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At the back of the complex, southwest of the mosque, stands an L-shaped construction, consisting of Alauddin Khilji's tomb dating ca 1316 AD, and a madrasa, an Islamic seminary built by him. Khilji was the second Sultan of Delhi from Khilji dynasty, who ruled from 1296 to 1316 AD.
The central room of the building, which has his tomb, has now lost its dome, though many rooms of the seminary or college are intact, and since been restored. There were two small chambers connected to the tomb by passages on either side. Fergusson in his book suggested the existence, to the west of the tomb, of seven rooms, two of which had domes and windows. The remains of the tomb building suggest that there was an open courtyard on the south and west sides of the tomb building, and that one room in the north served as an entrance.
It was the first example in India, of a tomb standing alongside a madarsa. Nearby stands the Alai Minar, an ambitious tower, he started constructing to rival the Qutub Minar, though he died when only its first storey was built and its construction abandoned thereafter. It now stands, north of the mosque.
The tomb is in a very dilapidated condition. It is believed that Ala-ud-din's body was brought to the complex from Siri and buried in front of the mosque, which formed part of the madrasa adjoining the tomb. Firoz Shah Tughluq, who undertook repairs of the tomb complex, mentioned a mosque within the madrasa.
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MADRASA
Madrasa (Persian: مدرسة, madrasah, pl. مدارس, madāris, Turkish: Medrese) is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, whether secular or religious (of any religion). The word is variously transliterated madrasah, madarasaa, medresa, madrassa, madraza, medrese, etc. In the West, the word usually refers to a specific type of religious school or college for the study of the Islamic religion, though this may not be the only subject studied. Not all students in madrasas are Muslims; there is also a modern curriculum.
DEFINITION
The word madrasah derives from the triconsonantal Semitic root د-ر-س D-R-S 'to learn, study', through the wazn (form/stem) مفعل(ة); mafʻal(ah), meaning "a place where something is done". Therefore, madrasah literally means "a place where learning and studying take place". The word is also present as a loanword with the same innocuous meaning in many Arabic-influenced languages, such as: Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Persian, Turkish, Azeri, Kurdish, Indonesian, Malay and Bosnian / Croatian. In the Arabic language, the word مدرسة madrasah simply means the same as school does in the English language, whether that is private, public or parochial school, as well as for any primary or secondary school whether Muslim, non-Muslim, or secular. Unlike the use of the word school in British English, the word madrasah more closely resembles the term school in American English, in that it can refer to a university-level or post-graduate school as well as to a primary or secondary school. For example, in the Ottoman Empire during the Early Modern Period, madrasas had lower schools and specialised schools where the students became known as danişmends. The usual Arabic word for a university, however, is جامعة (jāmiʻah). The Hebrew cognate midrasha also connotes the meaning of a place of learning; the related term midrash literally refers to study or learning, but has acquired mystical and religious connotations.
However, in English, the term madrasah usually refers to the specifically Islamic institutions. A typical Islamic school usually offers two courses of study: a ḥifẓ course teaching memorization of the Qur'an (the person who commits the entire Qurʼan to memory is called a ḥāfiẓ); and an ʻālim course leading the candidate to become an accepted scholar in the community. A regular curriculum includes courses in Arabic, tafsir (Qur'anic interpretation), sharīʻah (Islamic law), hadiths (recorded sayings and deeds of Muhammad), mantiq (logic), and Muslim history. In the Ottoman Empire, during the Early Modern Period, the study of hadiths was introduced by Süleyman I. Depending on the educational demands, some madrasas also offer additional advanced courses in Arabic literature, English and other foreign languages, as well as science and world history. Ottoman madrasas along with religious teachings also taught "styles of writing, grammary, syntax, poetry, composition, natural sciences, political sciences, and etiquette."
People of all ages attend, and many often move on to becoming imams. The certificate of an ʻālim, for example, requires approximately twelve years of study. A good number of the ḥuffāẓ (plural of ḥāfiẓ) are the product of the madrasas. The madrasas also resemble colleges, where people take evening classes and reside in dormitories. An important function of the madrasas is to admit orphans and poor children in order to provide them with education and training. Madrasas may enroll female students; however, they study separately from the men.
EARLY HISTORY
The first institute of madrasa education was at the estate of Hazrat Zaid bin Arkam near a hill called Safa, where Hazrat Muhammad was the teacher and the students were some of his followers. After Hijrah (migration) the madrasa of "Suffa" was established in Madina on the east side of the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi mosque. Hazrat 'Ubada bin Samit was appointed there by Hazrat Muhammad as teacher and among the students. In the curriculum of the madrasa, there were teachings of The Qur'an, The Hadith, fara'iz, tajweed, genealogy, treatises of first aid, etc. There were also trainings of horse-riding, art of war, handwriting and calligraphy, athletics and martial arts. The first part of madrasa based education is estimated from the first day of "nabuwwat" to the first portion of the "Umaiya" caliphate.
Established in 859, Jāmiʻat al-Qarawīyīn (located in al-Qarawīyīn Mosque) in the city of Fas, Morocco, is considered the oldest university in the world by some scholars, though the existence of universities in the medieval Muslim world is debated. It was founded by Fāṭimah al-Fihrī, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Muḥammad al-Fihrī. This was later followed by the establishment of al-Azhar in 959 in Cairo, Egypt.
