Bogazi (Greek: Μπογάζι, Turkish: Boğaz) is a village in Cyprus, located 7 km northeast of Trikomo in the Karpaz Peninsula. It is under the de facto control of Northern Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

there was a man on the side of the road surrounded by empty bottles of listerine ...with a rock in his hand clanging and clanging on a sewer-grate... some sort of lost street-level quasimodo ....tolling the bells of his remains....he said he was an artist ...a painter ...a traveling salesman... stuck in a lonely life of hotels...this was the first time he had broke down in a while ...we carried him to the grass where he could sleep it off and not end up in the drunk-tank....he passed out but never let go of the rock .... we biked off to the trainyard

"The Devil's Bridge (dialect: Tüfelsbrugg) is a historic road bridge constructed as an arch bridge that crosses the Sihl in the Egg district of Einsiedeln in the Swiss canton of Schwyz. It connects Einsiedeln with the Etzelpass and is part of the Way of St. James, which is also called the Swabian Way between Constance and Einsiedeln.

 

The first bridge was built by Abbot Gero von Frohburg in 1117. In 1517 the first stone bridge was built. In the 17th century this was replaced by a roofed new building, which was reinforced by Brother Jakob Natter in 1794 and at the same time supplemented with a chapel niche created by Johann Baptist Babel for St. Nepomuk.

 

Restorations were made in 1833 and 1908. In 1984 the Devil's Bridge was taken over by the Einsiedeln district.

 

From 1987 to 1992 it was restored again and placed under the protection of the Swiss Confederation and the Canton of Schwyz." - info from Wikipedia.

 

During the summer of 2018 I went on my first ever cycling tour. On my own I cycled from Strasbourg, France to Geneva, Switzerland passing through the major cities of Switzerland. In total I cycled 1,185 km over the course of 16 days and took more than 8,000 photos.

 

Now on Instagram.

 

Become a patron to my photography on Patreon.

Muggia (Venetian, Triestine dialect: Muja; German: Mulgs; Friulian: Mugle; Slovene: Milje) is an Italian town and comune in the south-west of the Province of Trieste, in the region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia on the border with Slovenia. Lying on the eastern flank of the Gulf of Trieste in the northern Adriatic Sea, Muggia is the only Italian port town in Istria. The town's architecture is marked by its Venetian and Austrian history, and its harbour hosts a modern 500-berth marina for yachts (Porto San Rocco).

 

Muggia lies in northern Istria. Its territory, limited on the sea-side by a shoreline of more than 7 kilometres (4 mi) featuring a coastal road and on the border side by a hill system, Monti di Muggia, including Mt. Castellier, Mt. S. Michele, Mt. Zuc and Monte d'Oro, that dominate over a vast landscape of Triestinian and Istrian coast, is characterized by a rich sub-continental vegetation of both Karstic and Istrian type.

 

It has a border crossing, known as San Bartolomeo, with Slovenia and the extreme east of the comune at Lazaretto. The Slovenian border crossing is called Lazaret in the Municipality of Koper.

Muggia was attested in historical sources as Mugla in AD 933. The origin of the name Muggia is uncertain; it may have arisen from Latin mūtila 'cut short, mutilated', in reference to a short projection from the land or a cape (cf. the cape north of Zadar, attested in Latin as Muchla bona in AD 1250, now Croatian Oštri rat). Another possibility is derivation from Latin *mūcla 'milestone', and another hypothesis is that it comes from Vulgar Latin *Lamūc(l)a 'small swamp'. The Slovene name Milje was borrowed from Proto-Romance Mugla (developing via *Mygla > *Migla > Milje).

 

Muggia originated as a prehistoric fortified village (castelliere), around 8th-7th century BC. The territory was conquered in 178–177 BC by the Romans, who created here a settlement (Castrum Muglae). After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Muggia was under Ostrogoth, Lombard, Byzantine, Avar and Frank dominations, until, in 931, king Hugh of Italy donated it to the Patriarch of Aquileia.

 

Before the year 1000 a new settlement was built on the seashore. After the 13th century the new village, now grown to the status of city, pronounced itself a municipality and defined its territory as bordering with those of Trieste and Koper, but stayed still politically bound to the Patriarchy of Aquileia. From this period are the cathedral and the city hall, the latter having been rebuilt in the last century.[clarification needed] In 1420 it became part of the Republic of Venice.

 

After Venice's fall in 1797, Muggia became part of the Austrian Empire, under which it developed an important naval shipbuilding industry which flourished until after World War II. Throughout the Austro-Hungarian period it remained part of the Margravate of Istria, first within the Kingdom of Illyria and then, after 1861, within the Austrian Littoral. The municipality of Muggia historically extended further south than today, including several settlements that are now part of Slovenia: Ankaran, Hrvatini, Elerji, Škofije, and Plavje.

 

After World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the town was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy and incorporated into the Province of Trieste. In the 1930s, the area developed a strong Communist underground activity against Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime. In 1945, it was occupied by the Yugoslav People's Army and from 1947 to 1954 it was part of the Free Territory of Trieste, a formally independent territory directly administered by the United Nations. The territory was internally divided into two zones ruled by military governors - Muggia ended up in the northern Zone A ruled by Anglo-Americans, while the southern Zone B was ruled by the Yugoslav army. In 1954 the two zones were handed over to Italian and Yugoslav civilian governments and de facto annexed by the two countries in an arrangement finally formalized in the 1975 Treaty of Osimo, which established the former borders between Zones as the new Italy-Yugoslavia international border. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s it formed the border between Italy and the newly independent Slovenia. Following Slovenia's accession to the European Union in May 2004 and the passport-free Schengen Area in January 2008, all border controls have been removed, making the Italian-Slovenian border which runs just south and east of Muggia, practically invisible to travellers.

Muggia provides many evident traces of its Venetian traditions and origin, as showed by the dialect, the gastronomic traditions, the gothic-venetian style of some houses, the devious "calli", the loggias, the ogive arches, the ancient coats of arms on the façades but mostly the main square, a true Venetian "campiello".

 

Memories of its early ages include an important pre-historic "castelliere" on Mt. Castellier (S. Barbara) and Roman (Archaeological Park of Castrum Muglae) and medieval remains in Muggia Vecchia (Old Muggia), once one of the guarding castles that in the 10th century were built to defend the Istrian border against the invasion of the Hungars.

 

The Castle of Muggia, destroyed in 1353 by the Triestines, retains several remains of the previous period such as the ruins of the walls. A tower dating back to 1374 was due to the Patriarch of Aquileia Marquard of Muggia. Later in 1735, under the government of the Republic of Venice, it was restored, but it was totally abandoned during the following century. The Castle was restored by its current owners, the sculptor Villi Bossi and his wife Gabriella, and may be visited upon request.

 

The most important art attraction is the little basilica of Santa Maria Assunta (10th-13th century), housing frescoes from the 14th-15th centuries.

   

Sudbury (/ˈsʌdbəri/, Suffolk dialect: /ˈsʌbri/) is a small market town in the English county of Suffolk. It is located on the River Stour near the Essex border, and is 60 miles (97 km) north-east of London. At the 2011 census, the town has a population of 13,063, rising to 21,971 including the adjoining parish of Great Cornard. It is the largest town of Babergh district council, the local government district, and is represented in the UK Parliament as part of the South Suffolk constituency.

 

Evidence of Sudbury as a settlement originates from the end of the 8th century during the Anglo-Saxon era, and its market was established in the early 11th century. Its textile industries prospered during the Late Middle Ages; the wealth of which funded many of its buildings and churches. The town became notable for its art in the 18th century, being the birthplace of Thomas Gainsborough, whose landscapes offered inspiration to John Constable, another Suffolk painter of the surrounding Stour Valley area. The 19th century saw the arrival of the railway with the opening of a station on the historic Stour Valley Railway, and Sudbury railway station forms the current terminus of the Gainsborough Line. During World War II, US Army Airforce bombers operated from RAF Sudbury.

 

Today, Sudbury retains its status as a market town with a twice-weekly market in the town centre in front of the redundant St Peter's Church, which is now a local community point for events such as concerts and exhibitions. In sport, the town has a semi-professional football club, A.F.C. Sudbury, which competes at the seventh level of the football pyramid.

 

Early history[edit]

Sudbury’s history dates back into the age of the Saxons.[2] The town’s earliest mention is in 799 AD, when Aelfhun, Bishop of Dunwich, died in the town.[3] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the town as Suthberie ("south-borough"), presumed to distinguish it from Norwich or Bury St Edmunds, to the north.[2] The town is also mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, as a market town where the local people came to barter their goods.[3] The market was established in 1009.[4]

 

A community of Dominicans arrived in the mid-13th century and gradually extended the size of their priory, which was one of three Dominican priories in the county of Suffolk.[5] Sudbury was one of the first towns in which Edward III settled the Flemings,[2] allowing the weaving and silk industries to prosper for centuries during the Late Middle Ages. As the main town in the area, Sudbury prospered too, and many great houses and churches were built, giving the town a major historical legacy. The Woolsack in the House of Lords was originally stuffed with wool from the Sudbury area, a sign of both the importance of the wool industry and of the wealth of the donors.

 

One citizen of Sudbury, Archbishop Simon Sudbury showed that not even the Tower of London guarantees safety. On 14 June 1381 guards opened the Tower’s doors and allowed a party of rebellious peasants to enter. Sudbury, inventor of the poll tax, was dragged to Tower Hill and beheaded.[6] His body was afterwards buried in Canterbury Cathedral, but his skull is kept in St. Gregory’s with St. Peter’s Church,[7] one of the three medieval churches in Sudbury. Simon's concerns for his native town are reflected in the founding of St Leonard's Hospital in 1372, a place of respite, towards Long Melford, for lepers.[8] For the College of St Gregory, which he founded in 1375 to support eight priests, he used his father's former house and an adjoining plot.[9]

 

From the 16th to 18th century the weaving industry was less consistently profitable and Sudbury experienced periods of varying prosperity.[10] By means of the borough court, the mayor and corporation directed the affairs of the town. They built a house of correction (1624) for 'rogues, vagabonds and sturdy beggars' and tried to finance the reconstruction of Ballingdon Bridge, which disappeared during a storm on 4 September 1594. Among theatrical companies they paid to visit Sudbury were Lord Strange's Men (1592) and the King's Men (1610). Minor infringements, such as not attending church, were punished by fines, for worse offenders there was a stocks or a whipping. During the Civil War a 12-strong band of watchmen was created to prevent the town's enemies, presumed to be Royalists, burning it down.[11]

 

Sudbury and the surrounding area, like much of East Anglia, was a hotbed of Puritan sentiment during much of the 17th century. Sudbury was among the town's called "notorious wasps' nests of dissent."[12] During the decade of the 1630s, many families departed for the Massachusetts Bay Colony as part of the wave of emigration that occurred during the Great Migration.

 

By the 18th century the fees charged to become a freeman, with voting rights, were exorbitant and the borough of Sudbury, along with 177 other English towns, was reformed by a Municipal Reform Act (1835).

  

Statue of Thomas Gainsborough on Market Hill

During the 18th century Sudbury became famous for its local artists. John Constable painted in the area, especially the River Stour. Painter Thomas Gainsborough was born in Sudbury in 1727, and was educated at Sudbury Grammar School.[13] His birthplace, now named Gainsborough's House, is a museum to his work and is open to the public. It houses many valuable pictures and some of his family possessions. A statue of Gainsborough was unveiled in the town centre outside St Peter’s Church on Market Hill in 1913.[3]

 

Victorian times to present day[edit]

The 1832 Reform Act saw the villages of Ballingdon and Brundon appended to the town.[14] In the 1841 general election Sudbury became the first place in the UK to elect a member of an ethnic minority to parliament, with David Ochterlony Dyce Sombre, the son of an Indian queen, winning the seat. However, he was not allowed to take his place in parliament as he was subsequently declared insane.[15]

 

Sudbury's Catholic Church, Our Lady Immaculate and St. John the Evangelist, was designed by Leonard Stokes and erected in 1893. The shrine of Our Lady of Sudbury sits within its nave.[16]

 

During the Second World War an American squadron of B-24 Liberator bombers of the 834th Squadron (H), 486th Bomb Group (H), 8th Air Force was based at RAF Sudbury. This squadron performed many important bombing and photographic missions during the war, but is perhaps best known as the "Zodiac Squadron", as its bombers were decorated with colourful images of the twelve signs of the zodiac painted by a professional artist named Phil Brinkman,[17] who was taken into the squadron by its commander, Capt. Howell, specifically for the purpose of painting the bombers. Now most of the airfield buildings have been demolished, including the control tower. Sections of perimeter track, aircraft hard stand areas, and two narrow crossing lengths of former runways, provide footpaths between Chilton, Newmans Green and Great Waldingfield.

 

The Sudbury Society was formed in 1973 after a successful campaign to save the town's corn exchange from developers. However, in protecting its ancient centre the town has not shut itself off from modern development. As the town has expanded (to a population in 2005 of 12,080) modern retail and industrial developments have been added on sites close to the centre and on the eastern edge at Chilton. The 18th and 19th century houses near the town centre have been added to by modern developments. wikipedia

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side,_Turkey

  

Side (Greek: Σίδη) is an ancient Greek city on the southern Mediterranean coast of Turkey, a resort town and one of the best-known classical sites in the country. It lies near Manavgat and the village of Selimiye, 78 km from Antalya in the province of Antalya.[1]

It is located on the eastern part of the Pamphylian coast, which lies about 20 km east of the mouth of the Eurymedon River. Today, as in antiquity, the ancient city is situated on a small north-south peninsula about 1 km long and 400 m across.

 

History[edit]

Strabo and Arrian both record that Side was founded by Greek settlers from Cyme in Aeolis, a region of western Anatolia. This most likely occurred in the 7th century BC. Its tutelary deity was Athena, whose head adorned its coinage.

Dating from the tenth century B.C., its coinage bore the head of Athena (Minerva), the patroness of the city, with a legend. Its people, a piratical horde, quickly forgot their own language to adopt that of the aborigines.

Possessing a good harbour for small-craft boats, Side's natural geography made it one of the most important places in Pamphylia and one of the most important trade centres in the region. According to Arrian, when settlers from Cyme came to Side, they could not understand the dialect. After a short while, the influence of this indigenous tongue was so great that the newcomers forgot their native Greek and started using the language of Side. Excavations have revealed several inscriptions written in this language. The inscriptions, dating from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, remain undeciphered, but testify that the local language was still in use several centuries after colonisation. Another object found in the excavations at Side, a basalt column base from the 7th century BC and attributable to the Neo-Hittites, provides further evidence of the site's early history. The name Side may be Anatolian in origin, meaning pomegranate.[citation needed]

Next to no information exists concerning Side under Lydian and Persian sovereignty.

Alexander the Great[edit]

  

Vespasian Gate

  

Temple of Apollo

Alexander the Great occupied Side without a struggle in 333 BC. Alexander left only a single garrison behind to occupy the city. This occupation, in turn, introduced the people of Side to Hellenistic culture, which flourished from the 4th to the 1st century BC. After Alexander's death, Side fell under the control of one of Alexander's generals, Ptolemy I Soter, who declared himself king of Egypt in 305 BC. The Ptolemaic dynasty controlled Side until it was captured by the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BC. Yet, despite these occupations, Side managed to preserve some autonomy, grew prosperous, and became an important cultural centre.

