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Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liable to prosecution.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Coin, AD 64
Even though Nero had to abandon plans to go on campaign himself, it was important that his subjects recognised him as a strong military leader. Coins commemorated spectacular military displays in Rome and provided ample opportunity to promote the emperor's martial prowess to people across the empire. Nero's coins were the first to show a ruler in military garb since Augustus.
Wearing full armour and on horseback, Nero leads a parade of the imperial guard.
[British Museum]
Nero: the Man Behind the Myth
(May - Oct 2021)
Nero is known as one of Rome's most infamous rulers, notorious for his cruelty, debauchery and madness.
The last male descendant of the emperor Augustus, Nero succeeded to the throne in AD 54 aged just 16 and died a violent death at 30. His turbulent rule saw momentous events including the Great Fire of Rome, Boudicca's rebellion in Britain, the execution of his own mother and first wife, grand projects and extravagant excesses.
Drawing on the latest research, this major exhibition questions the traditional narrative of the ruthless tyrant and eccentric performer, revealing a different Nero, a populist leader at a time of great change in Roman society.
Through some 200 spectacular objects, from the imperial palace in Rome to the streets of Pompeii, follow the young emperor’s rise and fall and make up your own mind about Nero. Was he a young, inexperienced ruler trying his best in a divided society, or the merciless, matricidal megalomaniac history has painted him to be?
Nero was the 5th emperor of Rome and the last of Rome’s first dynasty, the Julio-Claudians, founded by Augustus (the adopted son of Julius Caesar). Nero is known as one of Rome’s most infamous rulers, notorious for his cruelty and debauchery. He ascended to power in AD 54 aged just 16 and died at 30. He ruled at a time of great social and political change, overseeing momentous events such as the Great Fire of Rome and Boudica’s rebellion in Britain. He allegedly killed his mother and two of his wives, only cared about his art and had very little interest in ruling the empire.
Most of what we know about Nero comes from the surviving works of three historians – Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio. All written decades after Nero’s death, their accounts have long shaped our understanding of this emperor’s rule. However, far from being impartial narrators presenting objective accounts of past events, these authors and their sources wrote with a very clear agenda in mind. Nero’s demise brought forward a period of chaos and civil war – one that ended only when a new dynasty seized power, the Flavians. Authors writing under the Flavians all had an interest in legitimising the new ruling family by portraying the last of the Julio-Claudians in the worst possible light, turning history into propaganda. These accounts became the ‘historical’ sources used by later historians, therefore perpetuating a fabricated image of Nero, which has survived all the way to the present.
Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December AD 37.
He was the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. Both Gnaeus and Agrippina were the grandchildren of Augustus, making Nero Augustus’ great, great grandson with a strong claim to power.
Nero was only two years old when his mother was exiled and three when his father died. His inheritance was taken from him and he was sent to live with his aunt. However, Nero’s fate changed again when Claudius became emperor, restoring the boy’s property and recalling his mother Agrippina from exile.
In AD 49 the emperor Claudius married Agrippina, and adopted Nero the following year. It is at this point that Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus changed his name to Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. In Roman times it was normal to change your name when adopted, abandoning your family name in favour of your adoptive father’s. Nero was a common name among members of the Claudian family, especially in Claudius’ branch.
Nero and Agrippina offered Claudius a politically useful link back to Augustus, strengthening his position.
Claudius appeared to favour Nero over his natural son, Britannicus, marking Nero as the designated heir.
When Claudius died in AD 54, Nero became emperor just two months before turning 17.
As he was supported by both the army and the senate, his rise to power was smooth. His mother Agrippina exerted a significant influence, especially at the beginning of his rule.
The Roman historians Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all claim that Nero, fed up with Agrippina’s interference, decided to kill her.
Given the lack of eyewitnesses, there is no way of knowing if or how this happened. However, this did not stop historians from fabricating dramatic stories of Agrippina’s murder, asserting that Nero tried (and failed) to kill her with a boat engineered to sink, before sending his men to do the job.
Agrippina allegedly told them to stab her in the womb that bore Nero, her last words clearly borrowed from stage plays.
It is entirely possible, as claimed by Nero himself, that Agrippina chose (or was more likely forced) to take her own life after her plot against her son was discovered.
Early in his rule, Nero had to contend with a rebellion in the newly conquered province of Britain.
In AD 60–61, Queen Boudica of the Iceni tribe led a revolt against the Romans, attacking and laying waste to important Roman settlements. The possible causes of the rebellion were numerous – the greed of the Romans exploiting the newly conquered territories, the recalling of loans made to local leaders, ongoing conflict in Wales and, above all, violence against the family of Prasutagus, Boudica’s husband and king of the Iceni.
Boudica and the rebels destroyed Colchester, London and St Albans before being heavily defeated by Roman troops. After the uprising, the governor of Britain Suetonius Paulinus introduced harsher laws against the Britons, until Nero replaced him with the more conciliatory governor Publius Petronius Turpilianus.
The marriage between Nero and Octavia, aged 15 and 13/14 at the time, was arranged by their parents in order to further legitimise Nero’s claim to the throne. Octavia was the daughter of the emperor Claudius from a previous marriage, so when Claudius married Agrippina and adopted her son Nero, Nero and Octavia became brother and sister. In order to arrange their marriage, Octavia had to be adopted into another family.
Their marriage was not a happy one. According to ancient writers, Nero had various affairs until his lover Poppaea Sabina convinced him to divorce his wife. Octavia was first exiled then executed in AD 62 on adultery charges. According to ancient writers, her banishment and death caused great unrest among the public, who sympathised with the dutiful Octavia.
No further motives were offered for Octavia’s death other than Nero’s passion for Poppaea, and we will probably never know what transpired at court. The fact that Octavia couldn’t produce an heir while Poppaea was pregnant with Nero’s daughter likely played an important role in deciding Octavia’s fate.
On 19 July AD 64, a fire started close to the Circus Maximus. The flames soon encompassed the entire city of Rome and the fire raged for nine days. Only four of the 14 districts of the capital were spared, while three were completely destroyed.
Rome had already been razed by flames – and would be again in its long history – but this event was so severe it came to be known as the Great Fire of Rome.
Later historians blamed Nero for the event, claiming that he set the capital ablaze in order to clear land for the construction of a vast new palace. According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, Nero took in the view of the burning city from the imperial residence while playing the lyre and singing about the fall of Troy. This story, however, is fictional.
Tacitus, the only historian who was actually alive at the time of the Great Fire of Rome (although only 8 years old), wrote that Nero was not even in Rome when the fire started, but returned to the capital and led the relief efforts.
Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all describe Nero as being blinded by passion for his wife Poppaea, yet they accuse him of killing her, allegedly by kicking her in an outburst of rage while she was pregnant.
Interestingly, pregnant women being kicked to death by enraged husbands is a recurring theme in ancient literature, used to explore the (self) destructive tendencies of autocrats. The Greek writer Herodotus tells the story of how the Persian king Cambyses kicked his pregnant wife in the stomach, causing her death. A similar episode is told of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Nero is just one of many allegedly ‘mad’ tyrants for which this literary convention was used.
Poppaea probably died from complications connected with her pregnancy and not at Nero’s hands. She was given a lavish funeral and was deified.
Centred on greater Iran, the Parthian empire was a major political and cultural power and a long-standing enemy of Rome. The two powers had long been contending for control over the buffer state of Armenia and open conflict sparked again during Nero’s rule. The Parthian War started in AD 58 and, after initial victories and following set-backs, ended in AD 63 when a diplomatic solution was reached between Nero and the Parthian king Vologases I.
According to this settlement Tiridates, brother of the Parthian king, would rule over Armenia, but only after having travelled all the way to Rome to be crowned by Nero.
The journey lasted 9 months, Tiridates’ retinue included 3,000 Parthian horsemen and many Roman soldiers. The coronation ceremony took place in the summer of AD 66 and the day was celebrated with much pomp: all the people of Rome saw the new king of Armenia kneeling in front of Nero. This was the Golden Day of Nero’s rule
In AD 68, Vindex, the governor of Gaul (France), rebelled against Nero and declared his support for Galba, the governor of Spain. Vindex was defeated in battle by troops loyal to Nero, yet Galba started gaining more military support.
It was at this point that Nero lost the support of Rome’s people due to a grain shortage, caused by a rebellious commander who cut the crucial food supply from Egypt to the capital. Abandoned by the people and declared an enemy of the state by the senate, Nero tried to flee Rome and eventually committed suicide.
Following his death, Nero’s memory was condemned (a practice called damnatio memoriae) and the images of the emperor were destroyed, removed or reworked. However, Nero was still given an expensive funeral and for a long time people decorated his tomb with flowers, some even believing he was still alive.
After Nero’s death, civil war ensued. At the end of the so-called ‘Year of the Four Emperors’ (AD 69), Vespasian became emperor and started a new dynasty: the Flavians.
[Francesca Bologna, curator, for British Museum]
Taken in the British Museum
Rio de Janeiro - 04/10/2017 - Xerém.
Fluminense sub16 encara o São Cristóvão pelo Campeonato Guilherme Embry 2017.
FOTO LUCAS MERÇON / FLUMINENSE F.C.
IMPORTANTE: Imagem destinada a uso institucional e divulgação, seu uso comercial está vetado incondicionalmente por seu autor e o Fluminense Football Club.
IMPORTANT: image intended for institutional use and distribution. Commercial use is prohibited unconditionally by its author and Fluminense Football Club
Important legal note.
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Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting or removing water marks are liaIble to prosecution.
Ca. 196 B.C.E., 8.50 g. Bare and bearded head of T. Quinctius Flamininus right./ T. QVINCTI Nike standing left, crowing name with wreath and holding palm branch in left hand.
The name on the reverse of this coin identifies the portrait on the obverse as T. Quinctius Flamininus, the Roman general who defeated the powerful King of Macedon, Philip V, at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 B.C.E.
A highly important coin, with less than ten known specimens of this prestigious issue extant. Extremely fine.
NGSA5, 162
Important legal note.
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Important legal note.
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The Postcard
A postally unused Romney Series postcard. They state on the back that it is a real photograph.
George VI was born on the 14th. December 1895 and named Albert Frederick Arthur George.
He became King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death on the 6th. February 1952.
He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth.
Hastings
Hastings is a large seaside town in East Sussex on the south coast, 24 miles (39 km) east of the county town of Lewes, and 53 mi (85 km) south east of London.
The town gives its name to the Battle of Hastings.
In the 19th. century, Hastings was a popular seaside resort, as the railway allowed tourists and visitors to reach the town.
Today, Hastings is a fishing port with the UK's largest beach-based fishing fleet. The fleet has been based on the same beach, below the cliffs, for at least 400, and possibly up to 600, years. Its longevity is attributed to the prolific fishing ground of Rye Bay nearby.
The town had a population of 92,855 in 2018.
Hastings in Pre-History
Evidence of prehistoric settlements has been found at the town site, including flint arrowheads and Bronze Age artefacts.
Iron Age forts have been excavated on both the East and West Hills. The settlement was already based on the port when the Romans arrived in Britain for the first time in 55 BC. They began to exploit the iron (Wealden rocks provide a plentiful supply of the ore), and shipped it out by boat.
Iron was worked locally at Beauport Park, to the north of the town. It employed up to a thousand men, and is thought to have been the third-largest mine in the Roman Empire.
With the departure of the Romans, the town suffered setbacks. The Beauport site was abandoned, and the town suffered attacks from nature and early adversaries.
The Sussex coast has always suffered from occasional violent storms, and with the additional hazard of longshore drift (the eastward movement of shingle along the coast), the coastline has been frequently changing. The original Roman port is probably now under the sea.
Medieval Hastings
The Battle of Hastings heralded the start of the Norman Conquest. The battle was fought on the 14th. October 1066, although it actually took place 8 miles (13 km) to the north at Senlac Hill, and William had landed on the coast between Hastings and Eastbourne at Pevensey.
Muslim scholar Muhammad al-Idrisi, writing circa 1153, described Hastings as:
"A town of large extent and many inhabitants,
flourishing and handsome, having markets,
workpeople and rich merchants".
Hastings and the Sea
By the end of the Saxon period, the port of Hastings had moved eastward to near the present town centre in the Priory Stream valley, whose entrance was protected by the White Rock headland (since demolished).
It was to be a short stay: Danish attacks and huge floods in 1011 and 1014 motivated the townspeople to relocate to the New Burgh.
In the Middle Ages Hastings became one of the Cinque Ports.
Much of the town and half of Hastings Castle was washed away in the South England flood of February 1287.
During a naval campaign of 1339, and again in 1377, the town was raided and burnt by the French, and seems then to have gone into a decline. As a port, Hastings' days were finished.
Hastings had suffered over the years from the lack of a natural harbour. Attempts were made to build a stone harbour during the reign of Elizabeth I, but the foundations were destroyed by the sea in terrible storms. Accordingly the town's fishing boats are still stored on, and launched from, the beach.
Hastings was then just a small fishing settlement, but it was soon discovered that the new taxes on luxury goods could be made profitable by smuggling; the town was ideally located for that purpose.
Near the castle ruins, on the West Hill, are St. Clement's Caves, partly natural, but mainly excavated by hand by smugglers from the soft sandstone.
Their trade came to an end with the period following the Napoleonic Wars, for the town became one of the most fashionable resorts in Britain, brought about by the so-called health-giving properties of seawater, as well as the local springs and Roman baths.
The double decker promenade that runs from Hastings Pier beyond Marine Court, with a break at Warrior Square, was built by the borough engineer Sidney Little.
The building of Pelham Crescent necessitated cutting away of the Castle Hill cliffs. Once that move away from the old town had begun, it led to the further expansion along the coast, eventually linking up with the new St. Leonards.
Judges Postcards
Between 1902 and 1919, Fred Judge FRPS photographed many of the town's events and disasters. These included storms, the first tram, the visit of the Lord Mayor of London, Hastings Marathon Race, and the pier fire of 1917.
Many of these images were produced as picture postcards by the firm he founded which is now known as Judges Postcards.
Hastings' Bathing Pool
In the 1930's, an Olympic-sized bathing pool was erected. Regarded in its day as one of the best open-air swimming and diving complexes in Europe, it later became a holiday camp before closing in 1986. It was demolished, but the area is still known by locals as "The Old Bathing Pool".