During the late ʻAbbāsid period, the Seljuk vizier Niẓām al-Mulk created one of the first major official academic institutions known in history as the Madrasah Niẓāmīyah, based on the informal majālis (sessions of the shaykhs). Niẓām al-Mulk, who would later be murdered by the Assassins (Ḥashshāshīn), created a system of state madrasas (in his time they were called the Niẓāmiyyahs, named after him) in various ʻAbbāsid cities at the end of the 11th century.
During the rule of the Fatimid and Mamluk dynasties and their successor states in the medieval Middle East, many of the ruling elite founded madrasas through a religious endowment known as the waqf. Not only was the madrasa a potent symbol of status but it was an effective means of transmitting wealth and status to their descendants. Especially during the Mamlūk period, when only former slaves could assume power, the sons of the ruling Mamlūk elite were unable to inherit. Guaranteed positions within the new madrasas thus allowed them to maintain status. Madrasas built in this period include the Mosque-Madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan in Cairo.
Dimitri Gutas and the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy consider the period between the 11th and 14th centuries to be the "Golden Age" of Arabic and Islamic philosophy, initiated by al-Ghazali's successful integration of logic into the madrasah curriculum and the subsequent rise of Avicennism.
At the beginning of the Caliphate or Islamic Empire, the reliance on courts initially confined sponsorship and scholarly activities to major centres. Within several centuries, the development of Muslim educational institutions such as the madrasah and masjid eventually introduced such activities to provincial towns and dispersed them across the Islamic legal schools and Sufi orders. In addition to religious subjects, they also taught the "rational sciences," as varied as mathematics, astronomy, astrology, geography, alchemy, philosophy, magic, and occultism, depending on the curriculum of the specific institution in question. The madrasas, however, were not centres of advanced scientific study; scientific advances in Islam were usually carried out by scholars working under the patronage of royal courts. During this time,[when?] the Caliphate experienced a growth in literacy, having the highest literacy rate of the Middle Ages, comparable to classical Athens' literacy in antiquity but on a much larger scale. The emergence of the maktab and madrasa institutions played a fundamental role in the relatively high literacy rates of the medieval Islamic world.
The following excerpt provides a brief synopsis of the historical origins and starting points for the teachings that took place in the Ottoman madrasas in the Early Modern Period:
Taşköprülüzâde's concept of knowledge and his division of the sciences provides a starting point for a study of learning and medrese education in the Ottoman Empire. Taşköprülüzâde recognises four stages of knowledge - spiritual, intellectual, oral and written. Thus all the sciences fall into one of these seven categories: calligraphic sciences, oral sciences, intellectual sciences, spiritual sciences, theoretical rational sciences, and practical rational sciences. The first Ottoman medrese was created in İznik in 1331, when a converted Church building was assigned as a medrese to a famous scholar, Dâvûd of Kayseri. Suleyman made an important change in the hierarchy of Ottoman medreses. He established four general medreses and two more for specialised studies, one devoted to the ḥadīth and the other to medicine. He gave the highest ranking to these and thus established the hierarchy of the medreses which was to continue until the end of the empire.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
In the medieval Islamic world, an elementary school was known as a maktab, which dates back to at least the 10th century. Like madrasas (which referred to higher education), a maktab was often attached to an endowed mosque. In the 11th century, the famous Persian Islamic philosopher and teacher Ibn Sīnā (known as Avicenna in the West), in one of his books, wrote a chapter about the maktab entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing of Children," as a guide to teachers working at maktab schools. He wrote that children can learn better if taught in classes instead of individual tuition from private tutors, and he gave a number of reasons for why this is the case, citing the value of competition and emulation among pupils, as well as the usefulness of group discussions and debates. Ibn Sīnā described the curriculum of a maktab school in some detail, describing the curricula for two stages of education in a maktab school.
PRIMARY EDUCATION
Ibn Sīnā wrote that children should be sent to a maktab school from the age of 6 and be taught primary education until they reach the age of 14. During which time, he wrote, they should be taught the Qur'an, Islamic metaphysics, language, literature, Islamic ethics, and manual skills (which could refer to a variety of practical skills).
SECONDARY EDUCATION
Ibn Sīnā refers to the secondary education stage of maktab schooling as a period of specialisation when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be allowed to choose and specialise in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills, literature, preaching, medicine, geometry, trade and commerce, craftsmanship, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future career. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account.
HIGHER EDUCATION
During its formative period, the term madrasah referred to a higher education institution, whose curriculum initially included only the "religious sciences", whilst philosophy and the secular sciences were often excluded. The curriculum slowly began to diversify, with many later madrasas teaching both the religious and the "secular sciences", such as logic, mathematics and philosophy. Some madrasas further extended their curriculum to history, politics, ethics, music, metaphysics, medicine, astronomy and chemistry. The curriculum of a madrasah was usually set by its founder, but most generally taught both the religious sciences and the physical sciences. Madrasas were established throughout the Islamic world, examples being the 9th century University of al-Qarawiyyin, the 10th century al-Azhar University (the most famous), the 11th century Niẓāmīyah, as well as 75 madrasas in Cairo, 51 in Damascus and up to 44 in Aleppo between 1155 and 1260. Many more were also established in the Andalusian cities of Córdoba, Seville, Toledo, Granada (Madrasah of Granada), Murcia, Almería, Valencia and Cádiz during the Caliphate of Córdoba.
In the Ottoman Empire during the early modern period, "Madrasas were divided into lower and specialised levels, which reveals that there was a sense of elevation in school. Students who studied in the specialised schools after completing courses in the lower levels became known as danişmends."