  

Walls of the ancient theatre of Side

In 190 BC a fleet from the Greek island city-state of Rhodes, supported by Rome and Pergamum, defeated the Seleucid King Antiochus the Great's fleet, which was under the command of the fugitive Carthaginian general Hannibal. The defeat of Hannibal and Antiochus the Great meant that Side freed itself from the overlord-ship of the Seleucid Empire. The Treaty of Apamea (188 BC) forced Antiochus to abandon all European territories and to cede all of Asia Minor north of the Taurus Mountains to Pergamum. However, the dominion of Pergamum only reached de facto as far as Perga, leaving Eastern Pamphylia in a state of uncertain freedom. This led Attalus II Philadelphus to construct a new harbour in the city of Attalia (the present Antalya), although Side already possessed an important harbour of its own. Between 188 and 36 BC Side minted its own money, tetradrachms showing Nike and a laurel wreath (the sign of victory).

In the 1st century BC, Side reached a peak when the Cilician pirates established their chief naval base and a centre for their slave-trade.

Romans[edit]

The consul Servilius Vatia defeated these brigands in 78 BC and later the Roman general Pompey in 67 BC, bringing Side under the control of Rome and beginning its second period of ascendancy, when it established and maintained a good working relationship with the Roman Empire.[2]

Emperor Augustus reformed the state administration and placed Pamphylia and Side in the Roman province of Galatia in 25 BC, after the short reign of Amyntas of Galatia between 36 and 25 BC. Side began another prosperous period as a commercial centre in Asia Minor through its trade in olive oil. Its population grew to 60,000 inhabitants. This period would last well into the 3rd century AD. Side also established itself as a slave-trading centre in the Mediterranean. Its large commercial fleet engaged in acts of piracy, while wealthy merchants paid for such tributes as public works, monuments, and competitions as well as the games and gladiator fights. Most of the extant ruins at Side date from this period of prosperity.

   

One of the maps (portolani) of Piri Reis, taken from the Kitab-i Bahriye, which Piri produced in several editions, supplementing in 1520, but integrating it into subsequent editions.

Side was the home of Eustathius of Antioch, of the philosopher Troilus, of the fifth-century ecclesiastical writer Philip; of the famous lawyer Tribonian.[3]

Decline[edit]

Side began a steady decline from the 4th century on. Even defensive walls could not stop successive invasions of highlanders from the Taurus Mountains. During the 5th and 6th centuries, Side experienced a revival, and became the seat of the Bishopric of Eastern Pamphylia. Arab fleets, nevertheless, raided and burned Side during the 7th century, contributing to its decline. The combination of earthquakes, Christian zealots and Arab raids, left the site abandoned by the 10th century, its citizens having emigrated to nearby Antalya.[2]

In the 12th century, Side temporarily established itself once more as a large city. An inscription found on the site of the former ancient city shows a considerable Jewish population in early Byzantine times. However, Side was abandoned again after being sacked. Its population moved to Antalya, and Side became known as Eski Adalia 'Old Antalya' and was buried.

  

A hospital dating back to the 6th century.

  

This portion of the main street in Side is lined with the ruins of homes or shops, many of which feature their original mosaic tile flooring.

Ecclesiastical history[edit]

As capital of the Roman province of Pamphylia Prima, Side was ecclesiastically the metropolitan see. The earliest known bishop was Epidaurus, presiding at the Synod of Ancyra, 314. Others are John, fourth century; Eustathius, 381; Amphilochius, 426-458, who played an important part in the history of the time; Conon, 536; Peter, 553; John, 680-692; Mark, 879; Theodore, 1027-1028; Anthimus, present at the synod held at Constantinople in 1054; John, then counsellor to the Emperor Michael VII Ducas, presided at a council on the worship of images, 1082; Theodosius and his successor Nicetas, twelfth century. John, present at a synod at Constantinople in 1156. The Notitiae Episcopatuum continued to mention Side as a metropolis of Pamphylia until the thirteenth century. It does not appear in the "Notitia" of Andronicus III. From other documents we learn that in 1315 and for some time previous to that, Sidon had bishops of its own — the Bishop of Sinope was called to the position, but was unable to leave his own diocese; this call was repeated in 1338 and 1345. In 1397 the diocese was united with that of Attalia; in 1400 the Metropolitan of Perge and Attalia was at the same time the administrator of Side.[4][citation needed]

No longer a residential see, Side is today included in the Catholic Church's list of titular sees.[5]

Ruins[edit]

The great ruins are among the most notable in Asia Minor. They cover a large promontory where a wall and a moat separate it from the mainland. During medieval times, the wall and moat were repaired and the promontory houses a wealth of structures.

There are colossal ruins of a theatre complex, the largest of Pamphylia, built much like a Roman amphitheatre that relies on arches to support the sheer verticals. The Roman style was adopted because Side lacked a convenient hillside that could be hollowed out in the usual Greek fashion more typical of Asia Minor. The theatre is less preserved than the theatre at Aspendos, but it is almost as large, seating 15,000–20,000 people. With time and the shifting of the earth, the scena wall has collapsed over the stage and the proscenium is in a cataract of loose blocks. It was converted into an open-air sanctuary with two chapels during Byzantine times (5th or 6th century).

The well-preserved city walls provide an entrance to the site through the Hellenistic main gate (Megale Pyle) of the ancient city, although this gate from the 2nd century BC is badly damaged. Next comes the colonnaded street, whose marble columns are no longer extant; all that remains are a few broken stubs near the old Roman baths. The street leads to the public bath, restored as a museum displaying statues and sarcophagi from the Roman period. Next is the square agora with the remains of the round Tyche and Fortuna temple (2nd century BC), a periptery with twelve columns, in the middle. In later times it was used as a trading centre where pirates sold slaves. The remains of the theatre, which was used for gladiator fights and later as a church, and the monumental gate date back to the 2nd century. The early Roman Temple of Dionysus is near the theatre. The fountain gracing the entrance is restored. At the left side are the remains of a Byzantine Basilica. A public bath has also been restored.[2]

The remaining ruins of Side include three temples, an aqueduct, and a nymphaeum. Side's nymphaeum – a grotto with a natural water supply dedicated to the nymphs – was an artificial grotto or fountain building of elaborate design.

There is also a virtually unknown, but expansive site, up in the Taurus foothills, several miles inland, known locally as Seleucia. Virtually unknown to the outside world and not represented on the internet at all, it is the Roman garrison, built by Marc Anthony, to support the city of Side. It covers at least a couple of square miles and is almost completely unexcavated, apart from two weeks in 1975, when the Turkish government funded two weeks of excavations. The site was, apparently, finally abandoned in the 7th century, when an earthquake caused the spring which fed the site with water to dry up completely. Many of the buildings are in remarkably good shape, particularly since, due to the lack of available stone, a significant quantity of the sites stonework contains egg and gravel based concrete blocks.[citation needed]

Turkish archaeologists have been excavating Side since 1947 and intermittently continue to do so

  

www.ancient.eu/Side/

  

www.ancient.eu/image/2422/

Romani people's square (21), named (June 12, 2001 Municipal Council of Culture) after the important ethnic group of the Roma; see also Lowara path and Sinti path.

The ethnic group of Roma in Austria has been recognized by the Austrian state since 1993. Among the autochthonous Roma groups are Burgenland Roma living in Burgenland, Lovara and Kalderasch (the Kalderash (also spelled Kalderaš) are a subgroup of the Romani people). In Upper Austria there are also some Sinti families.

While most Roma in Austria speak the Romanes-Vlach dialect (also written Vlax), the Sinti speak their dialect, Sintitikes (the language is written in Latin script and is included in Indo-European, Indo-Aryan and Indo-Iranian language groups). The number of members of this ethnic group living in Austria is controversial. It is estimated that between 10,000 and 50,000 Roma live in Austria.

History

Roma and Sinti have been living in Austria since about the 15th century, especially in the eastern Austrian provinces, such as Burgenland, Vienna and Lower Austria. The influx in cities and communities was from the start in Austria as well as in other countries such as Hungary, Slovakia or the Czech Republic difficult or prohibited. While the majority population demanded from Romani people to live "sedentary", Roma families were not tolerated in the cities. This led to the formation of Roma camps outside the city, in forests and in remote places. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria and Hungary ordered in the middle of the second half of the 18th century that the cities would have to be "gypsy-free". Likewise, the speaking of their language, Romanes was forbidden and was punishable. Even before and after the death of Joseph II, the legal situation had not changed significantly. The use of Romanes was forbidden on punishment of up to twenty-four stick blows.

Soon after the "Anschluss of Austria" in 1938, Austrian Roma and Sinti were captured and sent to various concentration camps, subsequently also to labor camps in Austria. The Gypsy detention camp Lackenbach, with up to 2300 inmates, was the largest of these camps and was put into operation on 23 November 1940. During the Second World War, followed deportations to the ghetto Litzmannstadt and from 1943 to the "gypsy camp Auschwitz" in the concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau.

Roma in Austria with a migration background

From 1960 on, Roma increasingly entered the country as guest workers. Many of them came and still come from countries of the former Yugoslavia, especially from countries like Serbia (Kalderash, Gurbeti), Kosovo (Ashkali) or Macedonia (Arlije). Also from Romania, the Czech Republic, Slovakia or Hungary. Thus, there are both native and foreign Roma in Austria, who come from different Roma groups and clans and sometimes speak different dialects.

Religion

The Roma usually belong to the prevailing religion of a country or region in which they live.

Thus, the indigenous Roma groups such as the Burgenland Roma and the Lovara are mostly Roman Catholics, as is the case with Roma originally from the neighboring countries of Austria, such as the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Slovenia.

The immigrant Roma are the most confessionally recognized by their country of origin. So Kalderasch and Gurbeti are mostly Serbian Orthodox as well as the Roma from Romania (Romanian Orthodox).

There are also a few Protestant Roma, most of them Protestants A.B. or free-church Pentecostals.

The Ashkali from Kosovo and the Arlije from Macedonia are mostly Sunni Muslims.

Antigypsyism and persecution

Memorial in Oberwart

On February 4, 1995, four Roma, Peter Sarközi (son of Stefan Horvath), Josef Simon and Karl and Erwin Horvath were killed in Oberwart by a bomb trap (bombing of Oberwart). The pipe bomb was attached to a sign saying "Roma back to India". In an attempt to remove this shield, the explosive made from about 150 grams of dammed nitroglycerin exploded. Two days later Erich Preissler, an employee of Burgenland's environmental service, was torn to pieces in a blast trap in Stinatz. Both attacks were perpetrated by Franz Fuchs, who died in prison in 2000. The writer Stefan Horvath reflected the murders in various books, the later Nobel Prize winner Elfriede Jelinek in her play Stecken, Stab and Stangl [Stick, Staff and Pole] addressed the reactions of the media and politics to the assassination.

Media

The ORF 2 broadcasts a program called "Servus, Szia, Zdravo, Del tuha" six times a year. It is a four-language television magazine of the ORF Burgenland. The languages ​​used are: German, Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian and Romanes. This program focuses on cultural and popular topics of all ethnic groups in Burgenland. These are in addition to the Burgenland roma the Burgenlandungarn (Hungarians in Austria) and the Burgenland Croats.

The presenter of this program is Gilda Horvath.

Well-known Austrian Roma

Romano Rath

Adrian Coriolan Gaspar (Romanian-Austrian jazz pianist and composer)

Gilda Horvath (Roma editor of the ORF)

Stefan Horvath (writer)

Ilija Jovanović (Serbian-Austrian writer, chairman of the Romano Centro in Vienna)

Ruža Nikolić-Lakatos (Hungarian-Austrian singer)

Rudolf Sarközi (chairman of the Cultural Association of Austrian Roma)

Romano Rath (in German: Roma Blut) (music band from Oberwart)

Tony Wegas (singer)

Rosa Winter (Austrian concentration camp survivor)

Joe Zawinul (jazz musician, his grandmother was Sintiza)

The extended family Stojka:

Ceija Stojka (writer and artist)

Harri Stojka (Musicians)

Mongo Stojka (carpet dealer, musician, author and father of Harri Stojka)

Karl Stojka (artist and Porajmos survivor)

Street names

In 2001, three traffic areas on the Dragoons heap were named in Roma square, Sinti path and Lovara path in the 21st district of Vienna Floridsdorf. On September 12, 2014, the district head of Vienna's 7th district of Neubau, Thomas Blimlinger, dedicated the Ceija Stojka Square in front of the Altlerchenfelder church in Neubau the eponymous writer.

 

Romaplatz (21), benannt (12. Juni 2001

Gemeinderatsausschuss für Kultur) nach der bedeutenden Volksgruppe der Roma; vergleiche auch Lowaraweg und Sintiweg.

Die Volksgruppe der Roma in Österreich, ist seit 1993 vom Staat Österreich anerkannt. Zu den autochthonen Roma-Gruppen zählen die im Burgenland lebenden Burgenland-Roma sowie die Lovara und Kalderasch. In Oberösterreich gibt es auch einige Sinti-Familien.

Während die meisten Roma in Österreich den Romanes-Vlach Dialekt (auch Vlax geschrieben) sprechen, sprechen die Sinti ihren Dialekt, Sintitikes. Die Anzahl der in Österreich lebenden Angehörigen dieser Volksgruppe ist umstritten. Es wird davon ausgegangen, dass zwischen 10.000 bis 50.000 Roma in Österreich leben.

Geschichte

Roma und Sinti leben seit etwa dem 15. Jahrhundert in Österreich, vor allem in den Ost-österreichischen Bundesländern, wie dem Burgenland, Wien und Niederösterreich. Der Zuzug in Städte und Gemeinden wurde von Anbeginn in Österreich wie auch in anderen Ländern wie Ungarn, Slowakei oder Tschechien erschwert oder verboten. Von der Mehrheitsbevölkerung wurde zwar gefordert, dass Roma „sesshaft“ leben sollten, jedoch wurden Roma-Familien in den Städten nicht geduldet. Dies führte zur Bildung von Roma-Lagerplätzen außerhalb der Stadt, in Wäldern und auf entlegenen Plätzen. Kaiserin Maria Theresia von Österreich und Ungarn ordnete Mitte der zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts an, dass die Städte „zigeunerfrei“ sein müssten. Ebenso wurde das Sprechen ihrer Sprache, Romanes verboten und stand unter Strafe. Auch vor und nach dem Tod Joseph II. hatte sich die Rechtslage nicht wesentlich verändert. Der Gebrauch von Romanes blieb bei Strafe von bis zu vierundzwanzig Stockhieben verboten.

Schon bald nach dem „Anschluss Österreichs“ 1938 wurden österreichische Roma und Sinti gefangen genommen und in verschiedene Konzentrationslager, in weiterer Folge auch in Arbeitslager in Österreich eingewiesen. Das Zigeuner-Anhaltelager Lackenbach, mit bis zu 2300 Häftlingen, war das größte dieser Lager und wurde am 23. November 1940 in Betrieb genommen. Im Verlauf des Zweiten Weltkriegs erfolgten Deportationen in das Ghetto Litzmannstadt und ab 1943 auch in das „Zigeunerlager Auschwitz“ im KZ Auschwitz-Birkenau.