Hastings' Sunshine
Hastings, tied with Eastbourne, recorded the highest duration of sunshine of any month anywhere in the United Kingdom - 384 hours - in 1911.
A new record temperature of 34.7 °C (94.5 °F) was recorded for the town on the 19th. July 2022.
St. Leonards
The original part St. Leonards was bought by James Burton and laid out by his son, the architect Decimus Burton, in the early 19th. century as a new town: a place of elegant houses designed for the well-off.
It also included a central public garden, a hotel, an archery, assembly rooms and a church. Today's St. Leonards has extended well beyond that original design, although the original town still exists within it.
Priory Meadow Shopping Centre
Hastings' main shopping centre is the Priory Meadow Shopping Centre. It was built on the site of the old Central Recreation Ground which had played host to some Sussex CCC first-class fixtures, and famous cricketers such as Dr. W. G. Grace and Sir Don Bradman.
The Central Recreation Ground was one of England's oldest, most scenic and most famous cricket grounds. The first match was played there in 1864, and the last in 1989, after which the site was redeveloped into the shopping centre. The centre houses 56 stores, and covers around 420,000 square feet.
Marine Court
On the seafront at St. Leonards is Marine Court, a 1938 block of flats in the Art Deco style that was originally called 'The Ship' due to its style being based upon the ocean liner RMS Queen Mary.
Marine Court can be seen from 20 miles (32 km) away on a clear day from Eastbourne.
The Memorial
An important former landmark was the Memorial, a clock tower commemorating Albert the Prince Consort which stood for many years at the traffic junction in the town centre, but was demolished following an arson attack in the 1970's.
The Hastings Miniature Railway
The Hastings Miniature Railway operates along the beach from Rock-a-Nore to Marine Parade, and has provided tourist transport since 1948. The railway was considerably restored and re-opened in 2010.
Hastings' Tram Network
Hastings had a network of trams from 1905 to 1929. The trams ran as far as Bexhill, and were worked by overhead electric wires.
Notable People
Many notable figures were born, raised, or lived in Hastings, including computer scientist Alan Turing, poet Fiona Pitt-Kethley, actress Gwen Watford, comedian Jo Brand and Madness singer Suggs.
Additionally :
-- John Logie Baird lived in Hastings in the 1920's where he carried out experiments that led to the transmission of the first television image.
-- Robert Tressell wrote 'The Ragged-Trousered Philanthropists' in Hastings between 1906 and 1910.
-- Gareth Barry, who holds the record number of appearances in the Premier League, was born in Hastings.
-- The author who worked as Grey Owl was born In Hastings and lived there for several years.
-- Harry H. Corbett (Steptoe & Son) lived in Hastings up until his death in 1982.
-- Anna Brassey, a collector and feminist pioneer of early photography, was based in Hastings until her death in 1887.
Anna Brassey
Baroness Anna "Annie" Brassey was born in London on the 7th. October 1839. Annie was an English traveller and writer. Her bestselling book 'A Voyage in the Sunbeam, our Home on the Ocean for Eleven Months' (1878) describes a voyage around the world.
Anna Brassey - The Early Years
Annie Brassey was born Anna Allnutt. As a child, she faced serious health problems. In his preface to Annie's book 'The Last Voyage', her husband recalled that she suffered from an inherited "weakness of the chest", apparently a form of chronic bronchitis.
As a young woman, she also suffered severe burns when she stood too close to a fireplace and her skirt caught fire. It took six months for her to recover from them.
Annie's Marriage to Lord Brassey
In 1860, she married the English Member of Parliament Thomas Brassey (knighted in 1881, becoming Earl Brassey in 1886), with whom she lived near his Hastings constituency. Thomas was born in 1836 and died in 1918.
The couple had five children together before they travelled aboard their luxury yacht Sunbeam. The yacht was said to have been named after their daughter - Lady Constance Alberta - who was nicknamed Sunbeam; she died of scarlet fever, aged four, on the 24th. January 1873.
The golden figurehead of the yacht depicting Constance is at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London.
Annie's Travels and Publications
'A Voyage in the Sunbeam', describing their journey round the world in 1876–1877 with a complement of 43, including family, friends and crew, ran through many English editions, and was translated into at least five languages.
Her accounts of later voyages include 'Sunshine and Storm in the East' (1880); 'In the Trades, the Tropics, and the Roaring Forties' (1885); and 'The Last Voyage' (1889, published posthumously).
Annie had published privately earlier works including 'A Flight of the Meteor', detailing two cruises in the Mediterranean on their earlier yacht Meteor, and 'A Voyage in the Eothen', a description of their travels to Canada and the United States in 1872.
In July 1881, King Kalākaua of Hawaii, who had been greatly pleased with her description of his kingdom, was entertained at Normanhurst Castle, and invested Lady Brassey with the Royal Order of Kapiolani.
Annie was also involved with the publication of Colonel Henry Stuart-Wortley's 'Tahiti, a Series of Photographs' (1882).
The Death and Legacy of Lady Brassey
Lady Brassey's last voyage on the Sunbeam was to India and Australia, undertaken in November 1886 in order to improve her health. On the way to Mauritius, Annie died of malaria at the age of 47 on the 14th. September 1887, and was buried at sea.
At home in England, she had performed charitable work, largely for the St. John Ambulance Association. Her collection of ethnographic and natural history material was shown in a museum at her husband's London house until it was moved to Hastings Museum in 1919. There are also several photograph albums and other ephemera held at Hastings Library.
However, the vast majority of her photograph albums are now housed in the Huntington Library, San Marino, California. The collection of 70 albums, each containing 72 to 80 thick board pages, contains pre-eminent examples of historical travel.
The albums contain works by Annie and others she collected, including those of commercial photographers. Annie herself was an accomplished photographer. She joined the Royal Photographic Society in 1873 and remained a member until her death. She exhibited some of her work in its exhibitions in 1873 and 1886.
Lady Brassey was survived by four of her five children:
-- Thomas Brassey, 2nd Earl Brassey
-- Lady Mabelle Brassey
-- Muriel Sackville, Countess De La Warr
-- Marie Freeman-Thomas, Marchioness of Willingdon.
It is very important to set up your workstation by taking into consideration the Ergonomic features of your chair because it is the one that directly affects health of your body. Lots of chair manufacturers claim that their chairs are the best in the market, but are they really that good?
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Here is why you should consider purchasing of a SpinaliS chair:
Back injuries result from damage, wear, or trauma to the bones, muscles, or other tissues of the back. Common back injuries include sprains and strains, herniated disks, and fractured vertebrae. The lumbar is often the site of back pain. The area is susceptible because of its flexibility and the amount of body weight it regularly bears. It is estimated that low-back pain may affect as much as 80 to 90 percent of the general population in Canada.
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In the breakfast room of a rather posh motel. (Not our ususal style.)
Six round tables with two chairs each. Someone has an Obsessive Compulsive disorder.
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Sbusi Zulu Umemulo Coming of Age Ceremony South African Zulu Cultural Singing and Dancing Umlazi Durban November 2019
Umemulo also known as the Coming of Age is an important Zulu ritual that celebrates a young girl's journey into womanhood. The ceremony indicates that the young girl has transitioned from a child and into an adult woman who can now get married
Rapid strata formation in soft sand (field evidence).
Photo of strata formation in soft sand on a beach, created by tidal action of the sea.
Formed in a single, high tidal event. Stunning evidence which displays multiple strata/layers.
Why this is so important ....
It has long been assumed, ever since the 17th century, that layers/strata observed in sedimentary rocks were built up gradually, layer upon layer, over many years. It certainly seemed logical at the time, from just looking at rocks, that lower layers would always be older than the layers above them, i.e. that lower layers were always laid down first followed, in time, by successive layers on top.
This was assumed to be true and became known as the superposition principle.
It was also assumed that a layer comprising a different material from a previous layer, represented a change in environmental conditions/factors.
These changes in composition of layers or strata were considered to represent different, geological eras on a global scale, spanning millions of years. This formed the basis for the Geologic Column, which is used to date rocks and also fossils. The evolutionary, 'fossil record' was based on the vast ages and assumed geological eras of the Geologic Column.
There was also circular reasoning applied with the assumed age of 'index' fossils (based on evolutionary beliefs & preconceptions) used to date strata in the Geologic Column. Dating strata from the assumed age of (index) fossils is known as Biostratigraphy.
We now know that, although these assumptions seemed logical, they are not supported by the evidence.
At the time, the mechanics of stratification were not properly known or studied.
An additional factor was that this assumed superposition and uniformitarian model became essential, with the wide acceptance of Darwinism, for the long ages required for progressive microbes-to-human evolution. There was no incentive to question or challenge the superposition, uniformitarian model, because the presumed, fossil 'record' had become dependant on it, and any change in the accepted model would present devastating implications for Darwinism.
This had the unfortunate effect of linking the study of geology so closely to Darwinism, that any study independent of Darwinian considerations was effectively stymied. This link of geology with Darwinian preconceptions is known as biostratigraphy.
Some other field evidence can be observed here: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
and also in the links to stunning, experimental evidence, carried out by sedimentologists, given later.
_______________________________________________
GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLES (established by Nicholas Steno in the 17th Century):
What Nicolas Steno believed about strata formation is the basis of the principle of Superposition and the principle of Original Horizontality.
dictionary.sensagent.com/Law_of_superposition/en-en/
“Assuming that all rocks and minerals had once been fluid, Nicolas Steno reasoned that rock strata were formed when particles in a fluid such as water fell to the bottom. This process would leave horizontal layers. Thus Steno's principle of original horizontality states that rock layers form in the horizontal position, and any deviations from this horizontal position are due to the rocks being disturbed later.”)
BEDDING PLANES.
'Bedding plane' describes the surface in between each stratum which are formed during sediment deposition.
science.jrank.org/pages/6533/Strata.html
“Strata form during sediment deposition, that is, the laying down of sediment. Meanwhile, if a change in current speed or sediment grain size occurs or perhaps the sediment supply is cut off, a bedding plane forms. Bedding planes are surfaces that separate one stratum from another. Bedding planes can also form when the upper part of a sediment layer is eroded away before the next episode of deposition. Strata separated by a bedding plane may have different grain sizes, grain compositions, or colours. Sometimes these other traits are better indicators of stratification as bedding planes may be very subtle.”
______________________________________________
Several catastrophic events, flash floods, volcanic eruptions etc. have forced Darwinian, influenced geologists to admit to rapid stratification in some instances. However they claim it is a rare phenomenon, which they have known about for many years, and which does nothing to invalidate the Geologic Column, the fossil record, evolutionary timescale, or any of the old assumptions regarding strata formation, sedimentation and the superposition principle. They fail to face up to the fact that rapid stratification is not an extraordinary phenonemon, but rather the prevailing and normal mechanism of sedimentary deposition whenever and wherever there is moving, sediment-laden water. The experimental evidence demonstrates the mechanism and a mass of field evidence in normal (non-catastrophic) conditions shows it is a normal everyday occurrence.
It is clear from the experimental evidence that the usual process of stratification is - that strata are not formed by horizontal layers being laid on top of each other in succession, as was assumed. But by sediment being sorted in the flowing water and laid down diagonally in the direction of flow. See diagram:
www.flickr.com/photos/truth-in-science/39821536092/in/dat...
The field evidence (in the image) presented here - of rapid, simultaneous stratification refutes the Superposition Principle and the Principle of Lateral Continuity.
We now know, the Superposition Principle only applies on a rare occasion where sedimentary deposits are laid down in still water.
Superposition is required for the long evolutionary timescale, but the evidence shows it is not the general rule, as was once believed. Most sediment is laid down in moving water, where particle segregation is the general rule, resulting in the simultaneous deposition of strata/layers as shown in the photo.
See many other examples of rapid stratification (with geological features): www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Rapid, simultaneous formation of layers/strata, through particle segregation in moving water, is so easily created it has even been described by sedimentologists (working on flume experiments) as a law ...
"Upon filling the tank with water and pouring in sediments, we immediately saw what was to become the rule: The sediments sorted themselves out in very clear layers. This became so common that by the end of two weeks, we jokingly referred to Andrew's law as "It's difficult not to make layers," and Clark's law as "It's easy to make layers." Later on, I proposed the "law" that liquefaction destroys layers, as much to my surprise as that was." Ian Juby, www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/
The example in the photo is the result of normal, everyday tidal action in a single incident. Where the water current or movement is more turbulent, violent, or catastrophic, great depths (many metres) of stratified sediment can be laid down in a short time. Certainly not the many millions of years assumed by evolutionists.
The composition of strata formed in any deposition event. is related to whatever materials are in the sediment mix, not to any particular timescale. Whatever is in the mix will be automatically sorted into strata/layers. It could be sand, or other material added from mud slides, erosion of chalk deposits, coastal erosion, volcanic ash etc. Any organic material (potential fossils), alive or dead, engulfed by, or swept into, a turbulent sediment mix, will also be sorted and buried within the rapidly, forming layers.
See many other examples of rapid stratification with geological features: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Stratified, soft sand deposit. demonstrates the rapid, stratification principle.
Important, field evidence which supports the work of the eminent, sedimentologist Dr Guy Berthault MIAS - Member of the International Association of Sedimentologists.
(Dr Berthault's experiments (www.sedimentology.fr/)
And also the experimental work of Dr M.E. Clark (Professor Emeritus, U of Illinois @ Urbana), Andrew Rodenbeck and Dr. Henry Voss, (www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/)
Location: Sandown, Isle of Wight. Formed 06/06/2018, This field evidence demonstrates that multiple strata in sedimentary deposits do not need millions of years to form and can be formed rapidly. This natural example confirms the principle demonstrated by the sedimentation experiments carried out by Dr Guy Berthault and other sedimentologists. It calls into question the standard, multi-million year dating of sedimentary rocks, and the dating of fossils by depth of burial or position in the strata.
Mulltiple strata/layers are evident in this example.