While "madrasah" can now refer to any type of school, the term madrasah was originally used to refer more specifically to a medieval Islamic centre of learning, mainly teaching Islamic law and theology, usually affiliated with a mosque, and funded by an early charitable trust known as waqf.
LAW SCHOOL
Madrasas were largely centred on the study of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). The ijāzat al-tadrīs wa-al-iftāʼ ("licence to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system had its origins in the 9th century after the formation of the madhāhib (schools of jurisprudence). George Makdisi considers the ijāzah to be the origin of the European doctorate. However, in an earlier article, he considered the ijāzah to be of "fundamental difference" to the medieval doctorate, since the former was awarded by an individual teacher-scholar not obliged to follow any formal criteria, whereas the latter was conferred on the student by the collective authority of the faculty. To obtain an ijāzah, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and ten or more years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose." These were scholarly exercises practised throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded ijazas giving them the status of faqīh 'scholar of jurisprudence', muftī 'scholar competent in issuing fatwās', and mudarris 'teacher'.
The Arabic term ijāzat al-tadrīs was awarded to Islamic scholars who were qualified to teach. According to Makdisi, the Latin title licentia docendi 'licence to teach' in the European university may have been a translation of the Arabic, but the underlying concept was very different. A significant difference between the ijāzat al-tadrīs and the licentia docendi was that the former was awarded by the individual scholar-teacher, while the latter was awarded by the chief official of the university, who represented the collective faculty, rather than the individual scholar-teacher.
Much of the study in the madrasah college centred on examining whether certain opinions of law were orthodox. This scholarly process of "determining orthodoxy began with a question which the Muslim layman, called in that capacity mustaftī, presented to a jurisconsult, called mufti, soliciting from him a response, called fatwa, a legal opinion (the religious law of Islam covers civil as well as religious matters). The mufti (professor of legal opinions) took this question, studied it, researched it intensively in the sacred scriptures, in order to find a solution to it. This process of scholarly research was called ijtihād, literally, the exertion of one's efforts to the utmost limit."
MEDICAL SCHOOL
Though Islamic medicine was most often taught at the bimaristan teaching hospitals, there were also several medical madrasas dedicated to the teaching of medicine. For example, of the 155 madrasa colleges in 15th century Damascus, three of them were medical schools. No medical degrees were granted to students, as there was no faculty that could issue them. Therefore, no system of examination and certification ever developed in the Islamic tradition, in contrast with medieval Europe.
In the Early Modern Period in the Ottoman Empire, "Suleyman I added new curriculums ['sic'] to the Ottoman medreses of which one was medicine, which alongside studying of the ḥadīth was given highest rank."
MADRASA AND UNIVERSITY
Note: The word jāmiʻah (Arabic: جامعة) simply means 'university'. For more information, see Islamic university (disambiguation).
There is disagreement whether madrasas ever became universities. Scholars like Arnold H. Green and Seyyed Hossein Nasr have argued that starting in the 10th century, some medieval Islamic madrasas indeed became universities. George Makdisi and others, however, argue that the European university has no parallel in the medieval Islamic world. Darleen Pryds questions this view, pointing out that madrasas and European universities in the Mediterranean region shared similar foundations by princely patrons and were intended to provide loyal administrators to further the rulers' agenda. Other scholars regard the university as uniquely European in origin and characteristics.
al-Qarawīyīn University in Fez, Morocco is recognised by many historians as the oldest degree-granting university in the world, having been founded in 859 by Fatima al-Fihri. While the madrasa college could also issue degrees at all levels, the jāmiʻahs (such as al-Qarawīyīn and al-Azhar University) differed in the sense that they were larger institutions, more universal in terms of their complete source of studies, had individual faculties for different subjects, and could house a number of mosques, madrasas, and other institutions within them. Such an institution has thus been described as an "Islamic university".
Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975 by the Ismaʻīlī Shīʻī Fatimid dynasty as a jāmiʻah, had individual faculties for a theological seminary, Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy and logic in Islamic philosophy. The postgraduate doctorate in law was only obtained after "an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose." ‘Abd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī also delivered lectures on Islamic medicine at al-Azhar, while Maimonides delivered lectures on medicine and astronomy there during the time of Saladin. Another early jāmiʻah was the Niẓāmīyah of Baghdād (founded 1091), which has been called the "largest university of the Medieval world." Mustansiriya University, established by the ʻAbbāsid caliph al-Mustanṣir in 1233, in addition to teaching the religious subjects, offered courses dealing with philosophy, mathematics and the natural sciences.
However, the classification of madrasas as "universities" is disputed on the question of understanding of each institution on its own terms. In madrasas, the ijāzahs were only issued in one field, the Islamic religious law of sharīʻah, and in no other field of learning. Other academic subjects, including the natural sciences, philosophy and literary studies, were only treated "ancillary" to the study of the Sharia. For example, a natural science like astronomy was only studied (if at all) to supply religious needs, like the time for prayer. This is why Ptolemaic astronomy was considered adequate, and is still taught in some modern day madrasas. The Islamic law undergraduate degree from al-Azhar, the most prestigious madrasa, was traditionally granted without final examinations, but on the basis of the students' attentive attendance to courses. In contrast to the medieval doctorate which was granted by the collective authority of the faculty, the Islamic degree was not granted by the teacher to the pupil based on any formal criteria, but remained a "personal matter, the sole prerogative of the person bestowing it; no one could force him to give one".