Roma in Österreich mit Migrationshintergrund

Ab 1960 wanderten vermehrt Roma als Gastarbeiter nach Österreich ein. Viele davon kamen und kommen heute noch aus Ländern des ehemaligen Jugoslawien, speziell aus Ländern wie Serbien (Kalderasch, Gurbeti), Kosovo (Aschkali) oder Mazedonien (Arlije). Ebenso aus Rumänien, Tschechien, der Slowakei oder Ungarn. Somit gibt es in Österreich einheimische sowie ausländische Roma, die aus verschiedenen Roma-Gruppen und Sippen stammen und teilweise verschiedene Dialekte sprechen.

Religion

Die Roma gehören zumeist der vorherrschenden Religion eines Landes oder einer Region an, in der sie leben.

Somit sind die einheimischen Roma-Gruppen wie die Burgenland-Roma und die Lovara zum größten Teil römisch-katholischen Glaubens, dies trifft auch zu, bei Roma die ursprünglich aus den Nachbarländern von Österreich kommen, wie Tschechien, Slowakei, Ungarn und Slowenien.

Die eingewanderten Roma lassen sich konfessionell am leichtesten durch ihr Herkunftsland erkennen. So sind Kalderasch und Gurbeti meist serbisch-orthodox wie auch die Roma aus Rumänien (rumänisch-orthodox).

Weiters gibt es auch wenige protestantische Roma, die zumeist evangelisch A.B. oder freikirchliche Pfingstler sind.

Die Aschkali aus dem Kosovo und die Arlije aus Mazedonien sind zumeist sunnitische Muslime.

Antiziganismus und Verfolgung

Mahnmal in Oberwart

Am 4. Februar 1995 wurden vier Roma, Peter Sarközi (Sohn von Stefan Horvath), Josef Simon sowie Karl und Erwin Horvath, in Oberwart durch eine Sprengfalle getötet (Bombenattentat von Oberwart). Die Rohrbombe war an einem Schild mit der Aufschrift „Roma zurück nach Indien“ angebracht. Beim Versuch, dieses Schild zu entfernen, explodierte der aus ca. 150 Gramm gedämmtem Nitroglycerin bestehende Sprengsatz. Zwei Tage später wurde in Stinatz Erich Preissler, einem Mitarbeiter des burgenländischen Umweltdienstes, durch eine Sprengfalle die Hand zerfetzt. Beide Attentate wurden von Franz Fuchs verübt, der sich im Jahr 2000 im Gefängnis das Leben nahm. Der Schriftsteller Stefan Horvath reflektierte die Morde in verschiedenen Büchern, die spätere Literatur-Nobelpreisträgerin Elfriede Jelinek thematisierte in ihrem Stück Stecken, Stab und Stangl die Reaktionen von Medien und Politik auf das Attentat.

Medien

Der ORF 2 strahlt sechsmal im Jahr eine Sendung mit dem Titel „Servus, Szia, Zdravo, Del tuha“ aus. Es handelt sich hierbei um ein viersprachiges Fernsehmagazin des ORF Burgenland. Die verwendeten Sprachen sind: Deutsch, Ungarisch, Burgenlandkroatisch sowie Romanes. Diese Sendung thematisiert kulturelle und volkstümliche Themenbereiche aller Volksgruppen im Burgenland. Dies sind neben den Burgenlandroma die Burgenlandungarn und die Burgenlandkroaten.

Die Moderatorin dieser Sendung ist Gilda Horvath.

Bekannte österreichische Roma

Romano Rath

Adrian Coriolan Gaspar (rumänisch-österreichischer Jazz-Pianist und Komponist)

Gilda Horvath (Roma-Redaktion des ORF)

Stefan Horvath (Schriftsteller)

Ilija Jovanović (serbisch-österreichischer Schriftsteller, Obmann des Romano Centro in Wien)

Ruža Nikolić-Lakatos (ungarisch-österreichische Sängerin)

Rudolf Sarközi (Obmann des Kulturvereins österreichischer Roma)

Romano Rath (auf Deutsch: Roma Blut) (Musikband aus Oberwart)

Tony Wegas (Sänger)

Rosa Winter (österreichische KZ-Überlebende)

Joe Zawinul (Jazz-Musiker, seine Großmutter war Sintiza)

Die Großfamilie Stojka:

Ceija Stojka (Schriftstellerin und Künstlerin)

Harri Stojka (Musiker)

Mongo Stojka (Teppichhändler, Musiker, Autor sowie Vater von Harri Stojka)

Karl Stojka (Künstler und Porajmos-Überlebender)

Straßenbenennungen

2001 wurden im 21. Wiener Gemeindebezirk Floridsdorf drei Verkehrsflächen am Dragonerhäufel in Romaplatz, Sintiweg und Lovaraweg benannt. Am 12. September 2014 widmete der Bezirksvorsteher von Wien-Neubau, Thomas Blimlinger, den Ceija-Stojka-Platz vor der Altlerchenfelder Kirche in Neubau der namensgebenden Schriftstellerin.

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_in_%C3%96sterreich

www.wien.gv.at/wiki/index.php?title=Romaplatz

Name

In the twelfth century, Olomuc and Olmuc were the first handed down name forms. In the fifteenth century an alleged first form Juliomontium (Julius hill) was assumed, according to Julius Caesar as the alleged founder. The original meaning is unclear. In the Czech, Olomouc means 'bare mountain' (Old Czech holy, 'bald' and mauc 'mountain'). The name of the city is in the Moravian-Haná dialect, a subgroup of the Middle-Moravian dialects of the Czech, Olomóc or Holomóc, in German language Ölmütz, in Polish Ołomuniec and in Latin Eburum or Olomucium.

History

Beginnings

At the end of the second century there was a Roman army camp, the northernmost known in Central Europe. Up to the fifth century there was a Germanic settlement.

In the late 7th century a first Slavic settlement arose in today's Povel district. Around 830 this was destroyed. A new castle was built on the Peter's hill (Předhrad), which was probably one of the important castles of the Moravian empire. In the ninth century three churches were built.

Přemyslidenstaat (Přemyslid dynasty)

Olomouc was first mentioned in writing in 1017 when Moravia became part of the Bohemian state of Přemysliden. In 1055 it was the seat of a separate part of the Principality. In 1063 the bishopric of Olomouc was founded by Vratislav II. Around 1070 a new castle was built. In 1077 the monastery Hradisko was founded. In 1126 Heinrich Zdik became a bishop.

At the beginning of the 13th century, the last prince of Olomouz died, Moravia was united and placed under the jurisdiction of a Margrave of the Přemyslids. In 1248, Olomouc was first mentioned as a royal town. In 1306, King Wenceslas III resided during a campaign to Poland in Olomouc, and was murdered here, which resulted in the extinction of the Přemyslids dynasty in the male family tree. The city developed economically very quickly and became the capital of Moravia.

In the Hussite wars, Olomouc was an integral part of the Catholic side. In the succession of the Charterhouse Dolein, which had been lost in the Hussite wars, the Charterhouse Olomouc was founded in 1443, which existed until the abolition in 1782. In the 16th century numerous palaces were built in the Renaissance style. In 1566 the Jesuits came to Olomouc. They founded a school which was raised to a university in 1573. In 1588, the bishop became an imperial prince.

17th and 18th centuries

In the Thirty Years' War the town was taken by the Swedes in 1642 and occupied for eight years. After the Thirty Years' War, the largely destroyed and depopulated city lost the status of the Moravian capital and abandoned it to Brno. Since a great deal of damage had been caused by fires, a detailed "fire extinguishing order" was issued in 1711, in which a number of preventive measures were also discussed.

On 26 December 1741, the city was occupied by the Prussians during the First Silesian War. After this event the fortifications were extensively expanded. A second siege by the Prussians in 1758 withstood the new fortification. In 1777, the diocese became an archbishopric.

In 1794-1797 the prominent French-American soldier and politician Marquis Lafayette was interned in Olomouc as a political prisoner of the Donaumonarchy, after being captured in Flanders by the French coalition in 1792, and then, for the time being, imprisoned by Prussia.

19th century

In 1841, the city received a railway connection. In the middle of 1845, the railway from Olomouc to Prague ("Northern State Railway") was put into operation (Olomouc-Moravská Třebová, Moravská Třebová-Prague). In 1848, the Archbishop's Palace housed the Imperial Court, which had fled here because of the revolution in Vienna. Emperor Ferdinand I handed over the government to the eighteen-year-old Francis Joseph I on December 2, 1848. On 29 November 1850, the German Confederation under Austrian leadership was restored in Olomouc by the Agreement of Olomouc (also known as the Olomouc Treaty) between Prussia, Austria and Russia. In the years 1850 to 1866 the fortification systems were extended again. In 1886, the fortress status was abolished. 1899 drove in the city the first tram.

20th century

After the collapse of the Austrian Empire in 1918 and the founding of Czechoslovakia, the Czech citizens became majority, which included, among other things, the integration of the two towns of Hodolina and Nová ulice, as well as eleven other municipalities (Bělidla, Černovír, Hejčín, Chválkovice, Lazce, Nové Sady, Nový Svět, Neředín, Pavlovičky, Povel and Řepčín) in 1919. In 1921 lived in Olomouc 57,206 inhabitants.

On March 15, 1939, the city, as well as the other areas of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, erected on the same day by the German Reich, was occupied by the Wehrmacht. As early as 1939, the Olomouc University was closed by the German occupying forces. It was not until 1946 that it was restored under the name Palacký University of Olomouc.

The German-speaking population was expelled from Olomouc in 1945/1946. Their assets were confiscated by the Beneš decree 108, the assets of the Protestant church were liquidated by the Beneš decree 131, and the Catholic churches were expropriated.

In the 1970s and 1980s, a number of prefabricated housing estates were built in the peripheral areas.

Since 1971, the entire old town has been protected as a historic preservation reserve. Floods in 1997 made the city very vulnerable, about a third of the city area was flooded. In the year 2000, the Trinity Column was included in the UNESCO World Heritage list. According to the administrative reform of 2000 the former district town with the establishment of the Olomouc region became its administrative seat.

Jews in Olomouc

The synagogue in Olomouc

The first Jews settled in Olomouc as early as 906. From the year 1060 they had to live in a ghetto and bear a yellow identification mark. In 1454 all Jews from Olomouc were expelled. This law was valid until 1848.

The Olomouc Synagogue was built between 1895 and 1897. On the night of March 15, 1939, after the occupation by the Wehrmacht, the synagogue was lit and burnt down. At the same time about 800 Jews were arrested and later deported to the Dachau concentration camp. Some of the synagogue 's benches were removed, serving as church benches in a village church near Prostějov and were finally put up in the renovated synagogue in Krnov in 2004. Some of them are now in the Synagogue of Loštice and are reminiscent of the Jewish citizens murdered in concentration camps. The seat of honor is dedicated to Berthold Oppenheim, the Rabbi of Olomouc and Loštice.

During the period of National Socialism, 3,489 people were deported to the Theresienstadt Ghetto in five transports, on 26 and 30 June 1942, on July 4, 1942, and on March 7. Only 285 Jews of the city population survived. This was the end of the Jewish life in Olomouc for a long time. Since 2011, by artist Gunter Demnig Stolpersteine (stumbling blocks) have been and still are being laid to the memory of murdered Jews in Olomouc. Olomouc is one of the cities with the most stumbling blocks in the Czech Republic (as of 2016) with Prague and Brno.

Only since 1989 there has been a revival of the Jewish cultic life in the city. In 1991, an independent Jewish community was established with a field of activity for the districts of Olomouc, Šumperk, Jeseník, Bruntál and Přerov.

 

Name

Im 12. Jahrhundert waren Olomuc und Olmuc die ersten überlieferten Namensformen. Im 15. Jahrhundert wurde eine angebliche erste Form Juliomontium (Juliusberg) vermutet, nach Julius Caesar als angeblichem Gründer. Die ursprüngliche Bedeutung ist unklar. Im Tschechischen bedeutet Olomouc ‚kahler Berg‘ (alttschech. holy ‚kahl‘ und mauc ‚Berg‘). Der Name der Stadt lautet im mährisch-hannakischen Dialekt, einer Untergruppe der mittelmährischen Dialekte des Tschechischen, Olomóc oder Holomóc, auf Deutsch Olmütz, auf Polnisch Ołomuniec und auf Lateinisch Eburum oder Olomucium.

Geschichte

Anfänge

Ende des 2. Jahrhunderts befand sich hier ein römisches Heerlager, das nördlichste bekannte in Mitteleuropa. Bis ins 5. Jahrhundert gab es eine germanische Besiedelung.

Im späten 7. Jahrhundert entstand eine erste slawische Siedlung im heutigen Ortsteil Povel. Um 830 wurde diese zerstört. Es entstand eine neue Burg auf dem Petersberg (Předhrad), die nach ihrer Größe vermutlich zu den wichtigen Burgen des Mährerreiches zählte. Im 9. Jahrhundert wurden drei Kirchen gebaut.

Přemyslidenstaat

Olomouc wurde im Jahr 1017 erstmals schriftlich erwähnt, als Mähren Teil des böhmischen Staates der Přemysliden wurde. 1055 war es Sitz eines eigenen Teilfürstentums. 1063 wurde das Bistum Olmütz durch Vratislav II. gegründet. Um 1070 entstand eine neue Burg. 1077 wurde das Kloster Hradisko gegründet. 1126 wurde Heinrich Zdik zum Bischof.

Anfang des 13. Jahrhunderts starb der letzte Olmützer Fürst, Mähren wurde vereint und einem Markgrafen aus dem Geschlecht der Přemysliden unterstellt. Zum Jahr 1248 wird Olomouc erstmals als Königsstadt erwähnt. 1306 hielt sich König Wenzel III. während eines Feldzuges nach Polen in Olmütz auf und wurde hier ermordet, wodurch die Dynastie der Přemysliden im Mannesstamm erlosch. Die Stadt entwickelte sich wirtschaftlich sehr schnell und wurde zur Hauptstadt Mährens.

In den Hussitenkriegen war Olmütz fester Bestandteil der katholischen Seite. In der Nachfolge der Kartause Dolein, die in den Hussitenkriegen untergegangen war, wurde 1443 die Kartause Olmütz gegründet, die bis zur Aufhebung 1782 bestand. Im 16. Jahrhundert entstanden zahlreiche Paläste im Renaissancestil. 1566 kamen die Jesuiten nach Olmütz. Diese gründeten eine Schule, welche 1573 zur Universität erhoben wurde. 1588 wurde der Bischof zum Reichsfürsten erhoben.

17. und 18. Jahrhundert

Im Dreißigjährigen Krieg wurde die Stadt 1642 von den Schweden eingenommen und acht Jahre okkupiert. Nach dem Dreißigjährigen Krieg verlor die großteils zerstörte und entvölkerte Stadt den Status der mährischen Hauptstadt und trat diesen an Brünn ab. Da durch Brände viel Schaden entstanden war, wurde 1711 eine detaillierte „Feuerlösch-Ordnung“ erlassen, in der auch eine Reihe vorbeugender Maßnahmen zur Sprache kam.