Dr Berthault's experiments (www.sedimentology.fr/) and other experiments (www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/) and field studies of floods and volcanic action show that, rather than being formed by gradual, slow deposition of sucessive layers superimposed upon previous layers, with the strata or layers representing a particular timescale, particle segregation in moving water or airborne particles can form strata or layers very quickly, frequently, in a single event.
And, most importantly, lower strata are not older than upper strata, they are the same age, having been created in the same sedimentary episode.
Such field studies confirm experiments which have shown that there is no longer any reason to conclude that strata/layers in sedimentary rocks relate to different geological eras and/or a multi-million year timescale. www.youtube.com/watch?v=5PVnBaqqQw8&feature=share&.... they also show that the relative position of fossils in rocks is not indicative of an order of evolutionary succession. Obviously, the uniformitarian principle, on which the geologic column is based, can no longer be considered valid. And the multi-million, year dating of sedimentary rocks and fossils needs to be reassessed. Rapid deposition of stratified sediments also explains the enigma of polystrate fossils, i.e. large fossils that intersect several strata. In some cases, tree trunk fossils are found which intersect the strata of sedimentary rock up to forty feet in depth. upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lycopsi... They must have been buried in stratified sediment in a short time (certainly not millions, thousands, or even hundreds of years), or they would have rotted away. youtu.be/vnzHU9VsliQ
In fact, the vast majority of fossils are found in good, intact condition, which is testament to their rapid burial. You don't get good fossils from gradual burial, because they would be damaged or destroyed by decay, predation or erosion. The existence of so many fossils in sedimentary rock on a global scale is stunning evidence for the rapid depostion of sedimentary rock as the general rule. It is obvious that all rock containing good intact fossils was formed from sediment laid down in a very short time, not millions, or even thousands of years.
See set of photos of other examples of rapid stratification: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Carbon dating of coal should not be possible if it is millions of years old, yet significant amounts of Carbon 14 have been detected in coal and other fossil material, which indicates that it is less than 50,000 years old. www.ldolphin.org/sewell/c14dating.html
www.grisda.org/origins/51006.htm
Evolutionists confidently cite multi-million year ages for rocks and fossils, but what most people don't realise is that no one actually knows the age of sedimentary rocks or the fossils found within them. So how are evolutionists so sure of the ages they so confidently quote? The astonishing thing is they aren't. Sedimentary rocks cannot be dated by radiometric methods*, and fossils can only be dated to less than 50,000 years with Carbon 14 dating. The method evolutionists use is based entirely on assumptions. Unbelievably, fossils are dated by the assumed age of rocks, and rocks are dated by the assumed age of fossils, that's right ... it is known as circular reasoning.
* Regarding the radiometric dating of igneous rocks, which is claimed to be relevant to the dating of sedimentary rocks, in an occasional instance there is an igneous intrusion associated with a sedimentary deposit -
Prof. Aubouin says in his Précis de Géologie: "Each radioactive element disintegrates in a characteristic and constant manner, which depends neither on the physical state (no variation with pressure or temperature or any other external constraint) nor on the chemical state (identical for an oxide or a phosphate)."
"Rocks form when magma crystallizes. Crystallisation depends on pressure and temperature, from which radioactivity is independent. So, there is no relationship between radioactivity and crystallisation.
Consequently, radioactivity doesn't date the formation of rocks. Moreover, daughter elements contained in rocks result mainly from radioactivity in magma where gravity separates the heavier parent element, from the lighter daughter element. Thus radiometric dating has no chronological signification." Dr. Guy Berthault www.sciencevsevolution.org/Berthault.htm
Visit the fossil museum:
www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157641367196613/
Just how good are peer reviews of scientific papers?
www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6154/60.full
www.examiner.com/article/want-to-publish-science-paper-ju...
The neo-Darwinian idea that the human genome consists entirely of an accumulation of billions of mutations is, quite obviously, completely bonkers. Nevertheless, it is compulsorily taught in schools and universities as 'science'.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting or removing water marks are liable to prosecution.
I'm also putting a friendly important Content message about important real life lessons saying "This program includes many important real life lessons for your kids to learn and help them get ready for school and perfect to use in schools too. These real life lessons are about kindness, honesty, respect, knowing what's right or wrong and bravery etc. These real life lessons were important then and important now. You must recommend your kids to watch this content to create a more inclusive future together." on Walt Disney's animated films Snow White and Pinocchio and all other media with all kindness and important real life lessons. And here are the links to read about the important real life lessons from Walt Disney's animated films Snow White and Pinocchio and the importance of education in children. exploringyourmind.com/pinocchio-importance-education/
marqueetp.com/lessons-to-be-learned-from-pinocchio/#:~:te....
keepinstep13.weebly.com/disney/15-life-lessons-from-snow-...
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
Sbusi Zulu Umemulo Coming of Age Ceremony South African Zulu Cultural Singing and Dancing Umlazi Durban November 2019
Umemulo also known as the Coming of Age is an important Zulu ritual that celebrates a young girl's journey into womanhood. The ceremony indicates that the young girl has transitioned from a child and into an adult woman who can now get married
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The Gūr-e Amīr or Guri Amir is a mausoleum of the Asian conqueror Tamerlane (also known as Timur) in Samarkand, Uzbekistan. It occupies an important place in the history of Persian Architecture as the precursor and model for later great Mughal architecture tombs, including Humayun's Tomb in Delhi and the Taj Mahal in Agra, built by Timur's descendants, the ruling Mughal dynasty of North India. It has been heavily restored.
Gur-e Amir is Persian for "Tomb of the King". This architectural complex with its azure dome contains the tombs of Tamerlane, his sons Shah Rukh and Miran Shah and grandson Ulugh Beg and Muhammad Sultan. Also honoured with a place in the tomb is Timur's teacher Mir Sayyid Baraka.
The earliest part of the complex was built at the end of the 14th century by the orders of Muhammad Sultan. Now only the foundations of the madrasah and khanaka, the entrance portal and a part of one of four minarets remains.
The construction of the mausoleum itself began in 1403 after the sudden death of Muhammad Sultan, Tamerlane's heir apparent and his beloved grandson, for whom it was intended. Timur had built himself a smaller tomb in Shahrisabz near his Ak-Saray palace. However, when Timur died in 1405 on campaign on his military expedition to China, the passes to Shahrisabz were snowed in, so he was buried here instead. Ulugh Beg, another grandson of Tamerlane, completed the work. During his reign the mausoleum became the family crypt of the Timurid Dynasty.
The entrance portal to the Muhammad Sultan ensemble is richly decorated with carved bricks and various mosaics. The decoration of the portal was accomplished by the skilled craftsman (ustad) Muhammad bin Mahmud Isfahani. Outwardly the Gur-e Amir Mausoleum is a one-cupola building. It is famous for its simplicity of construction and for its solemn monumentality of appearance. It is an octahedral building crowned by an azure fluted dome (see picture). The exterior decoration of the walls consists of the blue, light-blue and white tiles organized into geometrical and epigraphic ornaments against a background of terracotta bricks. The dome (diameter - 15 m (49.21 ft), height - 12.5 m (41.01 ft)) is of a bright blue color with deep rosettes and white spots. Heavy ribbed fluting gives an amazing expressiveness to the cupola.
During the reign of Ulugh Beg a doorway was made to provide an entrance into the mausoleum.
Inwardly the mausoleum appears as a large, high chamber with deep niches at the sides and diverse decoration. The lower part of the walls covered are by onyx slabs composed as one panel. Each of these slabs is decorated with refined paintings. Above the panel there is a marble stalactite cornice. Large expanses of the walls are decorated with painted plaster; the arches and the internal dome are ornamented by high-relief papier-mache cartouches, gilded and painted. The ornate carved headstones in the inner room of the mausoleum merely indicate the location of the actual tombs in a crypt directly underneath the main chamber. Under Ulugh Beg's government a solid block of dark green jade was placed over the grave of Tamerlane. Formerly this stone had been used at a place of worship in the Chinese emperor's palace, then as the throne of Kabek Khan (a descendant of Genghis Khan) in Karshi. Next to Tamerlane's grave lie the marble tombstones of his sons Miran Shah and Shah Rukh and also of grandsons - Muhammad Sultan and Ulugh Beg. Tamerlane's spiritual teacher Mir Said Baraka, also rests here. In 1740, the Persian warlord Nadir Shah tried to carry off the valuable tomb stone, but it broke in two. This was interpreted as a bad omen. His advisers urged him to leave the stone to its rightful place. The second time the stone was disturbed was on June 19, 1941 when Soviet archaeologists opened the crypt. The anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov was able to reconstruct Tamerlane's facial features from his skull, and it was also confirmed that he was 172 cm in height, a giant for his day, and would have walked with a pronounced limp. Further historical information about the assassination of Ulugh Beg and the authenticity of the other graves was also confirmed. Timur's skeleton and that of Ulugh Beg, his grandson, were reinterred with full Islamic burial rites in November 1942, at the beginning of the Battle of Stalingrad.
The Postcard
A postally unused postcard published by the Bodleian Library and printed at the Oxford University Press.
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Percy Bysshe Shelley, who was born on the 4th. August 1792, was one of the major English Romantic poets.
A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not achieve fame during his lifetime, but recognition of his achievements in poetry grew steadily following his death, and he became an important influence on subsequent generations of poets, including Robert Browning, Algernon Charles Swinburne, Thomas Hardy, and W. B. Yeats.
American literary critic Harold Bloom describes Shelley as:
"A superb craftsman, a lyric poet without
rival, and surely one of the most advanced
sceptical intellects ever to write a poem."
Shelly's reputation fluctuated during the 20th. century, but in recent decades he has achieved increasing critical acclaim for the sweeping momentum of his poetic imagery, his mastery of genres and verse forms, and the complex interplay of sceptical, idealist, and materialist ideas in his work.
Among his best-known works are "Ozymandias" (1818), "Ode to the West Wind" (1819), "To a Skylark" (1820), the philosophical essay "The Necessity of Atheism" written alongside his friend T. J. Hogg (1811), and the political ballad "The Mask of Anarchy" (1819).
Shelley's other major works include the verse drama The Cenci (1819) and long poems such as Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude (1815), Julian and Maddalo (1819), Adonais (1821), Prometheus Unbound (1820) - widely considered his masterpiece - Hellas (1822), and his final, unfinished work, The Triumph of Life (1822).
Shelley also wrote prose fiction and a quantity of essays on political, social, and philosophical issues.
Much of his poetry and prose was not published in his lifetime, or only published in expurgated form, due to the risk of prosecution for political and religious libel.
From the 1820's, his poems and political and ethical writings became popular in Owenist, Chartist, and radical political circles, and later drew admirers as diverse as Karl Marx, Mahatma Gandhi, and George Bernard Shaw.
Shelley's life was marked by family crises, ill health, and a backlash against his atheism, political views and defiance of social conventions. He went into permanent self-exile in Italy in 1818, and over the next four years produced what Leader and O'Neill call:
"Some of the finest poetry
of the Romantic period".
His second wife, Mary Shelley, was the author of Frankenstein.
Shelley died in a boating accident in 1822 at the age of 29.
Percy Bysshe Shelley - The Early Years
Shelley was born at Field Place, Warnham, West Sussex. He was the eldest son of Sir Timothy Shelley (1753–1844), a Whig Member of Parliament for Horsham from 1790 to 1792 and for Shoreham between 1806 and 1812, and his wife, Elizabeth Pilfold (1763–1846), the daughter of a successful butcher.
Percy had four younger sisters and one much younger brother. Shelley's early childhood was sheltered and mostly happy. He was particularly close to his sisters and his mother, who encouraged him to hunt, fish and ride.
At the age of six, he was sent to a day school run by the vicar of Warnham church, where he displayed an impressive memory and gift for languages.
In 1802 he entered the Syon House Academy in Brentford. Shelley was bullied and unhappy at the school, and sometimes responded with violent rage. He also began suffering from the nightmares, hallucinations and sleep walking that were periodically to afflict him throughout his life.
Shelley developed an interest in science which supplemented his voracious reading of tales of mystery, romance and the supernatural. During his holidays at Field Place, his sisters were often terrified by being subjected to his experiments with gunpowder, acids and electricity. Back at school he blew up a fence with gunpowder.
In 1804, Shelley entered Eton College, a period which he later recalled with loathing. He was subjected to particularly severe mob bullying which the perpetrators called "Shelley-baits".
A number of biographers and contemporaries have attributed the bullying to Shelley's aloofness, nonconformity and refusal to take part in fagging. His peculiarities and violent rages earned him the nickname "Mad Shelley".
His interest in the occult and science continued, and contemporaries describe him giving an electric shock to a master, blowing up a tree stump with gunpowder and attempting to raise spirits with occult rituals.
In his senior years, Shelley came under the influence of a part-time teacher, Dr James Lind, who encouraged his interest in the occult, and introduced him to liberal and radical authors.
Shelley also developed an interest in Plato and idealist philosophy which he pursued in later years through self-study. According to Richard Holmes, Shelley, by his leaving year, had gained a reputation as a classical scholar and a tolerated eccentric.
In his last term at Eton, his first novel Zastrozzi appeared and he had established a following among his fellow students. Prior to enrolling at University College, Oxford in October 1810, Shelley completed Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire (written with his sister Elizabeth), the verse melodrama The Wandering Jew and the Gothic novel St. Irvine; or, The Rosicrucian: A Romance (published 1811).
At Oxford Shelley attended few lectures, instead spending long hours reading and conducting scientific experiments in the laboratory he set up in his room. He met a fellow student, Thomas Jefferson Hogg, who became his closest friend.
Shelley became increasingly politicised under Hogg's influence, developing strong radical and anti-Christian views. Such views were dangerous in the reactionary political climate prevailing during Britain's war with Napoleonic France, and Shelley's father warned him against Hogg's influence.
In the winter of 1810–1811, Shelley published a series of anonymous political poems and tracts: Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson, The Necessity of Atheism (written in collaboration with Hogg) and A Poetical Essay on the Existing State of Things.
Shelley mailed The Necessity of Atheism to all the bishops and heads of colleges at Oxford, and he was called to appear before the college's fellows, including the Dean, George Rowley. His refusal to answer questions put by college authorities regarding whether or not he authored the pamphlet resulted in his expulsion from Oxford on the 25th. March 1811, along with Hogg.