Medievalist specialists who define the university as a legally autonomous corporation disagree with the term "university" for the Islamic madrasas and jāmi‘ahs because the medieval university (from Latin universitas) was structurally different, being a legally autonomous corporation rather than a waqf institution like the madrasa and jāmiʻah. Despite the many similarities, medieval specialists have coined the term "Islamic college" for madrasa and jāmiʻah to differentiate them from the legally autonomous corporations that the medieval European universities were. In a sense, the madrasa resembles a university college in that it has most of the features of a university, but lacks the corporate element. Toby Huff summarises the difference as follows:
From a structural and legal point of view, the madrasa and the university were contrasting types. Whereas the madrasa was a pious endowment under the law of religious and charitable foundations (waqf), the universities of Europe were legally autonomous corporate entities that had many legal rights and privileges. These included the capacity to make their own internal rules and regulations, the right to buy and sell property, to have legal representation in various forums, to make contracts, to sue and be sued."
As Muslim institutions of higher learning, the madrasa had the legal designation of waqf. In central and eastern Islamic lands, the view that the madrasa, as a charitable endowment, will remain under the control of the donor (and their descendent), resulted in a "spurt" of establishment of madrasas in the 11th and 12th centuries. However, in Western Islamic lands, where the Maliki views prohibited donors from controlling their endowment, madrasas were not as popular. Unlike the corporate designation of Western institutions of higher learning, the waqf designation seemed to have led to the exclusion of non-orthodox religious subjects such a philosophy and natural science from the curricula. The madrasa of al-Qarawīyīn, one of the two surviving madrasas that predate the founding of the earliest medieval universities and are thus claimed to be the "first universities" by some authors, has acquired official university status as late as 1947. The other, al-Azhar, did acquire this status in name and essence only in the course of numerous reforms during the 19th and 20th century, notably the one of 1961 which introduced non-religious subjects to its curriculum, such as economics, engineering, medicine, and agriculture. It should also be noted that many medieval universities were run for centuries as Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools prior to their formal establishment as universitas
scholarium; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the university dates back to the 6th century AD, thus well preceding the earliest madrasas. George Makdisi, who has published most extensively on the topic concludes in his comparison between the two institutions:
Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the middle ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.
Nevertheless, Makdisi has asserted that the European university borrowed many of its features from the Islamic madrasa, including the concepts of a degree and doctorate. Makdisi and Hugh Goddard have also highlighted other terms and concepts now used in modern universities which most likely have Islamic origins, including "the fact that we still talk of professors holding the 'Chair' of their subject" being based on the "traditional Islamic pattern of teaching where the professor sits on a chair and the students sit around him", the term 'academic circles' being derived from the way in which Islamic students "sat in a circle around their professor", and terms such as "having 'fellows', 'reading' a subject, and obtaining 'degrees', can all be traced back" to the Islamic concepts of aṣḥāb ('companions, as of Muhammad'), qirāʼah ('reading aloud the Qur'an') and ijāzah ('licence [to teach]') respectively. Makdisi has listed eighteen such parallels in terminology which can be traced back to their roots in Islamic education. Some of the practices now common in modern universities which Makdisi and Goddard trace back to an Islamic root include "practices such as delivering inaugural lectures, wearing academic robes, obtaining doctorates by defending a thesis, and even the idea of academic freedom are also modelled on Islamic custom." The Islamic scholarly system of fatwá and ijmāʻ, meaning opinion and consensus respectively, formed the basis of the "scholarly system the West has practised in university scholarship from the Middle Ages down to the present day." According to Makdisi and Goddard, "the idea of academic freedom" in universities was also "modelled on Islamic custom" as practised in the medieval Madrasa system from the 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first deliberately planned university" in Europe, the University of Naples Federico II founded by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor in 1224.
However, all of these facets of medieval university life are considered by standard scholarship to be independent medieval European developments with no tracable Islamic influence. Generally, some reviewers have pointed out the strong inclination of Makdisi of overstating his case by simply resting on "the accumulation of close parallels", but all the while failing to point to convincing channels of transmission between the Muslim and Christian world. Norman Daniel points out that the Arab equivalent of the Latin disputation, the taliqa, was reserved for the ruler's court, not the madrasa, and that the actual differences between Islamic fiqh and medieval European civil law were profound. The taliqa only reached Islamic Spain, the only likely point of transmission, after the establishment of the first medieval universities. In fact, there is no Latin translation of the taliqa and, most importantly, no evidence of Latin scholars ever showing awareness of Arab influence on the Latin method of disputation, something they would have certainly found noteworthy. Rather, it was the medieval reception of the Greek Organon which set the scholastic sic et non in motion. Daniel concludes that resemblances in method had more to with the two religions having "common problems: to reconcile the conflicting statements of their own authorities, and to safeguard the data of revelation from the impact of Greek philosophy"; thus Christian scholasticism and similar Arab concepts should be viewed in terms of a parallel occurrence, not of the transmission of ideas from one to the other, a view shared by Hugh Kennedy.
Tony Huff, in a discussion of Makdisi's hypothesis, concludes:
It remains the case that no equivalent of the bachelor's degree, the licentia docendi, or higher degrees ever emerged in the medieval or early modern Islamic madrasas.
FEMALE EDUCATION
Prior to the 12th century, women accounted for less than one percent of the world’s Islamic scholars. However, al-Sakhawi and Mohammad Akram Nadwi have since found evidence of over 8,000 female scholars since the 15th century.[64] al-Sakhawi devotes an entire volume of his 12-volume biographical dictionary al-Ḍawʾ al-lāmiʻ to female scholars, giving information on 1,075 of them. More recently, the scholar Mohammad Akram Nadwi, currently a researcher from the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, has written 40 volumes on the muḥaddithāt (the women scholars of ḥadīth), and found at least 8,000 of them.