Am 26. Dezember 1741 wurde die Stadt von den Preußen im Ersten Schlesischen Krieg eingenommen. Nach diesem Ereignis wurden die Festungsanlagen umfangreich ausgebaut. Einer zweiten Belagerung durch die Preußen im Jahre 1758 hielt die neue Festungsanlage stand. 1777 wurde das Bistum zum Erzbistum erhoben.

1794–1797 wurde der prominente französisch-amerikanische Soldat und Politiker Marquis Lafayette in Olmütz als politischer Häftling der Donaumonarchie interniert, nachdem er von der antifranzösischen Koalition 1792 in Flandern gefangengenommen und dann vorerst von Preußen eingekerkert worden war.

19. Jahrhundert

1841 erhielt die Stadt einen Eisenbahnanschluss. Mitte 1845 wurde die Eisenbahn von Olmütz nach Prag („k.k. Nördliche Staatsbahn“) in Betrieb genommen (Olmütz–Trübau, Trübau–Prag). Im Jahr 1848 beherbergte das Schloss des Erzbischofs den wegen der Revolution in Wien hierher geflohenen kaiserlichen Hof. Kaiser Ferdinand I. übertrug hier am 2. Dezember 1848 dem achtzehnjährigen Franz Joseph I. die Regierung. Am 29. November 1850 wurde in Olmütz durch die Olmützer Punktation (auch „Olmützer Vertrag“ genannt) zwischen Preußen, Österreich und Russland der Deutsche Bund unter österreichischer Führung wieder hergestellt. In den Jahren 1850 bis 1866 wurden erneut die Befestigungsanlagen erweitert. 1886 wurde dann der Festungsstatus aufgehoben. 1899 fuhr in der Stadt die erste Straßenbahn.

20. Jahrhundert

Nach dem Zerfall des Kaiserreichs Österreich 1918 und der Gründung der Tschechoslowakei kamen die tschechischen Stadtbürger in die Mehrzahl, was unter anderem auf die Eingemeindung der zwei Städte Hodolein (Hodolany) und Neugasse (Nová ulice) sowie elf weiterer Gemeinden (Bělidla, Černovír, Hejčín, Chválkovice, Lazce, Nové Sady, Nový Svět, Neředín, Pavlovičky, Povel und Řepčín) im Jahr 1919 zurückzuführen ist. Im Jahr 1921 lebten in Olomouc 57.206 Einwohner.

Am 15. März 1939 wurde die Stadt, wie auch die übrigen Gebiete des am selben Tag vom Deutschen Reich errichteten Protektorats Böhmen und Mähren, von der Wehrmacht besetzt. Noch im Jahr 1939 wurde die Olmützer Universität von der deutschen Besatzungsmacht geschlossen. Erst im Jahr 1946 konnte sie unter dem Namen Palacký-Universität Olmütz wiederhergestellt werden.

Die deutschsprachige Bevölkerung wurde 1945/1946 aus Olmütz vertrieben. Ihr Vermögen wurde durch das Beneš-Dekret 108 konfisziert, das Vermögen der evangelischen Kirche durch das Beneš-Dekret 131 liquidiert und die katholischen Kirchen enteignet.

In den 1970er und 1980er Jahren entstanden in den Randgebieten mehrere Plattenbausiedlungen.

Seit 1971 ist die ganze Altstadt als Denkmalschutzreservat geschützt. Das Hochwasser im Jahr 1997 zog die Stadt schwer in Mitleidenschaft, etwa ein Drittel des Stadtgebiets wurde überschwemmt. Im Jahr 2000 wurde die Dreifaltigkeitssäule in die Liste des UNESCO-Welterbes aufgenommen. Nach der Verwaltungsreform von 2000 wurde die bisherige Kreisstadt mit der Errichtung der Olmützer Region dessen Verwaltungssitz.

Juden in Olmütz

Die Synagoge in Olmütz

Die ersten Juden siedelten in Olmütz bereits 906. Ab dem Jahre 1060 hatten sie in einem Ghetto zu wohnen und ein gelbes Erkennungszeichen zu tragen. Im Jahr 1454 wurden sämtliche Juden aus Olmütz ausgewiesen. Dieses Gesetz war bis 1848 gültig.

Die Olmützer Synagoge wurde von 1895 bis 1897 erbaut. In der Nacht vom 15. auf den 16. März 1939, nach der Besetzung durch die Wehrmacht, wurde die Synagoge angezündet und brannte ab. Gleichzeitig wurden etwa 800 Juden festgenommen und später in das Konzentrationslager Dachau deportiert. Einige Sitzbänke der Synagoge wurden ausgebaut, dienten lange als Kirchenbänke in einer Dorfkirche bei Prostějov und wurden schließlich 2004 in der renovierten Synagoge in Krnov aufgestellt. Einige davon stehen heute in der Synagoge von Loštice und erinnern an die in den Konzentrationslagern ermordeten jüdischen Bürger. Der Ehrensitz ist Berthold Oppenheim gewidmet, dem Rabbi von Olmütz und Loštice.

Während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus wurden 3.489 Menschen in fünf Transporten, am 26. und 30. Juni 1942, am 4. Juli 1942 und am 7. März 1945 in das Ghetto Theresienstadt deportiert. Nur 285 Juden der Stadtbevölkerung überlebten. Damit erlosch das jüdische Leben in Olmütz für lange Zeit. Seit 2011 wurden und werden in Olmütz von Gunter Demnig Stolpersteine zur Erinnerung an ermordete Juden verlegt. Olmütz gehört mit Prag und Brünn zu den Städten mit den meisten Stolpersteinen in Tschechien (Stand 2016).

Erst seit 1989 gibt es eine Belebung des jüdischen Kultuslebens in der Stadt. 1991 wurde eine selbständige jüdische Gemeinde mit einem Wirkungskreis für die Bezirke Olmütz, Šumperk, Jeseník, Bruntál und Přerov wiederbegründet.

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olm%C3%BCtz

Lauzerte (Languedocien: Lausèrta) is a commune in the Tarn-et-Garonne department in the Occitanie region in southern France.

 

Etymology of the name: Two interpretations include the possible Latin root of “Villaserta” and more likely, the Gallic root, “lauzes”, flat stones used as paving or roofing, and “erta” from the local Occitan dialect, meaning hill, thus Hill of Stones. The fact that the barbican was exploited as a quarry supports this derivation.

 

A medieval bastide perched above the valleys and hills of the area known as the Quercy Blanc, Lauzerte is one of the Most Beautiful Villages of France, a distinction granted to only 155 villages in the country. Founded in the 12th century by the Count of Toulouse, the village is located on the routes of the Santiago de Compostella. Lauzerte is described by its tourism agency as "a nature stop for family excursions and weekends exploring the rich past and present of the South West: our heritage and architecture, our leisure activities and festivities."

 

Geography/Topography

In the northwest corner of the Tarn et Garonne department, Lauzerte lies between the foothills of the Massif Central and the Garonne river plain in the region known as Quercy Blanc and Pays de Serres because of the limestone which predominates in the landscape. The hill town rises above parallel valleys and rivers, the Barguelonnes, the Lendou and the Seoune which feed into the Garonne River.

 

Lauzerte is surrounded by agricultural land known for Melons de Quercy, Chasselas de Moissac (white dessert grapes), and Pruneaux d’Agen (prunes).

 

History

BC: The discovery of copper coins from several years BC indicate that Lauzerte was an oppidum, part of Roman Gaul.

 

Eleventh century: the area belonged to the Lords of Castelnau Montratier.

 

At the end of the twelfth century, two local noblemen approached Raymond V, Count of Toulouse, to establish a castelnau, a plot of 200 houses, prefiguring the bastide movement which would later predominate in the region. The motivation to do so would have been the same, however, to establish a small community of rent-paying supporters. With its castle, enclosure, towers and six fortified gateways, the fortified town was the pride of the region. Henry IV, King of France, described it as “one of four keys of the said Quercy land.” Despite this reputation, it was later occupied by the English and suffered attack in the Wars of Religion.

 

Thirteenth century: Alphonse of Poitiers and his wife, Jeanne of Toulouse visited the hospice located here, founded in 1222 ( the oldest building in the village, it still serves 110 pensioners.) When Alphonse died, Lauzerte passed directly to the King of France. The English king contested the will, as The Treaty of Paris had granted Quercy to the King of England who garnered a rent of 3,000 pounds a year. The many weapons and bones in the charnel house indicate the extent of slaughter and resistance to the English.

 

During the Hundred Years' War, Lauzerte was occupied by the English. Despite foreign occupation, some Lauzertins charged interest in exchange for ransom fees to nobility captured by the English. From this same period, legend has it that an old lady named Gandilhonne noticed the English were leaving. Although illiterate, she counted the number departing by putting a chestnut in her pocket to count each individual. She reported the exodus to the town consuls, who closed the gates, thus preventing the English from reentering.

 

Fourteenth century: A Carmelite convent was established. “Pastoureux”, the shepherds who preyed on pilgrims and other travellers, conducted a massacre of Jews.

 

Sixteenth century: Lauzerte passed first to Protestant control, after a battle resulting in 567 deaths, then back to Catholic control under the leadership of Terride.

 

Lauzerte continued to prosper for various reasons. It was the seat of a secondary seneschalsy (court of appeals) and administrative center for collecting taxes from the surrounding countryside. The region provided much of the wheat for Cahors. Pilgrims provided income to Lauzerte as well.

 

At the time of the Revolution, the town elected Gouges Cartou, a bourgeois, to represent the town at the new Estates General, the parliament.

 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Napoleon created the Departement of Tarn et Garonne. Lauzerte, which was until then part of the Lot, was attached to the new Departement.

 

The cellist and composer Louis-Charles-Joseph Rey (1738–1811) was born in Lauzerte as well as his elder brother Jean-Baptiste Rey (1734–1810), conductor and composer.

 

Architecture

The mairie, the town hall, originally housed the Mirepoise Sisters, nuns who founded a school for daughters of the nobility in the eighteenth century. Next to this were housed the “Penitents Bleus”, a Catholic brotherhood and mutual help society. The leather Christ on the Cross displayed in the Church would have been carried in processions by the brothers on Mardi Gras and Good Friday.

 

The senechaussee, the administrative center, constructed between 1360 and 1370 has beneath it a vaulted cellar, which includes a tunnel that reputedly leads to Beaucaire, a hamlet 3 kilometers away.

 

The large arched doorways in merchant homes acted as shop windows. Goods would have been displayed in the upper half, while doors across the lower half would serve as windbreak. The smaller arches beside them entered to the home above. Tiny windows on the next storey provided light to the store rooms. Above these, the pair of long windows serve on to the main living area, whilst the oculus at the top is at the attic level.

 

The half-timbered upstairs additions on some buildings extend out further over the street as a means to increase living area whilst only paying taxes on the area of the ground floor.

 

In addition to the other holy orders located in Lauzerte, the sisters of St. Clare established a school in 1623 on Rue de la Gendarmerie. Its door is in the shape of a basket handle, and the square tower to its right houses the chapel. The school attracted rich young women whose fathers encouraged them to take the veil as the dowry was less than the cost to marry them off. Records indicate widows and unhappy wives resided at the convent as well.

 

Arts and Culture

 

Paving of the Place des Cornières, 1988, Lauzerte, France

The main square, Place des Cornieres, features an uplifted corner of pavers, a unique and whimsical sculpture created in 1988 by local ceramic artist, Jacques Buchholtz whose work also appears in the Jardin de la Brèche.

 

The local market takes place in the square on Saturday mornings throughout the year.

 

Wrought iron signs hanging from the exterior of a number of buildings indicate the type of business located within.

 

Lauzerte has a lively artistic community with artists working in such mediums as illuminated manuscripts, artist books, pottery, and textiles.

 

Festivals in Lauzerte include the Place Aux Fleurs in late April, the Journées du Patrimoine et des Moulins in mid-June, the Marché aux Potiers in early July, les Marchés Gourmands every Thursday in July and August in the main square up top...!

Website :

www.dunkerque-tourisme.fr

  

english

 

Is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the Belgian border. The population of the city (commune) at the 1999 census was 70,850 inhabitants (71,300 inhabitants as per February 2004 estimates). The population of the metropolitan area was 265,974 inhabitants as per the 1999 census.

The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish "dun(e)" (dune) and "kerke" (church – related to the Scots English "kirk"). Until the middle of the 20th century the city was situated in the French Flemish area; today the local Flemish dialect, a variety of the Dutch language, can still be found but has been largely replaced by French.

Middle Ages

Dunkirk was first mentioned in 1067 as Dunkirk (Dutch: “Church of the Dune” or "Dune Church").

The area was much disputed between Spain, the Netherlands, England and France.

At the beginning of the Eighty Years' War, Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, from 1577. Spanish forces under the Duke of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious Dunkirkers.

The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when the city was conquered by the French in 1646 but Spanish forces recaptured the city in 1652.

In 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured by Franco-English forces. It was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco-English alliance against Spain.

It came under French rule when Charles II of England sold it to France for £320,000 on 17 October 1662.

During the reign of Louis XIV, a large number of commerce raiders once again made their base at Dunkirk. Jean Bart was the most famous. The Man in the Iron Mask was arrested at Dunkirk.

The 18th century Swedish privateers and pirates Lars Gathenhielm and his wife and partner Ingela Hammar, are known to have sold their ill-gotten gains in Dunkirk.

The 1763 "Treaty of Paris" between France and Great Britain included a clause restricting French rights to fortify Dunkirk, to allay British fears of it being used as an invasion base.

 

French

 

est une commune française de 68 292 habitants (2008), sous-préfecture du département du Nord et de la région Nord-Pas-de-Calais. La ville est baignée par la mer du Nord et plusieurs canaux. Ses habitants sont appelés les Dunkerquois et les Dunkerquoises.

La ville et ses alentours ont appartenu au comté de Flandre et ils relèvent de la zone linguistique flamande. L'histoire de la « cité de Jean Bart» est liée à la mer : à l'origine, Dunkerque était un village de pêcheurs construit à l'extrémité ouest d'une île longue et étroite « à la frisonne » comprenant l'abbaye des Dunes de Coxyde (d'où le nom : en ouest-flamand duun-kerke = église des dunes) et allant jusqu'à Oostduinkerke qui était à l'époque au bord d'une anse de l'Yser. Des siècles plus tard, la ville abrita des corsaires dont le célèbre Jean Bart, héros de la bataille du Texel. De par sa position sur la mer du Nord, Dunkerque a souvent suscité les convoitises, elle fut le théâtre de nombreuses opérations militaires. Demeurée aux mains des alliés durant la Première Guerre mondiale, elle fut sévèrement bombardée par les Allemands conscient du rôle primordial du port. Au cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale elle fut le théâtre de l'opération Dynamo. Sortie anéantie de cette guerre, la ville doit son salut à l'installation dans son port de l'usine sidérurgique Usinor qui accéléra sa reconstruction et son développement.

