Commons was voting on the Education Funding Bill, and the

 

students were determined to make sure that Parliament heard their protests.

 

The day started in a good mood, but by the time they reached Parliament pockets of disorder had started breaking out - Flares were lit and thrown, crush barriers and

 

construction site fencing ripped up to be used as weapons against the massed ranks of riot police and later on the mounted police. I had to leave by around 3pm, and by

 

the time I got home and turned on the BBC news all hell had broken loose outside Parliament. Protesters were pelting the police with lumps of masonry, metal poles and

 

scaffolding. They lit large fires, broke down the doors to The Treasury and the new Ministry of Justice buildings, smashing many windows, daubing graffiti everywhere

 

and generally smashing up the joint. Many people were arrested and many people hurt, some badly.

 

As the police gradually started releasing the by-now contained protesters in small numbers, several small groups headed up to Oxford Street, where they smashed the

 

windows of the flagship TopShop store (owned by Sir Phillip Green who is being attacked for shovelling billions of pounds of what should be UK taxable income into tax

 

haven accounts owned by his wife as part of a legal tax dodge), and in Regent Street they engulfed the Bentley containing Prince Charles and his horse-faced wife

 

Camilla who were in the process of swanning orf the the Royal Variety Performance! The protesters started kicking the vehicle. They broke the windows and threw a tin of

 

white paint over the car. One was not amused!

 

Needless to say the Bill was passed in Parliament tonight, and the students have vowed to continue their campaign of demonstration and civil disobedience...

 

All photos ⓒ Pete Riches

 

Please do not use my photos without my prior agreement.

Please do not re-blog my photos without my agreement.

Email: peteriches@gmail.com

A recent increase on paparazzis harrasment is causing a terrible stress and anxiety to the wealthy European socialite Sabrina A. Parisi. This is also accompanied by the persistent rumour of an intriguing ivolvement of the rich girl with mega film-star Keanu Reeves. It seems that this rumor has been on the air forever but recently is getting more convincing and the press is trying to find out

But let's go to the today' spotlight and te fact that has been reported that on September 02, 2009 , mega wealthy producer Sabrina A. Parisi was one step to follow the terrible fate of Princess Diana.

It was at about 8,30 pm that the wealthy young producer was seeing leaving a local pet-store with a big package of dog food on her hands. She was alone and she was wearing a blue hat and with her long hair on a pony-tail, demin jeans and a simple top. She was soon noticed by a crazy group of persistent photographers best known as paparazzis or parasites. When the people approached she tried to avoid their flash lights but the two men rushed to take some extra snap. She asked to please stop doing it as they were hurting her eyes but they did not listen to the woman. According to a sale person, Sabrina looked disturbed and distressed by the perseverance and the pushy questions of the two men. She had to stop several times before reaching her car. Three of the security guards moved to rescue her and helped the girl to enter her Jaguar that had ashes caused by the recent fire in California. "That's enough guys!! Move out!" screamed one of the security. One of the paparazzi tried to open her door and one jumped on top of the car’s hood. One security pulled the man out of it and Sabrina finally left the scene on an increased speed. The story does not end here as the people jumped into their cars and followed her keep flashing her face; while she may had gotten temporally blind by the bright lights on her eyes she almost crushed against a wall.

This is not the first time Sabrina gets distressed by paparazzis but it seems that there may be a new law that will pass in Los Angeles to protect celebrity’s privacy and freedom.

“It’s about the paparazzi violating everybody else’s rights, freedoms and privileges,” Councilman Dennis Zine explained. “What the paparazzi have done is developed a lawless society where the rules don’t apply — on the wrong side of the street, jumping out of cars at the red lights, swarming the car, you don’t do that,”.Zine is proposing a “personal safety bubble” law to keep what he calls the “opportunists” away from celebrities and the general public on the streets.“If we think back a few years, Princess Diana was driving down the road, paparazzi chasing,” Zine recalls. “A crash occurred, Princess Diana died. I don’t want to see that happen here in Los Angeles.”A year after Diana’s death and then again in 2005, civil laws were passed in Los Angeles to deter aggressive paparazzi, but no criminal law is yet in place.“I don’t think it wold change things that much,” X-17 Vice President Brandy Navarre told “Access.” “I mean, the photographers would just stand back a little more.”The photo agency X-17 says that as long as the demand exists, the supply will continue, regardless of a new law. “Certainly there is the concern that it could trample on first amendment rights,” Navarre said. Zine refutes such claims.“We are not prohibiting anyone from taking a picture but the matter in which they are getting those pictures,” he said.

 

Apprentice School built 1891.

 

First buildings at Islington erected 1883 despite demands that the workshops be built at Port Adelaide. Over the following years more buildings added as works were transferred from the former site on North Terrace. The workshops were important in the development of SA’s railway system and during WWI they also produced munitions. Due to their efficient toolrooms, during WWII they manufactured shells, trench mortar sights, machine-gun carriers, sections of Beaufort bombers & other aircraft, and when necessary, tools, lathes & machines for the workshops. By 1941 there were 3 shifts working 7 days a week on war work. The site transferred 1978 to Australian National, later some workshops were demolished for shopping centre which opened 2014.

 

“The Government has issued the first notice for erection of workmen's and foremen's cottages at Islington in anticipation of transfer of the railway workshops.” [Port Adelaide News 22 Jan 1881]

 

“There are improvements going on at the Railway station on North Terrace. The railway workshops or engine sheds have been removed to Islington beyond North Adelaide station, and the old building has been pulled down.” [Burra Record 18 Feb 1881]

 

“The operative masons and bricklayers working for Messrs. Fry Bros., the contractors for part of the Government workshops at Islington, struck for an increase of wages on Tuesday last. The men had been employed during the past month or two at the rate of ten shillings per day, out of which those of them who live in town had to pay their fares to and from the works, which cost from sixpence to tenpence a day, according to whether they held monthly tickets or not. A number of the men, however, live within a short distance of the works, while others who live at North Adelaide rode to and from the works in the contractors' drays. On Monday during the dinner hour the men held a meeting, at which it was decided to demand an increase of a shilling a day on the ruling wages, and if this were refused, to strike.” [Advertiser3 Nov 1883]

 

“Messrs. Fry Bros., the contractors for the Government workshops at Islington, refused to accede to the request made by their employes as regards an increase of wages, and recently discharged the whole of the men employed on the works. A number of men have since been engaged at 10s. per day, the contractors paying their fares to and from the works.” [Advertiser 24 Nov 1883]

 

“The inhabitants of Port Adelaide are still agitating for the removal of the whole of the railway workshops to that town.” [Evening Journal 4 Jan 1889]

 

“On Friday the barque Warwickshire, tying in the New Dock at Port Adelaide, discharged over 10 tons of machinery intended For the Locomotive Workshops at Islington.” [Register 2 May 1891]

 

“The locomotive workshops at Islington having been completed the work of transferring the plant and machinery will be commenced in a few days, but it will take some time before the employes are fairly installed in their new quarters. The workshops at North-terrace will be utilised as running sheds for rolling stock until it is necessary to remove them to make way for the proposed new Adelaide Railway station.” [Advertiser 22 Sep 1891]

 

“Already some 400 mechanics are employed in the shops and in the handsome suite of offices close by are the draftsmen and clerks connected with the department. The building intended for the blacksmiths and boilermakers is completed, and one forge is at work. Foundations for the large steam-hammers have been laid, and in the course of a few weeks a large body of men will be accommodated in this commodious building. The engine-shops and running-shed are already full. . . The cranes in these sheds are a special feature, and by the slightest pressure of a finger one man can lift up to fifty tons and carry it from one end of the shop to another. The carpenters' and carriage-makers' shop is already full of busy men engaged in the construction of rolling-stock.” [Register 9 Jan 1892]

 

“in December, 1883, the new buildings were occupied by the carriage builders and painters. The space previously monopolized by them at the Adelaide works was converted into fitting shops, and thus a small measure of relief was obtained by the department. In the meantime the traffic on the railways was very considerably increased by the discovery of the Broken Hill mines and by the construction of the overland line to Melbourne, so that in a very short time, even with the increased space at their disposal, the locomotive authorities found themselves so cramped and crowded that they were quite unable to cope with the works they were sailed upon to execute.” [Evening Journal 25 Feb 1892]

 

“The ground plan of the new works had been designed by Mr. Thow when Islington was first selected as the site. The plans of the new building were prepared in the Engineer-in-Chief's department, under the direction of Mr. Thow; but their details, such as the internal fittings of the buildings, the arrangement of the machinery, the fixing of the engines, end the countless devices to make the works replete with all the most modern appliances were designed and carried out by the present Locomotive Engineer. Mr. T. Roberts. . . A perfect network of rails extends in every direction, the various workshops having several lines running through them. Thus engines, carriages, and wagons are shunted to the exact spot they are to occupy whilst undergoing overhaul and renewal. . . Throughout the works the buildings are of stone, with brick facings. The roofs are of galvanized iron, and are ventilated with louvres. In those buildings which are divided into bays the roofs are supported by iron girders resting on iron pillars. Each bay all through the building is lighted with a double row of skylights extending along the whole of its length. There are, of course, in addition, windows on all the side walls. The end walls are all built on arches, the archways being filled in by immense galvanized-iron doors. Through the centre of each doorway runs a line of rails, the arches being high enough to permit the ingress and egress of the largest sized engines.” [Evening Journal 25 Feb 1892]

 

“Final operations at the old locomotive shops on North-terrace closed about six weeks or so ago, the foundry men being the last to leave, and now practically every branch of the Locomotive Department at Islington is in thorough working order. . . To cope with an ever-increasing traffic it was absolutely impossible in the circumscribed area at the central Railway Station to provide suitable accommodation for overhauling railway stock and carrying on the very extensive operations of the Locomotive Department.” [Register 8 Jan 1894]

 

“At least one member of the South Australian contingent at present in South Africa was employed in the Railway Department, and a large number of the volunteers for the second unit are workers in the shops at Islington. Therefore the men engaged there felt that the Patriotic Fund which was started to render assistance in. the case of injured soldiers and bereaved families had a special claim upon their sympathies. Subscriptions were taken up, and the effort resulted in £51 being raised. . . The visitors at once proceeded to the fitting shop, in which about 700 men and youths from all branches of the Islington Department were assembled, and for an hour the feelings of patriotism which had been pent up in the hearts of the men were allowed to assert themselves. Never were the National Anthem and other patriotic songs rendered more vigorously. . . The Locomotive Band accompanied the singing, and the brass instruments and the voices of men and boys vied with each other in a great outburst of patriotism.” [Register 25 Dec 1899]

 

“a visit to the Islington workshops for the purpose of inspecting the special train which has been undergoing renovation in preparation for the Royal visitors. . . The train consisted of an engine, number 43 of the "M" type, four carriages of uniform exterior design, and a brake-van. The engine, which had just left the paintshop, was embellished suitably for the occasion. On the front the-coat of arms of the Duke of Cornwall was surmounted by representations of flags, and on each of the side-plates the Royal coat of arms was placed, while on either side of the driver's screen the Prince of Wales' plumes were depicted. The Royal purple and red are conspicuous in the adornments.” [Advertiser 5 Jul 1901]

 

“The Government have decided that the whole of the men employed at the Islington workshops are to work full time instead of five days a week as at present. The new order will come into force this week.” [Advertiser 17 Mar 1915]

 

“During the recruiting demonstration at the Islington Workshops. . . it was announced that the Islington establishment would be prepared to manufacture munitions. . . the Imperial Government will welcome the manufacture of certain munitions in Australia. Drawings of an 18-lb. shell, have reached us, and have been handed to the Railways Commissioner, who will have sample shells turned out at Islington.” [Register 20 Jul 1915]

 

“The ceremony of presenting the Defence Department with a motor ambulance, subscribed for by workmen employed at the Islington Railway Workshops, was performed at the yards during the lunch hour on Thursday. . . The workmen recognised that it was their duty to perform the obligations which devolved on them by other men going to the front to fight their battles. They could not all go to the front, but the least they could do was to help the gallant men in the firing line.” [Register 15 Oct 1915]

 

“an impressive ceremony in the boiler shop at Islington during the lunch hour on Tuesday, when a handsome roll of honor, containing the names of 62 men from the shop who had volunteered and gone to the front, was unveiled by the Chief Mechanical Engineer (Mr. B. F. Rushton). . . The Railway Department proposed to place a roll of honor in each, of the workshops at Islington, so that those who were eligible and had not enlisted might be reminded of their duty. . . Twenty-five per cent, of the staff at the Islington workshops had volunteered for the front. . . Four of the 63 employes whose names figure on the roll of honor—Sergeants C. J. Backman, A. E. Phillips, F. Causer, and Paul—have made the supreme sacrifice by laying down their lives.” [Advertiser 2 Aug 1916]

 

“Islington. . . There has been a clearing out of old material, which had become unserviceable, at the loco Workshops. Between 80 and 90 tons of scrapiron was sent to Melbourne yesterday, and a parcel of about 10 tons of scrap steel was dispatched to-day.” [Observer 24 Feb 1917]

 

“Four members of the South Australian branch of the Coachmakers Employes' Federation are to leave Adelaide to-day to proceed to England as munition workers. . . Mr. E. J. Monck, carriagebuilder, has been in the service of the railway workshops, Islington for over 30 years. . . Mr. B. Brundritt and Mr. H. Howard have been employed en the carriage and waggon, building departments at Islington, and have been in the service for some years. . . Like Mr. Monck they are anxious to work on aeroplanes.” [Daily Herald 13 Jun 1917]

 

“In pursuance of the policy of making the rolling stuck more in keeping with modern requirements, the Railways Department is about to put into commission 20 new brake vans, which will be a distinct contrast to the old ‘blue vans’, or dog-boxes, as they have been termed, now in use. Ten of these new vans have already been completed at the Islington workshops, and will be made available almost immediately. Sleeping accommodation and conveniences for cooking have been, provided, so that on long journeys the vans may be used as living quarters. . . These vans are to be placed on both broad and narrow gauge lines.” [Advertiser 6 May 1925]

 

“By the end of the year defence work will be playing an important part in the activities of the Islington Railway workshops. . . The largest addition is a tool shop which is being constructed at the east end of the yards, well away from the remainder of the plant. When the building is finished it will be equipped with machinery for the manufacture of milling cutters and other delicate machine parts, which will be sent to Lithgow, New South Wales, to assist in the production of Bren machine guns. . . Some of the older workshops at Islington are being altered in preparation for the beginning of work on the construction of aeroplane parts. No details of what is being planned are available. . . In the meantime, the workshops are filling a contract for the manufacture of nine armored cars. . . At present, however, the busiest section of the workshops is the construction shed, in which the new vice-regal [rail]car is being built in time for the arrival of the Duke and Duchess of Kent.. . . Built of welded steel, it will be 79 feet long and nearly 10 feet wide, and will weigh 56 tons. It will have sleeping accommodation for ten people. At the rear there will be an observation lounge. Next to that will be a ladies' lounge, and then the Governor's suite.” [Advertiser 22 Aug 1939]

 

“A Shell Annexe has been established at Islington railway workshops, and is now nearing completion.” [Advertiser 6 Feb 1940]

 

“the tool-making annexe at the Government Railway Workshops at Islington is, in common with Government munition factories in Victoria and New South Wales, working 12-hour shifts. Established with the object of manufacturing the tools and gauges essential in the mass production of munitions.” [News 30 May 1940]

 

“The managerial staff at the Islington Railway Workshops, already busy with Islington’s own contributions to defence work, has been drawn upon for advice on interior lay-out and equipment of the Hendon factory.” [News 27 Jun 1940]

 

“Islington workshops. . . There are now 4,000 employes there — more than double the normal number — and about 2,200 to 2,300 of them are engaged on defence work, including munitions and Bristol Beaufort bombers.” [News 3 Feb 1941]

 

“South Australia's advance to the forefront of munitions-producing States was made possible primarily by the foresight of the Butler Government, which laid the foundations upon which the Playford Government has built so vigorously and soundly. As a matter of fact it was the insistence and foresight of the Government in providing such a wonderful tool shop at the Islington Railway Workshops that provided the first solid basis. The tool shop still remains an object of surprise and admiration for visiting experts who see the value of its modern equipment and the efficiency and skill of its tradesmen.” [News 4 Mar 1941]

 

“At the Islington workshops of the South Australian Railways Department there are working, in times of peace, about 1,750 people. Today there are 4,300; no fewer than 2,700 are engaged upon war production. . . making aeroplane parts, machine tools, and gauges, shells, machine-gun carriers. . . they are looking after the tooling of the new Commonwealth smallarms ammunition factories in South Australia. . . When Islington wants a machine to do a special job and hasn't got it, it makes it. . . In its tool room it has 370 men working. They may be making trench mortar sights, tools for Islington itself, or for other armament works, working to fine limits of accuracy. . . On war work, Islington is working three shifts a day, seven days a week.” [News 5 Aug 1941]

 

“Islington also operated another workshop for machining and sub-assembly for centre plane and wing sections of Beaufort bombers.” [The Mail 16 Aug 1941]

 

“More than half of Australia's gun-carrier production is being accomplished by workmen at Islington Railway Workshops.” [News 3 Dec 1941]

 

“sturdy little gun carriers are roaring and bucking their way to the forefront in a mechanised war. At Islington Railway Workshops these khaki-green structures take life as they are passed from the stage of plain slabs of steel to the finished, vibrant machine ready for action. Recently the 500th machine moved off the construction line at Islington.” [The Mail 6 Dec 1941]

 

“the fact that Islington Railway Workshops had an efficient tool room at the outbreak of war was one of the main reasons why South Australia became a munitions area.” [News 2 Apr 1942]

 

“workshops at Islington have annexes devoted directly to armaments and the tools of munitions side by side with the increased volume of railway output and maintenance. The employes at Islington include many engaged on aircraft wings and other parts; there are hundreds of women, too, and more will be hired as soon as they can be trained. . . Islington has long since passed its thousandth Bren carrier.” [Advertiser 23 Jul 1942]

 

“South Australia had contributed splendidly to the war-time development of the Australian aircraft industry. Mr. Makin said. The centre plane and wings for each of 700 Beaufort aircraft were produced by the Railways Department at Islington, as well as similar components for more than 350 Beaufighters, before that project was ended recently. The workshop was now producing centre sections and other components for Lincoln aircraft. This work would continue until about June.” [News 25 Oct 1945]

 

“production during the war years, Islington Railway Workshop is now well on the way back to turning out up-to-date rolling stock for the State's railways.” [Advertiser 15 Feb 1946]

 

“An honor roll bearing the names of employes at the Islington railway workshops who enlisted in the world Wars, was unveiled by His Excellency the Governor (Sir Willoughby Norrie) yesterday. Sir Willoughby Norrie said there were 382 names of men who enlisted in the first war and 622 names in the last war, making a total of 984 men, 50 of whom did not return. There were more than 4.000 ex-servicemen in the South Australian Railways today.” [Advertiser 4 May 1951]

 

“The first of 12 fast new diesel railcars for Adelaide suburban lines is expected to be running by the end of March. The Railways Commissioner (Mr. J. A. Fargher) said yesterday that all 12 were expected to be completed at Islington workshops by the end of next year.” [Advertiser 21 Dec 1954]

 

“The roomette sleeping cars on the Overland express were the best in the world, the British general secretary, of the Amalgamated Engineering Union (Mr. Ben Gardner) said in Adelaide yesterday. He visited the Islington railway workshops and was impressed with the spaciousness of the plant.” [Advertiser 21 Dec 1954]

  

Angkor Wat or "Capital Temple" is a temple complex in Cambodia and the largest religious monument in the world. It was first a Hindu and later a Buddhist temple. It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura, present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum.

 

Breaking from the Shiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious center since its foundation. The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple, based on early Dravidian architecture, with key features such as the Jagati. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls.

 

The modern name, Angkor Wat, means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in Khmer; Angkor, meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the word nokor (នគរ), which comes from the Sanskrit word nagara (नगर). Wat is the Khmer word for "temple grounds" (Sanskrit: वाट vāṭa ""enclosure").

 

HISTORY

Angkor Wat lies 5.5 kilometres north of the modern town of Siem Reap, and a short distance south and slightly east of the previous capital, which was centred at Baphuon. It is in an area of Cambodia where there is an important group of ancient structures. It is the southernmost of Angkor's main sites.

 

According to one legend, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by Indra to act as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea.

 

According to the 13th century Chinese traveler Daguan Zhou, it was believed by some that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect. The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of the 12th century, during the reign of Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-C. 1150). Dedicated to Vishnu, it was built as the king's state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown, but it may have been known as "Varah Vishnu-lok" after the presiding deity. Work seems to have ended shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished.

 

In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom and the Bayon respectively) a few kilometers to the north.

 

In the late 13th century, Angkor Wat gradually moved from Hindu to Theravada Buddhist use, which continues to the present day. Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was somewhat neglected after the 16th century it was never completely abandoned, its preservation being due in part to the fact that its moat also provided some protection from encroachment by the jungle.

One of the first Western visitors to the temple was António da Madalena, a Portuguese monk who visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of."

 

In the mid-19th century, the temple was visited by the French naturalist and explorer, Henri Mouhot, who popularised the site in the West through the publication of travel notes, in which he wrote:

 

"One of these temples - a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo - might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged."

 

Mouhot, like other early Western visitors, found it difficult to believe that the Khmers could have built the temple, and mistakenly dated it to around the same era as Rome. The true history of Angkor Wat was pieced together only from stylistic and epigraphic evidence accumulated during the subsequent clearing and restoration work carried out across the whole Angkor site. There were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement including cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites. Instead there is the evidence of the monuments themselves.

 

Angkor Wat required considerable restoration in the 20th century, mainly the removal of accumulated earth and vegetation. Work was interrupted by the civil war and Khmer Rouge control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s, but relatively little damage was done during this period other than the theft and destruction of mostly post-Angkorian statues.The temple is a powerful symbol of Cambodia, and is a source of great national pride that has factored into Cambodia's diplomatic relations with France, the United States and its neighbor Thailand. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of the first version circa 1863. From a larger historical and even transcultural perspective, however, the temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of national pride sui generis but had been inscribed into a larger politico-cultural process of French-colonial heritage production in which the original temple site was presented in French colonial and universal exhibitions in Paris and Marseille between 1889 and 1937. Angkor Wat's aesthetics were also on display in the plaster cast museum of Louis Delaporte called musée Indo-chinois which existed in the Parisian Trocadero Palace from C. 1880 to the mid-1920s. The splendid artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led directly to France adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863 and invading Siam to take control of the ruins. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country that had been under Siamese (Thai) control since 1351 AD (Manich Jumsai 2001), or by some accounts, 1431 AD. Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since that time.

 

ARCHITECTURE

SITE AND PLAN

Angkor Wat, located at 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E, is a unique combination of the temple mountain, the standard design for the empire's state temples and the later plan of concentric galleries. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple.Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction - prasavya in Hindu terminology - as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services. The archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower. It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west.

 

A further interpretation of Angkor Wat has been proposed by Eleanor Mannikka. Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, she argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honor and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco.

 

STYLE

Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture - the Angkor Wat style - to which it has given its name. By the 12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime has been suggested. The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style." Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors.

 

FEATURES

OUTER ENCLOSURE

The outer wall, 1024 by 802 m and 4.5 m high, is surrounded by a 30 m apron of open ground and a moat 190 m wide. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper. Under the southern tower is a statue of Vishnu, known as Ta Reach, which may originally have occupied the temple's central shrine.Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth. The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres, which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area is now covered by forest. A 350 m causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure.

 

CENTRAL STRUCTURE

The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city. It is made of three rectangular galleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. Mannikka interprets these galleries as being dedicated to the king, Brahma, the moon, and Vishnu.

 

Each gallery has a gopura at each of the points, and the two inner galleries each have towers at their corners, forming a quincunx with the central tower. Because the temple faces west, the features are all set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides.

 

The outer gallery measures 187 by 215 m, with pavilions rather than towers at the corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister called Preah Poan (the "Hall of a Thousand Gods"). Buddha images were left in the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This area has many inscriptions relating the good deeds of pilgrims, most written in Khmer but others in Burmese and Japanese. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water.

 

North and south of the cloister are libraries.

 

Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to each other and to two flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards, devatas abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to four. The second-level enclosure is 100 by 115 m, and may originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around Mount Meru.

 

Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The very steep stairways represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods. This inner gallery, called the Bakan, is a 60 m square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine, and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers. The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of lions or garudas. Carved lintels and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. The tower above the central shrine rises 43 m to a height of 65 m above the ground; unlike those of previous temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four. The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted to Theravada Buddhism, the new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of gold leaf two metres above ground level.

 

DECORATION

Integrated with the architecture of the building, and one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat's extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form of bas-relief friezes. The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from the Hindu epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Higham has called these, "the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving".

 

From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka (from the Ramayana, in which Rama defeats Ravana) and the Battle of Kurukshetra (from the Mahabharata, showing the mutual annihilation of the Kaurava and Pandava clans). On the southern gallery follow the only historical scene, a procession of Suryavarman II, then the 32 hells and 37 heavens of Hindu mythology.

 

On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, showing 92 asuras and 88 devas using the serpent Vasuki to churn the sea under Vishnu's direction (Mannikka counts only 91 asuras, and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the winter solstice to the spring equinox, and from the equinox to the summer solstice). It is followed by Vishnu defeating asuras (a 16th-century addition). The northern gallery shows Krishna's victory over Bana (where according to Glaize, "The workmanship is at its worst"). and a battle between the Hindu gods and asuras. The north-west and south-west corner pavilions both feature much smaller-scale scenes, some unidentified but most from the Ramayana or the life of Krishna. Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of apsaras and devata; there are more than 1,796 depictions of devata in the present research inventory. Angkor Wat architects employed small apsara images (30–40 cm) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (all full-body portraits measuring approximately 95–110 cm) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewelry and decorative flowers, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period.