From around 750, during the Abbasid Caliphate, women “became renowned for their brains as well as their beauty”. In particular, many well known women of the time were trained from childhood in music, dancing and poetry. Mahbuba was one of these. Another feminine figure to be remembered for her achievements was Tawaddud, "a slave girl who was said to have been bought at great cost by Hārūn al-Rashīd because she had passed her examinations by the most eminent scholars in astronomy, medicine, law, philosophy, music, history, Arabic grammar, literature, theology and chess".[68] Moreover, among the most prominent feminine figures was Shuhda who was known as "the Scholar" or "the Pride of Women" during the 12th century in Baghdad. Despite the recognition of women's aptitudes during the Abbasid dynasty, all these came to an end in Iraq with the sack of Baghdad in 1258.
Women played an important role in the foundations of many Islamic educational institutions, such as Fatima al-Fihri's founding of the University of Al Karaouine in 859. This continued through to the Ayyubid dynasty in the 12th and 13th centuries, when 160 mosques and madrasas were established in Damascus, 26 of which were funded by women through the Waqf (charitable trust) system. Half of all the royal patrons for these institutions were also women.
According to the Sunni scholar Ibn ʻAsākir in the 12th century, there were opportunities for female education in the medieval Islamic world, writing that women could study, earn ijazahs (academic degrees), and qualify as scholars and teachers. This was especially the case for learned and scholarly families, who wanted to ensure the highest possible education for both their sons and daughters. Ibn ʻAsakir had himself studied under 80 different female teachers in his time. Female education in the Islamic world was inspired by Muhammad's wives, such as Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. According to a hadith attributed to Muhammad, he praised the women of Medina because of their desire for religious knowledge:
How splendid were the women of the ansar; shame did not prevent them from becoming learned in the faith.
While it was not common for women to enroll as students in formal classes, it was common for women to attend informal lectures and study sessions at mosques, madrasas and other public places. While there were no legal restrictions on female education, some men did not approve of this practice, such as Muhammad ibn al-Hajj (d. 1336) who was appalled at the behaviour of some women who informally audited lectures in his time:
[Consider] what some women do when people gather with a shaykh to hear [the recitation of] books. At that point women come, too, to hear the readings; the men sit in one place, the women facing them. It even happens at such times that some of the women are carried away by the situation; one will stand up, and sit down, and shout in a loud voice. [Moreover,] her 'awra will appear; in her house, their exposure would be forbidden — how can it be allowed in a mosque, in the presence of men?
The term ʻawrah is often translated as 'that which is indecent', which usually meant the exposure of anything other than a woman's face and hands, although scholarly interpretations of the ʻawrah and ḥijāb have always tended to vary, with some more or less strict than others.
WIKIPEDIA
Judo. Sambo. DVD. Posters. Here, in front of you a products of Kallista company. We create an educational DVD’s about Sambo and Judo wrestling. There is a wide range of movies such as the lessons, competitions and seminars. All the products are always available. The main content of the movies is a training material for sportsmen and coaches.
This and other movies can be downloaded to your computer. Movies can be downloaded on this site gumroad.com/kallista
Educational/Cultural Sites
April 2013
Palau de la Música Catalana
Carrer Sant Pere Més Alt, 11-13
Barcelona, Spain
Lluís Domènech i Montaner
From January through April park rangers head to neighboring communities and bring Zion National Park to 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade students. Learn more about our educational outreach programs here, www.go.usa.gov/nD3
1. Educational Block A, 2. Educational Block B, 3. Educational Block C, 4. Educational Block D, 5. Educational Block E, 6. Educational Block F, 7. Educational Block G, 8. Educational Block H, 9. Educational Block I, 10. Educational Block J, 11. Educational Block K, 12. Educational Block L, 13. Educational Block M, 14. Educational Block N, 15. Educational Block O, 16. Educational Block P, 17. Educational Block Q, 18. Educational Block R, 19. Educational Block S, 20. Educational Block T, 21. Educational Block U, 22. Educational Block V, 23. Educational Block W, 24. Educational Block X, 25. Educational Block Y, 26. Educational Block Z, 27. Educational Block 0, 28. Educational Block 1, 29. Educational Block 2, 30. Educational Block 3, 31. Educational Block 4, 32. Educational Block 5, 33. Educational Block 6, 34. Educational Block 7, 35. Educational Block 8, 36. Educational Block 9
Created with fd's Flickr Toys.
Kids, ditch your parents! Discover the Canyon!
Are you a 7 to 14 year old looking to go on an adventure and get away from your parents for the day?
Come explore Grand Canyon with the rangers from Canyon Field Schools
When: 8:30am to 2pm July 30th to August 2nd
Where: Drop off and Pick up at Park Headquarters.
What will we be doing?
Walking along the rim and taking the bus to do activities and games related to discovering more about Grand Canyon’s plants, rocks, and animals!
What to bring:
Sturdy shoes and a backpack filled with lunch, snacks, a full water bottle, sunscreen and a rain jacket
Hey! How do I register for this FREE and FUN program?
Call: 928-638-7924 by 4:00pm the day before the program
Sleigh drivers offer a quality educational program during the ride. The contractor's staff works closely with the National Elk Refuge's visitor services staff to stay current on refuge management topics.