De nos jours, Dunkerque est le cœur d'une agglomération de 200 000 habitants. C'est la première plate-forme énergétique du Nord-Pas-de-Calais et l'un des pôles économiques de la région notamment grâce à son port, le troisième de France : trafic minéralier et pétrolier, porte-conteneurs, production d'acier.

Elle est aussi connue pour son carnaval, festivités s'étalant sur une période comprise entre janvier et mars, où les habitants se réunissent dans les rues aux rythmes de la fanfare guidée par le « tambour-major ».

  

Português

 

Dunquerque (em francês Dunkerque; em neerlandês, Duinkerke; em flamengo ocidental Duynkercke)) é uma cidade portuária no norte de França, no departamento do Nord, região de Nord-Pas-de-Calais, situada a 10 km da fronteira com a Bélgica. Tem cerca de 70.000 habitantes. Está ligada por ferry-boat a Ramsgate e Dover, em Inglaterra.

Dunquerque é o terceiro maior porto francês, depois de Le Havre e Marselha. É também uma cidade industrial, dependente do aço, indústria alimentar, refinação de petróleo, estaleiros navais e indústria química.

Historicamente, a cidade e seus arredores pertenceram ao Condado de Flandres e fazem parte da zona linguística flamenga.

Em Dunquerque fala-se um dialeto muito particular - dunkerquois - com palavras tomadas de empréstimo à linguagem dos marinheiros e ao flamengo ocidental .

O nome de Dunquerque provém do neerlandês Duinkerk, que significa « igreja nas dunas».

Segundo a tradição, a cidade foi fortificada pelo filho de Pepino de Landen, o terrível Allowyn, um franco convertido por Santo Elói. Assim, Dunquerque foi a única cidade da costa, até Saint-Omer, a ser preservada contra os ataques e pilhagens dos normandos. Hoje em dia, Allowyn "reaparece" todos os anos como Reuze (reuze em flamengo significa "gigante"), para presidir a saída do tradicional bando dos pescadores, durante o carnaval de Dunkerque.

Em 960, Balduíno III, dito Balduíno o Jovem, quarto conde de Flandres, faz construir as primeiras muralhas da cidade.

Em 1383 a Dunkerque flamenga é pilhada pelos ingleses e depois, pelos franceses.

A partir do século XVI, Dunquerque passou a ser posessão - juntamente com o território dos Países Baixos espanhóis - dos Habsburgos espanhóis. Em 1520, Carlos V, 31° conde de Flandres, é recebido triunfalmente na cidade.

Dunquerque foi disputada em diferentes ocasiões pelas coroas de Inglaterra, Países Baixos e França. Durante a Guerra de Flandres (1568-1648) e no reinado de Luís XIV, serviu como base de operações de corsários, sendo Jan Bart o mais famoso deles - conhecido por atacar os barcos holandeses.

A cidade foi tomada pelos ingleses sob Filipe II da Espanha, conde de Flandres, e retomada pelos franceses em 1558. Pelo Tratado de Cateau-Cambraisis os franceses a cedem à Espanha em 1559.

Sitiada por Turenne, em 25 de maio de 1658, após a batalha das Dunas, a cidade se rende aos franceses, em 25 de junho. Na mesma noite, Luís XIV a entrega a Oliver Cromwell, segundo o acordado por Inglaterra e França pelo Tratado de Paris do ano anterior.

Dunquerque será definitivamente incorporada ao reino da França em 1662, depois que Carlos II da Inglaterra vende a cidade à França, por 5.000.000 libras - embora o pagamento nunca tenha sido completado.

A construção dos sistemas defensivos da cidade ficou a cargo do engenheiro militar Vauban, que também desenvolve o seu porto. Mais tarde, em 1713, pelo Tratado de Utrecht, a França será obrigada a inundar o porto e a arrasar as fortificações, o que entretanto não foi executado senão em parte, e Luís XV voltou a fortificá-la.

Em 1793, o duque de York tenta inutilmente tomar a cidade. Após a batalha de Hondschoote, a cidade é renomeada Duna Livre.

Durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial, Dunquerque é duramente bombardeada por diversas vezes. A Igreja de Santo Elói (construída em meados do século XV) é parcialmente destruída.

Mas a cidade sofreria especialmente durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, tendo sido palco da célebre Batalha de Dunquerque, em 1940. Uma pausa na intensidade dos combates permitiu inesperadamente a evacuação de um grande número de soldados franceses e britânicos para Inglaterra. Mais de 300.000 homens foram evacuados apesar do bombardeamento constante ("o milagre de Dunquerque", nas palavras de Winston Churchill). A evacuação britânica de Dunquerque recebeu o nome de código Operação Dínamo

 

---- ( ---- ---- ) ----

 

---- ( ---- ---- ) ----

  

the slideshow

  

Qi Bo's photos on Fluidr

  

Qi Bo's photos on Flickriver

  

Qi Bo's photos on FlickeFlu

  

……………………………………………………………………………….

  

From 19 to 21 August 2016 in the Sicilian town of Ali, there was the so-called "Great Feast" ("Festa Ranni" in Sicilian dialect) in honor of their patron Saint Agatha.

 

The feast, which lasts three days, it is called "Feast Ranni" (Great Feast) to emphasize the exceptional nature of the event, since it falls only once every ten years. Preparations officially begin early as a month before and are involved both the "ciliary" (ie families entrusted from time to time, which shall prepare at their own expense at the solemn celebration for Her Patron Saint), both the "Deputation of St. Agatha" collaborating with the parish priest, plays a role during the organizational phase.

 

The passage of the Holy Relics of the Martyr Agatha in the village of Ali (Messina) in their return to Catania, on the morning of August 17 of the year 1126, it was for this Sicilian center an extraordinary and grandiose event, that led to the building of the great Mother Church , which took place in the sixteenth century; then the celebration of the annual festival but especially the so-called "Great Feast", which recalls the three-day feasts taking place in the city of Catania.

  

We don't known the origins of this ancient feast, whose complex ritual was entrusted, almost to the present day only to the oral tradition; Father Seraphim of Ali (junior) speaks in 1754, in his book "Of story of Ali and his territory".

Long and laborious preparations are assigned to two groups each formed by twelve families belonging to two different districts of the country, they receive instructions to draw up each other's "Ciliium of Bread" and the other the "Cilium of Girls". These families are appointed by the Deputation of St. Agatha (Advisory body that exercises within the Church Mother, economic and organizational functions) and by the parish priest.

The names of the families of "ciliary", as they are called, are made known by the parish priest, after the morning Mass of the 5 February of the current year.

  

Traditionally the families of "Ciliium of Girls" traveling in neighboring countries (Fiumedinisi, Itala and Ali Terme) with the sound of the accordion and tambourine, to communicate the imminent date of the festivities and take offerings and gold jewelry in part borrowed, in part donated, to adorn the "Cilium of Girls".

Liturgical events are intertwined with the traditional folk feast. The Feast attracts many faithful and many emigrants who, for the occasion, return to their native village of Ali. The last day of celebration the two Ciliums and the float of St. Agatha are carried in procession through the city.

 

Postscript: This report is dedicated to the German family of Jewish origin, consisting of father, mother and two children, on a boat they decided to take his own life to escape their Nazi persecutors, by binding them all together, and weighted with stones, they threw themselves off the waters of Mazzaro (Taormina); they were later fished out by now without life, by local fishermen: in the "graveyard of foreigners" of Taormina, now for ever and ever close together, they rest in peace.

  

---------------------------------------

 

Dal 19 al 21 Agosto 2016 nel paese Siciliano di Alì (Messina) si è svolta una caratteristica festa, della quale propongo un report fotografico.

 

La Festa , durata infatti tre giorni, è denominata "Festa Ranni" (Festa Grande) per porre in risalto l'eccezionalità del fenomeno e la grandiosità dell’evento, poiché essa ricade una sola volta ogni dieci anni. I preparativi iniziano ufficialmente già un mese prima e vedono coinvolti sia i “ciliari” (cioè le famiglie incaricate di volta in volta e scelte a rotazione, che provvedono a preparare a proprie spese la festa solenne per la Santa Patrona, con l’allestimento dei due “cilii” ovvero le due “vare” anche intese come “cerei”), sia la “Deputazione di S. Agata” che collaborando con il Parroco, svolge un ruolo durante la fase organizzativa.

 

Il passaggio delle Sacre Reliquie della Martire catanese dal paese di Ali (Messina) nel rientro loro verso Catania, la mattina del 17 agosto dell’anno 1126 , fu per questo centro Siciliano un evento straordinario e grandioso, che portarono alla edificazione della grande Chiesa Madre, avvenuta nel XVI secolo, quindi alla celebrazione della festa annuale ma soprattutto della così detta “Festa Ranni”, che ricorda i tre giorni di festa che avvengono nella città di Catania.

  

Oscure sono le origini e le antiche modalità di svolgimento di questa festa, il cui complesso rituale è stato affidato, fin quasi ai nostri giorni esclusivamente alla tradizione orale, Padre Serafino d’Alì (junior) ne parla nel 1754, nel suo libro “Della storia di Alì e suo territoro”.

Lunghi e laboriosi sono i preparativi affidati a due gruppi formati ciascuno da dodici famiglie appartenenti a due diversi quartieri del paese, che ricevono l’incarico di allestire l'uno il "Cilio del Pane" e l'altro il "Cilio delle Ragazze". Queste famiglie vengono nominate dalla Deputazione di S. Agata (Organo consultivo che esercita all’interno della Chiesa Madre, funzioni economico-organizzative) e dal Parroco, e la loro scelta segue una rotazione tale che nel corso degli anni nessun nucleo familiare, e di conseguenza nessun quartiere, ne rimane escluso.

 

I nomi dei "Ciliari", così vengono denominati, vengono resi noti dal Parroco, al termine della messa mattutina del 5 Febbraio dell’anno prestabilito per la Festa.

 

Come già detto sopra, ogni gruppo provvede autonomamente ad allestire l'uno il "Cilio del Pane" l'altro il "Cilio delle Ragazze".

  

Per tradizione le 12 famiglie di “ciliari delle ragazze”, anche loro sempre accompagnate da un nutrito gruppo (soprattutto giovani), si recano nei paesi vicini (Fiumedinisi, Itala e Alì Terme) a suon di fisarmonica e tamburello, per comunicare l’imminente data dei festeggiamenti e per raccogliere offerte e monili d’oro in parte in prestito, in parte ceduti, per adornare il “cilio delle ragazze”.

Le manifestazioni liturgiche si intrecciano con quelle folkloristiche; la festa richiama numerosi fedeli e parecchi emigrati che, per l’occasione, fanno ritorno al paese natio di Alì. L’ultimo giorno di festa i due cilii ed il fercolo di S. Agata vengono portati in processione lungo le vie cittadine.

Post scriptum: questo report lo dedico alla famiglia tedesca di origine ebrea, composta da padre, madre e da due bambini, che su di una barca decise di togliersi la vita per sfuggire ai loro persecutori nazisti, essi legandosi tutti tra di loro, ed appesantiti con pietre, si gettarono al largo delle acque di Mazzarò (Taormina); essi vennero poi ripescati, oramai senza vita, dai pescatori locali: nel “cimitero degli stranieri” di Taormina riposano le loro spoglie mortali.

  

Roermondse dialect band optreden bij NuNautilus 26-nov. 2017.

 

Sjoerpapier speelt vooral eigen nummers, met teksten in het Roermonds Dialect.

Ballads, stevige rock, popmuziek in het Remunjs van vijf doorgewinterde muzikanten.

 

Chris Ketelaars: zang, gitaar, mondharmonica

Ton Blommers: zang, gitaar

Rob Meijers: zang, toetsen

Gil Kamphuis: drums

Huub van Melick: basgitaar

---- ( ---- ---- ) ----

 

---- ( ---- ---- ) ----

  

the slideshow

  

Qi Bo's photos on Fluidr

  

Qi Bo's photos on Flickriver

  

Qi Bo's photos on FlickeFlu

  

……………………………………………………………………………….

  

From 19 to 21 August 2016 in the Sicilian town of Ali, there was the so-called "Great Feast" ("Festa Ranni" in Sicilian dialect) in honor of their patron Saint Agatha.

 

The feast, which lasts three days, it is called "Feast Ranni" (Great Feast) to emphasize the exceptional nature of the event, since it falls only once every ten years. Preparations officially begin early as a month before and are involved both the "ciliary" (ie families entrusted from time to time, which shall prepare at their own expense at the solemn celebration for Her Patron Saint), both the "Deputation of St. Agatha" collaborating with the parish priest, plays a role during the organizational phase.

 

The passage of the Holy Relics of the Martyr Agatha in the village of Ali (Messina) in their return to Catania, on the morning of August 17 of the year 1126, it was for this Sicilian center an extraordinary and grandiose event, that led to the building of the great Mother Church , which took place in the sixteenth century; then the celebration of the annual festival but especially the so-called "Great Feast", which recalls the three-day feasts taking place in the city of Catania.

  

We don't known the origins of this ancient feast, whose complex ritual was entrusted, almost to the present day only to the oral tradition; Father Seraphim of Ali (junior) speaks in 1754, in his book "Of story of Ali and his territory".

Long and laborious preparations are assigned to two groups each formed by twelve families belonging to two different districts of the country, they receive instructions to draw up each other's "Ciliium of Bread" and the other the "Cilium of Girls". These families are appointed by the Deputation of St. Agatha (Advisory body that exercises within the Church Mother, economic and organizational functions) and by the parish priest.

The names of the families of "ciliary", as they are called, are made known by the parish priest, after the morning Mass of the 5 February of the current year.

  

Traditionally the families of "Ciliium of Girls" traveling in neighboring countries (Fiumedinisi, Itala and Ali Terme) with the sound of the accordion and tambourine, to communicate the imminent date of the festivities and take offerings and gold jewelry in part borrowed, in part donated, to adorn the "Cilium of Girls".

Liturgical events are intertwined with the traditional folk feast. The Feast attracts many faithful and many emigrants who, for the occasion, return to their native village of Ali. The last day of celebration the two Ciliums and the float of St. Agatha are carried in procession through the city.

 

Postscript: This report is dedicated to the German family of Jewish origin, consisting of father, mother and two children, on a boat they decided to take his own life to escape their Nazi persecutors, by binding them all together, and weighted with stones, they threw themselves off the waters of Mazzaro (Taormina); they were later fished out by now without life, by local fishermen: in the "graveyard of foreigners" of Taormina, now for ever and ever close together, they rest in peace.

  

---------------------------------------

 

Dal 19 al 21 Agosto 2016 nel paese Siciliano di Alì (Messina) si è svolta una caratteristica festa, della quale propongo un report fotografico.

 

La Festa , durata infatti tre giorni, è denominata "Festa Ranni" (Festa Grande) per porre in risalto l'eccezionalità del fenomeno e la grandiosità dell’evento, poiché essa ricade una sola volta ogni dieci anni. I preparativi iniziano ufficialmente già un mese prima e vedono coinvolti sia i “ciliari” (cioè le famiglie incaricate di volta in volta e scelte a rotazione, che provvedono a preparare a proprie spese la festa solenne per la Santa Patrona, con l’allestimento dei due “cilii” ovvero le due “vare” anche intese come “cerei”), sia la “Deputazione di S. Agata” che collaborando con il Parroco, svolge un ruolo durante la fase organizzativa.