 

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

The stones, as smooth as polished marble, were laid without mortar with very tight joints that are sometimes hard to find. The blocks were held together by mortise and tenon joints in some cases, while in others they used dovetails and gravity. The blocks were presumably put in place by a combination of elephants, coir ropes, pulleys and bamboo scaffolding. Henri Mouhot noted that most of the blocks had holes 2.5 cm in diameter and 3 cm deep, with more holes on the larger blocks. Some scholars have suggested that these were used to join them together with iron rods, but others claim they were used to hold temporary pegs to help manoeuvre them into place. The monument was made out of millions of tonnes of sandstone and it has a greater volume as well as mass than the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. The Angkor Wat Temple consumes about 6 million to 10 million blocks of sandstone with an average weight of 1.5 tons each. In fact, the entire city of Angkor used up far greater amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Moreover, unlike the Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely half a km away all the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried 40 km (or more) away. This sandstone had to be transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 km to the northeast. The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres along a canal towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometres crossing the lake, and finally 15 kilometres upstream and against the current along Siem Reap River, making a total journey of 90 kilometres. However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have discovered in 2012 a shorter 35-kilometre canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead.

 

Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels even roofs are carved. There are miles of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hair styles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost 1000 square metres of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were highly prized in ancient times and were a prime target for robbers. While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor, recreated a stone sculpture under 1.2 m, this took about 60 days to carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone. The labor force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone must have run into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some artifacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the Khmer came to power.

 

ANGKOR WAT TODAY

The Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple between 1986 and 1992. Since the 1990s, Angkor Wat has seen continued conservation efforts and a massive increase in tourism. The temple is part of the Angkor World Heritage Site, established in 1992, which has provided some funding and has encouraged the Cambodian government to protect the site. The German Apsara Conservation Project (GACP) is working to protect the devatas and other bas-reliefs which decorate the temple from damage. The organisation's survey found that around 20% of the devatas were in very poor condition, mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone but in part also due to earlier restoration efforts. Other work involves the repair of collapsed sections of the structure, and prevention of further collapse: the west facade of the upper level, for example, has been buttressed by scaffolding since 2002, while a Japanese team completed restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005. World Monuments Fund began conservation work on the Churning of the Sea of Milk Gallery in 2008 after several years of conditions studies. The project restored the traditional Khmer roofing system and removed cement used in earlier restoration attempts that had resulted in salts entering the structure behind the bas-relief, discoloring and damaging the sculpted surfaces. The main phase of work ended in 2012, and the final component will be the installation of finials on the roof of the gallery in 2013. Microbial biofilms have been found degrading sandstone at Angkor Wat, Preah Khan, and the Bayon and West Prasat in Angkor. The dehydration and radiation resistant filamentous cyanobacteria can produce organic acids that degrade the stone. A dark filamentous fungus was found in internal and external Preah Khan samples, while the alga Trentepohlia was found only in samples taken from external, pink-stained stone at Preah Khan. Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination. In 2004 and 2005, government figures suggest that, respectively, 561.000 and 677.000 foreign visitors arrived in Siem Reap province, approximately 50% of all foreign tourists in Cambodia for both years. The site has been managed by the private SOKIMEX group since 1990, which rented it from the Cambodian government. The influx of tourists has so far caused relatively little damage, other than some graffiti; ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas-reliefs and floors, respectively. Tourism has also provided some additional funds for maintenance - as of 2000 approximately 28% of ticket revenues across the whole Angkor site was spent on the temples - although most work is carried out by foreign government-sponsored teams rather than by the Cambodian authorities. Since Angkor Wat has seen significant growth in tourism throughout the years UNESCO and its International Co-ordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), in association with representatives from the Royal Government and APSARA, organized seminars to discuss the concept of "cultural tourism". Wanting to avoid commercial and mass tourism, the seminars emphasized the importance of providing high quality accommodation and services in order for the Cambodian government to benefit economically, while also incorporating the richness of Cambodian culture. In 2001, this incentive resulted in the concept of the "Angkor Tourist City" which would be developed with regard to traditional Khmer architecture, contain leisure and tourist facilities, and provide luxurious hotels capable of accommodating large amounts of tourists. The prospect of developing such large tourist accommodations has encountered concerns from both APSARA and the ICC, claiming that previous tourism developments in the area have neglected construction regulations and more of these projects have the potential to damage landscape features. Also, the large scale of these projects have begun to threaten the quality of the nearby town's water, sewage, and electricity systems. It has been noted that such high frequency of tourism and growing demand for quality accommodations in the area, such as the development of a large highway, has had a direct effect on the underground water table, subsequently straining the structural stability of the temples at Angkor Wat. Locals of Siem Reap have also voiced concern over the charming nature and atmosphere of their town being compromised in order to entertain tourism. Since this charming local atmosphere is the key component to projects like Angkor Tourist City, local officials continue to discuss how to successfully incorporate future tourism without sacrificing local values and culture. At the ASEAN Tourism Forum 2012, both parties have agreed Borobudur and Angkor Wat to become sister sites and the provinces will become sister provinces. Two Indonesian airlines are considering the opportunity to open a direct flight from Yogyakarta, Indonesia to Siem Reap.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The traditional string instruments of Mongolia, massed on the steps of the parliament building. They played a piece in which the tempo steadily increased, finishing in near frenzy. Fantastic.

Ring-pit plantation can double sugarcane yield

The losses faced by sugar mills mean increasing arrears of payments to sugarcane growers. This is leading to farmers quitting sugarcane, causing concern to mills. The only way out of this seems reduction in the cost of production.

A revolutionary method of sugarcane plantation that can make cost-reduction possible was developed in the 1980s by the Scientests.

People have found it hard to believe that the yield could be increased two or three times by adopting the ring-pit method. It decided to conduct field trials to establish the facts. Although it was late for planting, the experiment was still carried out on several plots in Punjab India.

The results showed that under the ring-pit method, an average of 474 qt/acre was achieved as against the 250 of the conventional method. One has to keep in mind that the data was only for a nine-month-old crop, which means there is scope for an even higher yield.

The method is dependent on mother shoots, i.e., zero tillering, and the total number of millable canes per acre. Under the system, around 2700 pits per acre are made. Thirty mother shoots are allowed to develop into millable canes of 1.25-1.75 kg each. This can give a yield of 800-1100 qt/acre if the recommended package of practices is adopted.

For FurtherDetails: Contat: Mr Sajad Shah Rashdi +92-300-8370266 or Mr Shabir Shah Rashdi:0333-2840774

  

"The narrative of New York is a story worth telling. Our rich treasures of history and culture make the Empire State one of the premiere destinations for heritage tourists from around the world." - Gov. Andrew M. Cuomo

 

On August 28, as part of a bold initiative called "Path Through History" (PTH) Governor Cuomo convened over 200 stewards of history from throughout the state (including 2 from Rye - myself and PTH Task Force Co-Chair, Harold Holzer.) His challenge to all of us? Work together as regions to raise the profile of some of our most eloquent and majestic cultural treasures. From Dutchess County to Niagara, we were grouped by our localities and then asked to brainstorm about how to best increase heritage tourism in our towns.

 

Our landmark gathering began early in the morning with backstage tours of ongoing capital projects at the Capitol from 8:30 to 10:00am followed by a warm welcome from Mark Schaming, Holzer's fellow Co-Chair of the PTH Task Force and the Director of the NYS Museum.

 

Little did we know we were already on our own new path through history. Our group was guided through the freshly renovated Hall of Governors with its crisp new timeline of milestones in New York's history. Smartly annotated exhibit cases line the corridor and contain rarely seen parchment documents related to our state's founding and evolution as a great power. Holzer, who is also Senior Vice President of External Affairs of the Metropolitan Museum of Art served as an advisor to this well-curated project. One of Governor Cuomo's first acts in office was to reopen this venue to the public which had been closed off from view since 1995. What a bonanza this is for history and art lovers! Each vaulted space could be a stand-alone museum so rich are these rooms - just the paintings, sculptures and decorative details alone rival any other collection in the world. Of greatest interest to Rye residents? A number of portraits of former governors that were missing from the collection were restored and installed, including a painting of Rye's most famous son and New York's second Governor John Jay (1795 - 1801.)

 

We lingered appreciatively in the refurbished Red Room and the "War Room" and the Executive Chamber Suite enjoying the brighter colors and newly labeled artifacts. We also got a hard hat tour of the elaborately carved sandstone Senate staircase in the Capitol now undergoing cleaning and restoration. It was fascinating to compare "before and afters" with a tour of the completed 1879 Assembly staircase with its red and gold stenciling and etched skylight.

 

The day sped by. Our tours were followed by two inspiring talks with brainstorming sessions and a collegial lunch in between. Historian Ken Jackson gave a fabulous opening address expertly demonstrating that the thread of New York's history is very much the same chronology of America's watershed moments (baseball fans have to agree!) He emphasized that we need to make our state's stories vital and fun for today's generations. So much of US history was New York's history first but other sites are doing a better job of promoting theirs. Harold Holzer underscored the theme that NY History is also at the core of America's history - he reminded us that even a young man from Illinois credited the great state of New York with his election victory: US history's trajectory changed after Lincoln delivered a pivotal speech at Cooper Union in Manhattan coupled with an indelibly popular photo of the president-to-be that was taken by New Yorker, Matthew Brady (who would later create one of the greatest pictorial records of the Civil War with his camera.)

 

Participants yesterday hailed from 10 regions in the State - Western NY, Finger Lakes, Central New York, Southern Tier, Mohawk Valley, Capital Region, North Country, Mid-Hudson, New York City, and Long Island. As President of the Jay Heritage Center, I attended to participate in Mid-Hudson region breakout discussions and advocate inclusion of the National Historic Landmarks on Westchester's historic Long Island Sound. The prevailing buzz from everyone's lips was teamwork and collaboration - all of these very passionate academics, volunteers and educators are eager to meet again and help refine and support this new strategic plan that includes incorporating innovate technology like smart apps and social media into travel itineraries. Governor Cuomo took our positive buzz and turned it into applause with a 1 million dollar announcement that each of the ten regions would receive 100,000 in marketing funds to fuel their creative efforts.

 

In a concluding reception at the Governor's mansion, we exchanged business cards, Twitter and Facebook accounts and also had the chance to meet and share our ideas with the Governor and members of the PTH Task Force face to face. I made new friends from the USS Slater Destroyer Escort Historical Museum on the Hudson River and we talked about preserving NY's naval history; I loved hearing the directors at Historic Huguenot Street in New Paltz talk about the importance of documenting the histories of families something we are doing as well. I shared ideas about making historic buildings energy efficient with Michael Hall from the Wings of Eagles Discovery Center in Horseheads. And one of my favorite new contacts is Janet Burnet with the Hudson Watershed Alliance - I can't wait to show her our schedule of sustainable landscape programs. I was proud to invite them all to our historic landmarks in Rye and proud that our town has such an incredible resource in Harold Holzer.

 

If it sounds like something you wish you had been to, don't despair! The Hall of Governors is online at www.hallofgovernors.ny.gov/ and you can hear Harold Holzer speak at the Jay Heritage Center on Sunday October 21 at 3:00pm about "The Image of the Emancipation Proclamation." His talk is free as part of our continuing commemoration of the 150th Anniversary of the Civil War in New York and kicks off an exhibit about the complicated and contradictory story of the Jay Family and their anti-slavery efforts.

 

Lastly I do urge you to follow NY's Path Through History - make a stop outside Westchester at one of the places I mentioned above. And if you haven't seen us yet, please come to our own historic jewelbox in Rye - the place where the architect of both NY State's Constitution and the NY Gradual Emancipation Act grew up - the place where John Jay chose to celebrate the end of the Revolutionary War on Westchester's historic Long Island Sound. Bring your family and walk the paths he walked with his. Explore the 10,000 year old landscape that shaped a young boy into one of America's greatest jurists and peacemakers. - Suzanne Clary, President, Jay Heritage Center

 

Postscript - The Jay Estate was added to NY State's Path Through History in 2014 as part of a Civil Rights themed tour. New Yorkers have been proud to be at the forefront of Civil Rights advocacy but the struggle for equality continues to be challenging. Jay's efforts to abolish slavery began in 1777 and culminated in his signing of the Gradual Emancipation Act in 1799 though he himself still enslaved individuals through 1810. His sons Peter Augustus Jay and William Jay continued his work - Peter Augustus argued for voting rights for freed Black Americans but was overruled. Signs installed on the Hutchinson River Parkway and US Route 1 help direct visitors and school groups to our site where they can learn more about our nation's complicated heritage and ongoing struggle for equity.

 

Photo Credit - Jay Heritage Center Archives

 

Jay Heritage Center

210 Boston Post Road

Rye, NY 10580

(914) 698-9275

Email: jayheritagecenter@gmail.com

 

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Twitter @jayheritage

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www.jayheritagecenter.org

  

With the recent increase in the water level at Summer Leys the great white egret(s) have had to investigate new feeding areas. Having seen a great white egret fishing close to one of the hides the day before (unfortunately whilst I was in a different hide) when I saw it fly to the same place again the following day that I knew I had to move to that hide. I waited patiently as the egret moved closer and closer along the reedbed towards the hide hoping that no one would come into the hide and disturb the bird. Thankfully nothing disturbed it and I was able to get take many photos.

www.wearandcheer.com/how-to-increase-memory-power/

Today we will discuss a unique topic. I forgot what I have to write, you know many things that I forgot like lose sight of taking dinner, taking the bath to my baby, forget to sign on my check, forget to wash or iron my dress and sometimes I forget to while I was cooking and all the food burn....

by Farida Sarwar on Wear and Cheer - Fashion, Lifestyle, Cooking and Celebrities - Visit Now www.wearandcheer.com/how-to-increase-memory-power/

You must like it and share it with your friends.

After Flickr has massively changed their GUI the number of photo visits per day has increased a lot. With up to almost 30,000 views per day it was easy to go from 8,000,000 to 9,000,000 in a relatively short period of time. (The "0" is related to another database issue - in reality that day had approx. 24,000 visits.)

 

So, thank you for your passion in viewing my photos! Looking forward to seeing you in a few weeks for the 10,000,000th view!

 

If you want to see my collections...please follow this link:

 

www.flickr.com/photos/thomasbecker/collections

 

Not to forget...

 

Please join my Facebook fan page:

www.facebook.com/pages/Thomas-Becker-Aviation-Photography...

 

...and there is a Plane Spotting group on Facebook you should visit:

www.facebook.com/groups/planespotting/

 

Twitter: @aviationphoto

 

Preparing young Queenslanders for life in the 1990s, we saw personal computers make their way into schools during the 80s with a strong focus on health, regional education and the arts by Queensland Education.

 

The photographic unit at the Premier’s Department, Office of State Affairs, captured a snapshot of various events, programmes and initiatives for school children throughout Queensland. This collection contains several arts, music and drama as well as students participating in computer usage.

 

In the early 1980s, several different computer manufacturers were vying for a foothold in the education market, Apple, Tandy, Atari, Sinclair, Amstrad, Microbee and many others. By 1985 Apple Macintosh was considered a standard system (alongside several others) for all states except Western Australia which adopted the BBC Model B and Microbee computer systems as a standard.

 

These photos are part are the photographic records held at Queensland State Archives, www.archivessearch.qld.gov.au/series/S189

  

1985

The discussion paper, Education 2000: Issues and options for the future of Education in Queensland was released.

The use of technology to enhance distance education, work in schools and educational administration was supported.

Approval was given for schools to alter the placement of the three pupil free days.

The Department of Education developed a policy on the education of gifted children.

The Special Education Resource Centres were formed as state-wide services, as part of the Division of Special Education.

Early special education officially commenced.

  

1986

The age of first attendance at primary school increased. Children had to turn five years by 31 January to be eligible for enrolment in Year 1.

There was an expansion of the curriculum in secondary schools and TAFE colleges evident in the further development of co-operative secondary-TAFE programs.

The Advisory Committee which reviewed submissions made in response to Education 2000 reported to the Minister.

The distance education trial began through the Mt Isa School of the Air.

A Preschool to Year 10 (P–10) Syllabus Framework was developed.

Endeavour Foundation schools transferred to Department of Education.

Policy Statement 15 Integration: Mainstreaming of Students with Special Needs introduced.

  

1987

Children had to turn 5 years by 31 December to be eligible for enrolment in Year 1 in the following year.

The Department of Education launched a series of documents entitled Meeting the Challenge which highlighted a corporate style of management.

The Department reshaped its central administration by strengthening the role of the Policy Committee, appointing a Chief Inspector and adopting comprehensive strategic planning processes.

In regions, initiatives were built on the commitment to decentralisation, while further devolution of responsibility occurred in the operational management of educational programs.

Two new education regions were formed (South Coast and Sunshine Coast regional offices).

The P–10 Curriculum Framework was developed and curriculum documents revised.

The Roma Middle School opened and catered for students in Years 4–10.

A post-compulsory college, the Alexandra Hills Senior College opened.

Two new centres of distance education opened at Longreach and Charters Towers.

  

1988

The Inspectorate was regionalised.

There was continued development of an integrated P–10 curriculum.

The senior secondary curriculum was broadened to cater for all learners.

Cooperative programs between secondary schools and TAFE colleges were conducted.

The use of computers and information technology in schools was given a high priority.

The Special Education Resource and Development Centres were formed as a consequence of the reorganisation of the Division of Special Education.

Individual education plans for students with disabilities were introduced as part of the new policy Policy Statement 16: Policy and Practice for Special Education Services.

The report National Overview of Educational Services for Isolated Severely Handicapped Children resulted from a Project of National Significance undertaken as a joint project of the Commonwealth Department of Employment Education and Training and the Department of Education Division of Special Services.

The Queensland School for the Deaf closes, as a consequence of decentralisation of services to students with hearing impairments during the 1980's. Programs for students with vision impairment were also decentralised during this period.

  

1989

A new Education Act 1989 was enacted.

The Department of Education's first strategic plan was adopted.

Decisions about school budgets were devolved to the school level.

There was an amalgamation of correspondence schools which became the School of Distance Education — Brisbane Centre P–12.

The first high school built to a new design opened at Bribie Island.

New prototype buildings for preschool, primary and special education units were assessed.

  

1989–1990

A comprehensive internal review of the Department of Education commenced through the consultation process, Education Have Your Say.

Professor Nancy Viviani reviewed Tertiary Entrance and produced the report, A Review of Tertiary Entrance in Queensland.

The Offices of Higher Education and Non-State Schooling were established.

The Department developed The Corporate Vision for Senior Schooling in Queensland to accommodate the diverse needs of students in Years 11 and 12.

The first entire primary school based on the new building model opened to students.

  

1990–1991

The report, Focus on Schools was released. A major restructure of the Department of Education followed.

The Public Sector Management Commission (PSMC) reviewed the Department of Education including its role, operations, responsibilities and management.

Greater responsibilities were devolved to 11 regions for resource, financial administration and human resource management.

A new English Language Arts Syllabus was introduced.

Priority was given to expanding languages other than English (LOTE).

The Viviani Report recommended the establishment of the Tertiary Entrance Procedures Authority (TEPA).

Consultants were engaged to assist in the development of an Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) management plan.

The Equity Directorate (Workforce and Studies) was established. A social justice strategy was developed.

The PSMC developed guidelines for recruitment and selection based on merit and equity principles.

The inspectorate ended.

The report Focus on Schools recommended that a strategy for managing the integration policy in Queensland schools be developed as a matter of urgency, and that a state-wide support centre for students with low incidence disabilities be established. A restructure of the Department of Education followed.

Occupational therapists and physiotherapists were employed by the Department of Education to work in schools with students with disabilities. (These services were transferred from the Department of Families).

Policy Statement — Management of Support Teaching: Learning Difficulties (P–7) was introduced.

 

education.qld.gov.au/about-us/history/chronology-of-educa...

 

Nestlé helps farmers in the Parma region of Italy to increase their production of tomatoes whilst reducing their water consumption.

Increasing Breast Milk Supply powered by Breastfeeding-Diet.org

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Plant geneticist Kim Lewers inspects field-grown strawberry plants for winter damage and new growth, while under low tunnels in Beltsville, Maryland, on February 16, 2021. Dr. Lewers and her team developed the 'Keepsake,’ a midseason, spring-bearing, or short-day strawberry (Fragaria xananassa Duch ex Rozier), that has an improved shelf-life; it is the first result from an increased effort by the ARS.

 

Compared with other current strawberry cultivars and breeding selections the 'Keepsake' has a low proportion of degraded and decayed fruits. These fruits have outstanding flavor with very high sweetness, moderate tartness, pleasing texture and are juicy when eaten.

 

'Keepsake' fruits are attractive with good size, color, gloss, and a showy cap. They are firm and tough enough for handling during harvest and packaging. It is expected that this berry will perform well for growers in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern United States and adjacent areas.

 

'Keepsake' is resistant to anthracnose fruit rot, one of the most serious fruit rots world-wide with no fumigation or fungicides in annual plasticulture at Beltsville, MD.

 

Caption developed from ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2019/a-new-ars-strawberry-is-a-keepsake/ by Sharon Durham

 

USDA Media by Lance Cheung.

  

I started noticing Chemtrails about 2 years ago. One thing is obvious, the frequency of military planes spraying white Chemtrails has increased dramatically. I have also noticed that the general public has no idea the phenomenon has been going on for years. The theory behind the purpose of Geoengineering is too shield the Earth from the Sun's ultra-violet rays. But what no politicians or military officials are talking about is the horrific damage taking place on the environment, water, and air we breathe. The adverse health implications put a large portion of the population at risk for developing sickness and disease. The purpose of showing 100s of cloud formations in this set is so people start to become aware of the menacing attack the environment is under currently.

A sea of pro-Palestine placards fill the pavement outside the Israeli embassy.

 

"Protest for Palestine" at Israeli embassy as violence increases in East Jerusalem: London 17/10/2015

 

Following weeks of escalating violence in Israel since the provocative invasion by armed Israeli jews and soldiers into the Al Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem - a tactic used several times in the past by the right-wing Likud party around election time guaranteed to inflame tensions and spark violence - which has since resulted in many violent, tragic deaths and tit-for-tat revenge attacks, a large crowd of London-based pro-Palestinian campaigners protested outside the Israeli embassy calling for the Israeli government to stop their provocation

 

All photos © Pete Riches

Do not reproduce, alter, re-transmit or blog my images without my written permission. I remain at all times the copyright owner of this image.

 

Media buyers and publications can access this story on Demotix. Standard industry rates apply.

 

Hi-Res, un-watermarked versions of these files are available on application solely at my discretion

If you want to use any image found in my Flickr Photostream, please Email me directly.

 

about.me/peteriches

Emma lights incense sticks at Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon on the Buddhist full moon festival of Thadingyut.

On her visit to Myanmar, Emma Thompson met with Nobel laureate Aung San Suu Kyi and a range of community and political leaders against a backdrop of increasing change in the country. Along with her adopted son Tindy and ActionAid International Chief Executive Joanna Kerr, she was in Myanmar to see ActionAid’s innovative development work with young people and to learn about the current political and economic reforms.

 

Commenting on her visit Emma Thompson said: “There are difficulties and a large number of challenges. A tiny percentage of government spending has been spent on health and education for example. There are also ethnic divisions that exacerbate problems. I saw deep, wrenching poverty but felt that there is a genuine dialogue beginning to start between the people and the government. The trip left me feeling hopeful."

 

ActionAid has worked in Myanmar for eleven years supporting local initiatives concentrating on helping women and young people. The anti-poverty agency specifically trains young volunteers to work with some of the poorest communities. The volunteers help people identify their priorities such as new schools, water sources, health services or peace processes and then network with local government and others to help achieve this.

 

In the changing political context of Myanmar, ActionAid has worked hard to encourage investment in education, health, agricultural services and social cohesion that benefits ordinary people and to address the social and economic differences that exist in the country.

 

ActionAid believes that change is coming in Myanmar and that there are strong indications that it is real.

PHOTO: Christopher Davy/ActionAid

www.actionaid.org

 

www.monitor-systems-engineering.com/anti_piracy_terrorism...

 

Maritime Early Detection Systems (M.E.D's) for Oil Rigs, Semi-Submersibles and Jack-Ups!

 

Ninety percent of the world’s trade moves in containers and nearly half of all incoming U.S. trade moves by ship. The current situation is bleak at best, Maritime attacks are on the increase. Pirates are more aggressive. The financial impact is significant and increasing. Military solutions are weak– they can’t be everywhere at the same time and private sector solutions are non–existent.

 

Don't leave port without it!

 

• Integrated systems designed to specific threat levels, pier side, at anchor and under way

 

• Any ship can be easily refit to any level of ability

 

• Crew assistance with installations cut costs

 

• System operates with no user interface

 

• System can provide off vessel reporting and monitoring

 

• Integrated system designed to give advance warning prior to boarding, giving crew time to take evasive action

 

A Closer Look at Maritime Early Detection Systems (M.E.D's) Onboard

 

With day/night and infrared gyro-stabilized cameras and motion detection equipment strategically placed, crews are alerted to the presence of an approaching threat. Bearing and speed data are provided through a radar interface.

 

This is integrated into a security network on board with custom control panels and alert devices placed throughout the vessel. Custom control and monitoring can be satellite linked to corporate security offices, central monitoring and law enforcement personnel.

 

Monitor Systems is the United Kingdom distributor for Radio Zeeland DMP’s highly effective, maritime security system. We supply, install and commission the Maritime Early Detection System (M.E.D.S) which offers a comprehensive layered security approach with onboard advance warning for ships, boats, rigs, platforms and pipelines against acts of terrorism, hijacking, piracy and other violations of security wherever a vessel is operating.