Credit: Lori Iverson / USFWS
الملكة رانيا خلال جلسة نقاشية مع مجموعة من التربويين في اكاديمية الملكة رانيا لتدريب المعلمين حول تحديات التعليم
عمان، الأردن / 29 اب 2016
Queen Rania during a discussion with educators about education challenges at the Queen Rania Teacher Academy (QRTA)
Amman, Jordan / August 28, 2016
© Royal Hashemite Court
For any form of publication, please include the link to this page:
This photo has been graciously provided to be used in the GRID-Arendal resources library by: Hugo Ahlenius
22 Settembre 2K10
SOCIAL MEDIA BETTER TOURISM
A Milano, dentro la Social Media Week, il festival della rete
Info per i keynote:
Robert Piattelli - Co-founder BTO Educational - robert@btoeducational.it
Scarica il pdf della presentazione su SlideShare:
www.slideshare.net/BTOEducational/social-media-better-tou...
Prosegue il percorso di ToscanaLab 2K10 verso la messa a punto del proprio manifesto Internet Better Life.
“Social Media Week is a global platform that connects people, content, and conversation around emerging trends in social and mobile media”
Bogotà, Buenos Aires, Los Angeles, Mexico City e Milano: cinque città connesse tra loro dal 20 al 24 Settembre con protagonisti aziende e persone che conversano di Social Media, all’interno di un format davvero unico.
Ospiti di Augmendy, ToscanaLab 2K10 e BTO Educational hanno promosso all’interno della Social Media Week [ il festival della rete ] un evento con tema Social Media e Turismo.
Attraverso una conversazione con i partecipanti all’incontro, mettendo a confronto tante esperienze diverse, si è indagato sull’impatto dei Social Media sulle dinamiche d’incontro tra domanda e offerta turistica.
Dentro la Social Media Week, a Milano nel Blend Tower, il 22 Settembre.
Social Media Better Tourism, c'erano:
Mirko Lalli – Responsabile Comunicazione e Marketing Fondazione Sistema Toscana
Rodolfo Baggio - Università Bocconi - Master in Economia del Turismo e Centro Dondena per la Ricerca sulle Dinamiche Sociali. Presidente del Comitato Tecnico – Scientifico di BTO Educational
Roberta Milano - Università degli Studi di Genova, Campus Universitario di Savona + Blogger. Co-Founder BTO Educational
Queste tre persone hanno condotto l’evento.
Hanno raccontato le loro storie, presentato progetti, ricerche, idee, conversato tra loro e con il pubblico:
Paolo Barbesino – Managing Director CommStrategy
Cristiano Callegari aka Zio Burp – Blogger, social media, copywriter Ambito5
Stefano Ceci – Founder GH Impresa Turistica. Comitato Tecnico – Scientifico BTO Educational
Alberto Chiapponi - Web marketing and social media consultant H-art
Lisa Dubost – International affairs AirBnb
Giulia Eremita – Country Manager Trivago.it. Comitato Tecnico – Scientifico BTO Educational
Monica Fabris - Presidente GPF©. Comitato Tecnico – Scientifico BTO Educational
Elena Grassi – Senior Sales Manager Expedia
Paolo Mezzina – TravelPeople. Presidente e Managing Director Slash
Bruno Preda– Country Manager Italy Atrapalo.com
Diego Ricchiuti – Managing Director Agency.com
Andrea Tracanzan - Marketing Director Zoes.it (Fondazione Responsabilità Etica / Banca Etica)
Special Guest:
Giancarlo Carniani - Coordinatore BTO - Buy Tourism Online. Co-Founder BTO Educational
SOCIAL MEDIA BETTER TOURISM
La FORMULA e gli OBIETTIVI
Durante la circa due ore e mezza del Social Media Better Tourism, gli speakers si sono presentati e hanno converserato con il pubblico di Social Media e Turismo.
Ognuno in quindici minuti di tempo, ha contribuito nell’incontro a mettere a fuoco il concetto Better Tourism, in quest’occasione declinato sui Social Media.
Insomma, i Social Media aiutano chi viaggia?
Si, certo.
Ma il quesito di fondo non è questo, il focus di di ToscanaLab 2010 e BTO Educational è sugli “altri”, ovvero tutta l’intera filiera che ruota intorno a chi viaggia, insomma gli operatori economici.
Durante ToscanaLab 2K10 nel panel Internet Better Tourism, BTO Educational ha promosso una conversazione con il pubblico che ha portato alla redazione di un Manifesto “Internet Better Tourism”, all’interno del progetto ancora più ambizioso che prevede la stesura di un decalogo “Internet Better Life” .
L’occasione della Social Media Week vuole essere valorizzata per fare un ulteriore messa a fuoco dei punti condivisi con i partecipanti di ToscanaLab 2K10 e che hanno portato alla stesura del Manifesto Internet Better Tourism.
Internet Better Tourism sarà veramente Better per tutti quando tutti modificheranno i propri comportamenti, si muoveranno verso il web e chi viaggia prenderanno coscienza che qualcosa è cambiato e continua a cambiare molto velocemente.
Ecco i cinque punti del nostro Manifesto, cinque riflessioni che continueremo con il contributo di tutti ad elaborare anche durante incontri come questo Social Media Better Tourism, dentro la Social Media Week.