 

Il passaggio delle Sacre Reliquie della Martire catanese dal paese di Ali (Messina) nel rientro loro verso Catania, la mattina del 17 agosto dell’anno 1126 , fu per questo centro Siciliano un evento straordinario e grandioso, che portarono alla edificazione della grande Chiesa Madre, avvenuta nel XVI secolo, quindi alla celebrazione della festa annuale ma soprattutto della così detta “Festa Ranni”, che ricorda i tre giorni di festa che avvengono nella città di Catania.

  

Oscure sono le origini e le antiche modalità di svolgimento di questa festa, il cui complesso rituale è stato affidato, fin quasi ai nostri giorni esclusivamente alla tradizione orale, Padre Serafino d’Alì (junior) ne parla nel 1754, nel suo libro “Della storia di Alì e suo territoro”.

Lunghi e laboriosi sono i preparativi affidati a due gruppi formati ciascuno da dodici famiglie appartenenti a due diversi quartieri del paese, che ricevono l’incarico di allestire l'uno il "Cilio del Pane" e l'altro il "Cilio delle Ragazze". Queste famiglie vengono nominate dalla Deputazione di S. Agata (Organo consultivo che esercita all’interno della Chiesa Madre, funzioni economico-organizzative) e dal Parroco, e la loro scelta segue una rotazione tale che nel corso degli anni nessun nucleo familiare, e di conseguenza nessun quartiere, ne rimane escluso.

 

I nomi dei "Ciliari", così vengono denominati, vengono resi noti dal Parroco, al termine della messa mattutina del 5 Febbraio dell’anno prestabilito per la Festa.

 

Come già detto sopra, ogni gruppo provvede autonomamente ad allestire l'uno il "Cilio del Pane" l'altro il "Cilio delle Ragazze".

  

Per tradizione le 12 famiglie di “ciliari delle ragazze”, anche loro sempre accompagnate da un nutrito gruppo (soprattutto giovani), si recano nei paesi vicini (Fiumedinisi, Itala e Alì Terme) a suon di fisarmonica e tamburello, per comunicare l’imminente data dei festeggiamenti e per raccogliere offerte e monili d’oro in parte in prestito, in parte ceduti, per adornare il “cilio delle ragazze”.

Le manifestazioni liturgiche si intrecciano con quelle folkloristiche; la festa richiama numerosi fedeli e parecchi emigrati che, per l’occasione, fanno ritorno al paese natio di Alì. L’ultimo giorno di festa i due cilii ed il fercolo di S. Agata vengono portati in processione lungo le vie cittadine.

Post scriptum: questo report lo dedico alla famiglia tedesca di origine ebrea, composta da padre, madre e da due bambini, che su di una barca decise di togliersi la vita per sfuggire ai loro persecutori nazisti, essi legandosi tutti tra di loro, ed appesantiti con pietre, si gettarono al largo delle acque di Mazzarò (Taormina); essi vennero poi ripescati, oramai senza vita, dai pescatori locali: nel “cimitero degli stranieri” di Taormina riposano le loro spoglie mortali.

  

Doric dialect in Locrian alphabet

IG XIV 630: Οἰνιάδας / καὶ Εὐκέ/λαδος / καὶ Χείμ/αρ(ρ)ος / ἀνέθεˉκ/αν τᾶι θ/εο͂ι. ("Oiniadas and Eukelados and Cheimaros dedicated (this) to the Goddess")

From Locri Epizefiri, loc. Abadessa, sanctuary of Persephone

Early 5th c. BCE (or ca. 475-450? per IG)

MANN inv. 2482

 

Epigraphic collection, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli (MANN), Naples, Italy.

Met the best known swiss songstress from Valais at her autograph session in Zürich-Oerlikon during the Car-Show Nov 4, 2007. The Cover version of 'Son Of A Preacher Man' (Där Sohn vom Pfarrär) in dialect brought her the break-through in 1994.

Sudbury (/ˈsʌdbəri/, Suffolk dialect: /ˈsʌbri/) is a small market town in the English county of Suffolk. It is located on the River Stour near the Essex border, and is 60 miles (97 km) north-east of London. At the 2011 census, the town has a population of 13,063, rising to 21,971 including the adjoining parish of Great Cornard. It is the largest town of Babergh district council, the local government district, and is represented in the UK Parliament as part of the South Suffolk constituency.

 

Evidence of Sudbury as a settlement originates from the end of the 8th century during the Anglo-Saxon era, and its market was established in the early 11th century. Its textile industries prospered during the Late Middle Ages; the wealth of which funded many of its buildings and churches. The town became notable for its art in the 18th century, being the birthplace of Thomas Gainsborough, whose landscapes offered inspiration to John Constable, another Suffolk painter of the surrounding Stour Valley area. The 19th century saw the arrival of the railway with the opening of a station on the historic Stour Valley Railway, and Sudbury railway station forms the current terminus of the Gainsborough Line. During World War II, US Army Airforce bombers operated from RAF Sudbury.

 

Today, Sudbury retains its status as a market town with a twice-weekly market in the town centre in front of the redundant St Peter's Church, which is now a local community point for events such as concerts and exhibitions. In sport, the town has a semi-professional football club, A.F.C. Sudbury, which competes at the seventh level of the football pyramid.

 

Early history[edit]

Sudbury’s history dates back into the age of the Saxons.[2] The town’s earliest mention is in 799 AD, when Aelfhun, Bishop of Dunwich, died in the town.[3] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the town as Suthberie ("south-borough"), presumed to distinguish it from Norwich or Bury St Edmunds, to the north.[2] The town is also mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, as a market town where the local people came to barter their goods.[3] The market was established in 1009.[4]

 

A community of Dominicans arrived in the mid-13th century and gradually extended the size of their priory, which was one of three Dominican priories in the county of Suffolk.[5] Sudbury was one of the first towns in which Edward III settled the Flemings,[2] allowing the weaving and silk industries to prosper for centuries during the Late Middle Ages. As the main town in the area, Sudbury prospered too, and many great houses and churches were built, giving the town a major historical legacy. The Woolsack in the House of Lords was originally stuffed with wool from the Sudbury area, a sign of both the importance of the wool industry and of the wealth of the donors.

 

One citizen of Sudbury, Archbishop Simon Sudbury showed that not even the Tower of London guarantees safety. On 14 June 1381 guards opened the Tower’s doors and allowed a party of rebellious peasants to enter. Sudbury, inventor of the poll tax, was dragged to Tower Hill and beheaded.[6] His body was afterwards buried in Canterbury Cathedral, but his skull is kept in St. Gregory’s with St. Peter’s Church,[7] one of the three medieval churches in Sudbury. Simon's concerns for his native town are reflected in the founding of St Leonard's Hospital in 1372, a place of respite, towards Long Melford, for lepers.[8] For the College of St Gregory, which he founded in 1375 to support eight priests, he used his father's former house and an adjoining plot.[9]

 

From the 16th to 18th century the weaving industry was less consistently profitable and Sudbury experienced periods of varying prosperity.[10] By means of the borough court, the mayor and corporation directed the affairs of the town. They built a house of correction (1624) for 'rogues, vagabonds and sturdy beggars' and tried to finance the reconstruction of Ballingdon Bridge, which disappeared during a storm on 4 September 1594. Among theatrical companies they paid to visit Sudbury were Lord Strange's Men (1592) and the King's Men (1610). Minor infringements, such as not attending church, were punished by fines, for worse offenders there was a stocks or a whipping. During the Civil War a 12-strong band of watchmen was created to prevent the town's enemies, presumed to be Royalists, burning it down.[11]

 

Sudbury and the surrounding area, like much of East Anglia, was a hotbed of Puritan sentiment during much of the 17th century. Sudbury was among the town's called "notorious wasps' nests of dissent."[12] During the decade of the 1630s, many families departed for the Massachusetts Bay Colony as part of the wave of emigration that occurred during the Great Migration.

 

By the 18th century the fees charged to become a freeman, with voting rights, were exorbitant and the borough of Sudbury, along with 177 other English towns, was reformed by a Municipal Reform Act (1835).

  

Statue of Thomas Gainsborough on Market Hill

During the 18th century Sudbury became famous for its local artists. John Constable painted in the area, especially the River Stour. Painter Thomas Gainsborough was born in Sudbury in 1727, and was educated at Sudbury Grammar School.[13] His birthplace, now named Gainsborough's House, is a museum to his work and is open to the public. It houses many valuable pictures and some of his family possessions. A statue of Gainsborough was unveiled in the town centre outside St Peter’s Church on Market Hill in 1913.[3]

 

Victorian times to present day[edit]

The 1832 Reform Act saw the villages of Ballingdon and Brundon appended to the town.[14] In the 1841 general election Sudbury became the first place in the UK to elect a member of an ethnic minority to parliament, with David Ochterlony Dyce Sombre, the son of an Indian queen, winning the seat. However, he was not allowed to take his place in parliament as he was subsequently declared insane.[15]

 

Sudbury's Catholic Church, Our Lady Immaculate and St. John the Evangelist, was designed by Leonard Stokes and erected in 1893. The shrine of Our Lady of Sudbury sits within its nave.[16]

 

During the Second World War an American squadron of B-24 Liberator bombers of the 834th Squadron (H), 486th Bomb Group (H), 8th Air Force was based at RAF Sudbury. This squadron performed many important bombing and photographic missions during the war, but is perhaps best known as the "Zodiac Squadron", as its bombers were decorated with colourful images of the twelve signs of the zodiac painted by a professional artist named Phil Brinkman,[17] who was taken into the squadron by its commander, Capt. Howell, specifically for the purpose of painting the bombers. Now most of the airfield buildings have been demolished, including the control tower. Sections of perimeter track, aircraft hard stand areas, and two narrow crossing lengths of former runways, provide footpaths between Chilton, Newmans Green and Great Waldingfield.

 

The Sudbury Society was formed in 1973 after a successful campaign to save the town's corn exchange from developers. However, in protecting its ancient centre the town has not shut itself off from modern development. As the town has expanded (to a population in 2005 of 12,080) modern retail and industrial developments have been added on sites close to the centre and on the eastern edge at Chilton. The 18th and 19th century houses near the town centre have been added to by modern developments. wikipedia

Le Manneken-pis, de son nom en dialecte brusseleer (bruxellois) Manniken Pis signifiant « le môme qui pisse », est une statue en bronze d'une cinquantaine de centimètres qui est en fait une fontaine représentant un petit garçon nu en train d'uriner. Elle est située au cœur de Bruxelles, dans le quartier Saint-Jacques, à deux pas de la Grand-Place, à l'intersection de la rue de l'Étuve et de la rue du Chêne. Cette statue est le symbole de l'indépendance d'esprit des Bruxellois.

 

On trouve trace, dès 1388, de l'ancêtre de la statue actuelle : une fontaine située à l'angle des rues de l'Étuve et du Chêne, constituée d'une statuette en pierre dénommée « Petit Julien » (Julianekensborre), un nom qui est encore parfois utilisé pour désigner Manneken-Pis. On ne dispose d'aucune représentation de cette fontaine, mais dès 1452, le nom de Manneken-Pis apparait dans un texte. À cette époque, la fontaine jouait un rôle essentiel dans l’ancienne distribution d’eau potable. La statuette de pierre est remplacée par une statuette en bronze commandée en 1619 à Jérôme Duquesnoy l'Ancien (1570-1641), grand sculpteur bruxellois de l'époque, père de Jérôme Duquesnoy le Jeune et de François Duquesnoy. À l'origine, elle se dressait sur un pilier et l'eau se déversait dans une cuvette rectangulaire (comme le prouve une gravure de Harrewijn, conservée au Musée communal de Bruxelles). Ce n'est qu'en 1770 que ce pilier fut remplacé par la niche actuelle.

 

L'obscurité entourant ses origines a donné matière à de nombreuses historiettes. Parmi les plus souvent citées figurent les suivantes. En 1142, alors que le duc de Lotharingie Godefroid III était encore un tout jeune enfant au berceau, certains de ses vassaux se révoltèrent et affrontèrent les troupes ducales lors de la bataille de Ransbeke. Pour donner du cœur au ventre à ses partisans, le berceau de l'enfant fut pendu à un chêne sur le champ de bataille. Alors que ses troupes étaient en mauvaise posture, le petit duc se dressa dans son berceau et satisfit un besoin naturel. Ce geste redonna courage à ses troupes qui l'emportèrent. La fontaine perpétuerait le souvenir de cette victoire. Le nom de la rue du Chêne, au coin de laquelle se dresse la statue, rappellerait l'arbre qui se dressait sur le champ de bataille. Une autre légende raconte qu'un enfant aurait éteint, à sa manière, la mèche d'une bombe avec laquelle les ennemis voulaient mettre le feu à la cité. Une autre encore qu'un enfant perdu aurait été retrouvé par son père, riche bourgeois de Bruxelles, dans la position que l'on imagine. La dernière est qu'un petit garçon avait pour habitude d'uriner sur la maison d'une sorcière. Un jour, la sorcière voulut figer le petit garçon, mais un saint homme mit à la place une statue du petit garçon le représentant.

La statue fut cachée par les Bruxellois lors du bombardement de Bruxelles de 1695 par l'armée française. Le 16 août 1695, elle fut replacée triomphalement sur son socle. On inscrivit alors au-dessus de sa tête un passage de la Bible : «In petra exaltavit me, et nunc exaltavi caput meum super inimicos meos.» (le Seigneur m'a élevé sur un socle de pierre, et maintenant moi, j'élève ma tête au-dessus de mes ennemis).

 

Manneken-Pis de Grammont

La statue fut volée à plusieurs reprises. En 1745, des soldats anglais l'emportèrent jusqu'à Grammont, dont les habitants aidèrent les Bruxellois à la récupérer. En témoignage de reconnaissance, la ville de Bruxelles offrit une réplique de Manneken-Pis à Grammont. Deux ans plus tard, ce fut un groupe de soldats français qui retira la statue de son socle. Pour calmer les esprits, le roi Louis XV offrit un habit à Manneken-Pis et le décora de la croix de Louis XIV. Elle fut volée à nouveau en 1817 par un forçat gracié nommé Antoine Licas. Le coupable fut lourdement puni : condamné aux travaux forcés à perpétuité, il fut d'abord attaché pendant une heure à un carcan sur la grand-place. L'original ayant été brisé lors de son enlèvement en 1817, certains pensent que l'on fabriqua un nouveau moule et que la statue actuelle serait une réplique. Il n'existe cependant aucun document le prouvant de manière incontestable. Manneken-Pis connut d'autres péripéties au XXe siècle. Dérobé en 1963, il fut aussitôt retrouvé à Anvers. Les choses furent plus graves lors de sa disparition en 1965 : la statuette avait été brisée et il n'en subsistait que les pieds et les chevilles. Le corps fut néanmoins retrouvé en 19667. L'«original» est conservé au deuxième étage de la Maison du Roi.