 

M.E.D.S delivers a military grade solution in a commercial format combining unique cutting edge technology integrated in design and function with a user-friendly interface. Utilising a customised perimeter sensor monitoring network and sophisticated infra-red tracking day/night vision cameras and onboard radar equipment, this state of the art system generates a secure perimeter network extending outwards from the vessel, divided into three zones – Red, Orange and Yellow. Each zone represents a secured area in relation to its proximity to the vessel to provide maximum levels of detection able to detect intruders from all quadrants in advance.

 

M.E.D.S. can be expanded and integrated with other options and systems and can be installed whilst the vessel is in service thereby eliminating costly downtime.

 

Case Study

 

Overview: Under construction. Anti piracy maritime security solutions, Non-Lethal Anti-Piracy Maritime Security Solutions, Terrorism Maritime Security, piracy detection, anti piracy, against piracy, anti-piracy, maritime piracy, sea piracy, high seas piracy, piracy solutions, piracy security, marine security, maritime security, Maritime Early Detection System, maritime piracy protection

   

Maritime Early Detection System (M.E.D.S)

Overview: Maritime Early Detection Systems (MEDS™) is a combination of unique integrated state of the art technologies. By equipping maritime assets with these advanced detection systems we can dramatically decrease the potential of a hostile takeover of ships /rigs in port or at sea. The worldwide threat of terrorism and piracy in international waters is increasing exponentially and the need for a solution is becoming paramount.

 

Option 1 uses a proximity sensor network with built in motion sensing which provides short range detection capabilities that allow a ship’s crew enough time to take the necessary measures to successfully avoid attacks before assailants are in the pilot house and have control of the vessel.

   

Maritime Early Detection System (M.E.D.S)

 

Short Range Detection

MEDS™ Perimeter Sensor Network provides a 180 degree laser grid of protection that is proven to work in extreme temperature and weather conditions. Each sensor is mounted into the side frame of the vessel and equipped with a remote enclosure with internal battery back up and redundant wired and emergency wireless communications via armored cable and cyclonic secure encryption respectively.

 

Each sensor ties into a wired data hub and reports its status continuously. If hard wired communication fails or is lost to any one unit the wireless communication feature will query as a back up. If this query is not returned it will report a failure of sensor locally to the monitoring system and control panels, as well as triggering an audible alarm.

   

Maritime Early Detection System (M.E.D.S)

 

MEDS™ Sensors

Photo of typical sensor system installation provides 180 degree continuous protection for the vessel, cargo and crew. Added green ½ spheres illustrate the sensor overlapping downward facing protection. Sensors are in NEMA 4x weatherproof enclosures with lighted alarm and klaxon for local indication of perimeter breach or sensor failure. Each sensor has a built in lens heater and remote back up power supply to ensure optimal operation under even the most extreme conditions and scenarios.

   

Maritime Early Detection System (M.E.D.S)

 

System Redundancy and Protective Measures

 

The complete MEDS package is designed with multiple redundant integrated communication systems that ensure that upon failure or destruction of one part of the system another system will come online to compensate for the failure. Upon loss of any component in the system even down to the smallest communication error, the crew or port security personnel is alerted via the monitoring control system and control of the issue giving a real time diagnostic of the overall health of the system. This feature ensures that no matter what is attempted to bring down the system for intrusion purposes the system will continue to function to do what is required … PROTECT AND REPORT.

   

Maritime Early Detection System (M.E.D.S)

 

System Expandability and Customisation

One key feature that stands out with the MEDS™ solution over any other devices currently on the market is the ability of the system to be integrated with other options and systems that the end user wishes to include. The system is based off of standard Ethernet Protocol which allows us to program Ethernet based modules to allow time and/or event delayed operation of external components. For example if minutes after a confirmed perimeter breach the owner wanted all cargo holds and the pilot house of the vessel to lock down until released from inside the pilot house via a secure code command MEDS™ allows that possibility. Or maybe a more aggressive approach is desired while still remaining non‐lethal in design. If the owner wanted motion activated debilitating sonic devices enabled at all doors when a confirmed breach is detected after the lock down of all doors this can be accomplished as well. Anything that you can think of when it comes to protecting your vessel and investment.

   

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Further Reading

 

Overview: Maritime Security.

Maritime security is concerned with the prevention of intentional damage through sabotage, subversion, or terrorism. Maritime security is one of the three basic roles of the United States Coast Guard has gradually developed in response to a series of catastrophic events, which began in 1917.

 

There are three main maritime security activities conducted by the Coast Guard: Port Security / Vessel Security and Facility Security.

Port Security

 

The Port Security requirements found in the MTSA requires security measures for U.S. ports in order to reduce the risks and to mitigate the results of an act that threatens the security of personnel, facilities, vessels, and the public. The regulations draw together assets within port boundaries to provide a framework to communicate, identify risks, and coordinate resources to mitigate threats and consequences. The COTP must ensure that the total port security posture is accurately assessed, and that security resources are appropriate to meet these programs. The COTP must identify critical assets within a port, develop a prioritized list of those most susceptible to acts of sabotage, and plan for adequate security measures to meet specific needs.

Vessel Security

 

Both MTSA and the ISPS Code regulate vessel security. The regulations within these two documents require the owners or operators of vessels to designate security officers for vessels, develop security plans based on security assessments, implement security measures specific to the vessel’s operation, and comply with current Marine Security levels.

Facility Security

 

A facility is defined as: any structure or facility of any kind located in, on, under, or adjacent to any waters subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S. and used, operated, or maintained by a public or private entity, including any contiguous or adjoining property under common ownership or operation. Some examples of facilities are:

Barge fleeting facilities.

Container terminals.

Oil storage facilities.

Passenger vessel terminals.

 

Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Facilities are generally offshore fixed platforms in water depths ranging up to 1,000 feet deep whose primary purpose is the exploration, development, and/or product of offshore petroleum reserves. This definition also includes novel floating design such as:

Tension Leg Platforms (TLP).

Floating Production Facilities (converted MODUs).

Floating Production Storage Offloading units (FPSO).

 

Both MTSA and the ISPS Code regulate facility security. The regulations within these two documents require the owners or operators of facilities to designate security officers for facilities, develop security plans based on security assessments, implement security measures specific to the facility’s operation, and comply with current Marine Security levels. Those facilities designated as Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) facilities must meet the same security requirements as those designated as waterfront facilities.

 

When US Navy merchant vessels are in dangerous waters, security detachments are posted on the vessel. Security forces have helped deter piracy as well as terrorist attacks, such as the Maersk Alabama and the USS Cole. US Navy merchant vessels normally train the deck department in firearms training, but the added Navy security detail provides for extra security. Additionally, Navy escorts might sometimes accompany the vessels, such as traveling through the Straights of Gibraltar.

After the study of architecture at the technical university and the sculpture at the academy in Munich he occurs 1947 the architect's office of its father Dominikus Böhm, which he resumes after its death independently. Like these he builds many churches, altogether over forty, most of it in the Rhine country, some also in Brazil, Formosa and Italy, where one requested him 1984 to the competition for the change of the Lingotto of the Fiat works in Turin. Böhm first predominantly built in concrete and arrived too much to personal solutions, e.g. with the church pc. Gertrud in Cologne (1962-65). Böhm found with the pilgrimage church in Neviges (1963-68) to an impressive plastic expressionism, which uses and increases the given natural hanglage skillfully. In its Bensberger city hall (1963-69) tried Böhm existing medieval architecture with the new building to a total ensemble to unite a kind city. In the settlement Cologne Chorweiler (1969-75) connected it the sichtbeton, which is painted partially in strong colors, with multicolored linkage balconies; in the Paderborner diocesan museum it established a glass architecture with exhibition possibilities on eleven different levels; in its community center in Rhine mountain (1977-80) the change is evident to post office-modern architecture. Not only because of the multiplicity of its buildings, but particularly because of its originality Böhm may be regarded as one of the most important architects of the German post-war period.

 

Project: Gottfried Böhm, 1982-85

Pritzker Architecture Prize Laureate 1986

The increasing regimentation of the workplace and the spread of the fixed-hour workday heightened the distinction between labor and leisure. "It's time for a drink!" became the watchword of afterwork in many urban and suburban communities. The cocktail hour—defined, ironically, in terms of the clock and of limited duration—offered a ritual to mark the transition to leisure time.

 

In the not-yet-regimented workplaces of the early 1800s, drinking alcohol was a normal part of the workday. As drinking became separated from work, saloons flourished—always crowded, mostly with men, who often were violently drunk. In the 1920s, Prohibition shut down the saloons. It also spawned a new leisure-time cocktail culture-respectable, often home-centered, influenced by women, and highly ritualized, with specialty drinks and refined cocktail sets. Following the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, the cocktail hour grew in popularity. The evening drink marked the transition to personal time.

 

Cocktail culture flourished in American suburbs in the 1950s. Home bars, often Dad-built in the basement recreation room, were popular. They were well stocked with liquor, often in labeled decanters. Even more important than the alcohol itself were the accessories required for the rituals of preparing the drinks—an ice bucket, tongs, cocktail shaker, martini pitcher and stirring rod, glassware of various shapes and sizes, and swizzle sticks, as well as bartenders' guides.

 

americanhistory.si.edu/ontime/saving/happy.html#home

Dr Increase Mathews constructed his one-story stone house in 1805, and in 1884 family members added the two upper stories. It was donated to the Pioneer and Historical Society in 1970. It is found in the Putnam Historic District which is on the National Register of Historic Places #75001511.

Indiana University Kokomo sees record-breaking enrollment increase; unprecedented number of students. Under the leadership of Chancellor Michael Harris.

   

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Chancellor Michael Harris IUK - On the Move

www.youtube.com/watch?v=uD3exIJ-hGs

  

The Big Move, Visioned, Initiated and Implemented by Chancellor Michael Harris IU Kokomo:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=mJIe0t6aDEU

 

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Chancellor Michael Harris IUK - On the Move

www.youtube.com/watch?v=uD3exIJ-hGs

 

homepages.indiana.edu/web/page/normal/17736.html

  

www.youtube.com/watch?v=uD3exIJ-hGs

 

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www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/indiana-university-kokom...

 

avoyership13.moxai.com/chan-7603525/all_p2.html

 

www.insideindianabusiness.com/newsitem.asp?id=54350

 

Governor Abercrombie signed the following bills:

 

House Bill 2052 (Relating to Provider Orders for Life-Sustaining Treatment) increases access to Provider Orders for Life-Sustaining Treatment (POLST) by updating references from “physicians orders for life-sustaining treatment” to “provider orders for life-sustaining treatment.” The measure also expands health care provider signatory authority to include advance practice registered nurses and corrects inconsistencies of terms describing who may sign a POLST form on behalf of a patient.

 

House Bill 1616 (Relating to Health Planning) adds to the Hawaii State Planning Act’s objectives and policies for health, the identification of social determinants of health and prioritization of programs, services, interventions, and activities that address identified social determinants of health to improve Native Hawaiian health in accordance with federal law and reduce health disparities of disproportionately affected demographics.

 

House Bill 1723 (Relating to Psychiatric Facilities) amends the notice requirements for the discharge of an involuntary patient committed pursuant to legal proceeding involving fitness to proceed and requires the family court to conduct a timely hearing prior to the termination of a standing commitment order.

 

House Bill 2320 (Relating to Health) establishes health equity as a goal for the DOH and requires the DOH to consider social determinants of health in assessing health needs in the state. The measure is known as “Loretta’s Law” for the late DOH Director Loretta Fuddy, who was passionate proponent.

 

House Bill 2581 (Relating to Insurance) establishes the State Innovation Waiver Task Force and requires the task force to submit two interim reports and a final report to the legislature.

 

Senate Bill 2469 (Relating to Telehealth) requires equivalent reimbursement for services, including behavioral health services, provided through telehealth as for the same services provided via face-to-face contact between a health care provider and a patient. The measure also clarifies that health care providers for purposes of telehealth include primary care providers, mental health providers, oral health providers, physicians and osteopathic physicians, advanced practice registered nurses, psychologists, and dentists. For consistency purposes, the bill changes statutory references of “telemedicine” to “telehealth.”

 

House Bill 2400 (Relating to Temporary Disability Benefits) provides temporary disability benefits to employees who suffer disabilities as a result of donating organs.

 

Senate Bill 1233 (Relating to Leaves of Absence) requires certain private employers to allow employees to take leaves of absence for organ, bone marrow, or peripheral blood stem cell donation. Unused sick leave, vacation, or paid time off, or unpaid time off, may be used for these leaves of absence. The measure also requires employers to restore an employee returning from leave to the same or equivalent position and establishes a private right of action for employees seeking enforcement of provisions.

The Insatiable Glutton,' Puck magazine cartoon, December 1882.

 

The selflessness of soldiers fostered great respect in the years after the war. Pension payments were increased regularly, and men pursuing political office often found that their obvious injury proved useful in attracting voters.

 

Yet as Americans sought to put the memory of the conflict behind them, they increasingly ignored the plight of aging, disabled, impoverished veterans.

 

Instead, memorializing the dead and asserting national patriotism became the focus of Civil War remembrances, and the image of the disabled soldier became one of a money-grabbing dependent.

 

Civil War Pensions

At the close of the Revolutionary War, the United States government began administering a limited pension system to soldiers wounded during active military service or veterans and their widows pleading dire Poverty. It was not until the 1830's and the advent of universal suffrage for white male and patronage democracy, however, that military pensions became available to all veterans or their widows. Despite these initial expansions, the early U.S. military pension system was minuscule compared to what it became as a result of the Civil War.

 

Beginning in 1861, the U.S. government generously attended to the need of its soldiers and sailors or their dependents. Because the Federal government did not implement conscription until 1863, these first Civil War benefits in many ways were an attempt to induce men to volunteer. Although altered somewhat over the years, the 1862 statute remained the foundation of the Federal pension system until the 1890s. It stipulated that only those soldiers whose disability was "incurred as a direct consequence of . . . Military duty" or developed after combat "from causes which can be directly traced to injuries received or diseases contacted while in military service" could collect pension benefits. The amount of each pension depended upon the veteran's military rank and level of disability. Pensions given to widows, orphans, and other dependents of deceased soldiers were always figured at the rate of total disability according to the military rank of their deceased husband or father. By 1873 widows could also receive extra benefits for each dependent child in their care.

 

In 1890 the most notable revision in the Federal pension law occurred: the Dependent Pension Act. A result of the intense lobbying effort of the veterans' organization, the Grand Army of the Republic, this statute removed the link between pensions and service-related injuries, allowing any veteran who had served honorably to qualify for a pension if at some time he became disabled for manual labor. By 1906 old age alone became sufficient justification to receive a pension.

 

At the same time that pension requirements were becoming more liberal, several Southern congressmen attempted to open up the Federal system to Confederate veterans. Proponents justified such a move by noting that Southerners had contributed to Federal pensions through indirect taxes since the end of the war. These proposals met with mixed responses in both North and the South, but overwhelmingly, opposition came from those financially comfortable Confederate veterans and southern politicians who regarded such dependency on Federal assistance a dishonor t the Lost Cause. It should be noted that impoverished Southern veterans frequently were not averse to the prospect of receiving Federal pensions. In any event, no such law ever passed, and Confederate veterans and their widows never matriculated into the Federal pension system.

 

Although U.S. Civil War veterans had received pensions since 1862 and Southern state governments had provided their veterans with artificial limbs and veteran retirement homes since the end of the war, it was not until the 1880s and early 1890s that the elevens states of the former Confederacy enacted what can accurately be called pension systems. The economic devastation of he war and the political upheaval of Reconstruction best explain this long delay. When Southern pension systems did finally emerge, they generally resembled the pre-1890 U.S. system: eligibility depended upon service-related disability or death and indigence, and widows as well as other dependents of deceased soldiers could receive pensions. Despite these similarities, however, there were striking differences. First, in the South widows collected pensions set at a specific rate for widows of deceased soldiers. These rates were generally lower than those to which their husbands would have been entitled should they have survived. Under the Federal system, there was no separate category for widows. Second, most Southern pension laws determined stipend amounts based only on the degree of disability. No regard was given to military rank. Third, there was never a Confederate equivalent to the 1890 U.S. Dependent Act. Although over time Confederate pension requirements became more liberalized, there was always an income and poverty limit-pensions were never given simply for service. Fourth, whereas indirect taxes funded Federal pensions, most Southern states financed their pension through a direct tax. And fifth, because Southern pension systems were on the state level only, they varied as to method and amount and were much less financially generous than U.S. pensions. Though the individual pensions of Southerners were minuscule compared to those of Federal veterans and war widows, as a percentage of state expenditures, Southern pension expenditures were monumental. Of all the former Confederate states, Georgia generally spent the most per year on pensions, Alabama ran a close second.

 

Both the Federal government and Southern state governments continued to provide pensions for Civil War veterans and their widows well into the middle of the twentieth century. In all, billions of dollars were expended by both sides in an effort to "reward" the survivors of America's costliest war. Because of the high rates of expansion in both the Federal and Confederate systems, critics frequently accused pensioners and officials alike of corruption and fraud. Those pensioners most often labeled as frauds were widows, especially young women who had married veterans much older than themselves, supposed "cowards," and, in the Federal system, black veterans. By the mid-twentieth century, both systems were generally considered devoid of original integrity.

 

U.S. Government Still Pays Two Civil War Pensions

February 9, 2012

 

Despite the fact that the Civil War ended April 9, 1865 (53,630 days ago, for reference), the government is still paying out veterans' pensions.

 

Records from the Department of Veterans' Affairs show that two children of Civil War veterans, as of September, are receiving pensions from their fathers' service. Department of Veteran Affairs spokesman Phil Budahn says the VA last checked in on the benefits recipients in the fall. Both were alive, but in poor health. Budahn says it's likely that the children of the Civil War veterans, who have wished to remain anonymous, both had illnesses that prevented them from ever becoming self-sufficient.. Trevor Plante, a reference chief at the National Archives says it's also possible that the beneficiaries were young when their fathers died and had no living mothers to care for them, which would also qualify them for their fathers' pensions.

 

Plante says unlike current times, where pensions are granted to dependents based off military service numbers or social security numbers, in the late 19th century, people had to prove their connection to a deceased veteran by sending the government evidence of their relationship. Children, parents and spouses submitted photographs, love letters, marriage certificates, diaries and gifts to prove they were eligible for pensions.

 

"Genealogists love pension files because you never know what you are going to get. Civil War pensions are especially fascinating because of the wide array of things people submitted as evidence."

 

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, only Union soldiers were eligible for military benefits. It wasn't until the 1930s that confederate soldiers began receiving pensions from the federal government. Prior to that, confederate soldiers could apply for benefits through the state they resided in.

 

The last verified Civil War veteran, Albert Woolson, died in 1956 at age 109. The last widow, Gertrude Janeway, died in 2003 at age 93.

 

Budhan says he respects the request for privacy, but would be fascinated to learn about the lives and memories of the last two people receiving pensions from the Civil War. "I was hoping that someone would be able to talk to these folks," he says.

History

According to John Dlugosz first brick Romanesque church was founded by Bishop Iwo Odrowąż of Cracow in the years 1221-1222 on the site of the original wooden temple. Soon, however, the building was destroyed during the Mongol invasions.

In the years 1290-1300 was built partly on the previous foundations an early Gothic hall church, which was consecrated around the year 1320-1321. The work, however, continued even in the third decade of the fourteenth century.

In the period 1355-1365, through the foundation of Nicholas Wierzynka (citizen of Krakow and Sandomierz esquire carver), built the current sanctuary.

On the other hand, in the years 1392-1397 were instructed master Nicholas Werner better illumination of the church. The builder has lowered the walls of the aisles and, of main introduced the large window openings. In this way the indoor arrangement of the temple has changed over the basilica.

In 1443 (or 1442) he was a strong earthquake that caused the collapse of the ceiling of the temple.

In the first half of the fifteenth century the side chapels were added. Most of them were the work of a master Francis Wiechonia of Kleparz. At the same time it was increased north tower, designed to act as guardians of the city. In 1478 the carpenter Matias Heringkan covered the tower helmet. On it, in 1666, was placed a gilded crown.

At the end of the fifteenth century, the temple of Mary was enriched with sculptural masterpiece of the late Gothic Altar - Great - a work of Veit Stoss.

At the beginning of the sixteenth Polish begin the Paradise demand spolszczenia church belonging to the municipality German. In opposition are mayors of German cities Cipsar, Morsztyn, Ajchler and Shilling, who wanted to defend his possessions. The dispute also enters the Parliament, which in 1537 and under pressure from the nobility found edict of Sigismund I, to the morning worship German confined to after-dinner.

In the eighteenth century, at the behest of Archpriest Jack Augusta Łopackiego, interior thoroughly converted in the late Baroque style. The author of this work was Francesco Placidi. Then listed 26 altars, equipment, furniture, benches, paintings, and the walls are decorated with polychrome brush Andrzej Radwanski. From this period comes too the late Baroque porch.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, in the framework of reorganizing the city closed down the churchyard. This is how the Marienplatz St. Mary's square arose.

In the years 1887-1891, under the direction of Tadeusz Stryjeński introduced into the interior of the neo-Gothic decor. Temple has a new design and murals by Jan Matejko, which collaborated Stanislaw Wyspianski and Mehoffer - authors of the stained glass windows in the chancel and the main organ.

Since the early 90s of the twentieth century were carried out a comprehensive restoration work, which resulted in the church regained its brilliance. The last element of repair was the replacement of roof in 2003.

April 18, 2010 year at St. Mary's Church held a funeral ceremony tragically deceased President Lech Kaczynski and his wife Maria, whose coffins then buried in a crypt of the Wawel Cathedral.

External architecture

The church from the south-west

View from the west

Church on the south side; on the facade visible sundial

View of St. Mary's Church from Wawel

View of St. Mary's Church mound of Krak

The present shape of the church gave reconstruction system basilica, which took place in the years 1392-1397.

Towers

The facade of the temple is included in two towers:

The tower higher, called the Bugle, it is 82 meters high. It is built on a square plan, which at a height of nine stories goes octagon, opened up lancet niches, falling two stories of windows. Gothic towers covers the helmet, which is the work of a master Matias Heringkana of 1478 helmet consists of an octagonal, sharpened spire, surrounded by a ring of eight lower turrets. On the needle was placed in 1666 gilded crown with a diameter of 2.4 m. And a height of 1.3 m. From the tower, with a height of 54 meters, it is played hourly bugle Mary. It is one of the symbols of Krakow. At the foot, from the north, is a rectangular annex, located a stone staircase leading to the interior of the tower. The entrance to the tower draws attention to a large, cast in bronze plaque depicting the entrance of King Jan III Sobieski. It was made on the basis of the draft sculptor Pius Weloński 1883 to celebrate the 200th anniversary of the siege of Vienna. On the tower there is a bell clock back to 1530 (tons Impact d ', diameter 165 cm).

In 2013. due to the poor technical condition of the tower was closed to the public. Re-making is expected in April 2015, after completion of the work related to the installation of new electrical, heating and plumbing, and the installation of a new - metal - staircase.

Lower tower, with a height of 69 meters, is for the church bell tower. Built on a square plan, it has clearly marked on the entire height of the cornices and windows division storey. On the first floor there is the Renaissance chapel of the Conversion of St. Paul (Kaufman). Outside, next to the window of the chapel, the trójspadowym roof is suspended bell "for the dying", cast by Kacper Koerber from Wroclaw in 1736. Tower covers the late Renaissance helmet, constructed in 1592, consisting of an elliptical dome, mounted on octagonal drum and topped with openwork lantern. In the corners are set four smaller domes on low, hexagonal bases. Suspended bell in the clock back to 1530 (diameter 135 cm), now unused.

Facade

The slender walls of the sanctuary are elongated, arched windows are decorated with floral motifs, and the keys figural sculptures of symbolic. Equally rich sculptural decoration presents 21 figures, placed on consoles, supporting the cornice crowning the walls of the main building. On the wall of the chapel. St. John of Nepomuk is a sundial made in sgraffito technique by Tadeusz Przypkowski in 1954.

Porch

For the interior of the temple, from the front, leading Baroque porch. It was built between 1750-1753, designed by Francesco Placidi. The shape of it is modeled on the architectural form of the Holy Sepulchre. Wooden door decorated with carved heads of Polish saints, prophets and apostles. It made in 1929 by Karol Hukan.

Above the porch is a large, arched window with stained glass windows, projected by Joseph Mehoffer and Wyspiański. Decorative division of windows made in 1891 according to the concept of Jan Matejko.

Kuna

At the entrance to the basilica, from the Saint Mary's square, is mounted kuna (ie. the rim penitents), which was formerly assumed on the heads of particular sinners. Rim penitents was mounted at such a height that convicted her could neither sit up nor kneel, what was all the more a nuisance punishment. For centuries the level of the square plate lifted in and out of the rim is a little above the ground.

Interior

Presbytery

The nave

Choir and organ

The chancel with altar by Veit Stoss

The presbytery is covered with a stellar vault, made by master Czipsera in 1442. The keystones ribs appear coats of arms: Polish, Cracow and the bishop Iwo Odrowąż - founder of the first church of St. Mary. The perimeter niches set statues of prophets, Jeremiah, Daniel, David, Ezekiel, Isaiah and Jonah. He made it in 1891, the Krakow sculptor Zygmunt Langman.

The walls adorned with wall paintings made in the years 1890-1892 by Jan Matejko. With its implementation cooperated with the master many of his students, later famous and prominent painters, m.in .: Anthony Grammar, Edward Better, Stanislaw Bankiewicz, Mehoffer, Stanislaw Wyspianski. Technical drawings made by Tomasz Lisiewicz and gilding work is the work of Michael Stojakowski. Stained glass windows in this part of the church are by Joseph Mehoffer, Stanislaw Wyspianski and Tadeusz Dmochowskiego.