Hearing of his son's expulsion, Shelley's father threatened to cut all contact with Shelley unless he agreed to return home and study under tutors appointed by him. Shelley's refusal to do so led to a falling-out with his father.
Shelley's Marriage to Harriet Westbrook
In late December 1810, Shelley had met Harriet Westbrook, a pupil at the same boarding school as Shelley's sisters. They corresponded frequently that winter, and also after Shelley had been expelled from Oxford.
Shelley expounded his radical ideas on politics, religion and marriage to Harriet, and they gradually convinced each other that she was oppressed by her father and at school.
Shelley's infatuation with Harriet developed in the months following his expulsion, when he was under severe emotional strain due to the conflict with his family, his bitterness over the breakdown of his romance with his cousin Harriet Grove, and his unfounded belief that he might be suffering from a fatal illness.
At the same time, Harriet Westbrook's elder sister Eliza, to whom Harriet was very close, encouraged the young girl's romance with Shelley. Shelley's correspondence with Harriet intensified in July, while he was holidaying in Wales, and in response to her urgent pleas for his protection, he returned to London in early August.
Putting aside his philosophical objections to matrimony, he left with the sixteen-year-old Harriet for Edinburgh on the 25th. August 1811, and they were married there on the 28th.
Hearing of the elopement, Harriet's father, John Westbrook, and Shelley's father cut off the allowances of the bride and groom. Shelley's father believed that his son had married beneath him, as Harriet's father had earned his fortune in trade, and was the owner of a tavern and coffee house.
Surviving on borrowed money, Shelley and Harriet stayed in Edinburgh for a month, with Hogg living under the same roof. The trio left for York in October, and Shelley went on to Sussex to settle matters with his father, leaving Harriet behind with Hogg.
Shelley returned from his unsuccessful excursion to find that Harriet's sister Eliza had moved in with Harriet and Hogg. Harriet confessed that Hogg had tried to seduce her while Shelley had been away. Accordingly Shelley, Harriet and Eliza soon left for Keswick in the Lake District, leaving Hogg in York.
At this time Shelley was involved in an intense platonic relationship with Elizabeth Hitchener, a 28-year-old unmarried schoolteacher of advanced views, with whom he had been corresponding. Hitchener, whom Shelley called the "sister of my soul" and "my second self", became his confidante and intellectual companion as he developed his views on politics, religion, ethics and personal relationships.
Shelley proposed that Elizabeth join him, Harriet and Eliza in a communal household where all property would be shared.
The Shelleys and Eliza spent December and January in Keswick where Shelley visited Robert Southey whose poetry he admired. Southey was taken with Shelley, even though there was a wide gulf between them politically, and predicted great things for him as a poet.
Southey also informed Shelley that William Godwin, author of Political Justice, which had greatly influenced him in his youth, and which Shelley also admired, was still alive. Shelley wrote to Godwin, offering himself as his devoted disciple. Godwin, who had modified many of his earlier radical views, advised Shelley to reconcile with his father, become a scholar before he published anything else, and give up his avowed plans for political agitation in Ireland.
Meanwhile, Shelley had met his father's patron, Charles Howard, 11th. Duke of Norfolk, who helped secure the reinstatement of Shelley's allowance.
With Harriet's allowance also restored, Shelley now had the funds for his Irish venture. Their departure for Ireland was precipitated by increasing hostility towards the Shelley household from their landlord and neighbours who were alarmed by Shelley's scientific experiments, pistol shooting and radical political views.
As tension mounted, Shelley claimed he had been attacked in his home by ruffians, an event which might have been real, or a delusional episode triggered by stress. This was the first of a series of episodes in subsequent years where Shelley claimed to have been attacked by strangers during periods of personal crisis.
Early in 1812, Shelley wrote, published and personally distributed in Dublin three political tracts: An Address, to the Irish People; Proposals for an Association of Philanthropists; and Declaration of Rights. He also delivered a speech at a meeting of O'Connell's Catholic Committee in which he called for Catholic emancipation, repeal of the Acts of Union and an end to the oppression of the Irish poor. Reports of Shelley's subversive activities were sent to the Home Secretary.
Returning from Ireland, the Shelley household travelled to Wales, then Devon, where they again came under government surveillance for distributing subversive literature. Elizabeth Hitchener joined the household in Devon, but several months later had a falling out with the Shelleys and left.
The Shelley household settled in Tremadog, Wales in September 1812, where Shelley worked on Queen Mab, a utopian allegory with extensive notes preaching atheism, free love, republicanism and vegetarianism. The poem was published the following year in a private edition of 250 copies, although few were initially distributed, because of the risk of prosecution for seditious and religious libel.
In February 1813, Shelley claimed he was attacked in his home at night. The incident might have been real, a hallucination brought on by stress, or a hoax staged by Shelley in order to escape government surveillance, creditors and his entanglements in local politics. The Shelleys and Eliza fled to Ireland, then London.
Back in England, Shelley's debts mounted as he tried unsuccessfully to reach a financial settlement with his father. On the 23rd. June 1813, Harriet gave birth to a girl, Eliza Ianthe Shelley, but in the following months the relationship between Shelley and his wife deteriorated.
Shelley resented the influence that Harriet's sister had over her, while Harriet was alienated by Shelley's close friendship with an attractive widow, Harriet Boinville, and her daughter Cornelia Turner.
Following Ianthe's birth, the Shelleys moved frequently across London, Wales, the Lake District, Scotland and Berkshire to escape creditors and to search for a home.
In March 1814, Shelley remarried Harriet in London to settle any doubts about the legality of their Edinburgh wedding and to secure the rights of their child. Nevertheless, the Shelleys lived apart for most of the following months, and Shelley reflected bitterly on:
"My rash & heartless union with Harriet".
Shelley's Elopement with Mary Godwin
In May 1814, Shelley began visiting his mentor William Godwin almost daily, and soon fell in love with Mary, the sixteen-year-old daughter of Godwin and the late feminist author Mary Wollstonecraft.
Shelley and Mary declared their love for each other during a visit to her mother's grave in the churchyard of St. Pancras Old Church on the 26th. June 1814. When Shelley told William Godwin that he intended to leave Harriet and live with Godwin's daughter, his mentor banished him from the house, and forbade Mary from seeing him.
Shelley and Mary however eloped to Europe on the 28th. July 1814, taking Mary's step-sister Claire Clairmont with them. Before leaving, Shelley had secured a loan of £3,000, but had left most of the funds at the disposal of Godwin and Harriet, who was now pregnant. The financial arrangement with Godwin led to rumours that he had sold his daughters to Shelley.
Shelley, Mary Godwin and Claire made their way across war-ravaged France where Shelley wrote to Harriet, asking her to meet them in Switzerland with the money he had left for her.
However, hearing nothing from Harriet in Switzerland, and being unable to secure sufficient funds or suitable accommodation, the three travelled to Germany and Holland before returning to England on the 13th. September 1814.
Shelley spent the next few months trying to raise loans and avoid bailiffs. Mary was pregnant, lonely, depressed and ill. Her mood was not improved when she heard that, on the 30th. November 1814, Harriet had given birth to Charles Bysshe Shelley, heir to the Shelley fortune and baronetcy.
This was followed, in early January 1815, by news that Shelley's grandfather, Sir Bysshe, had died leaving an estate worth £220,000. The settlement of the estate, and a financial settlement between Shelley and his father (now Sir Timothy), however, was not concluded until April the following year.
In February 1815, Mary gave premature birth to a baby girl who died ten days later, deepening her depression. In the following weeks, Mary became close to Hogg who temporarily moved into the household.
Shelley was almost certainly having a sexual relationship with Claire at this time, and it is possible that Mary, with Shelley's encouragement, was also having a sexual relationship with Hogg. In May Claire left the household, at Mary's insistence, to reside in Lynmouth.
In August 1815 Shelley and Mary moved to Bishopsgate where Shelley worked on Alastor, a long poem in blank verse based on the myth of Narcissus and Echo. Alastor was published in an edition of 250 in early 1816 to poor sales and largely unfavourable reviews from the conservative press.
On the 24th. January 1816, Mary gave birth to William Shelley. Percy was delighted to have another son, but was suffering from the strain of prolonged financial negotiations with his father, Harriet and William Godwin. Shelley showed signs of delusional behaviour, and was contemplating an escape to the continent.
Lord Byron
Claire initiated a sexual relationship with Lord Byron in April 1816, just before his self-exile on the continent, and then arranged for Byron to meet Shelley, Mary and her in Geneva.
Shelley admired Byron's poetry, and had sent him Queen Mab and other poems. Shelley's party arrived in Geneva in May and rented a house close to Villa Diodati, on the shores of Lake Geneva, where Byron was staying. There Shelley, Byron and the others engaged in discussions about literature, science and "various philosophical doctrines".
One night, while Byron was reciting Coleridge's Christabel, Shelley suffered a severe panic attack with hallucinations. The previous night Mary had had a more productive vision or nightmare which inspired her novel Frankenstein.
Shelley and Byron then took a boating tour around Lake Geneva, which inspired Shelley to write his "Hymn to Intellectual Beauty", his first substantial poem since Alastor.
A tour of Chamonix in the French Alps inspired "Mont Blanc", which has been described as an atheistic response to Coleridge's "Hymn before Sunrise in the Vale of Chamoni". During this tour, Shelley often signed guest books with a declaration that he was an atheist. These declarations were seen by other British tourists, including Southey, which hardened attitudes against Shelley back home.
Relations between Byron and Shelley's party became strained when Byron was told that Claire was pregnant with his child. Shelley, Mary, and Claire left Switzerland in late August, with arrangements for the expected baby still unclear, although Shelley made provision for Claire and the baby in his will.
In January 1817 Claire gave birth to a daughter by Byron who she named Alba, but later renamed Allegra in accordance with Byron's wishes.
Shelley's Marriage to Mary Godwin
Shelley and Mary returned to England in September 1816, and in early October they heard that Mary's half-sister Fanny Imlay had killed herself. Mary believed that Fanny had been in love with Shelley, and Shelley himself suffered depression and guilt over her death, writing:
"Friend had I known thy secret grief
Should we have parted so."
Further tragedy followed in December 1816 when Shelley's estranged wife Harriet drowned herself in the Serpentine in Hyde Park. Harriet, pregnant and living alone at the time, believed that she had been abandoned by her new lover. In her suicide letter she asked Shelley to take custody of their son Charles but to leave their daughter in her sister Eliza's care.
Shelley married Mary Godwin on the 30 December 1816, despite his philosophical objections to the institution. The marriage was intended to help secure Shelley's custody of his children by Harriet and to placate Godwin who had refused to see Shelley and Mary because of their previous adulterous relationship.
After a prolonged legal battle, the Court of Chancery eventually awarded custody of Shelley and Harriet's children to foster parents, on the grounds that Shelley had abandoned his first wife for Mary without cause, and was an atheist.
In March 1817 the Shelleys moved to the village of Marlow, Buckinghamshire, where Shelley's friend Thomas Love Peacock lived. The Shelley household included Claire and her baby Allegra, both of whose presence was resented by Mary. Shelley's generosity with money and increasing debts also led to financial and marital stress, as did Godwin's frequent requests for financial help.
On the 2nd. September 1817 Mary gave birth to a daughter, Clara Everina Shelley. Soon after, Shelley left for London with Claire, which increased Mary's resentment towards her step-sister. Shelley was arrested for two days in London over money he owed, and attorneys visited Mary in Marlowe over Shelley's debts.
Shelley was part of the literary and political circle that surrounded Leigh Hunt, and during this period he met William Hazlitt and John Keats. Shelley's major work during this time was Laon and Cythna, a long narrative poem featuring incest and attacks on religion.
It was hastily withdrawn after publication due to fears of prosecution for religious libel, and was re-edited and reissued as The Revolt of Islam in January 1818. Shelley also published two political tracts under a pseudonym: A Proposal for putting Reform to the Vote throughout the Kingdom (March 1817) and An Address to the People on the Death of Princess Charlotte (November 1817).
In December he wrote "Ozymandias", which is considered to be one of his finest sonnets, as part of a competition with friend and fellow poet Horace Smith.
Shelley in Italy
On the 12th. March 1818 the Shelleys and Claire left England:
"To escape its tyranny civil and religious".
A doctor had also recommended that Shelley go to Italy for his chronic lung complaint, and Shelley had arranged to take Claire's daughter, Allegra, to her father Byron who was now in Venice.
After travelling some months through France and Italy, Shelley left Mary and baby Clara at Bagni di Lucca (in today's Tuscany) while he travelled with Claire to Venice to see Byron and make arrangements for visiting Allegra.
Byron invited the Shelleys to stay at his summer residence at Este, and Shelley urged Mary to meet him there. Clara became seriously ill on the journey, and died on the 24th. September 1818 in Venice.
Following Clara's death, Mary fell into a long period of depression and emotional estrangement from Shelley.
The Shelleys moved to Naples on the 1st. December 1818, where they stayed for three months. During this period Shelley was ill, depressed and almost suicidal: a state of mind reflected in his poem "Stanzas written in Dejection – December 1818, Near Naples".
While in Naples, Shelley registered the birth and baptism of a baby girl, Elena Adelaide Shelley (born on the 27th. December 1818), naming himself as the father and falsely naming Mary as the mother.
The parentage of Elena has never been conclusively established. Biographers have variously speculated that she was adopted by Shelley to console Mary for the loss of Clara, that she was Shelley's child to Claire, that she was his child to his servant Elise Foggi, or that she was the child of a "mysterious lady" who had followed Shelley to the continent.
Shelley registered the birth and baptism on the 27th. February 1819, and the household left Naples for Rome the following day, leaving Elena with carers. Elena died in a poor suburb of Naples on the 9th. June 1820.
In Rome, Shelley was in poor health, probably suffering from nephritis and tuberculosis which later was in remission. Nevertheless, he made significant progress on three major works: Julian and Maddalo, Prometheus Unbound, and The Cenci.
Julian and Maddalo is an autobiographical poem which explores the relationship between Shelley and Byron, and analyses Shelley's personal crises of 1818 and 1819. The poem was completed in the summer of 1819, but was not published in Shelley's lifetime.