Le jet d'eau est, à l'occasion de fêtes, remplacé par des breuvages. Ainsi, on rapporte qu'en 1890, au cours de grandes fêtes bruxelloises qui se déroulèrent durant deux jours, le petit bonhomme distribua du vin et du lambic (bière bruxelloise). Actuellement, certaines sociétés folkloriques bruxelloises ont gardé pour tradition lors de célébrations annuelles (Saint-Verhaegen…) d'offrir à boire en faisant couler de la bière par le Manneken-pis.

Le Manneken-pis est devenu, avec la Grand-Place et l'Atomium, un des symboles de Bruxelles.

 

- Traitement photo (normal et traitement noir et blanc) essais de quelques effets en HDR (High dynamic range).

Website :

www.dunkerque-tourisme.fr

  

english

 

Is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the Belgian border. The population of the city (commune) at the 1999 census was 70,850 inhabitants (71,300 inhabitants as per February 2004 estimates). The population of the metropolitan area was 265,974 inhabitants as per the 1999 census.

The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish "dun(e)" (dune) and "kerke" (church – related to the Scots English "kirk"). Until the middle of the 20th century the city was situated in the French Flemish area; today the local Flemish dialect, a variety of the Dutch language, can still be found but has been largely replaced by French.

Middle Ages

Dunkirk was first mentioned in 1067 as Dunkirk (Dutch: “Church of the Dune” or "Dune Church").

The area was much disputed between Spain, the Netherlands, England and France.

At the beginning of the Eighty Years' War, Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, from 1577. Spanish forces under the Duke of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious Dunkirkers.

The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when the city was conquered by the French in 1646 but Spanish forces recaptured the city in 1652.

In 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured by Franco-English forces. It was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco-English alliance against Spain.

It came under French rule when Charles II of England sold it to France for £320,000 on 17 October 1662.

During the reign of Louis XIV, a large number of commerce raiders once again made their base at Dunkirk. Jean Bart was the most famous. The Man in the Iron Mask was arrested at Dunkirk.

The 18th century Swedish privateers and pirates Lars Gathenhielm and his wife and partner Ingela Hammar, are known to have sold their ill-gotten gains in Dunkirk.

The 1763 "Treaty of Paris" between France and Great Britain included a clause restricting French rights to fortify Dunkirk, to allay British fears of it being used as an invasion base.

 

French

 

est une commune française de 68 292 habitants (2008), sous-préfecture du département du Nord et de la région Nord-Pas-de-Calais. La ville est baignée par la mer du Nord et plusieurs canaux. Ses habitants sont appelés les Dunkerquois et les Dunkerquoises.

La ville et ses alentours ont appartenu au comté de Flandre et ils relèvent de la zone linguistique flamande. L'histoire de la « cité de Jean Bart» est liée à la mer : à l'origine, Dunkerque était un village de pêcheurs construit à l'extrémité ouest d'une île longue et étroite « à la frisonne » comprenant l'abbaye des Dunes de Coxyde (d'où le nom : en ouest-flamand duun-kerke = église des dunes) et allant jusqu'à Oostduinkerke qui était à l'époque au bord d'une anse de l'Yser. Des siècles plus tard, la ville abrita des corsaires dont le célèbre Jean Bart, héros de la bataille du Texel. De par sa position sur la mer du Nord, Dunkerque a souvent suscité les convoitises, elle fut le théâtre de nombreuses opérations militaires. Demeurée aux mains des alliés durant la Première Guerre mondiale, elle fut sévèrement bombardée par les Allemands conscient du rôle primordial du port. Au cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale elle fut le théâtre de l'opération Dynamo. Sortie anéantie de cette guerre, la ville doit son salut à l'installation dans son port de l'usine sidérurgique Usinor qui accéléra sa reconstruction et son développement.

De nos jours, Dunkerque est le cœur d'une agglomération de 200 000 habitants. C'est la première plate-forme énergétique du Nord-Pas-de-Calais et l'un des pôles économiques de la région notamment grâce à son port, le troisième de France : trafic minéralier et pétrolier, porte-conteneurs, production d'acier.

Elle est aussi connue pour son carnaval, festivités s'étalant sur une période comprise entre janvier et mars, où les habitants se réunissent dans les rues aux rythmes de la fanfare guidée par le « tambour-major ».

  

Português

 

Dunquerque (em francês Dunkerque; em neerlandês, Duinkerke; em flamengo ocidental Duynkercke)) é uma cidade portuária no norte de França, no departamento do Nord, região de Nord-Pas-de-Calais, situada a 10 km da fronteira com a Bélgica. Tem cerca de 70.000 habitantes. Está ligada por ferry-boat a Ramsgate e Dover, em Inglaterra.

Dunquerque é o terceiro maior porto francês, depois de Le Havre e Marselha. É também uma cidade industrial, dependente do aço, indústria alimentar, refinação de petróleo, estaleiros navais e indústria química.

Historicamente, a cidade e seus arredores pertenceram ao Condado de Flandres e fazem parte da zona linguística flamenga.

Em Dunquerque fala-se um dialeto muito particular - dunkerquois - com palavras tomadas de empréstimo à linguagem dos marinheiros e ao flamengo ocidental .

O nome de Dunquerque provém do neerlandês Duinkerk, que significa « igreja nas dunas».

Segundo a tradição, a cidade foi fortificada pelo filho de Pepino de Landen, o terrível Allowyn, um franco convertido por Santo Elói. Assim, Dunquerque foi a única cidade da costa, até Saint-Omer, a ser preservada contra os ataques e pilhagens dos normandos. Hoje em dia, Allowyn "reaparece" todos os anos como Reuze (reuze em flamengo significa "gigante"), para presidir a saída do tradicional bando dos pescadores, durante o carnaval de Dunkerque.

Em 960, Balduíno III, dito Balduíno o Jovem, quarto conde de Flandres, faz construir as primeiras muralhas da cidade.

Em 1383 a Dunkerque flamenga é pilhada pelos ingleses e depois, pelos franceses.

A partir do século XVI, Dunquerque passou a ser posessão - juntamente com o território dos Países Baixos espanhóis - dos Habsburgos espanhóis. Em 1520, Carlos V, 31° conde de Flandres, é recebido triunfalmente na cidade.

Dunquerque foi disputada em diferentes ocasiões pelas coroas de Inglaterra, Países Baixos e França. Durante a Guerra de Flandres (1568-1648) e no reinado de Luís XIV, serviu como base de operações de corsários, sendo Jan Bart o mais famoso deles - conhecido por atacar os barcos holandeses.

A cidade foi tomada pelos ingleses sob Filipe II da Espanha, conde de Flandres, e retomada pelos franceses em 1558. Pelo Tratado de Cateau-Cambraisis os franceses a cedem à Espanha em 1559.

Sitiada por Turenne, em 25 de maio de 1658, após a batalha das Dunas, a cidade se rende aos franceses, em 25 de junho. Na mesma noite, Luís XIV a entrega a Oliver Cromwell, segundo o acordado por Inglaterra e França pelo Tratado de Paris do ano anterior.

Dunquerque será definitivamente incorporada ao reino da França em 1662, depois que Carlos II da Inglaterra vende a cidade à França, por 5.000.000 libras - embora o pagamento nunca tenha sido completado.

A construção dos sistemas defensivos da cidade ficou a cargo do engenheiro militar Vauban, que também desenvolve o seu porto. Mais tarde, em 1713, pelo Tratado de Utrecht, a França será obrigada a inundar o porto e a arrasar as fortificações, o que entretanto não foi executado senão em parte, e Luís XV voltou a fortificá-la.

Em 1793, o duque de York tenta inutilmente tomar a cidade. Após a batalha de Hondschoote, a cidade é renomeada Duna Livre.

Durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial, Dunquerque é duramente bombardeada por diversas vezes. A Igreja de Santo Elói (construída em meados do século XV) é parcialmente destruída.

Mas a cidade sofreria especialmente durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, tendo sido palco da célebre Batalha de Dunquerque, em 1940. Uma pausa na intensidade dos combates permitiu inesperadamente a evacuação de um grande número de soldados franceses e britânicos para Inglaterra. Mais de 300.000 homens foram evacuados apesar do bombardeamento constante ("o milagre de Dunquerque", nas palavras de Winston Churchill). A evacuação britânica de Dunquerque recebeu o nome de código Operação Dínamo

 

The Toraja are an ethnic group indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Their population is approximately 1,100,000, of whom 450,000 live in the regency of Tana Toraja ("Land of Toraja"). Most of the population is Christian, and others are Muslim or have local animist beliefs known as aluk ("the way"). The Indonesian government has recognized this animist belief as Aluk To Dolo ("Way of the Ancestors").

 

The word toraja comes from the Bugis Buginese language term to riaja, meaning "people of the uplands". The Dutch colonial government named the people Toraja in 1909. Torajans are renowned for their elaborate funeral rites, burial sites carved into rocky cliffs, massive peaked-roof traditional houses known as tongkonan, and colorful wood carvings. Toraja funeral rites are important social events, usually attended by hundreds of people and lasting for several days.

 

Before the 20th century, Torajans lived in autonomous villages, where they practised animism and were relatively untouched by the outside world. In the early 1900s, Dutch missionaries first worked to convert Torajan highlanders to Christianity. When the Tana Toraja regency was further opened to the outside world in the 1970s, it became an icon of tourism in Indonesia: it was exploited by tourism developers and studied by anthropologists. By the 1990s, when tourism peaked, Toraja society had changed significantly, from an agrarian model - in which social life and customs were outgrowths of the Aluk To Dolo - to a largely Christian society. Today, tourism and remittances from migrant Torajans have made for major changes in the Toraja highland, giving the Toraja a celebrity status within Indonesia and enhancing Toraja ethnic group pride.

 

ETHNIC IDENTITY

The Torajan people had little notion of themselves as a distinct ethnic group before the 20th century. Before Dutch colonization and Christianization, Torajans, who lived in highland areas, identified with their villages and did not share a broad sense of identity. Although complexes of rituals created linkages between highland villages, there were variations in dialects, differences in social hierarchies, and an array of ritual practices in the Sulawesi highland region. "Toraja" (from the coastal languages' to, meaning people; and riaja, uplands) was first used as a lowlander expression for highlanders. As a result, "Toraja" initially had more currency with outsiders - such as the Bugis and Makassarese, who constitute a majority of the lowland of Sulawesi - than with insiders. The Dutch missionaries' presence in the highlands gave rise to the Toraja ethnic consciousness in the Sa'dan Toraja region, and this shared identity grew with the rise of tourism in the Tana Toraja Regency. Since then, South Sulawesi has four main ethnic groups - the Bugis (the majority, including shipbuilders and seafarers), the Makassarese (lowland traders and seafarers), the Mandarese (traders and fishermen), and the Toraja (highland rice cultivators).

 

HISTORY

From the 17th century, the Dutch established trade and political control on Sulawesi through the Dutch East Indies Company. Over two centuries, they ignored the mountainous area in the central Sulawesi, where Torajans lived, because access was difficult and it had little productive agricultural land. In the late 19th century, the Dutch became increasingly concerned about the spread of Islam in the south of Sulawesi, especially among the Makassarese and Bugis peoples. The Dutch saw the animist highlanders as potential Christians. In the 1920s, the Reformed Missionary Alliance of the Dutch Reformed Church began missionary work aided by the Dutch colonial government. In addition to introducing Christianity, the Dutch abolished slavery and imposed local taxes. A line was drawn around the Sa'dan area and called Tana Toraja ("the land of Toraja"). Tana Toraja was first a subdivision of the Luwu kingdom that had claimed the area. In 1946, the Dutch granted Tana Toraja a regentschap, and it was recognized in 1957 as one of the regencies of Indonesia.

 

Early Dutch missionaries faced strong opposition among Torajans, especially among the elite, because the abolition of their profitable slave trade had angered them. Some Torajans were forcibly relocated to the lowlands by the Dutch, where they could be more easily controlled. Taxes were kept high, undermining the wealth of the elites. Ultimately, the Dutch influence did not subdue Torajan culture, and only a few Torajans were converted. In 1950, only 10% of the population had converted to Christianity.

 

In the 1930s, Muslim lowlanders attacked the Torajans, resulting in widespread Christian conversion among those who sought to align themselves with the Dutch for political protection and to form a movement against the Bugis and Makassarese Muslims. Between 1951 and 1965 (following Indonesian independence), southern Sulawesi faced a turbulent period as the Darul Islam separatist movement fought for an Islamic state in Sulawesi. The 15 years of guerrilla warfare led to massive conversions to

 

CHRISTIANITY

Alignment with the Indonesian government, however, did not guarantee safety for the Torajans. In 1965, a presidential decree required every Indonesian citizen to belong to one of five officially recognized religions: Islam, Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism), Hinduism, or Buddhism. The Torajan religious belief (aluk) was not legally recognized, and the Torajans raised their voices against the law. To make aluk accord with the law, it had to be accepted as part of one of the official religions. In 1969, Aluk To Dolo ("the way of ancestors") was legalized as a sect of Agama Hindu Dharma, the official name of Hinduism in Indonesia.

 

SOCIETY

There are three main types of affiliation in Toraja society: family, class and religion.

 

FAMILY AFFILIATION

Family is the primary social and political grouping in Torajan society. Each village is one extended family, the seat of which is the tongkonan, a traditional Torajan house. Each tongkonan has a name, which becomes the name of the village. The familial dons maintain village unity. Marriage between distant cousins (fourth cousins and beyond) is a common practice that strengthens kinship. Toraja society prohibits marriage between close cousins (up to and including the third cousin) - except for nobles, to prevent the dispersal of property. Kinship is actively reciprocal, meaning that the extended family helps each other farm, share buffalo rituals, and pay off debts.

 

Each person belongs to both the mother's and the father's families, the only bilateral family line in Indonesia. Children, therefore, inherit household affiliation from both mother and father, including land and even family debts. Children's names are given on the basis of kinship, and are usually chosen after dead relatives. Names of aunts, uncles and cousins are commonly referred to in the names of mothers, fathers and siblings.

 

Before the start of the formal administration of Toraja villages by the Tana Toraja Regency, each Toraja village was autonomous. In a more complex situation, in which one Toraja family could not handle their problems alone, several villages formed a group; sometimes, villages would unite against other villages. Relationship between families was expressed through blood, marriage, and shared ancestral houses (tongkonan), practically signed by the exchange of water buffalo and pigs on ritual occasions. Such exchanges not only built political and cultural ties between families but defined each person's place in a social hierarchy: who poured palm wine, who wrapped a corpse and prepared offerings, where each person could or could not sit, what dishes should be used or avoided, and even what piece of meat constituted one's share.

 

CLASS AFFILIATION

In early Toraja society, family relationships were tied closely to social class. There were three strata: nobles, commoners, and slaves (slavery was abolished in 1909 by the Dutch East Indies government). Class was inherited through the mother. It was taboo, therefore, to marry "down" with a woman of lower class. On the other hand, marrying a woman of higher class could improve the status of the next generation. The nobility's condescending attitude toward the commoners is still maintained today for reasons of family prestige.