On both sides of the presbytery covered with a canopy set up stalls. They were made in 1586 and then in 1635 supplemented by zapleckami that Fabian Möller decorated with bas-reliefs with scenes from the life of Christ and Mary. At the stalls right to present: Jesse Tree, Nativity of Mary, the Presentation of Mary, Marriage of St. Joseph, the Annunciation, the Visitation of St. Elizabeth and Christmas. At the stalls northern (left) are sculptures: Circumcision, Adoration of the Magi, The Presentation of Jesus in the temple, Farewell to the Mother, the Risen Christ appears to Mary, Our Lady of the Assumption, and the Coronation of the Madonna and Child surrounded by symbols of the Litany of Loreto. On the chorus authorities 12-voice.

The chancel is completed apse, which separates from the rest of the church, made in bronze, openwork balustrade with two goals. Hinged door decorated with the coats of arms of Krakow and archiprezbiterów church - Kłośnik and Prawdzic. Stained glass windows in the apse from the years 1370-1400, and made them master Nicholas called vitreator de Cracowia. They include two thematic cycles: the Book of Genesis in the Old and New Testaments and scenes from the life of Jesus and Mary.

The main altar

Main article: Altarpiece of Veit Stoss.

The main altar dedicated to Mary adorned with the great late Gothic altarpiece made in the years 1477 to 1489 by Veit Stoss what is the chef d'oeuvre of the artist of Krakow and Nuremberg. Numbering approx. 13 × 13 m. Polyptych consists of a main body of the cabinet-pełnoplastycznymi sculptures forming two scenes - the Dormition and Assumption of the Virgin Mary, two pairs of wings, movable and immovable. The continuation of the main thread is placed at the final Coronation of the Virgin in the company of two major Polish patrons - saints Stanislaw and Wojciech. On the side wings deployed bas-relief presenting forming two cycles of the life of Mary and Jesus Christ. The basis creates a predella with a plot Tree of Jesse.

The body of the aisle

The body creates nave nave with a pair of aisles are adjacent chapels. The body consists of four spans, the inside is covered with cross-ribbed vault built with the exception of later chapels, whose vaults are a diverse system of ribs.

The nave

The vault of the nave

The nave with a height of 28 meters is covered with a cross-ribbed vault. Murals done in the years 1890-1892 by Jan Matejko, Mehoffer and Wyspiański, who also designed the stained glass windows.

Above the cornice running around the nave are placed wooden statues: St. Stefan St. Kinga, Saint. Stanislaus Kostka, St.. Casimir, St. Jadwiga of Anjou, St. Ursula, St. Jack St. Adalbert, Bl. Salome and Bl. Bronisława. The sculptures are the work of Zygmunt Langman from the early twentieth century.

With the pillars separating the nave from the side, there are the eighteenth-century, late baroque altars. They have placed in them images: Giovanni Battista Pittoniego, Jacob Martens, Hans Suess Kulmbach, Luke Orlowski and others.

At the main entrance, next to the altar are covered with a canopy stalls councilors, aldermen, trustees and powerful families of Krakow from the seventeenth century. Nave and chancel is divided, placed on a rainbow (designed by Jan Matejko), a crucifix - the work of students Veit Stoss.

The eastern part of the main body houses several works of art, including ciborium of Giovanni Maria Padovano and several altars. Above the entrance to the choir authorities 56-voice bearing a decorative cover.

Northern nave

On the north side (left) is a Baroque church altar. St. Stanislaus (closing the left aisle) from the second half of the seventeenth century with a carved scene of the Resurrection Piotrowin. Mounted here is the Gothic mensa of approx. 1400 płaskorzeźbną decoration.

Second baroque altar was made in 1725 by the architect of Krakow Casper Bazanka. In it is a picture of the Annunciation, painted in 1740 by Giovanni Battista Pittoniego. At the gate railings bears decorative coat of arms Polish.

In front of the altar is a family tomb Celarich made in 1616. In niches set busts of the founders: Paul Celariego and his wife Margaret of Khodorkovsky and Andrew Celariego with his wife Margaret of Mączyńskich. At the top of the allegorical sculptures symbolize Faith and Hope.

Southern nave

Ciborium, on the right - a crucifix by Veit Stoss

Crucifix Veit Stoss

Main article: Crucifix Veit Stoss.

On the south (right) side there is a late Baroque altar (closing the right aisle) 1735, which is a stone crucifix, a work of Veit Stoss. Same crucifix was built in the late 80s and early 90s the fifteenth century at the request of the royal minter John Albert - Henryk Slacker. The image of Christ is characterized by naturalism and doloryzmem. The artist strongly stressed suffering martyrdom, but also its saving, triumphant aspect. Jesus has opened the eyes directed toward the person praying what may certify a devotional character of the dzieła.Tło cross is silver plate with views of Jerusalem, made in 1723 by Joseph Ceyplera.

Other equipment

Next to the altar is a Renaissance ciborium, designed in 1552 by Italian sculptor and architect Jan Maria Padovano, founded by Krakow goldsmiths Andrew Mastelli and Jerzy Pipan. Richly developed architecturally, the building is made of sand stone with the addition of multi-colored marble. From the aisles separating ciborium balustrade railings, and openwork gate, cast in bronze in 1595 by Michael Otto, who decorated them emblems of Polish and Lithuanian. There is also a chorus of historic organs.

Opposite the ciborium is a family tomb Montelupi (Wilczogórskich), whose origin should be attributed to the workshop of postgucciowskim (1600-1603). In the middle of the tombstone are carved in marble busts of the founders: Sebastian Montelupi and his wife Ursula of the base and Valery Montelupi with his wife Helena with Moreckich. In the top there heraldic cartouches and allegorical figures: Fortitude, Temperance and Prudence.

pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_Mariacki_w_K...

Easington Colliery is a town in County Durham, England, known for a history of coal mining. It is situated to the north of Horden, a short distance to the east of Easington Village. The town suffered a significant mining accident on 29 May 1951, when an explosion in the mine resulted in the deaths of 83 men.

 

Easington had a population of 4,959 in 2001, and 5,022 at the 2011 Census.

 

The town's prominence increased after its use as the fictional Everington in the film Billy Elliot (2000), starring Jamie Bell.

 

Easington Colliery began when the pit was sunk in 1899, near the coast; indeed the pylon for the aerial flight that carried tubs of colliery waste from the mine stood just inside the North Sea. Thousands of workers came to the area from all parts of Britain, and with the new community came new shops, pubs, clubs, and many rows of terraced "colliery houses" for the mine workers and their families.

 

On 7 May 1993, the mine was closed, with the loss of 1,400 jobs, causing a decline in the local economy. The pit shaft headgear was demolished the following year.

 

The town's former infant and junior schools were built in 1911. They are adjacent to Seaside Line but lie derelict. A development company bought the buildings in 2003 and applied for planning permission to build 39 residential units, but a public inquiry gave a ruling that protected the buildings from demolition. They have since been listed. Both buildings were demolished in 2021.

 

It was decided in 2009 to create a new unitary authority — Durham County Council — to cover the whole of the county, and most of Easington's staff moved into new offices in Seaham. Easington District Council's office building, which had been the department's home for over eighty years, was demolished in April 2013. The fixtures and fittings, including oak desks, from the council chamber, were placed in storage at Beamish Museum.

 

A history of the Easington Colliery was published in the Journal of the North East Labour History Society.

 

The youngest soldier to be awarded a Victoria Cross during World War II was Dennis Donnini, who was from Easington. His father, an Italian named Alfred Donnini, had married an Englishwoman named Catherine Brown and ran an ice-cream shop in Easington. Donnini attended Corby Grammar School in Sunderland.

 

In an action on 18 January 1945, fusilier Donnini (then aged 19) was wounded twice yet still led an assault on the enemy before being killed. His gallantry had enabled his comrades to overcome three times their own number of the enemy. He is buried at the Commonwealth Cemetery in Sittard, the Netherlands.

 

There was a major mine disaster in 1951, sometimes called the Duckbill or Duck Bills Flare (or Fire).

 

Although the shafts for the colliery had started to be sunk in 1899, the first coals were not drawn until 1910 due to passing through water-bearing strata. Two main pits were sunk: the North Shaft (downcast) and the South Shaft (upcast). Both of these reached down to the Hutton seam, at 1,430 feet (440 m) and 1,500 feet (460 m), respectively. The seams worked were Five Quarter, Seven Quarter, Main Coal, Low Main and the Hutton at the bottom. Underground, the colliery was split into a number of distinct areas or districts. The explosion occurred in the West or "Duckbill" district (named after the duckbill excavators used in the district), which lies to the northwest of the shafts and to the north of the village. The village is built over the seams, and to safeguard it from subsidence there is a reserved area under it.

 

Significantly, one district extends for four miles (6.4 km) under the North Sea; ventilation was, therefore, not simple: enough air was needed to ventilate the extremities of the eastern workings, whilst that for the closer faces did not need such a powerful supply. Too much air in the closer workings would starve the distant ones. Supplementary fans and traps needed to be employed. The Duckbill district was being developed, and it appears that the effect of this on the ventilation was overlooked, as admitted by the Assistant Agent (Mr H. E. Morgan) in cross-examination.

 

From the pit bottoms, the main roadways extended 380 yards (350 m) to the north, where the West Level branched off and ran for 640 yards (590 m) west to the junction with the Straight North Headings, which head north via drifts into the Five Quarter seam. The West Level continued into a training area. Around 300 yards (270 m) along the Straight North Headings was a further junction where the First West Roads headed west. Some distance further on the second and third roads branched off.

 

Along the First West roads were a number of headings both north and south. The seat of the explosion was at the far end, down the Third South heading.

 

At the end of the Third South heading a cross passage was driven and "long wall" excavation commenced on the retreating wall principle. The cutting machine travels from one end of the long wall to the other, and then back. The cuts are made towards the roads, thus the face retreats from where it started back towards the start of the headings. Behind the cut is a void (known as "goaf") into which spoil was placed and normally the roof is allowed to collapse upon this spoil as props are withdrawn. In the case of the Third South workings this collapse did not occur properly and a void developed above the spoil.

 

The area above the goaf was inadequately ventilated and acted as a reservoir for firedamp. The origin of the firedamp is debatable: either the fractured roof allowed a sudden outburst from the seams above, or else the firedamp was gradually emitted from the waste into the void. Roberts discusses these possibilities in the report and comes down in favour of the latter.

 

All collieries are susceptible to the build up of coal dust, not just at the face but along the roadways and conveyors. Coal dust when dispersed in air forms an explosive mixture. Mines therefore adopt three principal means of combating this risk: removal of the dust, spraying with water and diluting the coal dust with stone dust. All three were practised at Easington, but not in a satisfactory manner.

 

At this date firedamp detection was by means of a flame safety lamp. Certain men were required to have the lamps with them. These men were not permitted to have electrical lamps with them which might disguise the changes in the flame they were meant to observe. Provision was made for the mine manager to issue written permission for these men to carry electrical lights. At Easington this permission was routinely given. Since the flame lamps were not needed for illumination they were an additional item to carry and were sometimes left behind. On the day of the explosion both lamps had been left at the intake and were not being used for detection. Roberts was unsure whether, in this instance, the lamps would have provided timely warning of the firedamp.

 

The coal cutter has a rotating head on which are mounted hardened teeth, known as picks. Within the coal can be found inclusions of rocks such as pyrites or quartz which shatter and produce a finely divided powder. If this powder is between the pick and the rock it will be ground and thereby heated. Blunt picks are more likely to do this than sharp ones. Prior to the explosion sparking had been observed from the cutters in the Duckbill district.

 

At Easington in 1951 blunt picks from the coal cutter hit a patch of pyrites and generated sparks. The firedamp leaking from the void above the goaf was ignited. When firedamp explodes in a tunnel it generates a blast of gas which raises any coal dust lying around. The coal dust, being finely divided, in turn explodes and the resulting explosion propagates along the tunnel as a flame front. At Easington the explosion travelled down the south headings to the west roads and then along the west roads, down the straight north headings and into the main coal where it reached as far as the training area. Two falls occurred: one in the main coal shortly before the drifts leading to the straight north roads, the other in the Duckbill district shortly before the 3rd south heading.

 

At that time Durham mines worked three production shifts and a maintenance shift. The fore-shift was from 03:30 to 11:07, the back-shift from 09:45 to 17:22 and night-shift from 16:00 to 23:37. The maintenance and repair shift was the stone-shift from 22:00 to 05:37. Shift timings related to going underground through to returning to the shaft top, therefore at 04:35 both the stone-shift and the fore-shift were underground at the faces. 38 men from the stone-shift and 43 from the fore-shift were killed, all but one instantly. The man who survived died of his injuries just a few hours later. As a result of the total loss of life in the vicinity there were no eye-witness accounts of the explosion or its immediate aftermath.

 

One man (Frank Leadbitter) was at the shaft-bottom stables and led a party of men through the dust cloud towards the explosion. They headed along the main coal west haulage road towards the duckbill district. The Chief Inspector of Mines singled Leadbitter out for especial praise for continuing even after feeling what they thought was a second explosion.

 

The air in the pit was foul with afterdamp. As the rescuers started to move into the affected area, the canaries carried were overcome almost at once. The afterdamp led to the deaths of a further two men, bringing the total deaths to 83. The first death was John Young Wallace (26) who simply sat down, fell unconscious and died. His self-contained breathing apparatus was tested and found to be satisfactory. A post mortem examination revealed emphysema and it was thought that the exertion led to breathlessness caused him to open his mouth and allow ambient air to leak in. The air was thought to contain about 3% carbon monoxide (30,000 ppm), well above the 667 ppm fatal concentration.

 

Three days later another rescuer collapsed in a similar way and died. The postmortem revealed bullus empysema. A bulla (blister) on his left lung had ruptured and the pain had made him gasp for breath, thereby inhaling a fatal amount of carbon monoxide.

 

A memorial comprising a large carved triangular rock painted white. It bears a tablet of stone removed from the scene of the disaster, and a metal plaque with an inscription. The memorial was inaugurated on 22 March 1952. On the same occasion, Easington Colliery's youngest miner, a boy of 16, planted the first of 83 trees, to line the walkway. Each tree symbolises a life lost in the disaster.

 

The youngest victim was 18-years-old, the oldest 68, whilst the average age of the pitmen killed was 43.

 

Easington Colliery Band was founded in 1915. Players with band experience were encouraged by the management to come from the West of Durham to work at the colliery and play in the band. The band was supported financially and run by the joint board of unions, until the start of World War II. The band played for community activities, such as dances, concerts, and competitions. For the duration of the war the Easington Colliery Youth Band became the National Fire Service Band, which was eventually 'demobbed' in 1945 to become the Easington Public Band.

 

In 1956 the Public Band and the Colliery Band amalgamated to become the Easington Colliery Band as it is today. April 1993 witnessed the end of an era when Easington Colliery finally closed. The band is now self-supporting and relies on funding from concerts held throughout the year. The band is still based in Easington Colliery in the old colliery pay office opposite the Memorial Gardens, which is on the site of the old colliery. The building is the last remaining evidence of the pit.

 

Easington Colliery doubled as the fictitious Everington in the 2000 film Billy Elliot. About 400 locals were used as extras during the filming in 1999.

 

Due to Easington Colliery's pit closure in 1993, the film's mining scenes were filmed at the Ellington and Lynemouth Colliery in Northumberland, with some filming in Dawdon, Middlesbrough and Newcastle upon Tyne.

 

Scenes inside the Elliot home and local street shots were filmed in Easington Colliery. Alnwick Street, on which the Elliot family lived at number 5, was one of several streets demolished in 2003 after becoming derelict. Michael lived at the corresponding number across the alley to the west on the also-demolished Andrew Street. A green space now stands in their place. Avon Street, to the east, which is still intact, is shown when the postman walks up to the front of the Elliot residence to deliver Billy's letter from the Royal Ballet. The faded white-brick wall of Wright's Prize Bingo, on Ashton Street, is also still visible. This was directly in line with the Elliots' terrace.

 

Almost all of the scenes set in Everington were filmed at the top of the sizable slope that is visible in the street views, near the allotments on Tower Street that still remain today. Easington coal mine was located past the eastern end of Tower Street. It is also down Tower Street that Billy is seen dancing with his ballet shoes around his neck. He then turns right to go behind the Anthony Street terraces, looking down the hill to Ashton Street, on what is now Gardener and Leech Courts, with Bede Street rising up on the other side. The rear of Anthony Street, where Austin and Arthur Streets once stood, is also used in the scene in which Billy steals a ballet book from the mobile library van. After a dance class, Mrs Wilkinson drops Billy off at a vacant lot of land on Crawlaw Avenue, just beyond Andrew Street.

 

There are three scenes filmed at the southern end of the terraces: when Debbie is dragging the stick along the walls (and police shields) on Ashton Street at the ends of Avon Street, firstly, and then Alnwick Street. Billy then crosses Ashton Street en route to Seaside Lane. The same crossing is made by Billy, Jackie and Tony when they take Billy to the bus station. Mrs Wilkinson parks on Ashton Street, at the bottom of Alnwick Street, when she pays the Elliots a visit.

 

The Rialto, a former cinema on Oswald Terrace, is shown briefly in the movie. It is now the only surviving cinema building in the town, although it has now been taken over by a carpet superstore. Part of the original façade, which Billy walks by, is still visible, however. It ceased being a cinema in the mid-1970s. It is in the alley behind Oswald Terrace that the Christmas scene featuring Billy and Michael is shot. Fake snow is used to cover the scene. The rear of the Rialto doubles as that of Everington Boys' Club, where Billy attends boxing and dance practices. The interior shots were filmed on the top floor of Hanwell Community Centre in London.

 

Billy Elliot the Musical (2005) is set in Easington and the town is named in song lyrics.

 

Singer-songwriter Jez Lowe was born and brought up in Easington. His song, "Last of the Widows", was written in 1991 to mark the fortieth anniversary of the pit disaster. Many of his other songs are inspired by life in County Durham and Easington in particular.

 

Poet, Songwriter and Durham miner Jock Purdon penned and sang the lament "Easington Explosion" regarding the 1951 disaster.

 

In 1971, members of rock band The Who shot the cover photograph for their album Who's Next at a concrete piling protruding from a spoil tip in the area. This cover was named by the VH1 network as one of the Greatest Album Covers.

 

In 2008, the town was featured in an episode of Channel 4's The Secret Millionaire, in which advertising mogul Carl Hopkins donated over £30,000 to the community.

 

Peter Lee Hammond was a miner at Easington pit and a singer-songwriter. Every year, Easington held a carnival, and in 1989 Hammond was asked by the Easington Carnival Committee to write and sing a song about the community, mining history and the pit disaster of 1951. The A-side song was called "Living in a Mining Town", which included Hammond singing with his band Just Us, and the B-side was an instrumental version of the song and included Thornley & Wheatley Hill Colliery Brass Bands and local school children from Easington Junior school & Shotton Primary school singing harmony. The B-side was conducted and brass arrangement by Gorden Kitto. Local renowned poet and Colliery resident Mary Bell also helped organise the single's release. The song became a big hit with the locals and it was decided to make it into a single, with the proceeds going to a handicapped school in Easington. As the newspapers and radio got involved then quite a few celebrities gave their support and got involved in giving donations and funding the song, including HRH Prince Charles, the then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, Neil Kinnock M.P. and Sir Paul McCartney, and the song was mixed at Abbey Road Studios. Hammond was quoted as saying in a radio interview:

 

"Having one of my songs done at Abbey Road Studios was great. What a fantastic place it is, and Paul and Lynda helping was a dream. And to have the local school kids and brass bands on the B-side shows how strong the mining community is in this area and it gave the community a sense of pride when the single came out, I was very proud and honoured to have been asked to do this for the place where I was born and raised."

 

A copy of the song was requested by Queen Elizabeth II to be sent to her at Buckingham Palace, and a copy of the song was made part of the living history memorabilia exhibition at the Yardy Gallery museum in Sunderland, Tyne and Wear. The song was played on many radio stations and was a major success in the area. Hammond went on to win many awards for his other songs and recording albums abroad and is still writing to this day.

 

County Durham, officially simply Durham is a ceremonial county in North East England. The county borders Northumberland and Tyne and Wear to the north, the North Sea to the east, North Yorkshire to the south, and Cumbria to the west. The largest settlement is Darlington, and the county town is the city of Durham.

 

The county has an area of 2,721 km2 (1,051 sq mi) and a population of 866,846. The latter is concentrated in the east; the south-east is part of the Teesside built-up area, which extends into North Yorkshire. After Darlington (92,363), the largest settlements are Hartlepool (88,855), Stockton-on-Tees (82,729), and Durham (48,069). For local government purposes the county comprises three unitary authority areas—County Durham, Darlington, and Hartlepool—and part of a fourth, Stockton-on-Tees. The county historically included the part of Tyne and Wear south of the River Tyne, and excluded the part of County Durham south of the River Tees.

 

The west of the county contains part of the North Pennines uplands, a national landscape. The hills are the source of the rivers Tees and Wear, which flow east and form the valleys of Teesdale and Weardale respectively. The east of the county is flatter, and contains by rolling hills through which the two rivers meander; the Tees forms the boundary with North Yorkshire in its lower reaches, and the Wear exits the county near Chester-le-Street in the north-east. The county's coast is a site of special scientific interest characterised by tall limestone and dolomite cliffs.

 

What is now County Durham was on the border of Roman Britain, and contains survivals of this era at sites such as Binchester Roman Fort. In the Anglo-Saxon period the region was part of the Kingdom of Northumbria. In 995 the city of Durham was founded by monks seeking a place safe from Viking raids to house the relics of St Cuthbert. Durham Cathedral was rebuilt after the Norman Conquest, and together with Durham Castle is now a World Heritage Site. By the late Middle Ages the county was governed semi-independently by the bishops of Durham and was also a buffer zone between England and Scotland. County Durham became heavily industrialised in the nineteenth century, when many collieries opened on the Durham coalfield. The Stockton and Darlington Railway, the world's first public railway to use steam locomotives, opened in 1825. Most collieries closed during the last quarter of the twentieth century, but the county's coal mining heritage is remembered in the annual Durham Miners' Gala.

 

Remains of Prehistoric Durham include a number of Neolithic earthworks.

 

The Crawley Edge Cairns and Heathery Burn Cave are Bronze Age sites. Maiden Castle, Durham is an Iron Age site.

 

Brigantia, the land of the Brigantes, is said to have included what is now County Durham.

 

There are archaeological remains of Roman Durham. Dere Street and Cade's Road run through what is now County Durham. There were Roman forts at Concangis (Chester-le-Street), Lavatrae (Bowes), Longovicium (Lanchester), Piercebridge (Morbium), Vindomora (Ebchester) and Vinovium (Binchester). (The Roman fort at Arbeia (South Shields) is within the former boundaries of County Durham.) A Romanised farmstead has been excavated at Old Durham.

 

Remains of the Anglo-Saxon period include a number of sculpted stones and sundials, the Legs Cross, the Rey Cross and St Cuthbert's coffin.

 

Around AD 547, an Angle named Ida founded the kingdom of Bernicia after spotting the defensive potential of a large rock at Bamburgh, upon which many a fortification was thenceforth built. Ida was able to forge, hold and consolidate the kingdom; although the native British tried to take back their land, the Angles triumphed and the kingdom endured.

 

In AD 604, Ida's grandson Æthelfrith forcibly merged Bernicia (ruled from Bamburgh) and Deira (ruled from York, which was known as Eforwic at the time) to create the Kingdom of Northumbria. In time, the realm was expanded, primarily through warfare and conquest; at its height, the kingdom stretched from the River Humber (from which the kingdom drew its name) to the Forth. Eventually, factional fighting and the rejuvenated strength of neighbouring kingdoms, most notably Mercia, led to Northumbria's decline. The arrival of the Vikings hastened this decline, and the Scandinavian raiders eventually claimed the Deiran part of the kingdom in AD 867 (which became Jórvík). The land that would become County Durham now sat on the border with the Great Heathen Army, a border which today still (albeit with some adjustments over the years) forms the boundaries between Yorkshire and County Durham.

 

Despite their success south of the river Tees, the Vikings never fully conquered the Bernician part of Northumbria, despite the many raids they had carried out on the kingdom. However, Viking control over the Danelaw, the central belt of Anglo-Saxon territory, resulted in Northumbria becoming isolated from the rest of Anglo-Saxon Britain. Scots invasions in the north pushed the kingdom's northern boundary back to the River Tweed, and the kingdom found itself reduced to a dependent earldom, its boundaries very close to those of modern-day Northumberland and County Durham. The kingdom was annexed into England in AD 954.

 

In AD 995, St Cuthbert's community, who had been transporting Cuthbert's remains around, partly in an attempt to avoid them falling into the hands of Viking raiders, settled at Dunholm (Durham) on a site that was defensively favourable due to the horseshoe-like path of the River Wear. St Cuthbert's remains were placed in a shrine in the White Church, which was originally a wooden structure but was eventually fortified into a stone building.

 

Once the City of Durham had been founded, the Bishops of Durham gradually acquired the lands that would become County Durham. Bishop Aldhun began this process by procuring land in the Tees and Wear valleys, including Norton, Stockton, Escomb and Aucklandshire in 1018. In 1031, King Canute gave Staindrop to the Bishops. This territory continued to expand, and was eventually given the status of a liberty. Under the control of the Bishops of Durham, the land had various names: the "Liberty of Durham", "Liberty of St Cuthbert's Land" "the lands of St Cuthbert between Tyne and Tees" or "the Liberty of Haliwerfolc" (holy Wear folk).

 

The bishops' special jurisdiction rested on claims that King Ecgfrith of Northumbria had granted a substantial territory to St Cuthbert on his election to the see of Lindisfarne in 684. In about 883 a cathedral housing the saint's remains was established at Chester-le-Street and Guthfrith, King of York granted the community of St Cuthbert the area between the Tyne and the Wear, before the community reached its final destination in 995, in Durham.