Passaggio di orizzonte di prospettiva, da “IO + VOI” a “NOI”
Il web come strumento e luogo, non come “fine” per creare e far crescere un legame tra chi viaggia e il territorio. Costruire una relazione come leva principale di una coerente attività di promozione territoriale
Internet come fattore abilitante per allungare l’esperienza di viaggio, con un prima, durante e dopo
Internet Better Tourism quando si colmerà lo sbilanciamento culturale e informativo tra domanda e offerta, oggi tutto a vantaggio del viaggiatore.
Il viaggio come esperienza e il viaggiatore si fa CANALE di quest’esperienza, contribuendo con i propri contenuti e i sui racconti alla costruzione della storia del viaggio, con al centro il territorio e INSIEME a chi gli offre i servizi
La LOCATION
La Social Media Week, il festival della rete è veramente un evento straordinario: dal 20 al 24 Settembre Bogotà, Buenos Aires, Los Angeles, Mexico City e Milano si connettono proponendo cinque giorni di eventi creati per la maggior parte dal basso, da persone e da aziende che hanno qualcosa da dire sul tema Social Media.
Milano ospita ben novanta appuntamenti sparsi in città: per Social Media Better Tourism dentro la Social Media Week la scelta è caduta su Blend Tower, a soli cinquanta metri dalla Stazione Centrale.
Un grattacielo che ospita anche un business center molto adatto al nostro evento: Social Media Better Tourism del 22 Settembre (inizia alle 10.00 precisissime, venite un po’ prima) è al 3° piano del Blend Tower, piazza IV Novembre al numero 7, sala riunioni 1.
SOCIAL MEDIA WEEK
Proposta per la prima volta a New York nel 2009 e giunta alla terza edizione, la Social Media Week arriva anche in Italia: a Milano dal 20 al 24 settembre 2010.
Una fondamentale occasione di incontro per tutte le persone interessate al mondo dei Social Media, in ambito business e consumer.
Questa nuova edizione della Social Media Week viene organizzata contemporaneamente in 5 città nel mondo: Milano, Los Angeles, Bogotà, Buenos Aires, Città del Messico.
SOCIAL MEDIA WEEK MILANO
In Italia, la Social Media Week si articolerà in oltre 30 eventi gratuiti nell'arco delle 5 giornate, disseminati in numerose location nel Comune di Milano.
Molti eventi saranno spontanei, organizzati da addetti ai lavori del mondo della Comunicazione, appassionati e associazioni mentre altri saranno affidati ad aziende di prestigio che avranno la possibilità di organizzare un proprio evento all’interno della Social Media Week, il festival della rete.
Centro operativo della manifestazione e sede espositiva sarà l’Urban Center in Galleria Vittorio Emanuele, nel cuore di Milano.
In particolare, saranno cinque le categorie tematiche su sui si concentrerà l’attenzione degli organizzatori:
Technology, Entertainment (Musica, Sport, Arte)
Brand Communication (Promozione, Advertising),
Made in Italy (Fashion, Design, Food)
Media e Informazione
Digital Opportunities (Occupazione, Urbanistica, Cultura).
Gli eventi, gratuiti e sempre aperti al pubblico, saranno in parte business oriented (con un focus sulle potenzialità che le nuove Piattaforme Social sono in grado di offrire) e in parte consumer cioè pensati e organizzati per attirare il grande pubblico con un'offerta di contenuti culturali inediti e coinvolgenti.
Questo ponendo sempre al centro la persona, la comunicazione social e la scoperta di un nuovo modo di essere e relazionarsi che rappresenta il futuro del Web e del nostro modo di comunicare.
Augmendy
Augmendy è una Società web specializzata in Social Media.
La Mission di Augmendy, attraverso diverse tipologie di attività, è mettere in contatto le aziende con gli operatori del mercato dell’area Social Media.
Founders di Augmendy sono Marco Antonio Masieri e Marco "Monty" Montemagno, tra l’altro cofondatori di Blogosfere (il più grande network europeo di blog d’informazione professionali) e di Codice Internet (associazione no profit per la divulgazione di Internet in italia).
Il Board della Social Media Week ha assegnato a Augmendy l’organizzazione dell’unica tappa europea dell’evento.
Toscanalab 2k10
ToscanaLab è un marchio di Fondazione Sistema Toscana: è tornato a Firenze il 28 e 29 Giugno 2K10 con la seconda edizione di un evento verticale dedicato al web, ai social media e al mondo della comunicazione digitale.
Due giornate dedicate alla riflessione e al confronto sulle nuove forme di partecipazione e sugli effetti della rivoluzione culturale che stiamo vivendo.
BTO Educational
BTO Educational è un’Associazione senza fine di lucro che nasce dall’esperienza BTO – Buy Tourism Online - www.buytourismonline.com - l'evento edu-entertainment unico nel suo genere, che anche quest'anno si svolgerà a Firenze, alla Stazione Leopolda, il 18 e 19 Novembre.
Quali sono i temi di BTO Educational?
Il web 2.0, più in particolare il Travel 2.0 e tutti gli altri argomenti cari agli operatori della lunga filiera turistico ricettiva e agli stakeholders dei territori.
property of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
for educational purpose only
please do not use without permission
The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA) invites you to attend a special “cypher” performance featuring cultural ambassadors from the State Department-sponsored Next Level program. The cypher will feature hip-hop artists from across the United States in an improvised jam session featuring rap, break dance, and beatboxing.
"Educating by Story-Telling" part of the Play School series."Showing the value of story-telling as an educational tool for the use of all workers with children" by Katherine Dunlap Cather. Copyright World Book Company of Yonkers-on-Hudson NY in 1918. Cover illustrator unknown.