Prometheus Unbound is a long dramatic poem inspired by Aeschylus's retelling of the Prometheus myth. It was completed in late 1819 and published in 1820.
The Cenci is a verse drama of rape, murder and incest based on the story of the Renaissance Count Cenci of Rome and his daughter Beatrice. Shelley completed the play in September, and the first edition was published that year. It was to become one of his most popular works, and the only one to have two authorised editions during his lifetime.
Shelley's three-year-old son William died in June, probably of malaria. The new tragedy caused a further decline in Shelley's health, and deepened Mary's depression. On the 4th. August she wrote:
"We have now lived five years together;
and if all the events of the five years
were blotted out, I might be happy".
The Shelleys were now living in Livorno where, in September, Shelley heard of the Peterloo Massacre of peaceful protesters in Manchester. Within two weeks he had completed one of his most famous political poems, The Mask of Anarchy, and despatched it to Leigh Hunt for publication. Hunt, however, decided not to publish it for fear of prosecution for seditious libel. The poem was only officially published in 1832.
The Shelleys moved to Florence in October, where Shelley read a scathing review of the Revolt of Islam (and its earlier version Laon and Cythna) in the conservative Quarterly Review. Shelley was angered by the personal attack on him in the article which he erroneously believed had been written by Southey. His bitterness over the review lasted for the rest of his life.
On the 12th. November, Mary gave birth to a boy, Percy Florence Shelley. Around the time of Percy's birth, the Shelleys met Sophia Stacey, who was a ward of one of Shelley's uncles, and who was staying at the same pension as the Shelleys.
Sophia, a talented harpist and singer, formed a friendship with Shelley while Mary was preoccupied with her newborn son. Shelley wrote at least five love poems and fragments for Sophia including "Song Written for an Indian Air".
The Shelleys moved to Pisa in January 1820, ostensibly to consult a doctor who had been recommended to them. There they became friends with the Irish republican Margaret Mason (Lady Margaret Mountcashell) and her common-law husband George William Tighe. Mrs Mason became the inspiration for Shelley's poem "The Sensitive Plant", and Shelley's discussions with Mason and Tighe influenced his political thought and his critical interest in the population theories of Thomas Malthus.
In March Shelley wrote to friends that Mary was depressed, suicidal and hostile towards him. Shelley was also beset by financial worries, as creditors from England pressed him for payment and he was obliged to make secret payments in connection with his "Neapolitan charge" Elena.
Meanwhile, Shelley was writing A Philosophical View of Reform, a political essay which he had begun in Rome. The unfinished essay, which remained unpublished in Shelley's lifetime, has been called:
"One of the most advanced and
sophisticated documents of political
philosophy in the nineteenth century".
Another crisis erupted in June when Shelley claimed that he had been assaulted in the Pisan post office by a man accusing him of foul crimes. Shelley's biographer James Bieri suggests that this incident was possibly a delusional episode brought on by extreme stress, as Shelley was being blackmailed by a former servant, Paolo Foggi, over baby Elena.
It is likely that the blackmail was connected with a story spread by another former servant, Elise Foggi, that Shelley had fathered a child to Claire in Naples and had sent it to a foundling home. Shelley, Claire and Mary denied this story, and Elise later recanted.
In July, hearing that John Keats was seriously ill in England, Shelley wrote to the poet inviting him to stay with him at Pisa. Keats replied with hopes of seeing him, but instead, arrangements were made for Keats to travel to Rome.
In early July 1820, Shelley heard that baby Elena had died on 9 June. In the months following the post office incident and Elena's death, relations between Mary and Claire deteriorated, and Claire spent most of the next two years living separately from the Shelleys, mainly in Florence.
That December Shelley met Teresa (Emilia) Viviani, who was the 19-year-old daughter of the Governor of Pisa and who was living in a convent awaiting a suitable marriage. Shelley visited her several times over the next few months, and they started a passionate correspondence which dwindled after her marriage the following September. Emilia was the inspiration for Shelley's major poem Epipsychidion.
In March 1821 Shelley completed "A Defence of Poetry", a response to Peacock's article "The Four Ages of Poetry". Shelley's essay, with its famous conclusion "Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world", remained unpublished in his lifetime.
Following the death of Keats in 1821, Shelley wrote Adonais, which is considered to be one of the major pastoral elegies. The poem was published in Pisa in July 1821, but sold few copies.
Shelley went alone to Ravenna in early August to see Byron, making a detour to Livorno for a rendezvous with Claire. Shelley stayed with Byron for two weeks and invited the older poet to spend the winter in Pisa. After Shelley heard Byron read his newly completed fifth canto of Don Juan he wrote to Mary:
"I despair of rivalling Byron."
In November Byron moved into Villa Lanfranchi in Pisa, just across the river from the Shelleys. Byron became the centre of the "Pisan circle" which was to include Shelley, Thomas Medwin, Edward Williams and Edward Trelawny.
In the early months of 1822, Shelley became increasingly close to Jane Williams, who was living with her partner Edward Williams in the same building as the Shelleys.
Shelley wrote a number of love poems for Jane, including "The Serpent is Shut out of Paradise" and "With a Guitar, to Jane". Shelley's obvious affection for Jane was to cause increasing tension between Shelley, Edward Williams and Mary.
Claire arrived in Pisa in April at Shelley's invitation, and soon after they heard that her daughter Allegra had died of typhus in Ravenna. The Shelleys and Claire then moved to Villa Magni, near Lerici on the shores of the Gulf of La Spezia.
Shelley acted as mediator between Claire and Byron over arrangements for the burial of their daughter, and the added strain led to Shelley having a series of hallucinations.
Mary almost died from a miscarriage on the 16th, June, her life only being saved by Shelley's effective first aid. Two days later Shelley wrote to a friend that there was no sympathy between Mary and him, and if the past and future could be obliterated he would be content in his boat with Jane and her guitar.
That same day he also wrote to Trelawny asking for prussic acid. The following week, Shelley woke the household with his screaming over a nightmare or hallucination in which he saw Edward and Jane Williams as walking corpses, and himself strangling Mary.
During this time, Shelley was writing his final major poem, the unfinished The Triumph of Life, which Harold Bloom has called:
"The most despairing poem he wrote".
The Death of Shelley
On the 1st. July 1822, Shelley and Edward Williams sailed in Shelley's new boat the Don Juan to Livorno where Shelley met Leigh Hunt and Byron in order to make arrangements for a new journal, The Liberal.
After the meeting, on the 8th. July, Shelley, Williams and their boat boy sailed out of Livorno for Lerici. A few hours later, the Don Juan and its inexperienced crew were lost in a storm. The vessel, an open boat, had been custom-built in Genoa for Shelley.
Mary Shelley declared in her "Note on Poems of 1822" that the design had a defect, and that the boat was never seaworthy. In fact, however, the Don Juan was overmasted; the sinking was due to a severe storm and poor seamanship of the three men on board.
Shelley's badly decomposed body washed ashore at Viareggio ten days later, and was identified by Trelawny from the clothing and a copy of Keats's Lamia in a jacket pocket. On the 16th. August, his body was cremated on a beach near Viareggio, and the ashes were buried in the Protestant Cemetery of Rome.
When news of Shelley's death reached England, the Tory London newspaper The Courier printed:
"Shelley, the writer of some infidel poetry,
has been drowned; now he knows whether
there is God or no."
Shelley's ashes were reburied in a different plot at the cemetery in 1823. His grave bears the Latin inscription Cor Cordium (Heart of Hearts), and a few lines of "Ariel's Song" from Shakespeare's The Tempest:
'Nothing of him that doth fade
But doth suffer a sea change
Into something rich and strange'.
When Shelley's body was cremated on the beach, his presumed heart resisted burning, and was retrieved by Trelawny. The heart was possibly calcified from an earlier tubercular infection, or was perhaps his liver.
Trelawny gave the scorched organ to Hunt, who preserved it in spirits of wine and refused to hand it over to Mary. He finally relented, and the heart was eventually buried either at St Peter's Church, Bournemouth or in Christchurch Priory. Hunt also retrieved a piece of Shelley's jawbone which, in 1913, was given to the Shelley-Keats Memorial in Rome.
Shelley's Political, Religious and Ethical views
-- Politics
Shelley was a political radical who was influenced by thinkers such as Rousseau, Paine, Godwin, Wollstonecraft, and Leigh Hunt. He advocated Catholic Emancipation, republicanism, parliamentary reform, the extension of the franchise, freedom of speech and peaceful assembly, an end to aristocratic and clerical privilege, and a more equal distribution of income and wealth.
The views he expressed in his published works were often more moderate than those he advocated privately, because of the risk of prosecution for seditious libel and his desire not to alienate more moderate friends and political allies. Nevertheless, his political writings and activism brought him to the attention of the Home Office, and he came under government surveillance at various periods.
Shelley's most influential political work in the years immediately following his death was the poem Queen Mab, which included extensive notes on political themes. The work went through 14 official and pirated editions by 1845, and became popular in Owenist and Chartist circles. His longest political essay, A Philosophical View of Reform, was written in 1820, but not published until 1920.
-- Nonviolence
Shelley's advocacy of nonviolent resistance was largely based on his reflections on the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon, and his belief that violent protest would increase the prospect of a military despotism.
Although Shelley sympathised with supporters of Irish independence, he did not support violent rebellion. In his early pamphlet An Address, to the Irish People (1812) he wrote:
"I do not wish to see things changed now,
because it cannot be done without violence,
and we may assure ourselves that none of
us are fit for any change, however good, if
we condescend to employ force in a cause
we think right."
In his later essay A Philosophical View of Reform, Shelley did concede that there were political circumstances in which force might be justified:
"The last resort of resistance is undoubtably [sic] insurrection. The right of insurrection is derived
from the employment of armed force to counteract
the will of the nation."
Shelley supported the 1820 armed rebellion against absolute monarchy in Spain, and the 1821 armed Greek uprising against Ottoman rule.
Shelley's poem "The Mask of Anarchy" (written in 1819, but first published in 1832) has been called:
"Perhaps the first modern statement of
the principle of nonviolent resistance".
Gandhi was familiar with the poem, and it is possible that Shelley had an indirect influence on Gandhi through Henry David Thoreau's Civil Disobedience.
-- Religion
Shelley was an avowed atheist, who was influenced by the materialist arguments in Holbach's Le Système de la Nature. His atheism was an important element of his political radicalism, as he saw organised religion as inextricably linked to social oppression.
The overt and implied atheism in many of his works raised a serious risk of prosecution for religious libel. His early pamphlet The Necessity of Atheism was withdrawn from sale soon after publication following a complaint from a priest. His poem Queen Mab, which includes sustained attacks on the priesthood, Christianity and religion in general, was twice prosecuted by the Society for the Suppression of Vice in 1821. A number of his other works were edited before publication to reduce the risk of prosecution.
-- Free Love
Shelley's advocacy of free love drew heavily on the work of Mary Wollstonecraft and the early work of William Godwin. In his notes to Queen Mab, he wrote:
"A system could not well have been
devised more studiously hostile to
human happiness than marriage."
He argued that:
"The children of unhappy marriages
are nursed in a systematic school of
ill-humour, violence and falsehood".
Shelley believed that the ideal of chastity outside marriage was "a monkish and evangelical superstition" which led to the hypocrisy of prostitution and promiscuity.
Shelley believed that "sexual connection" should be free among those who loved each other, and last only as long as their mutual love. Love should also be free, and not subject to obedience, jealousy and fear.
He denied that free love would lead to promiscuity and the disruption of stable human relationships, arguing that relationships based on love would generally be of long duration and marked by generosity and self-devotion.
When Shelley's friend T. J. Hogg made an unwanted sexual advance to Shelley's first wife Harriet, Shelley forgave him of his "horrible error" and assured him that he was not jealous. It is very likely that Shelley encouraged Hogg and Shelley's second wife Mary to have a sexual relationship.
-- Vegetarianism
Shelley converted to a vegetable diet in early March 1812 and sustained it, with occasional lapses, for the remainder of his life. Shelley's vegetarianism was influenced by ancient authors such as Hesiod, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Ovid and Plutarch, but more directly by John Frank Newton, author of The Return to Nature, or, A Defence of the Vegetable Regimen (1811).
Shelley wrote two essays on vegetarianism: A Vindication of Natural Diet (1813) and "On the Vegetable System of Diet" (written circa 1813–1815, but first published in 1929).
William Owen Jones argues that Shelley's advocacy of vegetarianism was strikingly modern, emphasising its health benefits, the alleviation of animal suffering, the inefficient use of agricultural land involved in animal husbandry, and the economic inequality resulting from the commercialisation of animal food production. Shelley's life and works inspired the founding of the Vegetarian Society in England (1847) and directly influenced the vegetarianism of George Bernard Shaw and perhaps Gandhi.
Reception and Influence of Shelley's Work
Shelley's work was not widely read in his lifetime outside a small circle of friends, poets and critics. Most of his poetry, drama and fiction was published in editions of only 250 copies which generally sold poorly. Only The Cenci went to an authorised second edition while Shelley was alive – in contrast, Byron's The Corsair (1814) sold out its first edition of 10,000 copies in one day.
The initial reception of Shelley's work in mainstream periodicals (with the exception of the liberal Examiner) was generally unfavourable. Reviewers often launched personal attacks on Shelley's private life and political, social and religious views, even when conceding that his poetry contained beautiful imagery and poetic expression.
There was also criticism of Shelley's intelligibility and style, Hazlitt describing it as:
"A passionate dream, a straining
after impossibilities, a record of fond
conjectures, a confused embodying
of vague abstraction".
Shelley's poetry soon however gained a wider audience in radical and reformist circles. Queen Mab became popular with Owenists and Chartists, and Revolt of Islam influenced poets sympathetic to the workers' movement such as Thomas Hood, Thomas Cooper and William Morris.
However, Shelley's mainstream following did not develop until a generation after his death. Bieri argues that editions of Shelley's poems published in 1824 and 1839 were edited by Mary Shelley to highlight her late husband's lyrical gifts and downplay his radical ideas. Matthew Arnold famously described Shelley as a "beautiful and ineffectual angel".