 

Following the Norman invasion, the administrative machinery of government extended only slowly into northern England. Northumberland's first recorded Sheriff was Gilebert from 1076 until 1080 and a 12th-century record records Durham regarded as within the shire. However the bishops disputed the authority of the sheriff of Northumberland and his officials, despite the second sheriff for example being the reputed slayer of Malcolm Canmore, King of Scots. The crown regarded Durham as falling within Northumberland until the late thirteenth century.

 

Following the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror appointed Copsig as Earl of Northumbria, thereby bringing what would become County Durham under Copsig's control. Copsig was, just a few weeks later, killed in Newburn. Having already being previously offended by the appointment of a non-Northumbrian as Bishop of Durham in 1042, the people of the region became increasingly rebellious. In response, in January 1069, William despatched a large Norman army, under the command of Robert de Comines, to Durham City. The army, believed to consist of 700 cavalry (about one-third of the number of Norman knights who had participated in the Battle of Hastings), entered the city, whereupon they were attacked, and defeated, by a Northumbrian assault force. The Northumbrians wiped out the entire Norman army, including Comines, all except for one survivor, who was allowed to take the news of this defeat back.

 

Following the Norman slaughter at the hands of the Northumbrians, resistance to Norman rule spread throughout Northern England, including a similar uprising in York. William The Conqueror subsequently (and successfully) attempted to halt the northern rebellions by unleashing the notorious Harrying of the North (1069–1070). Because William's main focus during the harrying was on Yorkshire, County Durham was largely spared the Harrying.

 

Anglo-Norman Durham refers to the Anglo-Norman period, during which Durham Cathedral was built.

 

Matters regarding the bishopric of Durham came to a head in 1293 when the bishop and his steward failed to attend proceedings of quo warranto held by the justices of Northumberland. The bishop's case went before parliament, where he stated that Durham lay outside the bounds of any English shire and that "from time immemorial it had been widely known that the sheriff of Northumberland was not sheriff of Durham nor entered within that liberty as sheriff. . . nor made there proclamations or attachments". The arguments appear to have prevailed, as by the fourteenth century Durham was accepted as a liberty which received royal mandates direct. In effect it was a private shire, with the bishop appointing his own sheriff. The area eventually became known as the "County Palatine of Durham".

 

Sadberge was a liberty, sometimes referred to as a county, within Northumberland. In 1189 it was purchased for the see but continued with a separate sheriff, coroner and court of pleas. In the 14th century Sadberge was included in Stockton ward and was itself divided into two wards. The division into the four wards of Chester-le-Street, Darlington, Easington and Stockton existed in the 13th century, each ward having its own coroner and a three-weekly court corresponding to the hundred court. The diocese was divided into the archdeaconries of Durham and Northumberland. The former is mentioned in 1072, and in 1291 included the deaneries of Chester-le-Street, Auckland, Lanchester and Darlington.

 

The term palatinus is applied to the bishop in 1293, and from the 13th century onwards the bishops frequently claimed the same rights in their lands as the king enjoyed in his kingdom.

 

The historic boundaries of County Durham included a main body covering the catchment of the Pennines in the west, the River Tees in the south, the North Sea in the east and the Rivers Tyne and Derwent in the north. The county palatinate also had a number of liberties: the Bedlingtonshire, Islandshire and Norhamshire exclaves within Northumberland, and the Craikshire exclave within the North Riding of Yorkshire. In 1831 the county covered an area of 679,530 acres (2,750.0 km2) and had a population of 253,910. These exclaves were included as part of the county for parliamentary electoral purposes until 1832, and for judicial and local-government purposes until the coming into force of the Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844, which merged most remaining exclaves with their surrounding county. The boundaries of the county proper remained in use for administrative and ceremonial purposes until the Local Government Act 1972.

 

Boldon Book (1183 or 1184) is a polyptichum for the Bishopric of Durham.

 

Until the 15th century, the most important administrative officer in the Palatinate was the steward. Other officers included the sheriff, the coroners, the Chamberlain and the chancellor. The palatine exchequer originated in the 12th century. The palatine assembly represented the whole county, and dealt chiefly with fiscal questions. The bishop's council, consisting of the clergy, the sheriff and the barons, regulated judicial affairs, and later produced the Chancery and the courts of Admiralty and Marshalsea.

 

The prior of Durham ranked first among the bishop's barons. He had his own court, and almost exclusive jurisdiction over his men. A UNESCO site describes the role of the Prince-Bishops in Durham, the "buffer state between England and Scotland":

 

From 1075, the Bishop of Durham became a Prince-Bishop, with the right to raise an army, mint his own coins, and levy taxes. As long as he remained loyal to the king of England, he could govern as a virtually autonomous ruler, reaping the revenue from his territory, but also remaining mindful of his role of protecting England’s northern frontier.

 

A report states that the Bishops also had the authority to appoint judges and barons and to offer pardons.

 

There were ten palatinate barons in the 12th century, most importantly the Hyltons of Hylton Castle, the Bulmers of Brancepeth, the Conyers of Sockburne, the Hansards of Evenwood, and the Lumleys of Lumley Castle. The Nevilles owned large estates in the county. John Neville, 3rd Baron Neville de Raby rebuilt Raby Castle, their principal seat, in 1377.

 

Edward I's quo warranto proceedings of 1293 showed twelve lords enjoying more or less extensive franchises under the bishop. The repeated efforts of the Crown to check the powers of the palatinate bishops culminated in 1536 in the Act of Resumption, which deprived the bishop of the power to pardon offences against the law or to appoint judicial officers. Moreover, indictments and legal processes were in future to run in the name of the king, and offences to be described as against the peace of the king, rather than that of the bishop. In 1596 restrictions were imposed on the powers of the chancery, and in 1646 the palatinate was formally abolished. It was revived, however, after the Restoration, and continued with much the same power until 5 July 1836, when the Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836 provided that the palatine jurisdiction should in future be vested in the Crown.

 

During the 15th-century Wars of the Roses, Henry VI passed through Durham. On the outbreak of the Great Rebellion in 1642 Durham inclined to support the cause of Parliament, and in 1640 the high sheriff of the palatinate guaranteed to supply the Scottish army with provisions during their stay in the county. In 1642 the Earl of Newcastle formed the western counties into an association for the King's service, but in 1644 the palatinate was again overrun by a Scottish army, and after the Battle of Marston Moor (2 July 1644) fell entirely into the hands of Parliament.

 

In 1614, a Bill was introduced in Parliament for securing representation to the county and city of Durham and the borough of Barnard Castle. The bishop strongly opposed the proposal as an infringement of his palatinate rights, and the county was first summoned to return members to Parliament in 1654. After the Restoration of 1660 the county and city returned two members each. In the wake of the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned two members for two divisions, and the boroughs of Gateshead, South Shields and Sunderland acquired representation. The bishops lost their secular powers in 1836. The boroughs of Darlington, Stockton and Hartlepool returned one member each from 1868 until the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885.

 

The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 reformed the municipal boroughs of Durham, Stockton on Tees and Sunderland. In 1875, Jarrow was incorporated as a municipal borough, as was West Hartlepool in 1887. At a county level, the Local Government Act 1888 reorganised local government throughout England and Wales. Most of the county came under control of the newly formed Durham County Council in an area known as an administrative county. Not included were the county boroughs of Gateshead, South Shields and Sunderland. However, for purposes other than local government, the administrative county of Durham and the county boroughs continued to form a single county to which the Crown appointed a Lord Lieutenant of Durham.

 

Over its existence, the administrative county lost territory, both to the existing county boroughs, and because two municipal boroughs became county boroughs: West Hartlepool in 1902 and Darlington in 1915. The county boundary with the North Riding of Yorkshire was adjusted in 1967: that part of the town of Barnard Castle historically in Yorkshire was added to County Durham, while the administrative county ceded the portion of the Borough of Stockton-on-Tees in Durham to the North Riding. In 1968, following the recommendation of the Local Government Commission, Billingham was transferred to the County Borough of Teesside, in the North Riding. In 1971, the population of the county—including all associated county boroughs (an area of 2,570 km2 (990 sq mi))—was 1,409,633, with a population outside the county boroughs of 814,396.

 

In 1974, the Local Government Act 1972 abolished the administrative county and the county boroughs, reconstituting County Durham as a non-metropolitan county. The reconstituted County Durham lost territory to the north-east (around Gateshead, South Shields and Sunderland) to Tyne and Wear and to the south-east (around Hartlepool) to Cleveland. At the same time it gained the former area of Startforth Rural District from the North Riding of Yorkshire. The area of the Lord Lieutenancy of Durham was also adjusted by the Act to coincide with the non-metropolitan county (which occupied 3,019 km2 (1,166 sq mi) in 1981).

 

In 1996, as part of 1990s UK local government reform by Lieutenancies Act 1997, Cleveland was abolished. Its districts were reconstituted as unitary authorities. Hartlepool and Stockton-on-Tees (north Tees) were returned to the county for the purposes of Lord Lieutenancy. Darlington also became a third unitary authority of the county. The Royal Mail abandoned the use of postal counties altogether, permitted but not mandatory being at a writer wishes.

 

As part of the 2009 structural changes to local government in England initiated by the Department for Communities and Local Government, the seven district councils within the County Council area were abolished. The County Council assumed their functions and became the fourth unitary authority. Changes came into effect on 1 April 2009.

 

On 15 April 2014, North East Combined Authority was established under the Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009 with powers over economic development and regeneration. In November 2018, Newcastle City Council, North Tyneside Borough Council, and Northumberland County Council left the authority. These later formed the North of Tyne Combined Authority.

 

In May 2021, four parish councils of the villages of Elwick, Hart, Dalton Piercy and Greatham all issued individual votes of no confidence in Hartlepool Borough Council, and expressed their desire to join the County Durham district.

 

In October 2021, County Durham was shortlisted for the UK City of Culture 2025. In May 2022, it lost to Bradford.

 

Eighteenth century Durham saw the appearance of dissent in the county and the Durham Ox. The county did not assist the Jacobite Rebellion of 1715. The Statue of Neptune in the City of Durham was erected in 1729.

 

A number of disasters happened in Nineteenth century Durham. The Felling mine disasters happened in 1812, 1813, 1821 and 1847. The Philadelphia train accident happened in 1815. In 1854, there was a great fire in Gateshead. One of the West Stanley Pit disasters happened in 1882. The Victoria Hall disaster happened in 1883.

 

One of the West Stanley Pit disasters happened in 1909. The Darlington rail crash happened in 1928. The Battle of Stockton happened in 1933. The Browney rail crash happened in 1946.

 

The First Treaty of Durham was made at Durham in 1136. The Second Treaty of Durham was made at Durham in 1139.

 

The county regiment was the Durham Light Infantry, which replaced, in particular, the 68th (Durham) Regiment of Foot (Light Infantry) and the Militia and Volunteers of County Durham.

 

RAF Greatham, RAF Middleton St George and RAF Usworth were located in County Durham.

 

David I, the King of Scotland, invaded the county in 1136, and ravaged much of the county 1138. In 17 October 1346, the Battle of Neville's Cross was fought at Neville's Cross, near the city of Durham. On 16 December 1914, during the First World War, there was a raid on Hartlepool by the Imperial German Navy.

 

Chroniclers connected with Durham include the Bede, Symeon of Durham, Geoffrey of Coldingham and Robert de Graystanes.

 

County Durham has long been associated with coal mining, from medieval times up to the late 20th century. The Durham Coalfield covered a large area of the county, from Bishop Auckland, to Consett, to the River Tyne and below the North Sea, thereby providing a significant expanse of territory from which this rich mineral resource could be extracted.

 

King Stephen possessed a mine in Durham, which he granted to Bishop Pudsey, and in the same century colliers are mentioned at Coundon, Bishopwearmouth and Sedgefield. Cockfield Fell was one of the earliest Landsale collieries in Durham. Edward III issued an order allowing coal dug at Newcastle to be taken across the Tyne, and Richard II granted to the inhabitants of Durham licence to export the produce of the mines, without paying dues to the corporation of Newcastle. The majority was transported from the Port of Sunderland complex, which was constructed in the 1850s.

 

Among other early industries, lead-mining was carried on in the western part of the county, and mustard was extensively cultivated. Gateshead had a considerable tanning trade and shipbuilding was undertaken at Jarrow, and at Sunderland, which became the largest shipbuilding town in the world – constructing a third of Britain's tonnage.[citation needed]

 

The county's modern-era economic history was facilitated significantly by the growth of the mining industry during the nineteenth century. At the industry's height, in the early 20th century, over 170,000 coal miners were employed, and they mined 58,700,000 tons of coal in 1913 alone. As a result, a large number of colliery villages were built throughout the county as the industrial revolution gathered pace.

 

The railway industry was also a major employer during the industrial revolution, with railways being built throughout the county, such as The Tanfield Railway, The Clarence Railway and The Stockton and Darlington Railway. The growth of this industry occurred alongside the coal industry, as the railways provided a fast, efficient means to move coal from the mines to the ports and provided the fuel for the locomotives. The great railway pioneers Timothy Hackworth, Edward Pease, George Stephenson and Robert Stephenson were all actively involved with developing the railways in tandem with County Durham's coal mining industry. Shildon and Darlington became thriving 'railway towns' and experienced significant growths in population and prosperity; before the railways, just over 100 people lived in Shildon but, by the 1890s, the town was home to around 8,000 people, with Shildon Shops employing almost 3000 people at its height.

 

However, by the 1930s, the coal mining industry began to diminish and, by the mid-twentieth century, the pits were closing at an increasing rate. In 1951, the Durham County Development Plan highlighted a number of colliery villages, such as Blackhouse, as 'Category D' settlements, in which future development would be prohibited, property would be acquired and demolished, and the population moved to new housing, such as that being built in Newton Aycliffe. Likewise, the railway industry also began to decline, and was significantly brought to a fraction of its former self by the Beeching cuts in the 1960s. Darlington Works closed in 1966 and Shildon Shops followed suit in 1984. The county's last deep mines, at Easington, Vane Tempest, Wearmouth and Westoe, closed in 1993.

 

Postal Rates from 1801 were charged depending on the distance from London. Durham was allocated the code 263 the approximate mileage from London. From about 1811, a datestamp appeared on letters showing the date the letter was posted. In 1844 a new system was introduced and Durham was allocated the code 267. This system was replaced in 1840 when the first postage stamps were introduced.

 

According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911): "To the Anglo-Saxon period are to be referred portions of the churches of Monk Wearmouth (Sunderland), Jarrow, Escomb near Bishop Auckland, and numerous sculptured crosses, two of which are in situ at Aycliffe. . . . The Decorated and Perpendicular periods are very scantily represented, on account, as is supposed, of the incessant wars between England and Scotland in the 14th and 15th centuries. The principal monastic remains, besides those surrounding Durham cathedral, are those of its subordinate house or "cell," Finchale Priory, beautifully situated by the Wear. The most interesting castles are those of Durham, Raby, Brancepeth and Barnard. There are ruins of castelets or peel-towers at Dalden, Ludworth and Langley Dale. The hospitals of Sherburn, Greatham and Kepyer, founded by early bishops of Durham, retain but few ancient features."

 

The best remains of the Norman period include Durham Cathedral and Durham Castle, and several parish churches, such as St Laurence Church in Pittington. The Early English period has left the eastern portion of the cathedral, the churches of Darlington, Hartlepool, and St Andrew, Auckland, Sedgefield, and portions of a few other churches.

 

'Durham Castle and Cathedral' is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site. Elsewhere in the County there is Auckland Castle.

With the recent developments in the Human Genome Mapping Project and the new technologies that are developing from it there is a renewal of concern about eugenic applications. Francis Galton (b1822, d1911), who developed the subject of eugenics, suggested that the ancient Greeks had contributed very little to social theories of eugenics. In fact the Greeks had a profound interest in methods of supplying their city states with the finest possible progeny. This paper therefore reviews the works of Plato (The Republic and Politics) and Aristotle (The Politics and The Athenian Constitution) which have a direct bearing on eugenic techniques and relates them to methods used in the present century.Abstract

 

With the recent developments in the Human Genome Mapping Project and the new technologies that are developing from it there is a renewal of concern about eugenic applications. Francis Galton (b1822, d1911), who developed the subject of eugenics, suggested that the ancient Greeks had contributed very little to social theories of eugenics. In fact the Greeks had a profound interest in methods of supplying their city states with the finest possible progeny. This paper therefore reviews the works of Plato (The Republic and Politics) and Aristotle (The Politics and The Athenian Constitution) which have a direct bearing on eugenic techniques and relates them to methods used in the present century.

 

(Journal of Medical Ethics 1998;24:263–267)

 

Keywords: Eugenics; ancient Greeks; Plato; Aristotle; contemporary methods

 

Introduction

 

Eugenics (Gk eu-good, well; Gk gen-genesis, creation), a term proposed by Francis Galton, was defined as "the science of improving the inherited stock, not only by judicious matings, but by all other influences ...."¹

 

With the recent developments in the Human Genome Mapping Project the scope for eugenics has enormously increased because of the development of a very powerful technology for the manipulation of DNA. A multitude of gene sequences and genetic markers are now becoming available to predict risks of developing such common conditions as cancer, ischaemic heart disease, diabetes mellitus and hypertension; and in some cases it is possible to treat such disorders by gene therapy (ie replacement of the LDL-receptor gene in patients with homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia).²

 

Gene manipulation of germ-line cells is currently in use for animal models of human disease and no doubt will soon become available for the supply of donor organs for purposes of human transplantation surgery.

 

A wider definition of eugenics might therefore be "the use of science applied to the quantitative and qualitative improvement of the human genome"; and this would cover methods of regulating population numbers as well as improving genome quality by selective artificial insemination by donor, gene therapy or gene manipulation of germ-line cells.³

 

This definition does not include any terms related to the acceptability or otherwise of the means to achieve these ends, ie whether some methods should be made compulsory by the state, or left entirely to the personal choice of the individual.

 

A major problem for the future will be where to draw the fine line between state control and personal choice for the many genetic issues that will arise with the application of the new DNA technology. This is particularly so as some of the genetic issues related to multifactorial disease are complex and may go beyond the understanding of some citizens who may be involved in such decisions.

 

Galton's work on eugenics makes very little reference to Greek social theories of eugenics and current standard works on eugenics⁴ make no reference to the Greek contribution.

 

For example Galton states in a letter, that he had read "Plato's Republic and Laws for eugenic passages; but they don't amount to much beyond the purification of the city by sending off all the degenerates to form what is termed a colony".⁵

 

It is not clear where Galton obtained this idea of colonisation as a eugenic measure; it does not appear to occur anywhere in Plato's works.

 

In early ancient Greek history (from the eighth to sixth centuries BC) establishing colonies was a way of coping with population expansion and of establishing trading contacts overseas.

 

Perhaps Galton may have been recalling Herodotus, Book IV, where Polymnestus, a man of high repute in Thera, had a defective son with a speech impediment named Battus (meaning stammerer); and Battus was dispatched by the citizens with sanctions from the Delphic oracle to found a colony in Libya.⁶

 

However, Herodotus does not say anything explicitly to suggest that the disability was a motive for sending him to lead a colony.

 

On the other hand Plato's works do reveal a profound interest in eugenics as a means of supplying the city state with the finest possible progeny.

 

This was of vital significance for the future of the city, which needed to supply men for its army which was continually at war with other city states.

 

The purpose of this paper is to describe prevailing ancient Greek views on eugenic methods to improve the quality of their progeny.

 

Plato's Republic⁷

 

This work was probably written before 368 BC when the author was in his fourth to fifth decade.

 

It is a blueprint for the organisation of an ideal society and with regard to eugenics adopts the policy of ensuring "judicious matings".

 

Plato thought it vital to society that the correct arrangements should be made for such matings.

 

He proposed that marriage for the guardian classes (guardians were the premier class of Athenian citizens, selected by their natural capacities and attainments to govern the state) be abolished and that provision be made for men and women of the same natural capacities to mate.

 

He drew an analogy with the selective breeding of sporting dogs and horses in order to obtain the desired stock.

 

The members of the guardian classes should only be allowed to breed in their primes, for men, after reaching the age of 25 years, for women 20 years.

 

Inferior members of the guardian classes should be discouraged from reproducing.

 

Only the best of the offspring should be kept in the guardian class and the inferior children should be relegated to the civilian classes (farmers or craftsmen).

 

These were the general principles; and in practical terms they could be implemented by the institution of a marriage festival, bringing together suitable young people in the correct age band.

 

Sacrifices, poetry, songs and dance would set the atmosphere for young couples to "marry" and cohabit during the period of the festival for about one month, after which the marriage would be dissolved and the partners remain celibate until the next festival.

 

The number of marriages at each festival would be at the ruler's discretion, to keep the population numbers constant, taking into account losses caused by war or epidemics.

 

Plato was more afraid of a decline than a rise in the birth rate and considered that the civilian classes could breed without restriction so as to keep an average city state with 5,000 citizens (as stated in The Laws).

 

To prevent marriage of the inferior members of the guardian classes a lottery system would be set up but so rigged that young men acquitting themselves well in war and other duties would be given the first opportunities of having a marriage partner for the term of the festival to produce children whilst the inferior youth would draw lots which "by chance" would not procure a partner for them.

 

At the end of the festival the marriages would be dissolved but the superior youths would be able to draw by lot another (and different) partner at the next festival.

 

The newborn children were to be taken from their mothers and reared in special nurseries in a separate quarter of the city.

 

Family life was to be discouraged as it provided a distraction from the business of governing, of defending or extending the city state by conquest.

 

Any children born defective would be "hidden away" in some appropriate manner.

 

This may actually be a euphemism for infanticide.⁸

 

However neither infanticide nor exposure as practised in Sparta and other Greek cities was recommended by Plato for his republic.

 

Women should be allowed to bear children from the ages of 20–40 years, and men reproduce from 25–55 years, when the bodily and mental powers are at their best.

 

Unofficial unions which produced children would be considered as a civil (and divine) offence and appropriate punishments instituted.

 

Men should only have relations with women of a marriageable age if the rulers had paired them together.

 

Incestuous unions between parents and children were to be forbidden; but there were no sanctions against brother-sister unions.

 

Brother-sister marriages were not uncommon in Egypt and the Greeks had probably not noticed the increased frequency of defective children resulting from consanguineous marriages.

 

The main aim of brother-sister incest as practised by the royal families of Egypt was to keep the throne within the family.

 

It appears clear from portraits of the Ptolemies of Egypt, the most notorious case of such incest, that some members suffered from inherited endocrine disorders,⁹ but there is no evidence that this was connected by the ancients themselves with the practice of brother-sister incest.

 

However, if all the newborn Greek children were brought up communally in a crèche, real brothers and sisters would not perhaps know they were so related; especially as there would be so many different marriage pairs from each succeeding festival.

 

Finally, men and women of the guardian classes past the child-bearing age could form relationships that would fall outside the jurisdiction of the rulers.

 

Plato's Laws¹⁰

 

This is the last of Plato's dialogues, written in his eighth decade in about 350 BC, but it is highly likely that he was at work on The Laws for many years during intervals of writing other texts, since it is his longest work and it may well incorporate material for earlier projects at which he hints, but seems never to have completed.

 

It is a more practical treatment and extension of the political problems raised in The Republic. He attempts to frame a model constitution and legislation that might be adopted by a society of average Greeks marriage festivals, with a community of wives and children, to be impractical. Instead he would legislate for monogamous marriages with strict chastity outside of that. Provision for this should be initially made by arranging sports and dance festivals so the young people of the city could meet each other. If a man of 25 years or more finds a suitable partner he should submit his case to the curator of laws, and if the match is found suitable, should in all cases marry her before the age of 30–35 years. A girl could marry from the age of 16–20 years. With regard to fitness for marriage a man should primarily court a woman for the city's good and not just because she takes his fancy. The origin of the bride and her family should be carefully scrutinised. The wealth or poverty of the bride's family should not play a large part in his choice.

 

If any fit young men did not, or refused to marry, up to the age of 35 years they then should pay an annual fine of 100 drachmas if belonging to the wealthiest class; 70 drachmas if to the second; 60 if to the third and 30 drachmas if to the fourth class. The fines so collected would be dedicated to the Temple of Hera.

 

Married couples should make it their first concern to present the city with the best and finest progeny. They should therefore be under the supervision of a board of matrons, appointed by the magistrates, to superintend the conduct of the married couples. For example, expectant mothers should assemble daily for a minimum period of 20 minutes at the Temple of Ilithyia (a goddess identified with Artemis or Hera) to provide sacrifices and rites to the Goddess of Matrimony. Their period of supervision by the board should last ten years and the board would provide advice and guidance on all problems connected with childbirth (for example, if couples were infertile, or producing too many children). Infertile couples could have their marriages dissolved but the relatives of both parties were to have a voice in the terms of the separation. Finally, an official register of births and deaths should be kept and made easily accessible by the recording of its details on whitened walls. Such a record would be required for the proper observance of the laws fixing the ages for marriage, military service or qualifications for various official posts.

 

Regarding Plato's other political dialogues, The Statesman¹¹ deals with the different forms of government and the nature of political science but makes no reference to eugenics.

 

Aristotle's Politics¹²

 

Aristotle initially studied with Plato at the Academy from 367–348 BC, but then left to travel. He returned to Athens in 336 BC and founded the Lyceum. In his book Politics he first criticizes Plato's views and then proposes his own.

 

He thinks that the community of wives and children for the guardian class is impractical and if anything is better suited to the civilian classes. If the latter have wives and children in common they will be less closely united by bonds of affection and family ties and perhaps remain more obedient to the ruling elite and be less likely to rebel. Also, would mothers in the guardian class voluntarily give up their children to be reared in a communal nursery? If some of their inferior children are relegated to the lower classes and eventually find out their true parents, this may lead to quarrels and recriminations and perhaps would provide more a source of disorder in society.