BUILDEX VANCOUVER - Vancouver Convention Centre West
BUILDEX Vancouver is about designing, building and managing real estate.
For Other MMPI Canada Events visit
The newly renovated visitor center has exhibits, educational programs, park information, and a museum shop.
Educational/Cultural Sites
April 4, 2013
Barcelona Pavilion
Av. Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia, 7
Barcelona, Spain
Mies van der Rohe
Educational/Cultural Sites
Entrance, 1948 Saarinen Wing
Des Moines Art Center
Des Moines, IA
Eliel Saarinen
A set of educational playing cards for teaching numbers to kindergarten and elementary school students. I designed it a while ago, but only got around to printing it out now. It's not the whole set -- that would have been too expensive, and as it turns out too unwieldy. But they look great, and the concept is sound, so who knows.
The cover of a photo album called BarkBeetle Enemies of California Forests. Prepared by the USDA Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine in cooperation with the State Emergency Relief Administration - Project 3F-2-302 and the Emergency Educational Program. Berkeley, California. February, 1935.
Credit: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, State and Private Forestry, Forest Health Protection.
Source: Forest Health Protection digital file collection; Region 6 Regional Office, Portland, Oregon.
Wickman's account of these photo albums:
"The drought-related stress to trees on million of acres of
ponderosa pine forests in the inland West caused dramatic
levels of tree mortality that could not be ignored by politicians. Miller, Keen, and Patterson also played a clever propaganda game to procure appropriations to increase the research efforts on the western pine beetle. During the depression, government agencies provided some level of support for artists, cartographers, and draftsmen as a “make work” program. These artisans were eagerly employed by Miller at bargain prices to produce hand-colored photo albums showing the extent of the tree mortality caused by bark beetles, what was being done, and what was needed in the form of research programs to curb this wasteful tree loss. Miller got the message across by supplying these albums to trade associations, chambers of commerce, politicians, and universities."
From: Wickman, Boyd E. 2005. Harry E. Burke and John M. Miller, pioneers in Western forest entomology. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-638. Portland, OR: USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. p. 126.
www.fs.fed.us/pnw/publications/pnw_gtr638/
For additional historical forest entomology photos, stories, and resources see the Western Forest Insect Work Conference site: wfiwc.org/content/history-and-resources
Image provided by USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, State and Private Forestry, Forest Health Protection: www.fs.usda.gov/main/r6/forest-grasslandhealth
Dry Dock #1, located at Beck Street at the foot of 3rd Street, is the oldest dry dock in the Brooklyn Navy Yard, and the third oldest in the countryafter the Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Virginia and the Charlestown Naval Yard in Boston. The site was scouted as early as 1926, but construction didn't begin until 1840 and was completed in 1851, at a cost of over $2 million.
Dry docks are great chambers below water level used for the repair and construction of ships. A ship can be brought in from the adjoining body of water once the chamber has been filled with water. The chamber is then drained, allowing the ship to rest on wooden blocks so that work may proceed. After work is completed, the chamber is flooded to outside water level, the gate is opened, and the ship can depart.
The 344-foot long, 50-foot wide, 21-foot deep dock is fashioned entirely from massive, hand-cut and hand-sanded blocks of granite excavated from a quarries in Maine, Connecticut, Staten Island and upstate New York. Still served by its original pumps, though now powered by electricity, it is the smallest dry dock at the navy yard today, mainly used for tugboats.
The Brooklyn Navy Yard, also known as the New York Naval Shipyard (NYNSY), is located in Wallabout Basin, a semicircular bend of the East River. The waterfront site was used to build merchant vessels following the American Revolution. Federal authorities purchased the old docks and 40 acres of land in 1801, and it became an active US Navy shipyard in 1906. By the American Civil War, the yard had expanded to employ about 6000 men. In 1890, the ill-fated Maine was launched from the Yard's ways.
On the eve of World War II, the yard contained more than five miles of paved streets, four drydocks, two steel shipways, and six pontoons and cylindrical floats for salvage work, barracks for marines, a power plant, a large radio station, and a railroad spur, as well as the expected foundries, machine shops, and warehouses. In 1937 the battleship North Carolina was laid down. The battleship Iowa was completed in 1942 followed by the USS Missouri (BB-63) and then in 1952, Antietam. At its peak, during World War II, the yard employed 70,000 people, 24 hours a day.
The Navy decommissioned the yard in 1966 and sold it to the City of New York. A few decades later, it became an area of private manufacturing and commercial activity. It now has over 200 tenants with more than 3,500 employees, and is managed and operated by the Brooklyn Navy Yard Development Corporation for the City of New York
Open House New York weekend, America's largest architect and design event, opens doors throughout New York City each October. The 8th Annual openhousenewyork Weekend will be held October 9 & 10, 2010. openhousenewyork (OHNY) is a non-profit cultural organization founded in 2001 in New York City, to promote awareness and appreciation of New York's architecture, design and cultural heritage through year-round, educational programs. Through direct experiences and dialogue with architects, designers, planners, and scholars, OHNY opens doors for the public to discover cutting-edge new work, restoration of city landmarks, construction of infrastructure and engineering works and neighborhood planning efforts.
Dry Dock 1 was designated landmark status by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1975.
This is an educational pod at the last level of the Cloud Forest Conservatory which one of the two domes at Gardens by the Bay. It looked really cool but I wanted to really make it pop so I shot it as a bokeh panorama. 72 shots with the 85mm f/1.4 GMaster. Stitched in Photoshop. All the while watching and waiting for people to be out of frame as I panned.