Shelley was a major influence on a number of important poets in the following decades, including Robert Browning, Swinburne, Hardy and Yeats. Shelley-like characters frequently appeared in nineteenth-century literature, such as Scythrop in Peacock's Nightmare Abbey, Ladislaw in George Eliot's Middlemarch, and Angel Clare in Hardy's Tess of the d'Urbervilles.
Twentieth-century critics such as Eliot, Leavis, Allen Tate and Auden variously criticised Shelley's poetry for deficiencies in style, "repellent" ideas, and immaturity of intellect and sensibility.
However, Shelley's critical reputation rose from the 1960's as a new generation of critics highlighted Shelley's debt to Spenser and Milton, his mastery of genres and verse forms, and the complex interplay of sceptical, idealist and materialist ideas in his work.
American literary critic Harold Bloom describes him as:
"A superb craftsman, a lyric poet
without rival, and surely one of the
most advanced sceptical intellects
ever to write a poem".
According to Donald H. Reiman:
"Shelley belongs to the great tradition
of Western writers that includes Dante,
Shakespeare and Milton".
John Lauritsen and Charles E. Robinson have argued that Shelley's contribution to Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein was extensive, and that he should be considered a collaborator or co-author.
However Professor Charlotte Gordon and others have disputed this contention. Fiona Sampson has said:
"In recent years Percy's corrections, visible
in the Frankenstein notebooks held at the
Bodleian Library in Oxford, have been
seized on as evidence that he must have
at least co-authored the novel. In fact, when
I examined the notebooks myself, I realised
that Percy did rather less than any line editor
working in publishing today."
Thoughts From Percy Shelley
"The soul's joy lies in doing."
"I have drunken deep of joy, And
I will taste no other wine tonight."
"A poet is a nightingale, who sits in
darkness and sings to cheer its own
solitude with sweet sounds."
"War is the statesman's game, the
priest's delight, the lawyer's jest,
the hired assassin's trade."
"Soul meets soul on lovers' lips."
"Fear not for the future,
weep not for the past."
"Our sincerest laughter with some
pain is fraught; Our sweetest songs
are those that tell of saddest thought."
"O, wind, if winter comes, can
can spring be far behind?"
Heads of Important Departments of American Army.
SURGEON GEN. WM. C. GORGAS,
Chief of the medical forces of the United States.
Remarkably successful in eliminating fever from Cuba and Panama.
BRIG. GEN. WILLIAM L. KENLY.
General Kenly did distinguished work as Chief of Military Aeronautics. Was active in development of wireless telephone.
Heads of Important Departments of American Army
MAJOR GEN. PEYTON C. MARCH,
United States Army Chief of Staff.
Major Gen. March has served with success and distinction.
MAJOR GEN. ENOCH H. CROWDER,
Provost Marshal General.
The successful operation of the draft has been under his direction.
BRIG. GEN. WILLIAM CROZIER.
General Crozier has been Chief of the Ordnance Department since 1901. Inventor of the disappearing gun.
SURGEON GEN. M. W. IRELAND,
appointed in succession to General Gorgas, resigned.
Owed his appointment to excellent services performed abroad.
=====================================================
The war of the nations: portfolio in rotogravure etchings: compiled from the Mid-week pictorial. New York: New York Times, Co, 1919. Book.
Retrieved from the Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/19013740/. (Accessed November 08, 2016.)
Images from "The War of the Nations : Portfolio in Rotogravure Etchings : Compiled from the Mid-Week Pictorial" (New York : New York Times, Co., 1919)
Notes: Selected from "The War of the Nations: Portfolio in Rotogravure Etchings," published by the New York Times shortly after the 1919 armistice. This portfolio compiled selected images from their "Mid-Week Pictorial" newspaper supplements of 1914-19. 528 p. : chiefly ill. ; 42 cm.; hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/collgdc.gc000037
Subjects: World War, 1914-1918 --Pictorial works.
New York--New York
Format: Rotogravures --1910-1920.
Rights Info: No known restrictions on reproduction
Repository: Library of Congress, Serials and Government Publications Division, Washington, D.C. 20540
Part Of: Newspaper Pictorials: World War I Rotogravures, 1914-1919 (DLC) sgpwar 19191231
General information about the Newspaper Pictorials: World War I Rotogravures, 1914-1919 digital collection is available at hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/collgdc.gc000037
=====================================================
Gutenberg.org: Roughing It by Mark Twain
“… XVIII: At eight in the morning we reached the remnant and ruin of what had been the important military station of “Camp Floyd,” some forty-five or fifty miles from Salt Lake City. At four P.M. we had doubled our distance and were ninety or a hundred miles from Salt Lake. And now we entered upon one of that species of deserts whose concentrated hideousness shames the diffused and diluted horrors of Sahara—an “alkali” desert. For sixty-eight miles there was but one break in it. I do not remember that this was really a break; indeed it seems to me that it was nothing but a watering depot in the midst of the stretch of sixty-eight miles. …
This enthusiasm, this stern thirst for adventure, wilted under the sultry August sun and did not last above one hour. One poor little hour—Imagine a vast, waveless ocean stricken dead and turned to ashes; imagine this solemn waste tufted with ash-dusted sage-bushes; imagine the lifeless silence and solitude that belong to such a place …
The sun beats down with dead, blistering, relentless malignity; the perspiration is welling from every pore in man and beast, but scarcely a sign of it finds its way to the surface—it is absorbed before it gets there; there is not the faintest breath of air stirring; there is not a merciful shred of cloud in all the brilliant firmament; there is not a living creature visible in any direction whither one searches the blank level that stretches its monotonous miles on every hand; there is not a sound—not a sigh—not a whisper—not a buzz, or a whir of wings, or distant pipe of bird—not even a sob from the lost souls that doubtless people that dead air. And so the occasional sneezing of the resting mules, and the champing of the bits, grate harshly on the grim stillness, not dissipating the spell but accenting it and making one feel more lonesome and forsaken than before. …
Then another “spurt” of a hundred yards and another rest at the end of it. All day long we kept this up, without water for the mules and without ever changing the team. At least we kept it up ten hours, which, I take it, is a day, and a pretty honest one, in an alkali desert. It was from four in the morning till two in the afternoon. And it was so hot! and so close! and our water canteens went dry in the middle of the day and we got so thirsty! It was so stupid and tiresome and dull! …
The alkali dust cut through our lips, it persecuted our eyes, it ate through the delicate membranes and made our noses bleed and kept them bleeding—and truly and seriously the romance all faded far away and disappeared, and left the desert trip nothing but a harsh reality—a thirsty, sweltering, longing, hateful reality!
Two miles and a quarter an hour for ten hours—that was what we accomplished. It was hard to bring the comprehension away down to such a snail-pace as that, when we had been used to making eight and ten miles an hour. When we reached the station on the farther verge of the desert, we were glad, for the first time, that the dictionary was along, because we never could have found language to tell how glad we were, in any sort of dictionary but an unabridged one with pictures in it. But there could not have been found in a whole library of dictionaries language sufficient to tell how tired those mules were after their twenty-three mile pull. To try to give the reader an idea of how thirsty they were, …”
Chapter XX: On the nineteenth day we crossed the Great American Desert—forty memorable miles of bottomless sand, into which the coach wheels sunk from six inches to a foot. We worked our passage most of the way across. That is to say, we got out and walked. It was a dreary pull and a long and thirsty one, for we had no water. From one extremity of this desert to the other, the road was white with the bones of oxen and horses. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that we could have walked the forty miles and set our feet on a bone at every step! The desert was one prodigious graveyard. And the log-chains, wagon tyres, and rotting wrecks of vehicles were almost as thick as the bones. I think we saw log-chains enough rusting there in the desert, to reach across any State in the Union. Do not these relics suggest something of an idea of the fearful suffering and privation the early emigrants to California endured?
Chapter XXI We were approaching the end of our long journey. It was the morning of the twentieth day. At noon we would reach Carson City, the capital of Nevada Territory. We were not glad, but sorry. It had been a fine pleasure trip; we had fed fat on wonders every day; we were now well accustomed to stage life, and very fond of it; so the idea of coming to a stand-still and settling down to a humdrum existence in a village was not agreeable, but on the contrary depressing.
Visibly our new home was a desert, walled in by barren, snow-clad mountains. There was not a tree in sight. There was no vegetation but the endless sage-brush and greasewood. All nature was gray with it. We were plowing through great deeps of powdery alkali dust that rose in thick clouds and floated across the plain like smoke from a burning house.
2344a
Prague Castle (Pražský hrad)
For more than a thousand years, has the Prague Castle been an important symbol of the Czech state. Founded in the 9th century, it became the permanent seat of the Czech rulers and, most recently, also of the Presidents. One of the largest castle complexes in the world consists of palaces, offices, churches and fortification buildings, gardens and picturesque corners. The castle covers an area of 45 hectares. The unique view to the Prague Castle is one of the most amazing panorama views in the world.
Prague Castle is the most important folk-cultural and historical monument, and is the symbol of the more than one thousand years of development of the Czech and all-Czech states. It is a monumental symbol of the palace, church, fortification, official and residential buildings which represent very valuable monuments, included in all style epochs. It covers an area of 45 hectares, was the seat of the Bohemian princes, kings and emperors, and since the Republic was founded in 1918, it was also the residence of the presidents. Since 1962, the Prague Castle has been known for its archaeological discoveries.
History
The initial phases of the Prague Castle are connected with the first historically documented Přemyslid Bořivoj (Bořivoj I (Czech pronunciation: [ˈbɔr̝ɪvɔj], Latin: Borzivogius, c. 852 – c. 889) was the first historically documented Duke of Bohemia from about 870 and progenitor of the Přemyslid dynasty.] The Duchy of Bohemia was at those times subordinated to Great Moravia.). This one transferred in the 80s of the 9th century his original seat from Levý Hradec to the place where on the raised spot above the river Vltava/Moldau already existed a Slavic castle and was very well situated.
The first princely palace apparently only consisted of wood. The first stone building and the oldest Christian sanctuary was the Virgin Mary Church. Its remains have been found between the Second Courtyard and the Bastion garden (original name of the garden: Na Baště). This Bořivoj church was soon reconstructed by the prince Spytihněv I, who was buried here in 915. The second church in the castle was the St. George Basilica founded by Prince Vratislaus I. The next Přemyslide, Prince Wenceslas (Saint), the third sanctuary - the St Veit Rotunda - in the twenties of the 10th century nearby had built which in the 11th century by Prince Spytihnev II was transformed into a huge basilica.
In 973, when the bishopric was established in Prague, the castle was not only the seat of the head of state, but also the seat of the Prague bishop, the highest representative of the church. At the same time arose the first monastery in Bohemia at St. George's basilica.
In the 10th century the castle occupied an area of about 6 ha. In the Romanesque epoch the former fortress, especially after the year 1135 thanks to Soběslaus I, as the stony princely palace and the new masonry fortified with some towers were erected, was turned into a fortified medieval castle. Of the towers is the eastern blacktower best preserved.
Very significantly the Gothic period in the appearance of Prague Castle intervened, most of all Charles IV (1346 - 1378), who, with his father, John of Luxemburg (1310 - 1346), obtained from the pope the promotion of the Prague bishopric to the archbishopric and laid the foundations for the construction of St. Vitus Cathedral. Under Charles IV, the castle for the first time was turned into the imperial residence. Charles IV the defense of the Prague Castle had consolidated, the Royal Palace with the Chapel of All Saints he rebuilt generously. The roofs he had covered with gilded plates, which were the foundation for the binding of words "Golden Prague". Since 1382, Bohemian rulers ceased to occupy the Prague Castle for more than 100 years. The royal court was moved to the place of today's Community hall and back to the Prague castle it came only in 1483 under Wladislaus from the Jagiellonian dynasty.
Although the ruler already in 1490 moved to Ofen (Buda), he had the Prague castle renovated in the late Gothic style under the supervision of Benedikt Ried. He was the master builder of the magnificent Vladislav Hall, the largest secular vaulted room of the then Europe, with which the first Renaissance signs came to Prague. He carried out major construction works, including the construction of a new masonry, the defensive towers and the expansion of the Royal Palace. At his time, the Gothic died away and a new architectural style, the Renaissance, gradually prevailed.
The direct influence of the Italian art on the new style was most frequently observed in Prague under the reign of Ferdinand I (von Habsburg) and after his departure from Prague under the influence of the governor Ferdinand of Tyrol. At that time, the medieval castle was converted into a comfortable Renaissance castle with gardens. The typical Italian architecture of the Royal Pleasure palace arose in the northern King's garden.
For a large building activity in 1541 contributed a fire devastating the castle objects as well as the surrounding area quite a lot. Within the framework of the restoration, both the housing estates and the church buildings were rebuilt. Under the reign of the first Habsburgs, nobility palaces were added to the castle grounds (for example, the Pernstein Palace - later Lobkowicz Palace, Rosenberg Palace and others). Horse stable buildings were built in the north-west.
Under the reign of the Emperor Rudolph II (1576 - 1611), the Renaissance and Mannerism transformation of the castle, which for the second time became the center of the empire, and especially the center of European culture and science, reached its peak. On the second courtyard, new rooms were built for the collections of Rudolph - the new (now Spanish) hall and the Rudolph gallery. Also arose the connection tract between the northwestern and the southwestern part of the castle. Just here the famous Kunstkammer (Art chamber) and other rooms for Rudolph's collective activities were located. Additionally further horse stable properties were built for his rare Spanish horses. During the Rudolph times also the foundation stone of the famous Golden Alley was laid. Laboratories of the Rudolph-Alchymists were supposed to have been in the Powder tower above the Hirschgraben (Deer's ditch). The castle suffered again considerable damages when it was occupied by the Saxon army in 1631 and by the Swedes in 1648 not only was occupied but also plundered. After the Thirty Years' War, the Habsburgs did not care too much about the Prague royal seat.