 

He also criticises Plato's view that the birth rate should be left unrestricted for the lower classes. If this leads to over-population, the attendant evils of poverty, crime and revolution would most likely follow. In Aristotle's view the birth rate should be regulated even more stringently than was done in c 330 BC. He quotes in support of this idea that Phaedon of Corinth, an early legislator, recommended that land allotments for families and the number of citizens should be kept equal to one another, implying a tight regulation of the birth rate.

 

Raw material

 

Aristotle's own views agree in principle with Plato's that conditions should be managed to ensure the highest possible state of health for the city's newborn children. The quality and quantity of their population depends on this and is the first concern of the city state. The population is the raw material on which the statesman works.

 

Aristotle would therefore legislate for the following proposals.

 

Strict monogamous marriages should be instituted, with women marrying at about 18 years and men at 37 years, when he considers both sexes to be at their prime.

 

Pregnant women must take care of their bodies with regular exercise each day by walking to the Temple of Ilithyia to worship at the altar of the gods presiding over childbirth.

 

Expectant mothers should be given nourishing food and remain as tranquil as possible since the embryo derives its nature from the mother, rather as plants do from the soil in which they grow.

 

Laws should be introduced to oppose an unrestricted birth rate, but no children should suffer exposure just to limit the population.

 

If couples are having too many children abortion must be procured before the embryo has reached the stage of "sensitive life".

 

Infanticide should be practised for any children born with deformities.

 

(Page 266)

 

Other proposed ideal constitutions considered by Aristotle, ie those of Phaleas of Chalcedon or Hippodamus of Miletus appear to make no provisions for eugenics.

 

The actual constitution of Sparta appears to include eugenic measures but these were mainly directed to a single aspect, namely military prowess.¹³ Their practice of child exposure and infanticide was mainly aimed at developing a cadre of good soldiers but this led to a shortage of manpower which proved to be one of Sparta's major social weaknesses. A law had eventually to be passed to encourage population growth in which a father of three sons was exempt from military service and a father of four sons was exempt from all state-imposed obligations, including taxes.

 

The actual constitution of Crete had measures to regulate the birth rate by segregating women from men. However, Lycurgus, the supposed legislator for both Sparta and Crete, sanctioned sexual intimacy between males as a means of controlling reproductive rates, the morality of which Aristotle appears to question.

 

Commentary

 

It is of interest that neither Galton nor many contemporary commentators¹⁴ ¹⁵ appear to give credit to or even mention the Greek contribution to the subject of eugenics. In fact Galton's proposals for the development of the subject³ go very little further than the measures proposed by Plato except that there was almost no element of coercion in the former.

 

Galton's main proposals were:

 

Extensive family records should be kept and in competitive examinations for professional posts in, for example the civil service, extra marks should be awarded for "family merit". The family history as well as the personal history of the applicant should be taken into account;

Early marriages for women from "gifted" families should be encouraged by the award of financial endowments, analogous perhaps to the use of grants for higher education for promising young adults;

Rules of celibacy for gifted individuals (for example Fellows at the older universities) should be abolished;

The state should take some form of action (unspecified) against the procreation of the feeble-minded, the insane, and some classes of habitual criminals.

 

Plato's methods to improve the genetic constitution of the ruling elite class are far more original than those of Aristotle and are in accord with modern genetic theory.

 

Different choices of partners at serial marriage festivals amongst a selected elite of the population would be expected to lead to an optimal spread of abilities for their offspring.

 

He recommends systematic deception in the pursuit of these aims by rigging the lottery system for marriage partners, and in Book Three of The Republic he states that deception of citizens for the city's welfare is justified for political ends in the same way that doctors may conceal the truth from their patients for their own good, but patients should conceal nothing from their doctors (if they want a correct diagnosis).

 

In practice, of course, justifying a means for political ends can be at almost total variance with justification for the benefit of the citizen's welfare.

 

Aristotle criticised the social implications of a community of wives and children; but both Plato and Aristotle appear to have overlooked the possibility of brother-sister (or half brother-half sister) matings leading to the appearance of deleterious recessive characters that occur at high frequency in the human genome (c 20%).

 

Perhaps the adverse effects of consanguineous marriages had not been recognised by the Greeks or Egyptians, since brother-sister marriages were condoned.

 

Plato and Aristotle both recommended legislation of social methods aimed at promoting judicious matings amongst an elite class, methods that would be unacceptable today.

 

Contemporary genetics has more aimed to discourage injudicious matings in the population by methods that are equally questionable.

 

In the early half of this century state institutions introduced compulsory measures to improve the "inherited stock" of their society.

 

For example from 1930 onwards 27 states in the USA passed sterilisation laws to prevent various classes of people from having children.¹⁶ These included the insane, those suffering from epilepsy, and the feebleminded. In some states these laws were applied to habitual criminals and "moral perverts".

 

Most states did not enforce these laws, but in California compulsory sterilisations reached a total of 9,930 by 1935.

 

Other countries, including Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, Norway and Sweden also passed sterilisation laws for similar categories of people, and between 1935 and 1976 about 60,000 young Swedish women deemed mentally defective or otherwise handicapped, making them incapable of looking after children, were sterilised.

 

The laws in Sweden remained on the statute books until 1976.¹⁷

 

Only in Germany have recent attempts been made to "breed" for an elite class.

 

The Lebensborn (Spring of Life) state programme of the Nazis established Lebensborn homes throughout Germany where SS men and suitable young Aryan women were encouraged to procreate.¹⁸

of the resettlement and extermination programmes.

 

In the USA between 1969–73 many states organised compulsory schemes to screen for sickle cell heterozygosity which occurs primarily amongst the black population. Carriers, who are entirely healthy, had problems with obtaining marriage certification, employment and access to life insurance. For example, carriers of the sickle cell trait were excluded from positions in the Air Force academy involved with flight training and from flight personnel posts. In the Department of the Navy employees were screened and heterozygote cases excluded from airborne, ranger or flight crew training. Such procedures could be interpreted as racist and a means of discriminating against the black population by preventing their promotion to officer class. This could also have an indirect eugenic effect although there is no demographic evidence that reproductive rates were affected by this policy.¹⁹

 

More recently insurance companies in the UK (1997) required the declaration of previous genetic tests for susceptibility to such diseases as cancer, heart disease and premature dementias; premiums are adjusted according to the health risks involved.²⁰ Since life insurance is frequently tied to mortgages this would tend to have an effect of discouraging (by financial pressures) individuals possessing an adverse genetic constitution from starting families and therefore could act as a covert eugenic measure.

 

Currently the trend for eugenics has been very much away from social coercion by various state institutions to providing more education and freedom for citizens to make their own genetic and reproductive choices. For example, mothers can choose to have a disabled child with trisomy 21 even though the state may eventually have to provide for the child's long term care. If there were a genetic "cure" for trisomy 21 the mother could be held responsible for injury to her child for withholding it. If a pregnant mother can take steps to cure a disability affecting her fetus she should do so, or otherwise she could be held responsible for deliberately injuring her child.²¹ The only "cure" at present for trisomy 21 is termination of pregnancy and perhaps a state body should intervene in such cases if the mother is clearly unable to provide economically for the long term care of her handicapped child. However, each particular case of state intervention has to be scrutinised very carefully in view of the gross abuse of such measures in the present century.

 

Acknowledgements

 

I am greatly indebted to Professor RW Sharples, Department of Greek and Latin, University College London, for providing two critical reviews of different versions of the manuscript regarding the accuracy of the Greek contents; and to Professor DAG Galton for helpful criticism.

 

David J Galton MD, FRCP, is Professor of Human Metabolism in the Department of Metabolism and Genetics, St Bartholomew's Hospital, London, EC1A 7BE, UK.

pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1377679/?page=1

UCL eugenics legacy – storytelling with art

Staff and students in the UCL community are engaging with the institution’s eugenics legacy in positive and creative ways. Discover their stories paired with our striking artwork.

 

On this page: Introducing the campaign | Story 1 - Change or bust | Meet the artist

Other content: Story 2 - From the collections: problematic histories | Story 3 - Anti-eugenics: from pandemic to polarised world | Story 4 - Confronting legacies with object-based learning | Story 5 - From the ground up – the role of students in anti-eugenics work

 

Introducing the campaign

In 2021, UCL issued a public apology for its role in the development, propagation and legitimisation of eugenics.The Eugenics Legacy Education Project (ELEP) is is a three-year project, ending in 2025, covering the education-related recommendations from the Eugenics Inquiry. We aim to help facilitate positive change in UCL through a number of projects, including looking at how 'difficult knowledge' is taught.

 

Our campaign aims to showcase stories of inspiring UCL students and colleagues by presenting their efforts to address the eugenics legacy with an original piece of artwork drawn by our ELEP artist Weihong ‘Clover’ Tang. Clover is a student at UCL, although interestingly not in art. The thoughtful illustrations are her reaction to each story. In spring 2025, we are launching five stories. For some of the stories, additional beautiful illustrations are provided by Naomi Chung, a UCL History of Art undergraduate student.This work presents an uchronian reinterpretation of Botticelli's *Birth of Venus*, in which the iconic image becomes the foundation for an entirely new artistic vision. Rather than faithfully reproducing a Renaissance masterpiece, the composition reconfigures its visual language to question the very nature of artistic tradition. This transformation reflects what Hans Belting and Christopher Wood have described as the historical shift from iconic reference to the assertion of individual artistic vision and personal style. The legacy of the past is no longer merely preserved; it is reimagined.

 

At the heart of this transformation lies the concept of **inganno**—the Italian notion of artistic illusion or deception. Much like Michelangelo's forged *Sleeping Cupid*, which was deliberately fashioned to resemble an ancient sculpture by Praxiteles, this image plays upon the viewer's expectations. At first glance, one recognizes Botticelli's celebrated Venus; upon closer inspection, however, every familiar element has undergone a profound metamorphosis. Venus no longer emerges from a natural shell but rises from a biomorphic technological structure. Her body fuses organic anatomy with mechanical refinement, while the surrounding radiance replaces the sea foam of the Renaissance painting with an almost cosmic energy. Here deception is not an act of falsification but a creative strategy that transforms imitation into invention.

In 2019, Stephanie Dickinson started a professional services role in the Statistical Science department at UCL. An artist by training, Stephanie generally found that she could earn money by doing jobs that other people didn't want to do. So, when she was asked to pause her timetabling work for a moment and tidy up a messy library with a heap of books, papers and a bust in the corner, events moved in a direction she wasn’t expecting with profound results. 

UCL’s eugenics legacy is well documented. Sir Francis Galton, who never worked at UCL, coined the phrase “eugenics”, and did much to popularise the racist pseudo-science. When Galton died in 1911, he left money to the University of London to establish a Chair in Eugenics, with the recommendation that Karl Pearson should be the first holder of the chair. Pearson was duly appointed and founded the Department of Applied Statistics at UCL.

 

Sifting through papers relating to eugenics in a room formally named after Karl Pearson, Stephanie thought back to secondary school and lessons on eugenics through a particularly diligent headteacher. She was shocked that eugenics had found a home at UCL and was eager to learn more, especially why there was a bust of Pearson in the corner of this well used room.

 

But before she could address the issue there came a series of events including the Covid-19 pandemic, The Black Lives Matter movement, and for Stephanie, the challenge of being a new mother. But even with offices locked up and remote working the “new normal”, things were changing at UCL. On 7 January 2021, UCL issued a formal public apology for its history and legacy of eugenics and amongst several actions de-named the Pearson building. The bust of Pearson in 1-19 Torrington Place remained though.

 

I like to see the project as admin as art and painting by email (Stephanie Dickinson)

When she returned from maternity leave, Stephanie was fired up, a frustration partly caused by a serious illness associated with the birth of her child. Addressing the Pearson bust would be her first action to try and make sense of this frustration. Worries over whether this was a good career move aside, she took the plunge and went to see her department head. She was so pleased when he was not only supportive, but gave her the time and space to figure out what the right action should be and lead the efforts to address the legacy of the bust.

 

My department could not have been more supportive (Stephanie Dickinson)

There was lots to consider. If objects linked to difficult histories are removed, is it denying that there was ever an issue, and what is the implication for learning? Stephanie was not in favour of removing the bust, she was drawn to placing a highly visible and lasting educational plaque next to the Pearson bust. A plaque that links to further information on the UCL website and that gives a balanced history. Drawing on expertise within her department, the text was finalised and the plaque should help educate future generations of UCL staff and students.

 

Interestingly Stephanie sees her action as “admin as art”. Her philosophy is to correct and move on. Art and social justice are not just key parts of her personality but her career too. She has since tackled other projects related to UCL’s eugenics legacy, working directly with the Eugenics Legacy Education Project (ELEP). She would like to explore themes raised by this project in other ways as she continues her career. The bust had been a presence attached to the wall and it took an administrator to tackle the legacy head on and affect change. Will this inspire more of us to question what is around us? Stephanie hopes so.

 

Meet the artist

Hello! My name is Weihong Tang, also known as Clover. I used to be a communication designer, and I am currently studying for a Master’s degree in Education and Technology at UCL (2024/25). My interests focus on the application of tools and media production in educational settings. I am passionate about discovering innovative ways to inspire learners and enhance learning experiences.

www.ucl.ac.uk/teaching-learning/ucl-eugenics-legacy-story...

 

This approach belongs to a long artistic tradition in which copying was never a passive act. Marcantonio Raimondi's engravings after Dürer's woodcuts, the virtuoso reinterpretations by the Wierix family, and the circulation of Michelangelo's drawings for Vittoria Colonna and Tommaso Cavalieri all demonstrate that replication could become a vehicle for innovation, intellectual exchange, and artistic prestige. Likewise, this work treats Botticelli not as an untouchable model but as a prototype whose visual memory is activated within a contemporary visual language.

 

Yet this uchronia extends beyond the history of art into the realm of spiritual symbolism. The two lateral figures evoke an initiatory landscape in which visible beauty conceals a deeper reality. On the left, a dense organic and vegetal world suggests the primordial forces of creation; on the right, a veiled feminine figure recalls the motif of hidden wisdom and revelation. Between these two realms stands a transfigured Venus, acting as a mediator between the material and the spiritual, between nature and transcendence.

 

This interpretation resonates with the traditions of the **Fedeli d'Amore**. In both Dante's poetry and the mystical writings of Rūzbihān Baqlī Shīrāzī, beauty is never an end in itself but a sign leading toward higher knowledge. Visible forms function as veils through which divine reality may be contemplated. Within this framework, Venus is no longer simply the classical goddess of love but becomes an image of theophany—a manifestation in which beauty, love, and illumination converge.

 

The painting therefore brings together multiple historical horizons: the classical world of Venus, the Renaissance of Botticelli and Michelangelo, the medieval mysticism of Dante and the *Fedeli d'Amore*, and the technological imagination of the contemporary era. These different temporalities coexist within a single visual space, creating an authentic uchronia in which history is not rewritten but reconfigured as an alternative genealogy of images.

 

The "hidden signs" do not reside in a fixed esoteric code but in the very operation of the image itself. The **inganno** lies in persuading the viewer that this is merely another variation on Botticelli's masterpiece, while the work in fact proposes a meditation on the memory of forms, the creative power of artistic quotation, and the capacity of images to reveal new meanings beneath familiar appearances. As in the mystical traditions of Dante and the Persian masters of love, the visible becomes the threshold of the invisible, where imitation is transformed into creation and the image itself becomes an instrument of revelation.

 

The shift of imagery from iconic reference to assertion of artistic vision and personal style (cf. Hans Belting and Christopher Wood) generated a tension between reception of venerated visual tradition and artistic transformation. Ancient models became sources of emulation, especially for Michelangelo, whose forgery of an ancient Sleeping Cupid by Praxiteles (1496) is the subject of editor Sally Anne Hickson’s study. Here successful deception became a badge of originality and virtuoso contemporary authenticity. Of course, deceptive copies of prints are well known to HNA members, not only the infamous engravings in Venice by Marcantonio Raimondi after Dürer woodcuts, but also virtuoso reworkings, such as the Wierix engravings after Dürer prototypes, often in the original orientation and even with the same detail executed in miniature. Yet copying and distribution of certain celebrated prototypes, especially the chalk drawings by Michelangelo for both Vittoria Colonna and Tomasso Cavaliere, held special value for the collectors and friendship circles who were proud possessors of those derivative works, some of them in luxury media, as Maria Ruvoldt has demonstrated. Not to mention the burgeoning period interest in engraved reproductions of works in other media by professional printmakers, a topic to which I personally devoted an exhibition two decades ago (Larry Silver and Timothy Riggs, Graven Images, 1993; to be supplemented by various later studies, such as Rebecca Zorach and Elizabeth Rodini, Paper Museums, 2005). As usual when the artworks are chiefly Italian, prints are ignored, despite the importance of Cornelis Cort and the Carracci in this tradition.

hnanews.org/hnar/reviews/inganno-art-deception-imitation-...

There is not doubt that there exist both similarities and contrasts in the history and teachings of Christian and Islamic mysticism. One of the most fascinating periods in the history of the two religions and the mystical schools that appeared in them is the 12th and 13th centuries in which so many great Christians and Muslims mystics lived. In the 13th Century there appeared in Italy the well-known secret organization with its mystical and esoteric teachings called the Fedeli d’amore to which Dante belonged. This organization was not only devoted to esoteric matters but also had a political and social dimension. Nevertheless, mystical and esoteric teachings were at the heart of its concerns and it is history identified with hidden esoteric ideas and doctrines. A century earlier there appeared within the Sufi tradition in Persia a particular school of love mysticism that the famous French scholar of Islamic thought, Henry Corbin, has called “the Fedeli d’amore of Persia”. Among the latter groups Rūzbihān Baqlī Shīrāzī is one of the most celebrated and is considered as one of the most significant figures in the history of Sufism as a whole. As for Europe, among the Western Fedeli d’amore it is of course the figure of Dante that stands out above all others. In our present study we have analyzed the ‘Abhar al-‘āshinqīn of Rūzbihān Baqlī on the one hand and the works of Dante, especially the Divine Comedy and La Vita Nuova, on the other and have then compared and contrasted the thought and style of these two colossal figures. Our goal has been to study and to reveal both the similarities and differences of the manifestation and treatment of Love on different levels in the teachings the Christian and Islamic traditions as crystallized in and associated with the Fedeli d’amore of Italy and of Persia. Some attention has also been paid to the influence of Islamic thought upon the medieval West especially in the domain of symbolism, and our study may therefore said to be both morphological and historical.

scholarspace.library.gwu.edu/concern/gw_etds/m039k4971?lo...

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

1930s exhibit by the Eugenics Society. Some of the signs read "Healthy and Unhealthy Families", "Heredity as the Basis of Efficiency", and "Marry Wisely".

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Eugenics

Historical trajectory

Pre-war academic proponents

Post-war academic remnants

Pamphlets and manifestos

Organizations

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Eugenics[a] is a largely discredited set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population.[2][3][4] Historically, eugenicists have attempted to alter the frequency of various human phenotypes by inhibiting the fertility of those considered inferior, often through forced sterilization, or promoting that of those considered superior.[5]

 

The contemporary history of eugenics began in the late 19th century, when a popular eugenics movement emerged in the United Kingdom,[6] which spread to most European countries (e.g., Sweden and Germany), and many other countries, including the United States, Canada, and Australia.[7]

 

Historically, the idea of eugenics has been used to argue for a broad array of practices ranging from prenatal care for mothers deemed genetically desirable to the forced sterilisation and murder of those deemed unfit.[5] To population geneticists, the term has included the avoidance of inbreeding without altering allele frequencies; for example, British-Indian scientist J. B. S. Haldane wrote in 1940 that "the motor bus, by breaking up inbred village communities, was a powerful eugenic agent."[8] Debate as to what qualifies as eugenics continues today.[9]

 

A progressive social movement promoting eugenics had originated in the 19th century,[10][11][12] with diverse support, but by the mid 20th century the term was closely associated with scientific racism and authoritarian coercion. With modern medical genetics, genetic testing and counselling have become common, and new or liberal eugenics rejects coercive programmes in favour of individual parental choice.[13]

 

Common distinctions

 

Lester Frank Ward wrote the early paper: "Eugenics, Euthenics and Eudemics", making yet further distinctions.[14]

Eugenic programmes included both positive measures, such as encouraging individuals deemed particularly "fit" to reproduce, and negative measures, such as marriage prohibitions and forced sterilisation of people deemed unfit for reproduction.[5][15][16]: 104–155 

 

Positive eugenics is aimed at encouraging reproduction among the genetically advantaged, for example, the intelligent, the healthy, and the successful. Possible approaches include financial and political stimuli, targeted demographic analyses, in vitro fertilisation, egg transplants, and cloning.[17] Negative eugenics aimed to eliminate, through sterilisation or segregation, those deemed physically, mentally, or morally undesirable. This includes abortions, sterilisation, and other methods of family planning.[17] Both positive and negative eugenics can be coercive; in Nazi Germany, for example, abortion was illegal for women deemed by the state to be superior.[18]

 

As opposed to "euthenics"

See also: Nature-nurture debate

Ellen Swallow Richards

Julia Clifford Lathrop

Ellen Swallow Richards (left), the first female student and instructor at MIT, was one of the first to use the term, while Julia Clifford Lathrop (right) continued to promote it in the form of an interdisciplinary academic program later to be mostly absorbed into the field of home economics.

Euthenics (/juːˈθɛnɪks/) is the study of the improvement of human functioning and well-being by the improvement of living conditions.[19] "Improvement" is conducted by altering external factors such as education and the controllable environments, including environmentalism, education regarding employment, home economics, sanitation, and housing, as well as the prevention and removal of contagious disease and parasites.

 

In a New York Times article dated May 23, 1926, Rose Field notes of the description, "the simplest [is] efficient living".[20] It is also described as "a right to environment",[21] commonly as dual to a "right of birth" that correspondingly falls under the purview of eugenics.[22]

 

In contrast to eugenics, euthenics does not intentionally attempt to alter the composition of the human gene pool. However, improvements to one's quality of life, such as eradication of diseases or access to proper nutrition, can potentially have indirect effects on the genetics of the population.[23]

 

The influential historian of education Abraham Flexner questions its scientific value in stating:

 

[T]he "science" is artificially pieced together of bits of mental hygiene, child guidance, nutrition, speech development and correction, family problems, wealth consumption, food preparation, household technology, and horticulture. A nursery school and a school for little children are also included. The institute is actually justified in an official publication by the profound question of a girl student who is reported as asking, "What is the connection of Shakespeare with having a baby?" The Vassar Institute of Euthenics bridges this gap![24]

 

Eugenicist Charles Benedict Davenport noted in his article "Euthenics and Eugenics", reprinted in Popular Science Monthly:

 

Thus the two schools of euthenics and eugenics stand opposed, each viewing the other unkindly. Against eugenics it is urged that it is a fatalistic doctrine and deprives life of the stimulus toward effort. Against euthenics the other side urges that it demands an endless amount of money to patch up conditions in the vain effort to get greater efficiency. Which of the two doctrines is true?

 

The thoughtful mind must concede that, as is so often the case where doctrines are opposed, each view is partial, incomplete and really false. The truth does not exactly lie between the doctrines; it comprehends them both.

 

[...] [I]n the generations to come, the teachings and practice of euthenics [...] [may] yield greater result because of the previous practice of the principles of eugenics.[25]

 

Along similar lines, Edward L. Thorndike, a psychologist and early intelligence researcher, argued some two years later for an understanding that better integrates eugenic study:

 

The more rational the race becomes, the better roads, ships, tools, machines, foods, medicines and the like it will produce to aid itself, though it will need them less. The more sagacious and just and humane the original nature that is bred into man, the better schools, laws, churches, traditions and customs it will fortify itself by. There is no so certain and economical a way to improve man's environment as to improve his nature.[26]

 

Historical eugenics

Main article: History of eugenics

Ancient and medieval origins

See also: Sparta § Birth and death

 

Giuseppe Diotti's The selection of the infant Spartans (1840)

In ancient Sparta, according to Plutarch (fl. 50 to 120 CE), the council of elders (the Gerousia) inspected every proper citizen's child and determined whether or not the child was fit to live.[27] A child deemed unfit was allegedly thrown into a chasm.[28][29] Plutarch's account is the sole historical source for the Spartan practice of infanticide motivated by eugenics.[30] While ancient Greeks practiced infanticide, no contemporary sources support Plutarch's claims of infanticide on eugenic grounds.[31] In 2007, the tradition of dumping infants near Mount Taygete was called into question due to a lack of physical evidence: anthropologist Theodoros Pitsios' research of the site found only bodies ranging in age from 18 to 35 years.[32][33]

 

Plato's political philosophy included the belief that the state should cautiously monitor and control human reproduction through selective breeding.[34][35]

 

According to Tacitus (c. 56 – c. 120), a Roman of the Imperial Period, the Germanic tribes of his day killed any member of their community they deemed cowardly, un-warlike or "stained with abominable vices", usually by drowning them in swamps.[36][37] Modern historians regard Tacitus' ethnographic writing as unreliable in such details.[38][39]

 

Academic origins

See also: Galton Laboratory and Eugenics Record Office

 

Francis Galton (1822–1911) was a British polymath who coined the term "eugenics"

The term eugenics and its modern field of study were first formulated by Francis Galton in 1883,[40][41][42][b] directly drawing on the recent work delineating natural selection by his half-cousin Charles Darwin.[44][45][46][c] He published his observations and conclusions chiefly in his influential book Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development. Galton himself defined it as "the study of all agencies under human control which can improve or impair the racial quality of future generations".[48] The first to systematically apply Darwinism theory to human relations, Galton believed that various desirable human qualities were also hereditary ones, although Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory.[49]

 

Eugenics became an academic discipline at many colleges and universities and received funding from various sources.[50] Organisations were formed to win public support for and to sway opinion towards responsible eugenic values in parenthood, including the British Eugenics Education Society of 1907 and the American Eugenics Society of 1921. Both sought support from leading clergymen and modified their message to meet religious ideals.[51] In 1909, the Anglican clergymen William Inge and James Peile both wrote for the Eugenics Education Society. Inge was an invited speaker at the 1921 International Eugenics Conference, which was also endorsed by the Roman Catholic Archbishop of New York Patrick Joseph Hayes.[51]

 

Three International Eugenics Conferences presented a global venue for eugenicists, with meetings in 1912 in London, and in 1921 and 1932 in New York City. Eugenic policies in the United States were first implemented by state-level legislators in the early 1900s.[52] Eugenic policies also took root in France, Germany, and Great Britain.[53] Later, in the 1920s and 1930s, the eugenic policy of sterilising certain mental patients was implemented in other countries including Belgium,[54] Brazil,[55] Canada,[56] Japan and Sweden.

 

Frederick Osborn's 1937 journal article "Development of a Eugenic Philosophy" framed eugenics as a social philosophy—a philosophy with implications for social order.[57] That definition is not universally accepted. Osborn advocated for higher rates of sexual reproduction among people with desired traits ("positive eugenics") or reduced rates of sexual reproduction or sterilisation of people with less-desired or undesired traits ("negative eugenics").[58]

 

In addition to being practiced in a number of countries, eugenics was internationally organised through the International Federation of Eugenics Organisations.[59] Its scientific aspects were carried on through research bodies such as the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics,[60] the Cold Spring Harbor Carnegie Institution for Experimental Evolution,[61] and the Eugenics Record Office.[62] Politically, the movement advocated measures such as sterilisation laws.[63] In its moral dimension, eugenics rejected the doctrine that all human beings are born equal and redefined moral worth purely in terms of genetic fitness.[64] Its racist elements included pursuit of a pure "Nordic race" or "Aryan" genetic pool and the eventual elimination of "unfit" races.[65][66]

 

Many leading British politicians subscribed to the theories of eugenics. Winston Churchill supported the British Eugenics Society and was an honorary vice president for the organisation. Churchill believed that eugenics could solve "race deterioration" and reduce crime and poverty.[47][67][68]

 

As a social movement, eugenics reached its greatest popularity in the early decades of the 20th century, when it was practiced around the world and promoted by governments, institutions, and influential individuals. Many countries enacted[69] various eugenics policies, including: genetic screenings, birth control, promoting differential birth rates, marriage restrictions, segregation (both racial segregation and sequestering the mentally ill), compulsory sterilisation, forced abortions or forced pregnancies, ultimately culminating in genocide. By 2014, gene selection (rather than "people selection") was made possible through advances in genome editing,[70] leading to what is sometimes called new eugenics, also known as "neo-eugenics", "consumer eugenics", or "liberal eugenics"; which focuses on individual freedom and allegedly pulls away from racism, sexism or a focus on intelligence.[71]

 

Early opposition

Early critics of the philosophy of eugenics included the American sociologist Lester Frank Ward,[72] the English writer G. K. Chesterton, and Scottish tuberculosis pioneer and author Halliday Sutherland.[d] Ward's 1913 article "Eugenics, Euthenics, and Eudemics", Chesterton's 1917 book Eugenics and Other Evils,[74] and Franz Boas' 1916 article "Eugenics" (published in The Scientific Monthly)[75] were all harshly critical of the rapidly growing movement.

 

Several biologists were also antagonistic to the eugenics movement, including Lancelot Hogben.[76] Other biologists who were themselves eugenicists, such as J. B. S. Haldane and R. A. Fisher, however, also expressed scepticism in the belief that sterilisation of "defectives" (i.e. a purely negative eugenics) would lead to the disappearance of undesirable genetic traits.[77]

 

Among institutions, the Catholic Church opposes sterilisation for eugenic purposes.[78] Attempts by the Eugenics Education Society to persuade the British government to legalise voluntary sterilisation were opposed by Catholics and by the Labour Party.[79] The American Eugenics Society initially gained some Catholic supporters, but Catholic support declined following the 1930 papal encyclical Casti connubii.[51] In this, Pope Pius XI explicitly condemned sterilisation laws: "Public magistrates have no direct power over the bodies of their subjects; therefore, where no crime has taken place and there is no cause present for grave punishment, they can never directly harm, or tamper with the integrity of the body, either for the reasons of eugenics or for any other reason."[80]

 

The eugenicists' political successes in Germany and Scandinavia were not at all matched in such countries as Poland and Czechoslovakia, even though measures had been proposed there, largely because of the Catholic Church's moderating influence.[81]

 

Eugenic feminism

This section is an excerpt from Eugenic feminism.edit

 

Marie Stopes in her laboratory, 1904

Eugenic feminism was a current of the women's suffrage movement which overlapped with eugenics.[82] Originally coined by the Lebanese-British physician and vocal eugenicist Caleb Saleeby,[83][84][85] the term has since been applied to summarize views held by prominent feminists of Great Britain and the United States. Some early suffragettes in Canada, especially a group known as The Famous Five, also pushed for various eugenic policies.

 

Eugenic feminists argued that if women were provided with more rights and equality, the deteriorating characteristics of a given race could be averted.

 

North American eugenics

  

American eugenicists generally pursued more public-facing work and accordingly became widely known for their racism in particular. Along these lines, they were often harshly criticised by their British counterparts.[86]

This section is an excerpt from Eugenics in the United States.edit

While its American practice was ostensibly about improving genetic quality, it has been argued that eugenics was more about preserving the position of the dominant groups in the population. Scholarly research has determined that people who found themselves targets of the eugenics movement were those who were seen as unfit for society—the poor, the disabled, the mentally ill, and specific communities of color—and a disproportionate number of those who fell victim to eugenicists' sterilization initiatives were women who were identified as African American, Asian American, or Native American.[87][88] As a result, the United States' eugenics movement is now generally associated with racist and nativist elements, as the movement was to some extent a reaction to demographic and population changes, as well as concerns over the economy and social well-being, rather than scientific genetics.[89][88]

In Mexico

This section is an excerpt from Eugenics in Mexico.edit

Following the Mexican Revolution, the eugenics movement gained prominence in Mexico. Seeking to change the genetic make-up of the country's population, proponents of eugenics in Mexico focused primarily on rebuilding the population, creating healthy citizens, and ameliorating the effects of perceived social ills such as alcoholism, prostitution, and venereal diseases. Mexican eugenics, at its height in the 1930s, influenced the state's health, education, and welfare policies.[90]

 

Mexican elites adopted eugenic thinking and raised it under the banner of “the Great Mexican family” (Spanish: la gran familia mexicana).[91]

 

Unlike in other countries, the eugenics movements in Latin America were largely founded on the idea of neo-Lamarckian eugenics.[92] Neo-Lamarckian eugenics stated that the outside effects experienced by an organism, throughout its lifetime, changed its genetics, permanently, allowing the organism to pass acquired traits onto its offspring.[93] In the Neo-Lamarckian genetic framework, activities, such as prostitution and alcoholism, could result in the degeneration of future generations, amplifying fears about the effects of certain social ills. However, the supposed genetic malleability also offered hope, to certain Latin American eugenicists, as social reform would have the ability to transform the population, more permanently.[92]

 

Nazism and the decline of eugenics

See also: Nazi eugenics, Racial hygiene, Life unworthy of life, and Scientific racism

 

Schloss Hartheim, a former centre for Nazi Germany's Aktion T4 campaign

Part of a series on

Nazism

 

The reputation of eugenics started to decline in the 1930s, a time when Ernst Rüdin used eugenics as a justification for the racial policies of Nazi Germany. Adolf Hitler had praised and incorporated eugenic ideas in Mein Kampf in 1925 and emulated eugenic legislation for the sterilisation of "defectives" that had been pioneered in the United States once he took power.[94] Some common early 20th century eugenics methods involved identifying and classifying individuals and their families. This included racial groups (such as the Roma and Jews in Nazi Germany), the poor, mentally ill, blind, deaf, developmentally disabled, promiscuous women, and homosexuals as "degenerate" or "unfit". This led to segregation, institutionalisation, sterilisation, and mass murder.[95] The Nazi policy of identifying German citizens deemed unfit and then systematically murdering them with poison gas, referred to as the Aktion T4 campaign, paved the way for the Holocaust.[96][97][98]

 

"All practices aimed at eugenics, any use of the human body or any of its parts for financial gain, and human cloning shall be prohibited."

 

— Hungarian Constitution[99]

By the end of World War II, many eugenics laws were abandoned, having become associated with Nazi Germany.[100] H. G. Wells, who had called for "the sterilisation of failures" in 1904,[101] stated in his 1940 book The Rights of Man: Or What Are We Fighting For? that among the human rights, which he believed should be available to all people, was "a prohibition on mutilation, sterilisation, torture, and any bodily punishment".[102] After World War II, the practice of "imposing measures intended to prevent births within [a national, ethnical, racial or religious] group" fell within the definition of the new international crime of genocide, set out in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.[103] The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union also proclaims "the prohibition of eugenic practices, in particular those aiming at selection of persons".[104]

 

In Singapore

Main article: Population control in Singapore § Demographic transition and the Graduate Mothers Scheme

Lee Kuan Yew, the founding father of Singapore, actively promoted eugenics as late as 1983.[105] In 1984, Singapore began providing financial incentives to highly educated women to encourage them to have more children. For this purpose was introduced the "Graduate Mother Scheme" that incentivised graduate women to get married as much as the rest of their populace.[106] The incentives were extremely unpopular and regarded as eugenic, and were seen as discriminatory towards Singapore's non-Chinese ethnic population. In 1985, the incentives were partly abandoned as ineffective, while the government matchmaking agency, the Social Development Network, remains active.[107][108][109]

 

Modern eugenics

See also: New eugenics

Liberal eugenics, also called new eugenics, aims to make genetic interventions morally acceptable by rejecting coercive state programmes and relying on parental choice.[110][13] Bioethicist Nicholas Agar, who coined the term, argues that the state should intervene only to forbid interventions that excessively limit a child’s ability to shape their own future.[111] Unlike "authoritarian" or "old" eugenics, liberal eugenics draws on modern scientific knowledge of genomics to enable informed choices aimed at improving well-being.[13] Julien Savulescu further argues that some eugenic practices, like prenatal screening for Down syndrome, are already widely practiced, without being labelled "eugenics", as they are seen as enhancing freedom rather than restricting it.[112]

 

UC Berkeley sociologist Troy Duster argued that modern genetics is a "back door to eugenics".[113] This view was shared by then-White House Assistant Director for Forensic Sciences, Tania Simoncelli, who stated in a 2003 publication by the Population and Development Programme at Hampshire College that advances in pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) are moving society to a "new era of eugenics", and that, unlike the Nazi eugenics, modern eugenics is consumer driven and market based, "where children are increasingly regarded as made-to-order consumer products".[114] The United Nations' International Bioethics Committee also noted that while human genetic engineering should not be confused with the 20th century eugenics movements, it nonetheless challenges the idea of human equality and opens up new forms of discrimination and stigmatisation for those who do not want or cannot afford the technology.[115]

 

In 2025, geneticist Peter Visscher published a paper in Nature, arguing genome editing of human embryos and germ cells may become feasible in the 21st century, and raising ethical considerations in the context of previous eugenics movements.[116][117] A response argued that human embryo genetic editing is "unsafe and unproven".[118] Nature also published an editorial, stating: "The fear that polygenic gene editing could be used for eugenics looms large among them, and is, in part, why no country currently allows genome editing in a human embryo, even for single variants".[117]

 

Contested scientific status

 

In the decades after World War II, the term "eugenics" had taken on a negative connotation and as a result, the use of it became increasingly unpopular within the scientific community. Many organizations and journals that had their origins in the eugenics movement began to distance themselves from the philosophy which spawned them, as when Eugenics Quarterly was renamed Social Biology in 1969.

One general concern is that the reduced genetic diversity that may be a feature of long-term, species-wide eugenics plans[119] could eventually result in inbreeding depression,[119] increased spread of infectious disease,[120][121][better source needed] and decreased resilience to changes in the environment.[122][better source needed]

 

Arguments for scientific validity

See also: Selective breeding, De novo domestication, List of domesticated animals, List of domesticated plants, and Self-domestication

In his original lecture "Darwinism, Medical Progress and Eugenics", Karl Pearson claimed that everything concerning eugenics fell into the field of medicine.[123] Anthropologist Aleš Hrdlička said in 1918 that "[t]he growing science of eugenics will essentially become applied anthropology."[124] The economist John Maynard Keynes was a lifelong proponent of eugenics and described it as a branch of sociology.[125][126]

 

In a 2006 newspaper article, Richard Dawkins said that discussion regarding eugenics was inhibited by the shadow of Nazi misuse, to the extent that some scientists would not admit that breeding humans for certain abilities is at all possible. He believes that it is not physically different from breeding domestic animals for traits such as speed or herding skill. Dawkins felt that enough time had elapsed to at least ask just what the ethical differences were between breeding for ability versus training athletes or forcing children to take music lessons, though he could think of persuasive reasons to draw the distinction.[127]

 

Objections to scientific validity

Amanda Caleb, Professor of Medical Humanities at Geisinger Commonwealth School of Medicine, says "Eugenic laws and policies are now understood as part of a specious devotion to a pseudoscience that actively dehumanises to support political agendas and not true science or medicine."[128]

 

The first major challenge to conventional eugenics based on genetic inheritance was made in 1915 by Thomas Hunt Morgan. He demonstrated the event of genetic mutation occurring outside of inheritance involving the discovery of the hatching of a fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) with white eyes from a family with red eyes,[47]: 336–337  demonstrating that major genetic changes occurred outside of inheritance.[47]: 336–337 [clarification needed] Morgan criticised the view that traits such as intelligence or criminality were hereditary, because these traits were subjective.[129][e]

 

Pleiotropy occurs when one gene influences multiple, seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits, an example being phenylketonuria, which is a human disease that affects multiple systems but is caused by one gene defect...

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics

The Highway 13 Widening project spans 8th Avenue to 0 Avenue. It increases capacity at the Aldergrove/Lynden border crossing in Langley, B.C.

 

Aldergrove/Lynden is one of four Canada/USA Border Crossings in the Lower Mainland. The Highway 13 corridor is a critical route between Highway 1 and this busy border crossing. It becomes Route 539 south of the border which continues to Bellingham, Washington.

 

In the summer months, approximately 6,000 vehicles use this stretch of Highway 13 every day. Local development and cross-border activity continue to grow.

 

Key components of the project include:

 

Widening of Highway 13 southbound to accommodate future separate NEXUS and commercial vehicle lanes

Widening of Highway 13 northbound to accommodate a truck climbing lane

New east-west connection (3B Avenue) and signal

Intersection improvements, including signals

New pedestrian and cycling facilities at 0 Ave

Besides credit qualification barriers due to low FICO scores, there are two barriers to originating more loans and selling more houses to owner occupants: (1) insufficient down payment, and (2) increasing loan costs. The FHA still originates loans at 3.5% down, and the credit barriers are... at Rising down payments and loan costs hindered the housing recovery

  

Visit the OC Housing News, and read the OC Housing News blog. Learn why you should use a home guide. Meet the Akason Realty Consulting home guides and housing market analysts, and read our real estate agent testimonials. Discover why you should register with the OC Housing News and how to use the OC Housing News. Utilize the advanced property search, or the MLS map search.

 

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The exploitation rights for this text are the property of the Vienna Tourist Board. This text may be reprinted free of charge until further notice, even partially and in edited form. Forward sample copy to: Vienna Tourist Board, Media Management, Invalidenstraße 6, 1030 Vienna; media.rel@wien.info. All information in this text without guarantee.

Author: Andreas Nierhaus, Curator of Architecture/Wien Museum

Last updated January 2014

Architecture in Vienna

Vienna's 2,000-year history is present in a unique density in the cityscape. The layout of the center dates back to the Roman city and medieval road network. Romanesque and Gothic churches characterize the streets and squares as well as palaces and mansions of the baroque city of residence. The ring road is an expression of the modern city of the 19th century, in the 20th century extensive housing developments set accents in the outer districts. Currently, large-scale urban development measures are implemented; distinctive buildings of international star architects complement the silhouette of the city.

Due to its function as residence of the emperor and European power center, Vienna for centuries stood in the focus of international attention, but it was well aware of that too. As a result, developed an outstanding building culture, and still today on a worldwide scale only a few cities can come up with a comparable density of high-quality architecture. For several years now, Vienna has increased its efforts to connect with its historical highlights and is drawing attention to itself with some spectacular new buildings. The fastest growing city in the German-speaking world today most of all in residential construction is setting standards. Constants of the Viennese architecture are respect for existing structures, the palpability of historical layers and the dialogue between old and new.

Culmination of medieval architecture: the Stephansdom

The oldest architectural landmark of the city is St. Stephen's Cathedral. Under the rule of the Habsburgs, defining the face of the city from the late 13th century until 1918 in a decisive way, the cathedral was upgraded into the sacral monument of the political ambitions of the ruling house. The 1433 completed, 137 meters high southern tower, by the Viennese people affectionately named "Steffl", is a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture in Europe. For decades he was the tallest stone structure in Europe, until today he is the undisputed center of the city.

The baroque residence

Vienna's ascension into the ranks of the great European capitals began in Baroque. Among the most important architects are Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt. Outside the city walls arose a chain of summer palaces, including the garden Palais Schwarzenberg (1697-1704) as well as the Upper and Lower Belvedere of Prince Eugene of Savoy (1714-22). Among the most important city palaces are the Winter Palace of Prince Eugene (1695-1724, now a branch of the Belvedere) and the Palais Daun-Kinsky (auction house in Kinsky 1713-19). The emperor himself the Hofburg had complemented by buildings such as the Imperial Library (1722-26) and the Winter Riding School (1729-34). More important, however, for the Habsburgs was the foundation of churches and monasteries. Thus arose before the city walls Fischer von Erlach's Karlskirche (1714-39), which with its formal and thematic complex show façade belongs to the major works of European Baroque. In colored interior rooms like that of St. Peter's Church (1701-22), the contemporary efforts for the synthesis of architecture, painting and sculpture becomes visible.

Upgrading into metropolis: the ring road time (Ringstraßenzeit)

Since the Baroque, reflections on extension of the hopelessly overcrowed city were made, but only Emperor Franz Joseph ordered in 1857 the demolition of the fortifications and the connection of the inner city with the suburbs. 1865, the Ring Road was opened. It is as the most important boulevard of Europe an architectural and in terms of urban development achievement of the highest rank. The original building structure is almost completely preserved and thus conveys the authentic image of a metropolis of the 19th century. The public representational buildings speak, reflecting accurately the historicism, by their style: The Greek Antique forms of Theophil Hansen's Parliament (1871-83) stood for democracy, the Renaissance of the by Heinrich Ferstel built University (1873-84) for the flourishing of humanism, the Gothic of the Town Hall (1872-83) by Friedrich Schmidt for the medieval civic pride.

Dominating remained the buildings of the imperial family: Eduard van der Nüll's and August Sicardsburg's Opera House (1863-69), Gottfried Semper's and Carl Hasenauer's Burgtheater (1874-88), their Museum of Art History and Museum of Natural History (1871-91) and the Neue (New) Hofburg (1881-1918 ). At the same time the ring road was the preferred residential area of mostly Jewish haute bourgeoisie. With luxurious palaces the families Ephrussi, Epstein or Todesco made it clear that they had taken over the cultural leadership role in Viennese society. In the framework of the World Exhibition of 1873, the new Vienna presented itself an international audience. At the ring road many hotels were opened, among them the Hotel Imperial and today's Palais Hansen Kempinski.

Laboratory of modernity: Vienna around 1900

Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06) was one of the last buildings in the Ring road area Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06), which with it façade, liberated of ornament, and only decorated with "functional" aluminum buttons and the glass banking hall now is one of the icons of modern architecture. Like no other stood Otto Wagner for the dawn into the 20th century: His Metropolitan Railway buildings made ​​the public transport of the city a topic of architecture, the church of the Psychiatric hospital at Steinhofgründe (1904-07) is considered the first modern church.

With his consistent focus on the function of a building ("Something impractical can not be beautiful"), Wagner marked a whole generation of architects and made Vienna the laboratory of modernity: in addition to Joseph Maria Olbrich, the builder of the Secession (1897-98) and Josef Hoffmann, the architect of the at the western outskirts located Purkersdorf Sanatorium (1904) and founder of the Vienna Workshop (Wiener Werkstätte, 1903) is mainly to mention Adolf Loos, with the Loos House at the square Michaelerplatz (1909-11) making architectural history. The extravagant marble cladding of the business zone stands in maximal contrast, derived from the building function, to the unadorned facade above, whereby its "nudity" became even more obvious - a provocation, as well as his culture-critical texts ("Ornament and Crime"), with which he had greatest impact on the architecture of the 20th century. Public contracts Loos remained denied. His major works therefore include villas, apartment facilities and premises as the still in original state preserved Tailor salon Knize at Graben (1910-13) and the restored Loos Bar (1908-09) near the Kärntner Straße (passageway Kärntner Durchgang).

Between the Wars: International Modern Age and social housing

After the collapse of the monarchy in 1918, Vienna became capital of the newly formed small country of Austria. In the heart of the city, the architects Theiss & Jaksch built 1931-32 the first skyscraper in Vienna as an exclusive residential address (Herrengasse - alley 6-8). To combat the housing shortage for the general population, the social democratic city government in a globally unique building program within a few years 60,000 apartments in hundreds of apartment buildings throughout the city area had built, including the famous Karl Marx-Hof by Karl Ehn (1925-30). An alternative to the multi-storey buildings with the 1932 opened International Werkbundsiedlung was presented, which was attended by 31 architects from Austria, Germany, France, Holland and the USA and showed models for affordable housing in greenfield areas. With buildings of Adolf Loos, André Lurçat, Richard Neutra, Gerrit Rietveld, the Werkbundsiedlung, which currently is being restored at great expense, is one of the most important documents of modern architecture in Austria.

Modernism was also expressed in significant Villa buildings: The House Beer (1929-31) by Josef Frank exemplifies the refined Wiener living culture of the interwar period, while the house Stonborough-Wittgenstein (1926-28, today Bulgarian Cultural Institute), built by the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein together with the architect Paul Engelmann for his sister Margarete, by its aesthetic radicalism and mathematical rigor represents a special case within contemporary architecture.

Expulsion, war and reconstruction

After the "Anschluss (Annexation)" to the German Reich in 1938, numerous Jewish builders, architects (female and male ones), who had been largely responsible for the high level of Viennese architecture, have been expelled from Austria. During the Nazi era, Vienna remained largely unaffected by structural transformations, apart from the six flak towers built for air defense of Friedrich Tamms (1942-45), made ​​of solid reinforced concrete which today are present as memorials in the cityscape.

The years after the end of World War II were characterized by the reconstruction of the by bombs heavily damaged city. The architecture of those times was marked by aesthetic pragmatism, but also by the attempt to connect with the period before 1938 and pick up on current international trends. Among the most important buildings of the 1950s are Roland Rainer's City Hall (1952-58), the by Oswald Haerdtl erected Wien Museum at Karlsplatz (1954-59) and the 21er Haus of Karl Schwanzer (1958-62).

The youngsters come

Since the 1960s, a young generation was looking for alternatives to the moderate modernism of the reconstruction years. With visionary designs, conceptual, experimental and above all temporary architectures, interventions and installations, Raimund Abraham, Günther Domenig, Eilfried Huth, Hans Hollein, Walter Pichler and the groups Coop Himmelb(l)au, Haus-Rucker-Co and Missing Link rapidly got international attention. Although for the time being it was more designed than built, was the influence on the postmodern and deconstructivist trends of the 1970s and 1980s also outside Austria great. Hollein's futuristic "Retti" candle shop at Charcoal Market/Kohlmarkt (1964-65) and Domenig's biomorphic building of the Central Savings Bank in Favoriten (10th district of Vienna - 1975-79) are among the earliest examples, later Hollein's Haas-Haus (1985-90), the loft conversion Falkestraße (1987/88) by Coop Himmelb(l)au or Domenig's T Center (2002-04) were added. Especially Domenig, Hollein, Coop Himmelb(l)au and the architects Ortner & Ortner (ancient members of Haus-Rucker-Co) ​​by orders from abroad the new Austrian and Viennese architecture made a fixed international concept.

MuseumQuarter and Gasometer

Since the 1980s, the focus of building in Vienna lies on the compaction of the historic urban fabric that now as urban habitat of high quality no longer is put in question. Among the internationally best known projects is the by Ortner & Ortner planned MuseumsQuartier in the former imperial stables (competition 1987, 1998-2001), which with institutions such as the MUMOK - Museum of Modern Art Foundation Ludwig, the Leopold Museum, the Kunsthalle Wien, the Architecture Center Vienna and the Zoom Children's Museum on a wordwide scale is under the largest cultural complexes. After controversies in the planning phase, here an architectural compromise between old and new has been achieved at the end, whose success as an urban stage with four million visitors (2012) is overwhelming.

The dialogue between old and new, which has to stand on the agenda of building culture of a city that is so strongly influenced by history, also features the reconstruction of the Gasometer in Simmering by Coop Himmelb(l)au, Wilhelm Holzbauer, Jean Nouvel and Manfred Wehdorn (1999-2001). Here was not only created new housing, but also a historical industrial monument reinterpreted into a signal in the urban development area.