Only Maria Theresia carried out an extensive reconstruction of the Prague Castle from 1755 - 1775 into a representative castle complex. The reason for the massive construction action were war damages, caused by the intense bombing of the castle during war conflicts at the beginning of her reign. The reconstruction was designed by the Viennese architect Nicolo Pacassi, who also planned the first courtyard with the monumental entrance gate. From the time of the Theresian reconstruction stems also the chapel of the Holy Cross on the 2nd castle forecourt and other buildings, especially the noblewomen institute. The south wing he imprinted the uniform monumental late Baroque facade of a representative seat. His plans influenced by Viennese Rococo and French Classicism the builders Anselmo Lurago, Anton Kunz and Anton Haffenecker brought into life.
In the 19th century, the castle fell into ruin, in several objects after the Josephine reforms the army settled. In connection with the stay of Ferdinand I the Good in the castle after his abdication in 1848 and further in connection with the preparation for the coronation of Franz Joseph I in the sixties it came to building modifications of several objects. After 1859, when the community for the completion of St Veit cathedral emerged, began first the repair, and then, under the influence of the architect Joseph Mocker, the work on the actual completion of St Veit's cathedral was started, completed in 1929.
In the years 1920 - 35, carried out extensive regulations of the Prague Castle as the seat of the Czechoslovak President the great Slovenian architect Josip Plečnik, who masterfully combined the valuable historical space with modern civilization claims. His modifications mainly concerned the 1st and 3rd court, the southern gardens of the castle, the fourth forecourt with the Bastion garden as well as numerous interiors. He created e.g. the pillared hall, private rooms of the presidential residence, including the Masaryk workroom. His pupil, Otto Rothmayer, brought to an end the incomplete solutions of some castle interior spaces after the Second World War in comparable quality.
In 1936, Pavel Janák and after him, in 1959, Jaroslav Fragner became castle architect.
After the year of change of 1989, the Prague Castle was opened to the public in many places. During the term of President Havel, at the castle it came to modulations of the interiors and to the expansion of two new entrances into the second courtyard after the project of the creator and designer Bořek Šípek. The puncture through the rampart of the Powder bridge in Hirschgraben was rewarded with a significant prize (Arch. Josef Pleskot). Also interesting is the modern greenhouse of the world-famous architect Eva Jiřičná. The Georgian Square (Jiřské náměstí) was re-paved and modulated. The Mosaic of the Last Judgment was renovated in collaboration with the specialists from the Getti Institute. In 1990, the Prague Castle was solemnly illuminated and this situation lasts from dusk to midnight until today. In the main tourist season, the lighting time even lasts an hour longer until 1 o'clock. The tradition of electric lighting, but on a much smaller scale, began in 1928, when the lamps were installed for the 10th anniversary of the elevation to a Republic. A little bit the present daylight resembles of those from the end of the sixties, but today it is much more detailed and in communist times it was only switched on at solemn occasions. At that time, illuminative days were state holidays or significant day of republic, which, however, did not lack recognition from the communist point of view.
In recent years the reconstruction and renovation work has been developed in many buildings of the castle and a considerable attention has been devoted to the archaeological investigation, which has been going on since 1925 and has brought many insights into the history of the castle. The investigation as well as the renovation of the individual rooms and objects is motivated by the idea of invigorating them as much as possible by making them accessible to the public.
Prager Burg (Pražský hrad)
Die Prager Burg ist seit über tausend Jahren ein bedeutendes Symbol des tschechischen Staates. Gegründet im 9. Jahrhundert wurde sie zum ständigen Sitz der tschechischen Herrscher und zuletzt auch der Präsidenten. Einer der größten Burgkomplexe weltweit setzt sich aus Palästen, Amts-, Kirchen- und Fortifikationsgebäuden, aus Gärten und malerischen Ecken zusammen. Die Burg erstreckt sich auf einer Fläche von 45 Hektar. Der alleinige Blick auf die Prager Burg stellt einen der überwältigendsten Panoramablicke der Welt dar.
Die Prager Burg ist das bedeutendste Volkskultur- und Historiedenkmal, sie ist das Symbol der mehr als eintausendjährigen Entwicklung des böhmischen sowie gesamttschechischen Staats. Es ist ein monumentales Symbol der Palast-, Kirchen-, Fortifikations-, Amts- und Wohngebäude, die sehr wertvolle Denkmäler darstellen, einbezogen auf alle Stilepochen. Sie erstreckt sich auf einer Fläche von 45 ha, war der Sitz der böhmischen Fürsten, Könige und Kaiser und seit der Republikentstehung im Jahre 1918 war sie auch die Residenz der Präsidenten. Seit 1962 steht die Prager Burg mit ihren archäologischen Funden als bekanntester.
Geschichte
Die Anfangszeiten der Prager Burg sind mit dem ersten historisch belegten Přemysliden Bořivoj verbunden. Dieser übertrug in den 80er Jahren des 9. Jahrhunderts seinen ursprünglichen Sitz von Levý Hradec an den Ort, wo auf der erhabenen Stelle über der Moldau eine slawische Burgstätte bereits bestand und sehr gut gelegen war.
Der erste Fürstenpalast bestand offenbar aus Holz. Der erste Steinbau und das älteste christliche Heiligtum war die Jungfrau Maria Kirche. Ihre Reste wurden zwischen dem II. Vorhof und dem Basteigarten (Originalname des Gartens: Na Baště) gefunden. Diese Bořivoj-Kirche wurde durch den hier im Jahre 915 beigesetzten Fürsten Spytihněv I. bald umgebaut. Die zweite Kirche im Burgraum war die vom Fürsten Vratislaus I. gegründete St. Georg Basilika. Der nächste Přemyslide, der Fürst Wenzel (der Heilige), ließ in der Nähe in den 20er Jahren des 10. Jahrhunderts das dritte Heiligtum - die St. Veit Rotunde - bauen, die im 11. Jahrhundert vom Fürsten Spytihněv II. zu einer gewaltigen Basilika umgebaut wurde.
Im Jahre 973, als in Prag das Bistum gegründet wurde, war die Burg nicht nur der Sitz des Staatsoberhaupts, sondern auch der Sitz des Prager Bischofs, des höchsten Repräsentanten der Kirche. Zu demselben Zeitpunkt entstand an der St. Georg Basilika das erste Kloster in Böhmen.
Im 10. Jahrhundert nahm die Burg eine Fläche von ca. 6 ha in Anspruch. In der romanischen Epoche wurde die einstige Burgstätte, insbesondere nach dem Jahr 1135 dank Soběslaus I., als der steinige Fürstenpalast und das neue mit einigen Türmen verstärkte Mauerwerk aufgebaut wurden, zu einer festen mittelalterlichen Burg umgebaut. Von den Türmen ist der östliche Schwarzturm am besten erhalten.
Sehr bedeutend griff ins Aussehen der Prager Burg die Gotikzeit ein, insbesondere Karl IV. (1346 - 1378), der mit seinem Vater Johann von Luxemburg (1310 - 1346) vom Papst die Beförderung des Prager Bistums zum Erzbistum erwirkte und den Grundstein für den Bau der St. Veit Kathedrale legte. Unter Karl IV. wurde die Burg zum ersten Mal zur Kaiserlichen Residenz. Karl IV. ließ die Verschanzung der Prager Burg festigen, den Königspalast mit der Kapelle Aller Heiligen baute er großzügig um. Die Dächer ließ er mit vergoldeten Blechen decken, die das Fundament für die Wörterbindung „Goldenes Prag“ darstellten. Seit 1382 hörten böhmische Herrscher auf, die Prager Burg für mehr als 100 Jahre zu bewohnen. Der Königshof wurde an den Ort des heutigen Gemeindehauses umgezogen und zurück auf die Prager Burg kehrte er erst im Jahre 1483 unter Wladislaus aus der Jagiellonen-Dynastie.
Obwohl der Herrscher bereits 1490 nach Ofen (Buda) umsiedelte, ließ er die Prager Burg im spätgotischen Stil unter der Bauleitung von Benedikt Ried umbauen. Er war der Baumeister des großartigen Wladislaus-Saals, des größten weltlichen gewölbten Raums des damaligen Europas, mit dem die ersten Renaissancezeichen nach Prag kamen. Er führte großartige Bauregelungen einschließlich des Ausbaus eines neuen Mauerwerks, der Wehrtürme und der Erweiterung des Königspalastes durch. Zu seiner Zeit klang die Gotik aus und es setzte sich allmählich ein neuer Baustil durch, die Renaissance.
Der direkte Einfluss der italienischen Kunst des neuen Stils wurde in Prag unter der Regierung von Ferdinand I. (von Habsburg) und nach seinem Weggang von Prag unter der Wirkung des Statthalters Ferdinand von Tirol am meisten beobachtet. Damals wurde die mittelalterliche Burg in ein bequemes Renaissanceschloss mit Gärten umgewandelt. Im nördlichen Königsgarten entstand die typisch italienische Architektur des Königlichen Lustschlosses.
Zu einer großen Bauaktivität trug im Jahre 1541 ein Brand bei, der die Burgobjekte sowie die Umgebung ziemlich viel kaputt machte. Im Rahmen der Wiederherstellung wurden sowohl die Wohnräume als auch die Kirchenobjekte umgebaut. Unter der Regierung der ersten Habsburger kamen ins Burggelände auch Adelspaläste dazu (zum Beispiel der Pernstein-Palast - später Lobkowicz-Palast, Rosenberg-Palast und weitere). Im Nordwesten wurden Pferdestallgebäude erbaut.
Unter der Regierung des Kaisers Rudolph II. (1576 - 1611) erreichte der Renaissance- und Manierismusumbau der Burg, die zum zweiten Mal zum Zentrum des Reiches und insbesondere zum Zentrum der europäischen Kultur und Wissenschaft wurde, seinen Gipfel. Auf dem II. Vorhof wurden neue Räume für die Sammlungen Rudolphs erbaut - der Neue (heute Spanische) Saal und die Rudolph-Galerie. Es entstand auch der Verbindungstrakt zwischen dem Nordwest- und dem Südwestteil der Burg. Eben hier befanden sich die berühmte Kunstkammer und weitere Räume für die Sammeltätigkeit Rudolphs. Es wurden auch weitere Pferdestallobjekte für seine seltenen spanischen Pferde aufgebaut. Während der Rudolph-Zeiten wurde auch der Grundstein der berühmten Goldenen Gasse gelegt. Laboratorien der Rudolph-Alchymisten sollen im Pulverturm über dem Hirschgraben gewesen sein. Die Burg erlitt erneut erhebliche Schäden, als sie 1631 vom sächsischen Heer und 1648 von den Schweden besetzt und ausgeplündert wurde. Nach dem Dreißigjährigen Krieg kümmerten sich die Habsburger um den Prager königlichen Sitz nicht allzu sehr.
Erst Maria Theresia führte in den Jahren 1755 - 1775 einen umfangreichen Umbau der Prager Burg zu einem repräsentativen Schlosskomplex durch. Der Grund für die massive Bauaktion waren Kriegsschäden, verursacht durch die intensive Bombardierung der Burg bei Kriegskonflikten zu Beginn ihrer Regierung. Den Umbau entwarf der Wiener Architekt Nicolo Pacassi, der auch den I. Vorhof mit dem monumentalen Eingangstor projektierte. Aus der Zeit des theresianischen Umbaus stammt auch die Kapelle des Heiligen Kreuzes auf dem II. Burgvorhof und weitere Gebäude, insbesondere die Edeldamenanstalt. Dem Südflügel prägte er die einheitliche monumentale Spätbarockfassade eines Repräsentationssitzes ein. Seine durch das Wiener Rokoko und den französischen Klassizismus beeinflussten Pläne brachten die Baumeister Anselmo Lurago, Anton Kunz und Anton Haffenecker zustande.
Im 19. Jahrhundert verfiel die Burg, in mehreren Objekten ließ sich nach den josephinischen Reformen das Heer nieder. Zu Bauregelungen einiger Objekte kam es im Zusammenhang mit dem Aufenthalt von Ferdinand I. dem Guten auf der Burg nach seiner Abdikation im Jahre 1848 und weiter im Zusammenhang mit der Vorbereitung auf die vorgesehene Krönung von Franz Joseph I. in den 60er Jahren. Nach 1859, als die Gemeinde für die Fertigstellung der St. Veit Kathedrale entstand, begann zuerst die Reparatur und anschließend unter der Wirkung des Architekten Joseph Mocker wurde die Arbeit an der eigentlichen Fertigstellung der St. Veit Kathedrale aufgenommen, abgeschlossen im Jahre 1929.
In den Jahren 1920 - 35 führte ausgedehnte Regelungen der Prager Burg als des Sitzes des tschechoslowakischen Präsidenten der bedeutende slowenische Architekt Josip Plečnik durch, der den wertvollen historischen Raum mit modernen Zivilisationsansprüchen meisterlich zusammenfügte. Seine Regelungen betrafen vor allem den 1. und 3. Vorhof, die Südgärten der Burg, den 4. Vorhof mit dem Basteigarten sowie zahlreiche Innenräume. Er schuf z.B. die Säulenhalle, Privaträume der Präsidentenwohnung einschließlich des Arbeitszimmers Masaryks. Sein Schüler Otto Rothmayer brachte die unvollendeten Lösungen einiger Burginnenräume nach dem 2. Weltkrieg in vergleichbarer Qualität zu Ende.
Im Jahre 1936 ist Pavel Janák und nach ihm seit 1959 Jaroslav Fragner Burgarchitekt geworden.
Nach dem Wendejahr 1989 wurde die Prager Burg an vielen Stellen für die Öffentlichkeit geöffnet. Während der Amtszeit des Präsidenten Havel kam es auf der Burg zu Regelungen der Innenräume und zum Ausbau zweier neuer Eingänge in den 2. Vorhof nach dem Projekt des Bildners und Designers Bořek Šípek. Mit einem bedeutenden Preis wurde der Durchstich durch den Wall der Pulverbrücke im Hirschgraben belohnt (Arch. Josef Pleskot). Interessant ist auch das moderne Gewächshaus der weltberühmten Architektin Eva Jiřičná. Der Georg-Platz (Jiřské náměstí) wurde neu bepflastert und geregelt. In Zusammenarbeit mit den Fachleuten aus dem Getti-Institut wurde die Mosaik „des Letzten Gerichts“ renoviert. Im Jahre 1990 wurde die Prager Burg feierlich beleuchtet und dieser Zustand dauert von der Dämmerung bis zur Mitternacht bis heute. In der touristischen Hauptsaison dauert die Beleuchtungszeit sogar eine Stunde länger, bis 1 Uhr. Die Tradition der elektrischen Beleuchtung, jedoch im viel kleineren Umfang, begann im Jahre 1928, als die Lampen zum 10. Jubiläum der Republikentstehung installiert wurden. Ein wenig ähnelte die heutige feierliche Beleuchtung jener aus dem Ende der 60er Jahren, heute ist sie allerdings viel detaillierter und in den Kommunistenzeiten wurde sie nur bei feierlichen Gelegenheiten angemacht. Beleuchtungswürdige Tage waren damals Staatsfeiertage oder bedeutende Republiktage, denen allerdings aus der kommunistischen Sicht die Anerkennung nicht fehlte.