New Neighborhood

In recent years, the major railway stations and their surroundings moved into the focus of planning. Here not only necessary infrastructural measures were taken, but at the same time opened up spacious inner-city residential areas and business districts. Among the prestigious projects are included the construction of the new Vienna Central Station, started in 2010 with the surrounding office towers of the Quartier Belvedere and the residential and school buildings of the Midsummer quarter (Sonnwendviertel). Europe's largest wooden tower invites here for a spectacular view to the construction site and the entire city. On the site of the former North Station are currently being built 10,000 homes and 20,000 jobs, on that of the Aspangbahn station is being built at Europe's greatest Passive House settlement "Euro Gate", the area of ​​the North Western Railway Station is expected to be developed from 2020 for living and working. The largest currently under construction residential project but can be found in the north-eastern outskirts, where in Seaside Town Aspern till 2028 living and working space for 40,000 people will be created.

In one of the "green lungs" of Vienna, the Prater, 2013, the WU campus was opened for the largest University of Economics of Europe. Around the central square spectacular buildings of an international architect team from Great Britain, Japan, Spain and Austria are gathered that seem to lead a sometimes very loud conversation about the status quo of contemporary architecture (Hitoshi Abe, BUSarchitektur, Peter Cook, Zaha Hadid, NO MAD Arquitectos, Carme Pinós).

Flying high

International is also the number of architects who have inscribed themselves in the last few years with high-rise buildings in the skyline of Vienna and make St. Stephen's a not always unproblematic competition. Visible from afar is Massimiliano Fuksas' 138 and 127 meters high elegant Twin Tower at Wienerberg (1999-2001). The monolithic, 75-meter-high tower of the Hotel Sofitel at the Danube Canal by Jean Nouvel (2007-10), on the other hand, reacts to the particular urban situation and stages in its top floor new perspectives to the historical center on the other side.

Also at the water stands Dominique Perrault's DC Tower (2010-13) in the Danube City - those high-rise city, in which since the start of construction in 1996, the expansion of the city north of the Danube is condensed symbolically. Even in this environment, the slim and at the same time striking vertically folded tower of Perrault is beyond all known dimensions; from its Sky Bar, from spring 2014 on you are able to enjoy the highest view of Vienna. With 250 meters, the tower is the tallest building of Austria and almost twice as high as the St. Stephen's Cathedral. Vienna, thus, has acquired a new architectural landmark which cannot be overlooked - whether it also has the potential to become a landmark of the new Vienna, only time will tell. The architectural history of Vienna, where European history is presence and new buildings enter into an exciting and not always conflict-free dialogue with a great and outstanding architectural heritage, in any case has yet to offer exciting chapters.

Info: The folder "Architecture: From Art Nouveau to the Presence" is available at the Vienna Tourist Board and can be downloaded on www.wien.info/media/files/guide-architecture-in-wien.pdf.

Additional wool stores, Blocks D & E, built between St Vincent & Baker Streets, opposite the 1880 Elders building.

 

“Elder, Smith, & Co. . . The increase in the business of the company had necessitated the erection of wool stores at Port Adelaide in order that the requirements of small producers could be met.” [Advertiser 1 Feb 1907]

 

“During recent years, storing accommodation for wool at Port Adelaide has been at a premium. . . For the forthcoming season Elder, Smith, & Co. are making important extensions to cater for their patrons. A large single-story galvanized iron store on the north side of St. Vincent-street has been pulled down, and in its place is .being erected a three-story building of iron, with a frontage of 112 ft. by 120 ft. deep. It will be the same 'height as the company's adjoining stone stores. . . In Baker-street, almost directly opposite, a new two-floor galvanized store is also being built. The dimensions are approximately 200 ft. by 100 ft. . . The contractor for the new stores and alterations is Mr. H. Slade, Mr. C. H. Marryat is the architect, and Mr. R. G. Foreman clerk of works. . . The building operations' began at the end of April, and the contractor expects to have the work completed by the end of August.” [Advertiser 4 Jul 1907]

 

“Tenders are invited for the Erection of Buildings (wood and iron). Port Adelaide, for Messrs. Elder, Smith, & Co., Limited — 1. Two Stories — Wool -Store and Show Floor. 2. Three Stories — Wool Store and Show Floor. . . C. H. Marryat, Architect.” [Advertiser 8 Apr 1907 advert]

 

“Altogether Elder, Smith, & Co. have in their three huge warehouses in Santo-place (facing the wharf), St. Vincent-street, Baker-street, and Crozier-street, Port Adelaide, 2¾ acres of show floor, in addition to over 6 acres of storage accommodation. All the floors utilised for exhibition purposes are wonderfully well lighted by means of saw-tooth roofs, the glass facing the south. . . the central store, in St. Vincent-street, is one vast apartment, over an acre in extent, with nothing anywhere to obstruct the vision except the supports of the roof, and the comprehensive view of thousands of bales of wool, each cut open and pouring its wealth of fleece upon the floor. . . the remainder being displayed in the Baker street store.” [Advertiser 16 Nov 1908]

 

“During the busy season the firm of Elder, Smith, & Co. has 200 men working at their Port Adelaide wool warehouses. It has also some magnificent horses. There are at present in the stables at the Port 25 stalwart animals, valued at'£40 a head. . . They are employed for three months, in carting wool from the trucks to the warehouses, and from the stores to the wharves. Then they are sold, a fresh lot being bought next season.” [Advertiser 16 Nov 1908]

 

Amongst the many new buildings being erected at Port Adelaide is another large wool store, facing St. Vincent-street, for Messrs. Elder Smith & Co. The new building, which is expected to be ready for the forthcoming wool season, adjoins the existing structure owned by that firm, and will be situated on the western side of the old store. It will have a frontage to St. Vincent-street of 206 ft.; with a depth of 200 ft.” [Advertiser 5 May 1910]

 

“Excavations will be begun shortly at St. Vincent street east, Port Adelaide, for the foundations of a new wool store for Elder, Smith & Co. It is understood that plans for the structure have not been completed. The firm has three large wool stores at the chief seaport, but these have been found insufficient to hold the fleeces that come to hand in a good season. The location of the new structure will be south of Cowell Bros.' premises, and north of Goldsbrough, Mort &. Co.” [News 3 May 1926]

 

“A plan of a new wool store to be erected for Elder, Smith, & Co., Limited, at the corner of Crozier and Baker streets, Port Adelaide, in proximity to the existing store. The building will be 2,000 feet square, and will have four floors. Messrs. Woods, Bagot, Jory, & Laybourne-Smith are the architects, and Messrs. James King & Son, of Hindmarsh, the contractors.” [Register 1 Jan 1927]

 

“With a capacity of 18,000 bales the large new wool store of Elder, Smith and Co., Limited, near the Port Adelaide Dock, is described as the most up-to-date of its kind in the Commonwealth. Although it is still in the hands of the contractor and many workmen are putting the finishing touches on its fine show floor, wool has been received in the structure since Tuesday. Bales from far distant stations stand in orderly rows on its spacious floor, and are arriving daily by the hundred. . . electrically operated elevators serve to expedite the work of handling portion of South Australia's clip that is now pouring to the seaport in a ceaseless stream by train, steamer, and motor lorry.” [News 2 Sep 1927]

 

“during the currency of the war the entire Australian wool clip would be purchased by the British Government, and. . . in addition, all Australian surplus supplies of six important food commodities in butter, cheese, meat, eggs, and canned and dried fruits — had been bought by the United Kingdom. . . it was not anticipated that the British Government would be able to purchase the whole of Australia's export wheat surplus.” [Advertiser 6 Sep 1939]

 

“A figure between 13d and 15d. a pound is expected to be paid by the British Government for the Australian wool clip during the war. . . The average price paid during the last war was 15½d.” [Advertiser 8 Sep 1939]

 

“Australian growers are demanding an early definite statement regarding the duration of the wool purchase scheme by Britain. In September, 1939, Britain agreed to buy all our wool production not required for local manufacture, for the period of the war and one clip thereafter.” [West Australian 25 Oct 1944]

 

“Since the war, heavy rationing of clothing, &c has been imposed, enemy countries have been denied supplies, large quantities of all types of woollen goods have been destroyed, and- millions of service people, both men and women, will be in urgent need of clothes when they discard their uniforms and look for civilian attire. . . Preparations are in hand for the placing into suitable positions those of our permanent staff who will be demobilised and wish to rejoin the staff of the company.” [Advertiser 25 Aug 1945]

 

“sheep's wool is in every way much superior to any synthetics, most of which are derived from a vegetable base and are conductors of heat and cold; are clammy, uncomfortable, and inflammable, but most attractive looking, and at first cost relatively cheap, but in the long run not so economical as wool. . . Wool is warm, even when wet. . . Wool smoulders, but does not burn.” [Chronicle 6 Sep 1945]

 

“British Government will complete this month its war-time purchase of the Australian wool clip. It represents the world's largest commercial transaction for any primary product. Wool appraisals during the period — seven years — will approximate £460,000,000. Average Australian clip has been round 3,500,000 bales annually. Average yearly return has been nearly £67,000,000. . . Wool auction sales in Australia will be resumed in September. Fleece will go to the highest bidder.” [News 26 Jun 1946]

 

“Wanted . Men for Work in Wool stores, Port Adelaide. Apply Elder, Smith & Co., Limited, Port Adelaide.” [News 10 Sep 1947 advert]

 

“The Adelaide Woolbrokers wish to hereby intimate to their many clients that it has recently been decided to work annually a 44-hour five-day week, Monday to Friday inclusive, in their Wool Stores at Port Adelaide and in the Skin and Hide Stores in Adelaide.” [Chronicle 18 Sep 1947 advert]

 

“For over a century Elder, Smith & Co., Limited have been handling wool. . . From the shearing shed to the overseas liner, wool passes through many stages. . . Every bale received is carefully weighed on modern, accurate scales, immediately recorded and catalogued against advice received from the grower. From this simple beginning commences a thorough preparation of wool clips for auction . . .a preparation designed to secure full market value for your clip. . . be it one bag or a thousand bales.” [Chronicle 2 Sep 1948 advert]

 

“each of Elder's Receiving Clerks. . . records the brand, description, number and correct weight of every bale of wool received at Elder's Wool Store, Port Adelaide. The scales he uses are checked for accuracy every day, regularly serviced and Government tested. You can help Elder's Wool Clerks by correctly branding each bale on the front and cap and by numbering your bales consecutively for each season. Be it one bag or a thousand bales, consign your next clip to Elder's.” [Chronicle 13 Apr 1950 advert]

 

“Shipping and Weigh-in Clerks Wanted for Wool Stores. Apply — Elder, Smith & Co, Limited, Port Adelaide.” [Advertiser

13 Sep 1950 advert]

 

“Suitable Men and Boys Wanted for Work in Wool Stores. Good Conditions. Adults Rate. £8/14/-. Apply — Elder, Smith & Co, Limited, Port Adelaide.” [Advertiser 14 Sep 1950 advert]

 

“Wanted. Clerks for Wool Stores. Wages £11/16/6 per week. Apply Wool Manager, Elder, Smith & Co, Limited, Port Adelaide.” [Advertiser 6 Oct 1951 advert]

 

“Shortly after the sale the buyers issue shipping instructions to the brokers. The bales they have purchased now are dumped in a hydraulic press to about half the size they were when they left your farm. Steel wires or bands are fastened around them, so that each bale is of uniform size. This facilitates handling and saves shipping space. Finally, from the store your wool goes to the wharf and into the hold of a ship. Some of it probably goes to the famous British mills at Bradford, in Yorkshire, England, some of it perhaps to France where there also are famous mills, some of it maybe to Japan whose buyers last year re-entered the Australian wool market” [Chronicle 28 Aug 1952].

 

“Two ships loading wool at Port Adelaide for Britain and the Continent have been delayed by the overtime ban imposed in Port Adelaide wool stores by the Storemen and Packers' Union. The 9,503-ton motor ship Dardanus, which is loading between 16,000 and 17,000 sales of wool, was scheduled to sail on Tuesday. She is now expected to sail at the end of the week. Now loading 13,500 bales of wool, the 11,950 ton steamer Tasmania Star is expected to be delayed for three days.” [Advertiser 30 Oct 1952]

 

“Elders to Build Big Wool Store. Special facilities for hulk classing and reclassing wool are provided in the four- story wool store being built by Elder, Smith & Co. Limited at Port Adelaide. Glass walls on the first floor will give a maximum of natural light to the 20,000 square feet of floor space, where the classing will be carried out. After classing, the wool will be placed in one of 420 bins in the centre of the floor under better-than-daylight lighting. Elder's decision to devote so much space to bulk classing and recessing facilities is to meet the growing demand by clients for this type of service. The store should be completed within 18 months. It will have nearly four acres of jarrah floors, and a bridge 18 ft. above the roadway to the central store to facilitate the transfer and stowage of bales during peak periods. Architects are Woods, Bagot, Laybournc-Smith & Irwin. Contractors are Hansen & Yuncken Pty. Ltd.” [Victor Harbor Times 23 Nov 1956]

 

Tiruvannamalai (Tamil: Tiruvaṇṇāmalai IPA: [ˈtiɾɯʋaɳːaːmalɛi̯], also Thiruvannamalai or Trinomali and Trinomalee during British times) is a town in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The town is administered by a special grade municipality that covers an area of 16.33 km2 and had a population of 144,278 in 2011. It is the administrative headquarters of Tiruvannamalai District. Roadways are the major mode of transport in Tiruvannamalai, while the town also has rail connectivity. Chennai International Airport is the nearest domestic and international airport to the town. Tiruvannamalai is named after the central deity of the Annamalaiyar Temple, Annamalaiyar. The Karthigai Deepam festival is celebrated during the day of the full moon between November and December, and a huge beacon is lit atop the Annamalai hill. The event is witnessed by three million pilgrims. On the day preceding each full moon, pilgrims circumnavigate the temple base and the Annamalai hills in a worship called Girivalam, a practice carried out by one million pilgrims yearly.

 

Located on the foothills of Annamalai hills, Tiruvannamalai has been ruled by the Pallavas, the Medieval Cholas, the Later Cholas, Hoysalas, the Vijayanagar Empire, the Carnatic kingdom, Tipu Sultan, and the British. It served as the capital city of the Hoysalas. The town is built around the Annamalaiyar Temple like other Nayak capitals. Tiruvannamalai is administered by a special-grade a municipality constituted in 1886. Tiruvannamalai has an average elevation of 200 metres and experiences a hot and humid climate. Being a pilgrimage town, most of the people are employed in the tertiary sector. There are 25 elementary schools, nine high schools, 18 higher secondary schools, four arts & science colleges, one government medical college and four engineering colleges in the town.

 

ETYMOLOGY AND LEGEND

In Hindu mythology, Parvati, wife of Shiva, once closed the eyes of her husband playfully in a flower garden at their abode atop Mount Kailash. Although only a moment for the gods, all light was taken from the universe, and the earth, in turn, was submerged in darkness for years. Parvati performed penance with other devotees of Shiva, and her husband appeared as a column of fire at the top of Annamalai hills, returning light to the world. He then merged with Parvati to form Ardhanarishvara, the half-female, half-male form of Shiva. The Annamalai, or red mountain, lies behind the Annamalaiyar temple, and is associated with the temple of its namesake. The hill is sacred and considered a lingam, or iconic representation of Shiva, in itself. Another legend is that once, while Vishnu and Brahma contested for superiority, Shiva appeared as a flame, and challenged them to find his source. Brahma took the form of a swan, and flew to the sky to see the top of the flame, while Vishnu became the boar Varaha, and sought its base. The scene is called lingothbava, and is represented in the western wall at the sanctum of most Shiva temples. Neither Brahma nor Vishnu could find the source, and while Vishnu conceded his defeat, Brahma lied and said he had found the pinnacle. In punishment, Shiva ordained that Brahma would never have temples on earth in his worship. In Tamil, the word Arunam means red or fire and Asalam means hill. Since Shiva manifested himself in the form of fire in this place, this name Arunachalam came to be associated with Annamalai hill and the town. The first mention of Annamalai is found in Tevaram, the seventh century Tamil Saiva canonical work by Appar and Tirugnanasambandar.

 

HISTORY

The history of Tiruvannamalai revolves around the Annamalaiyar Temple. The recorded history of the town dates back to the ninth century, as seen from a Chola inscriptions in the temple. Further inscriptions made before ninth century indicate the rule of Pallava kings, whose capital was Kanchipuram. The seventh century Nayanar saints Sambandar and Appar wrote of the temple in their poetic work, Tevaram. Sekkizhar, the author of the Periyapuranam records both Appar and Sambandar worshiped Annamalaiyar in the temple. The Chola Kings ruled over the region for more than four centuries, from 850 to 1280, and were temple patrons. The inscriptions from the Chola king record various gifts like land, sheep, cow and oil to the temple commemorating various victories of the dynasty.

 

The Hoysala kings used Tiruvannamalai as their capital beginning in 1328. There are 48 inscriptions from the Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485), two inscriptions from Saluva Dynasty, and 55 inscriptions from Tuluva Dynasty (1491–1570) of the Vijayanagara Empire, reflecting gifts to the temple from their rulers. There are also inscriptions from the rule of Krishnadeva Raya (1509–1529), the most powerful Vijayanagara king, indicating further patronage. Most of the Vijayanagara inscriptions were written in Tamil, with some in Kannada and Sanskrit. The inscriptions in the temple from the Vijayanagara kings indicate emphasis on administrative matters and local concerns, which contrasts the inscriptions of the same rulers in other temples like Tirupathi. The majority of the gift related inscriptions are for land endowments, followed by goods, cash endowments, cows and oil for lighting lamps. The town of Tiruvannamalai was at a strategic crossroads during the Vijayanagara Empire, connecting sacred centers of pilgrimage and military routes. There are inscriptions that show the area as an urban center before the precolonial period, with the city developing around the temple, similar to the Nayak ruled cities like Madurai.

 

During the 17th century, Tiruvannamalai came under the dominion of the Nawab of the Carnatic. As the Mughal empire came to an end, the Nawab lost control of the town, with confusion and chaos ensuing after 1753. Subsequently, there were periods of both Hindu and Muslim stewardship of the temple, with Muraru Raya, Krishna Raya, Mrithis Ali Khan, and Burkat Ullakhan besieging the temple in succession. As European incursions progressed, Tiruvannamalai was attacked by French Soupries, Sambrinet, and the English Captain Stephen Smith. While some were repelled, others were victorious. The French occupied the town in 1757 and it came under the control of the British in 1760. In 1790, Tiruvannamalai town was captured by Tippu Sultan, who ruled from 1750–99. During the first half of the 19th century, the town came under British rule.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Tiruvannamalai is situated 185 km from the state capital Chennai and 210 km from Bangalore. The height of the Annamalai hill is approximately 814 m. Tiruvannamalai is located at 12°N 79.05°E. It has an average elevation of 200 metres. The town is located to the east of Eastern Ghats. The topography of Tiruvannamalai is almost plain sloping from west to east. Tiruvannamalai experiences hot and dry weather throughout the year. The temperature ranges from a maximum of 40 °C to a minimum of 20 °C. Like the rest of the state, April to June are the hottest months and December to January are the coldest. Tiruvannamalai receives scanty rainfall with an average of 815 mm annually, which is lesser than the state average of 1,008 mm. The southwest monsoon with an onset in June and lasting up to August brings scanty rainfall. Bulk of the rainfall is received during the northeast monsoon in the months of October, November and December. The average humidity of the town is 77% and varies between 67% to 86%. During the summer months of April to June, the humidity ranges from 47–63%. The municipality covers an area of 16.3 km2.

 

ECONOMY

Tiruvannamali is a temple town and a major pilgrimage centre in Tamil Nadu. The town is the marketing and service town for the surrounding places. Being the administrative headquarters of the Tiruvannamalai district, Tiruvannamalai has a lot of tertiary sector activities. Trade and commerce and service activities are the major contributors to the economy of the town. In 1991, 7.93% of the population was involved in primary sector, 21.34% in secondary sector and 70.73% in tertiary sector activities. The town had a female work participation of 11%. Due to the urbanisation from 1971, there has been dip in primary sector activities and a proportional increase in the tertiary sector activities. There is limited agricultural activity within the town limits. The secondary sector involves manufacturing and construction, whose growth has remained stable over the decades. There are a number of oil mills, rice mills and agro based industries within the Tiruvannamalai town limits. The tertiary sector activities of trade, commerce, transport, storage, communication and other services has been increasing due to the increasing number of tourists to the town. The patronage to Girivalam has increased informal economic activities around the town. The major commercial activities are concentrated around Car Street, Thiruvoodal Street, Kadambarayan Street, Asaliamman Koil Street, Sivanpada Street and Polur Road.

 

All major nationalised banks such as State Bank of India, Indian Bank, Central Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, Indian Overseas Bank, Bank of India and private banks like ICICI Bank, Karur Vysya Bank have their branches in Tiruvannamalai. All these banks have their automated teller machines located in various parts of the town.

 

CULTURE

The Annamalaiyar Temple is the most prominent landmark of Tiruvannamalai. The temple complex covers an area of 10 ha, and is one of the largest temples in India. It houses four gateway towers known as gopurams. The tallest is the eastern tower, with 11 stories and a height of 66 m, making it one of the tallest temple towers in India. The temple has numerous shrines, with those of Annamalaiyar and Unnamulai Amman being the most prominent. The temple complex houses many halls; the most notable is the thousand-pillared hall built during the Vijayanagar period.

 

The Annamalaiyar temple is one of the Pancha Bhoota Stalas, or five Shiva temples, with each a manifestation of a natural element: land, water, air, sky or fire. In Annamalaiyar temple, Shiva is said to have manifested himself as a massive column of fire, whose crown and feet could not be found by the Hindu gods, Brahma and Vishnu. Aathara Stala are Shiva temples which are considered to be personifications of the Tantric chakras of human anatomy. The Annamalaiyar temple is called the Manipooraga stalam, and is associated with the Manipooraga chakra. The temple is revered in Tevaram, the Tamil Saiva canon and classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam, one of the 276 temples that find mention in the Saiva canon.

 

The most important festival of the Annamalaiyar temple is celebrated during the Tamil month of Karthikai, between November and December, concluding with the celebration of Karthikai Deepam. A huge lamp is lit in a cauldron, containing three tons of ghee, at the top of the Annamalai hills during the Deepam. To mark the occasion, the festival deity of Annamalaiyar circumambulates the mountain. Inscriptions indicate that the festival was celebrated as early as the Chola period (850–1280) and was expanded to ten days in the twentieth century.

 

Every full moon, tens of thousands of pilgrims worship Annamalaiyar by circumambulating the Annamalai hill barefoot. The circumambulation covers a distance of 14 kilometres, and is referred as Girivalam. According to Hindu legend, the walk removes sins, fulfils desires and helps achieve freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Offerings are made in a string of tanks, shrines, pillared meditation halls, springs and caves around the hill.

 

Tirumalai is an ancient Jain temple complex in the outskirts of Tirvannamalai that houses three Jain caves, four Jain temples and a 4.9 m high sculpture of Neminatha dated from the 12th century and the tallest Jain image in Tamil Nadu.

 

The Ramana Ashram and ashram of Yogi Ramsuratkumar, located around the Annamalai hill are popular visitor attractions of Tiruvannamalai. The Sathanur Dam over the Thenpennair river located 20 km southwest of the town is a prominent picnic spot. This 786.37 m Dam is 44.81m high and can store 207,300,000 cubic meters of water. A scenic park is also present adjacent to this dam. Ulagalantha Perumal Temple in Tirukoyilur and Thiruvarangam, situated 20 km south of Tiruvannamalai are prominent Vishnu temples that are located around Tiruvannamalai.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Pixarus 10/05/2026 12h11

The entrance to Pixarus. Pixarus is a 'Sky Fly' ride at the Dutch amusement park Toverland. The attraction opened on July 1, 2023, in the Avalon themed area and was built by the German manufacturer Gerstlauer. Visitors fly at a height of 27 meters and use wings to decide for themselves whether to go upside down.

 

Toverland

Attractiepark Toverland (English: Magicland Amusement Park) is an amusement park in Sevenum, Netherlands. The park was founded in 2001 and is operated by Gelissen Group. It is one of the youngest theme parks in the Netherlands. Toverland opened on May 19, 2001 as an indoor playground and has since grown into a medium-sized theme park with a growing surface area and an increasing number of visitors. In the past ten years, the amusement park has received various prizes for the best amusement parks.

 

The idea for the realization of Amusement Park Toverland originated in the Steinerbos during a rain shower. The owner Jean Gelissen, former carpenter, visited this recreation area with his children. In the afternoon it suddenly started to rain and the visitors left. That was when Gelissen came up with the idea to realize an indoor amusement park.

Amusement park Toverland opened as an indoor amusement park with various attractions, especially aimed at young children.

The first expansion took place in 2004 three years after its opening. It consisted of a second indoor section under the name Magic Forest, the current theme area Wunder Wald. The theme area consisted of six attractions including: Forest Racer, Backstroke and Villa Fiasco. July 27, 2004, the Booster Bike opened as the first attraction to be completely outdoors.

The management of the amusement park thought about which direction they wanted to go with the amusement park. Opening a third indoor hall was considered a serious option. Ultimately, it was decided to become an amusement park for all ages and not to continue as an indoor playground. The first step to achieve this goal was the construction of the wooden roller coaster Troy in the new theme area Troy-Area.

In 2017, the management announced that the theme park was going to expand again. It was the largest expansion ever, making the park half the size. The innovations costing € 35 million consisted of: the theme area Avalon consisting of the roller coaster Fēnix and cruise Merlin's Quest, a new entrance zone under the name of Port Laguna and the expansion of the parking capacity. On July 7, 2018, all extensions were opened simultaneously.

 

FACTS & FIGURES

Opened: 19/05/2001

Area: 24 ha

Attractions: 35

Rollercoasters: 5

Water Attractions: 5

Visitors: 1.137.000 (2025)

Motto: "Discover Your Own Magic"

[ Wikipedia ]