In den letzten Jahren entwickelte sich die Umbau- bzw. Renovierungstätigkeit in vielen Objekten der Burg und eine erhebliche Aufmerksamkeit wurde der archäologischen Untersuchung gewidmet, die bereits seit 1925 läuft und viele Erkenntnisse über die Burggeschichte brachte. Die Untersuchung sowie die Renovierung der einzelnen Räume und Objekte ist von der Idee motiviert, sie dadurch, dass sie der Öffentlichkeit zugänglich gemacht werden, möglichst viel zu beleben.
“The most important thing is to enjoy your life—to be happy—it's all that matters.”
- Audrey Hepburn
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting or removing water marks are liable to prosecution.
The Prado Museum, officially known as Museo Nacional del Prado, is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. It is widely considered to house one of the world's finest collections of European art, dating from the 12th century to the early 20th century, based on the former Spanish royal collection, and the single best collection of Spanish art. Founded as a museum of paintings and sculpture in 1819, it also contains important collections of other types of works. The Prado Museum is one of the most visited sites in the world and is considered one of the greatest art museums in the world. The numerous works by Francisco Goya, the single most extensively represented artist, as well as by Hieronymus Bosch, El Greco, Peter Paul Rubens, Titian, and Diego Velázquez, are some of the highlights of the collection. Velázquez and his keen eye and sensibility were also responsible for bringing much of the museum's fine collection of Italian masters to Spain, now one of the largest outside of Italy.
The collection currently comprises around 8,200 drawings, 7,600 paintings, 4,800 prints, and 1,000 sculptures, in addition to many other works of art and historic documents. As of 2012, the museum displayed about 1,300 works in the main buildings, while around 3,100 works were on temporary loan to various museums and official institutions. The remainder were in storage.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, in 2020 attendance plunged by 76 percent to 852,161. Nonetheless, the Prado was ranked as the 16th most-visited museum in the list of most-visited art museums in the world in 2020. It is one of the largest museums in Spain.
The Prado, with the nearby Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum and the Museo Reina Sofía, forms Madrid's Golden Triangle of Art, which was included in the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2021.
Church Church of Our Lady Assumed into Heaven (Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary), St. Mary's Church - one of the largest and most important, the Wawel Cathedral, Krakow church, Basilica since 1963 . It belongs to the most famous sights of Krakow and Polish. It is located at the northeast corner of the main square, the Marienplatz .
According to John Dlugosz Parish Church on the Market of Krakow was founded by the Bishop of Cracow Iwona Odrowąż between 1221-1222. In the years 1290-1300 was built partly on the foundations, new early Gothic style church, consecrated in 1320.
It was then completely rebuilt. In the years around 1355-1365 with the significant participation of Nicholas Wierzynka older (patrician Cracow and Sandomierz esquire carver ) was built on one level elongated presbytery opened up tall windows, which were filled with stained glass windows in the years around 1360 to 1400. With the construction of the sanctuary began work on a new main body, which had initially taken the form of a three-aisled hall. These works, however, delayed, and the original concept has changed, and finally at the end of the fourteenth century the body of the basilica was modeled on the western part of the Wawel Cathedral. Przekryty he was in the 1395-1397 cross-ribbed vault by Master Nicholas Werhnera from Prague. In the years 1435-1446 at the outer walls of the aisles were built chapels. Most of them were the work of a master of Kleparz Francis Wiechonia. At the same time the north tower was raised, designed to act as guardians of the city. In 1478, carpenter Maciej Heringk nabbed a characteristic polygonal tower cupola. The helmet is decorated with gilded crown Marian in 1666 .
In the years 1477 - 1489 Mary century, the temple has been enriched by a masterpiece of late Gothic sculpture - a new high altar by Veit Stoss, funded by the city councilors .
In the sixteenth and seventeenth century St. Mary's Church gained new chapels, tombs and altars, in later centuries replaced. Mannerist altar of St . Agnes and Saints Catherine and Dorothy found recently in Iwanowice, Baroque altars St . And St. Joseph's. Anne's parish church in Brzeszczach near Auschwitz . At the end of the seventeenth century, the church replaced the floor and built two magnificent portals made of black Debnik limestone. In the eighteenth century at the behest of Archpriest Jack Łopackiego, the interior of the church was thoroughly modernized in the late Baroque style. When the big altars, equipment, furniture and the walls were imposed pilasters and entablature, illusionist ceiling are covered with murals by Andrzej Radwanski. From this period has also been set in the late Baroque façade porch.
In 1795 the churchyard was abolished. This is how the Marienplatz square came into existence. Some survivors of the epitaphs was transferred to the walls of the temple. In the 90s of the nineteenth century, the architect Tadeusz Stryjeński conducted a comprehensive restaurant church, during which zregotycyzowano interior. Temple gained a new decorative painting design by Jan Matejko. By executing murals collaborated, among others Stanislaw Wyspianski and Mehoffer .
Facade of the temple is enclosed in two towers:
Higher tower, known as the Watchtower " Excubiarum ", is 82 meters high. It is built on a square plan, the individual stories separate stone cornices. On the ninth floor of the octagon passes, opened up lancet arches, falling two stories of windows. Gothic towers covers the helmet , which is the work of a master Matthias Heringka of the year 1478. The helmet consists of an octagonal, sharpened needle, surrounded by a ring of eight lower turrets. From the tower, from a height of 54 meters, is played every hour bugle Mary. At the bottom, on the north side, there is a rectangular annex, located a stone staircase leading to the interior of the tower. On the left side of the entrance to the tower draws attention turned, cast in bronze plaque depicting King Jan III Sobieski. It was made based on the design by the sculptor Pius Weloński in 1883 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Battle of Vienna. The higher the tower 's bell clock to 1530 (tons Impact d ', diameter 165 cm).
Lower tower with a height of 69 meters, is the church bells. It was built on a square plan, as higher is clearly marked on the entire height of the cornices and windows, floors division. On the floor of the bell tower is a Renaissance chapel dedicated to St Paul's. Paul ( Family Kauffmannów ), which can be accessed through the Renaissance balcony, a work of Italian masters from the workshop of Bartholomew Berecciego working on Wawel Hill. Outside, above the window of the chapel, the roof is suspended trójspadowym bell " for the dying ", cast by Kacper Koerber of Wroclaw in 1736 . Helmet covers the late Renaissance Tower, constructed in 1592, consisting of an elliptical dome, mounted on an octagonal drum and lantern topped with openwork. In the corners are set four smaller domes at low , hexagonal bases. In the tower are suspended five bells :
- The oldest (gis Impact tons, diameter 105 cm, weight 11.65 kN) at the turn of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries ,
- Two more, called Misjonałem (attributable to FIS 00 tons, diameter 136 cm, weight 22.2 kN) and Tenebratem (attributable to dis tons, diameter 175 cm, weight 48.5 kN) were filed between 1386 and 1390 by John Weygela the New Village at Spis ,
- And also the fourth largest, called Półzygmuntem (attributable to cis 40 tons, diameter 180 cm, weight 60 kN, heart weight 1.95 kN), is the work of John Freudental of 1438, the foundation was established through collective magnate, as evidenced by adorning it crests knights. Półzygmunt and Tenebrat are accompanied by inscriptions on the content of Marian.
- Fifth, cymbal clock, made in 1564, once cooperated with located on the taller tower clock. Activated manually by the bugle call player was using rods .
Four bells liturgy is one of the largest and oldest medieval bells teams in Poland.
IMPORTANT NOTE: The same company had a bad fire the month before across the street from this location, watch the EXPLOSION www.youtube.com/watch?v=DRDJiCn-M80
Sbusi Zulu Umemulo Coming of Age Ceremony South African Zulu Cultural Singing and Dancing Umlazi Durban November 2019
Umemulo also known as the Coming of Age is an important Zulu ritual that celebrates a young girl's journey into womanhood. The ceremony indicates that the young girl has transitioned from a child and into an adult woman who can now get married
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting or removing water marks are liable to prosecution.
GNAP! Theater and Merlin Works Homecoming Dance and Festivities @SVT in Austin, Texas
Homecoming Weekend: 3rd Anniversary Celebration for Gnap! Theater Projects and Merlin Works Institute for Improvisation
Sbusi Zulu Umemulo Coming of Age Ceremony Reception Umlazi Durban KwaZulu-Natal South Africa November 2019
Umemulo also known as the Coming of Age is an important Zulu ritual that celebrates a young girl's journey into womanhood. The ceremony indicates that the young girl has transitioned from a child and into an adult woman who can now get married
Willunga hosts one of Adelaides important music festivals! 2015 3 days Friday and Saturday Here.
Senor Cabrales - NSW
The Ballpoint Penguins - WA
Appalachian Heaven String Band - Vic
Sal Kimber- Vic
The Timbers - SA
The Borderers - SA
Danny Spooner - Vic
New Holland Honeyeaters - Tas
Charm of Finches- Vic
Josh Rennie-Hynes - QLD
Finnen, Horwood & Williams Jr - SA
Kaurna Cronin Duo – SA
The Dixie Chooks – Vic
Old South Bluegrass - SA
The Teahouse Fire - SA
Tom West - SA
Bart Thrupp – QLD
Brillig - SA
David Lazarus - WA
Kylie Kain Band – SA Goldstein - SA
Julia Henning - SA
Vincent's Chair – SA
Spiral Dance - SA
Kelly Menhennett – SA
Putty Road - NSW
Scott Balfour - NT
Serendipity – SA
Soursob Bob - SA
The Banjo Girl – SA
Tasha Zappala - QLD
Tim Moore - SA
Adelaide Morris Men, Adelaide – The Songs, Aden Quinn, Andy & Marta,
Andy Salvanos, Backwater Band, Cat Dog Bird, Dee & Mike, Emlyn & Jodie O’Regan, Folktales & Furrytails, Gillian Murray, Hedgehog, Hedgemonkey Morris, Hielan’ Toe, Hot For Joe, Louis Donnamurra, Mary Webb, Matthew Lycos, Maureen Morris, Preston’s Punch & Judy, Saltwater Taffy, Soulgarden, Tellen Tri, The Buskers, The Fatherhood, The Ryebuck Sheilas, Tongue & Groove, Women of Note, Willunga Primary School, Willunga Waldorf School.
POETRY
Join Caz Williama on Saturday 12.15-1.45pm and again on Sunday 4.15-5.45pm in Cafe AcousticA to join in the discussion on poetry and read or perform some of your own poems.
DANCE
Contra Dance with Maureen Morris & Hielan' Toe on Saturday 7.45 to 9.45pm in the Old Show Hall.
Bush Dance with Maureen Morris & Hielan' Toe
Important legal note.
All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.
We make and sells dolls, teddy bears, and such. But this isn’t a plug for our business. As a reaction to the dangerous-toy scare last year, the Consumer Product Safety Commission created something called the Consumer Products Safety Improvement Act. It requires all manufacturers of children’s goods to submit their products for testing for lead and phthalates.
While that’s good in the overall scheme, it has some potentially damaging side effects. The problem is that the average testing fee runs a few thousand dollars. Making matters worse, we would have to submit each and every toy for testing since no two are alike (she makes her stuff from salvaged materials like old wool coats and such). Naturally you can see what this version of the act would do to the handmade toy and craft industry (it’s more than macramé owls nowadays).
There is a potential remedy, though. Below is the unabridged copy from the Handmade Handmade Toy Alliance. Below are links to a sample letter and to various legislators.
Save the USA from the CPSIA
In 2007, large toy manufacturers who outsource their production to China and other developing countries violated the public's trust. They were selling toys with dangerously high lead content, toys with unsafe small part, toys with improperly secured and easily swallowed small magnets, and toys made from chemicals that made kids sick. Almost every problem toy in 2007 was made in China.
The United States Congress rightly recognized that the Consumer Products Safety Commission (CPSC) lacked the authority and staffing to prevent dangerous toys from being imported into the US. So it passed the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA) in August, 2008. Among other things, the CPSIA bans lead and phthalates in toys, mandates third-party testing and certification for all toys and requires toy makers to permanently label each toy with a date and batch number.
All of these changes will be fairly easy for large, multinational toy manufacturers to comply with. Large manufacturers who make thousands of units of each toy have very little incremental cost to pay for testing and update their molds to include batch labels.
For small American, Canadian, and European toymakers, however, the costs of mandatroy testing will likely drive them out of business.
* A toymaker, for example, who makes wooden cars in his garage in Maine to supplement his income cannot afford the $4,000 fee per toy that testing labs are charging to assure compliance with the CPSIA.
* A work at home mom in Minnesota who makes dolls to sell at craft fairs must choose either to violate the law or cease operations.
* A small toy retailer in Vermont who imports wooden toys from Europe, which has long had stringent toy safety standards, must now pay for testing on every toy they import.
* And even the handful of larger toy makers who still employ workers in the United States face increased costs to comply with the CPSIA, even though American-made toys had nothing to do with the toy safety problems of 2007.
The CPSIA simply forgot to exclude the class of toys that have earned and kept the public's trust: Toys made in the US, Canada, and Europe. The result, unless the law is modified, is that handmade toys will no longer be legal in the US.
If this law had been applied to the food industry, every farmers market in the country would be forced to close while Kraft and Dole prospered.
How You can Help:
Please write to your United States Congress Person and Senator to request changes in the CPSIA to save handmade toys. Use our sample letter or write your own. You can find your Congress Person here and Senator here.
Thank you so much!