 

Nobles, who were believed to be direct descendants of the descended person from heaven, lived in tongkonans, while commoners lived in less lavish houses (bamboo shacks called banua). Slaves lived in small huts, which had to be built around their owner's tongkonan. Commoners might marry anyone, but nobles preferred to marry in-family to maintain their status. Sometimes nobles married Bugis or Makassarese nobles. Commoners and slaves were prohibited from having death feasts. Despite close kinship and status inheritance, there was some social mobility, as marriage or change in wealth could affect an individuals status. Wealth was counted by the ownership of water buffaloes.

 

Slaves in Toraja society were family property. Sometimes Torajans decided to become slaves when they incurred a debt, pledging to work as payment. Slaves could be taken during wars, and slave trading was common. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited slave status. Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold, carving their houses, eating from the same dishes as their owners, or having sex with free women - a crime punishable by death.

 

RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION

Toraja's indigenous belief system is polytheistic animism, called aluk, or "the way" (sometimes translated as "the law"). In the Toraja myth, the ancestors of Torajan people came down from heaven using stairs, which were then used by the Torajans as a communication medium with Puang Matua, the Creator. The cosmos, according to aluk, is divided into the upper world (heaven), the world of man (earth), and the underworld. At first, heaven and earth were married, then there was a darkness, a separation, and finally the light. Animals live in the underworld, which is represented by rectangular space enclosed by pillars, the earth is for mankind, and the heaven world is located above, covered with a saddle-shaped roof. Other Toraja gods include Pong Banggai di Rante (god of Earth), Indo' Ongon-Ongon (a goddess who can cause earthquakes), Pong Lalondong (god of death), and Indo' Belo Tumbang (goddess of medicine); there are many more.

 

The earthly authority, whose words and actions should be cleaved to both in life (agriculture) and death (funerals), is called to minaa (an aluk priest). Aluk is not just a belief system; it is a combination of law, religion, and habit. Aluk governs social life, agricultural practices, and ancestral rituals. The details of aluk may vary from one village to another. One common law is the requirement that death and life rituals be separated. Torajans believe that performing death rituals might ruin their corpses if combined with life rituals. The two rituals are equally important. During the time of the Dutch missionaries, Christian Torajans were prohibited from attending or performing life rituals, but were allowed to perform death rituals. Consequently, Toraja's death rituals are still practised today, while life rituals have diminished.

 

CULTURE

TONGKONAN

Tongkonan are the traditional Torajan ancestral houses. They stand high on wooden piles, topped with a layered split-bamboo roof shaped in a sweeping curved arc, and they are incised with red, black, and yellow detailed wood carvings on the exterior walls. The word "tongkonan" comes from the Torajan tongkon ("to sit").

 

Tongkonan are the center of Torajan social life. The rituals associated with the tongkonan are important expressions of Torajan spiritual life, and therefore all family members are impelled to participate, because symbolically the tongkonan represents links to their ancestors and to living and future kin. According to Torajan myth, the first tongkonan was built in heaven on four poles, with a roof made of Indian cloth. When the first Torajan ancestor descended to earth, he imitated the house and held a large ceremony.

 

The construction of a tongkonan is laborious work and is usually done with the help of the extended family. There are three types of tongkonan. The tongkonan layuk is the house of the highest authority, used as the "center of government". The tongkonan pekamberan belongs to the family members who have some authority in local traditions. Ordinary family members reside in the tongkonan batu. The exclusivity to the nobility of the tongkonan is diminishing as many Torajan commoners find lucrative employment in other parts of Indonesia. As they send back money to their families, they enable the construction of larger tongkonan.

 

WOOD CARVINGS

To express social and religious concepts, Torajans carve wood, calling it Pa'ssura (or "the writing"). Wood carvings are therefore Toraja's cultural manifestation.

 

Each carving receives a special name, and common motifs are animals and plants that symbolize some virtue. For example, water plants and animals, such as crabs, tadpoles and water weeds, are commonly found to symbolize fertility. In some areas noble elders claim these symbols refer to strength of noble family, but not everyone agrees. The overall meaning of groups of carved motifs on houses remains debated and tourism has further complicated these debates because some feel a uniform explanation must be presented to tourists. The image to the left shows an example of Torajan wood carving, consisting of 15 square panels. The center bottom panel represents buffalo or wealth, a wish for many buffaloes for the family. The center panel represents a knot and a box, a hope that all of the family's offspring will be happy and live in harmony, like goods kept safe in a box. The top left and top right squares represent an aquatic animal, indicating the need for fast and hard work, just like moving on the surface of water. It also represents the need for a certain skill to produce good results.

 

Regularity and order are common features in Toraja wood carving (see table below), as well as abstracts and geometrical designs. Nature is frequently used as the basis of Toraja's ornaments, because nature is full of abstractions and geometries with regularities and ordering. Toraja's ornaments have been studied in ethnomathematics to reveal their mathematical structure, but Torajans base this art only on approximations. To create an ornament, bamboo sticks are used as a geometrical tool.

 

FUNERAL RITES

In Toraja society, the funeral ritual is the most elaborate and expensive event. The richer and more powerful the individual, the more expensive is the funeral. In the aluk religion, only nobles have the right to have an extensive death feast. The death feast of a nobleman is usually attended by thousands and lasts for several days. A ceremonial site, called rante, is usually prepared in a large, grassy field where shelters for audiences, rice barns, and other ceremonial funeral structures are specially made by the deceased family. Flute music, funeral chants, songs and poems, and crying and wailing are traditional Toraja expressions of grief with the exceptions of funerals for young children, and poor, low-status adults.

 

The ceremony is often held weeks, months, or years after the death so that the deceased's family can raise the significant funds needed to cover funeral expenses. Torajans traditionally believe that death is not a sudden, abrupt event, but a gradual process toward Puya (the land of souls, or afterlife). During the waiting period, the body of the deceased is wrapped in several layers of cloth and kept under the tongkonan. The soul of the deceased is thought to linger around the village until the funeral ceremony is completed, after which it begins its journey to Puya.

 

Another component of the ritual is the slaughter of water buffalo. The more powerful the person who died, the more buffalo are slaughtered at the death feast. Buffalo carcasses, including their heads, are usually lined up on a field waiting for their owner, who is in the "sleeping stage". Torajans believe that the deceased will need the buffalo to make the journey and that they will be quicker to arrive at Puya if they have many buffalo. Slaughtering tens of water buffalo and hundreds of pigs using a machete is the climax of the elaborate death feast, with dancing and music and young boys who catch spurting blood in long bamboo tubes. Some of the slaughtered animals are given by guests as "gifts", which are carefully noted because they will be considered debts of the deceased's family. However, a cockfight, known as bulangan londong, is an integral part of the ceremony. As with the sacrifice of the buffalo and the pigs, the cockfight is considered sacred because it involves the spilling of blood on the earth. In particular, the tradition requires the sacrifice of at least three chickens. However, it is common for at least 25 pairs of chickens to be set against each other in the context of the ceremony.

 

There are three methods of burial: the coffin may be laid in a cave or in a carved stone grave, or hung on a cliff. It contains any possessions that the deceased will need in the afterlife. The wealthy are often buried in a stone grave carved out of a rocky cliff. The grave is usually expensive and takes a few months to complete. In some areas, a stone cave may be found that is large enough to accommodate a whole family. A wood-carved effigy, called Tau tau, is usually placed in the cave looking out over the land. The coffin of a baby or child may be hung from ropes on a cliff face or from a tree. This hanging grave usually lasts for years, until the ropes rot and the coffin falls to the ground.

 

In the ritual called Ma'Nene, that takes place each year in August, the bodies of the deceased are exhumed to be washed, groomed and dressed in new clothes. The mummies are then walked around the village.

 

DANCE AND MUSIC

Torajans perform dances on several occasions, most often during their elaborate funeral ceremonies. They dance to express their grief, and to honour and even cheer the deceased person because he is going to have a long journey in the afterlife. First, a group of men form a circle and sing a monotonous chant throughout the night to honour the deceased (a ritual called Ma'badong). This is considered by many Torajans to be the most important component of the funeral ceremony. On the second funeral day, the Ma'randing warrior dance is performed to praise the courage of the deceased during life. Several men perform the dance with a sword, a large shield made from buffalo skin, a helmet with a buffalo horn, and other ornamentation. The Ma'randing dance precedes a procession in which the deceased is carried from a rice barn to the rante, the site of the funeral ceremony. During the funeral, elder women perform the Ma'katia dance while singing a poetic song and wearing a long feathered costume. The Ma'akatia dance is performed to remind the audience of the generosity and loyalty of the deceased person. After the bloody ceremony of buffalo and pig slaughter, a group of boys and girls clap their hands while performing a cheerful dance called Ma'dondan.

 

As in other agricultural societies, Torajans dance and sing during harvest time. The Ma'bugi dance celebrates the thanksgiving event, and the Ma'gandangi dance is performed while Torajans are pounding rice. There are several war dances, such as the Manimbong dance performed by men, followed by the Ma'dandan dance performed by women. The aluk religion governs when and how Torajans dance. A dance called Ma'bua can be performed only once every 12 years. Ma'bua is a major Toraja ceremony in which priests wear a buffalo head and dance around a sacred tree.

 

A traditional musical instrument of the Toraja is a bamboo flute called a Pa'suling (suling is an Indonesian word for flute). This six-holed flute (not unique to the Toraja) is played at many dances, such as the thanksgiving dance Ma'bondensan, where the flute accompanies a group of shirtless, dancing men with long fingernails. The Toraja have indigenous musical instruments, such as the Pa'pelle (made from palm leaves) and the Pa'karombi (the Torajan version of a jaw harp). The Pa'pelle is played during harvest time and at house inauguration ceremonies.

 

LANGUAGE

The ethnic Toraja language is dominant in Tana Toraja with the main language as the Sa'dan Toraja. Although the national Indonesian language is the official language and is spoken in the community, all elementary schools in Tana Toraja teach Toraja language.Language varieties of Toraja, including Kalumpang, Mamasa, Tae' , Talondo' , Toala' , and Toraja-Sa'dan, belong to the Malayo-Polynesian language from the Austronesian family. At the outset, the isolated geographical nature of Tana Toraja formed many dialects between the Toraja languages themselves. After the formal administration of Tana Toraja, some Toraja dialects have been influenced by other languages through the transmigration program, introduced since the colonialism period, and it has been a major factor in the linguistic variety of Toraja languages. A prominent attribute of Toraja language is the notion of grief. The importance of death ceremony in Toraja culture has characterized their languages to express intricate degrees of grief and mourning. The Toraja language contains many terms referring to sadness, longing, depression, and mental pain. Giving a clear expression of the psychological and physical effect of loss is a catharsis and sometimes lessens the pain of grief itself.

 

ECONOMY

Prior to Suharto's "New Order" administration, the Torajan economy was based on agriculture, with cultivated wet rice in terraced fields on mountain slopes, and supplemental cassava and maize crops. Much time and energy were devoted to raising water buffalo, pigs, and chickens, primarily for ceremonial sacrifices and consumption. Coffee was the first significant cash crop produced in Toraja, and was introduced in the mid 19th century, changing the local economy towards commodity production for external markets and gaining an excellent reputation for quality in the international market .

 

With the commencement of the New Order in 1965, Indonesia's economy developed and opened to foreign investment. In Toraja, a coffee plantation and factory was established by Key Coffee of Japan, and Torajan coffee regained a reputation for quality within the growing international specialty coffee sector Multinational oil and mining companies opened new operations in Indonesia during the 1970s and 1980s. Torajans, particularly younger ones, relocated to work for the foreign companies - to Kalimantan for timber and oil, to Papua for mining, to the cities of Sulawesi and Java, and many went to Malaysia. The out-migration of Torajans was steady until 1985. and has continued since, with remittances sent back by emigre Torajans performing an important role within the contemporary economy.

 

Tourism commenced in Toraja in the 1970s, and accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s. Between 1984 and 1997, a significant number of Torajans obtained their incomes from tourism, working in and owning hotels, as tour guides, drivers, or selling souvenirs. With the rise of political and economic instability in Indonesia in the late 1990s - including religious conflicts elsewhere on Sulawesi - tourism in Tana Toraja has declined dramatically. Toraja continues to be a well known origin for Indonesian coffee, grown by both smallholders and plantation estates, although migration, remittances and off-farm income is considered far more important to most households, even those in rural areas.

 

TOURISM AND CULTURAL CHANGE

Before the 1970s, Toraja was almost unknown to Western tourism. In 1971, about 50 Europeans visited Tana Toraja. In 1972, at least 400 visitors attended the funeral ritual of Puang of Sangalla, the highest-ranking nobleman in Tana Toraja and the so-called "last pure-blooded Toraja noble." The event was documented by National Geographic and broadcast in several European countries. In 1976, about 12,000 tourists visited the regency and in 1981, Torajan sculpture was exhibited in major North American museums. "The land of the heavenly kings of Tana Toraja", as written in the exhibition brochure, embraced the outside world.

 

In 1984, the Indonesian Ministry of Tourism declared Tana Toraja Regency the prima donna of South Sulawesi. Tana Toraja was heralded as "the second stop after Bali". Tourism was increasing dramatically: by 1985, a total number of 150,000 foreigners had visited the Regency (in addition to 80,000 domestic tourists), and the annual number of foreign visitors was recorded at 40,000 in 1989. Souvenir stands appeared in Rantepao, the cultural center of Toraja, roads were sealed at the most-visited tourist sites, new hotels and tourist-oriented restaurants were opened, and an airstrip was opened in the Regency in 1981.

 

Tourism developers have marketed Tana Toraja as an exotic adventure - an area rich in culture and off the beaten track. Western tourists expected to see stone-age villages and pagan funerals. Toraja is for tourists who have gone as far as Bali and are willing to see more of the wild, "untouched" islands. However, they were more likely to see a Torajan wearing a hat and denim, living in a Christian society. Tourists felt that the tongkonan and other Torajan rituals had been preconceived to make profits, and complained that the destination was too commercialized. This has resulted in several clashes between Torajans and tourism developers, whom Torajans see as outsiders.

 

A clash between local Torajan leaders and the South Sulawesi provincial government (as a tourist developer) broke out in 1985. The government designated 18 Toraja villages and burial sites as traditional tourist attractions. Consequently, zoning restrictions were applied to these areas, such that Torajans themselves were barred from changing their tongkonans and burial sites. The plan was opposed by some Torajan leaders, as they felt that their rituals and traditions were being determined by outsiders. As a result, in 1987, the Torajan village of Kété Kesú and several other designated tourist attractions closed their doors to tourists. This closure lasted only a few days, as the villagers found it too difficult to survive without the income from selling souvenirs.

 

Tourism has also transformed Toraja society. Originally, there was a ritual which allowed commoners to marry nobles (puang) and thereby gain nobility for their children. However, the image of Torajan society created for the tourists, often by "lower-ranking" guides, has eroded its traditional strict hierarchy. High status is not as esteemed in Tana Toraja as it once was. Many low-ranking men can declare themselves and their children nobles by gaining enough wealth through work outside the region and then marrying a noble woman.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Tyntesfield, Wraxall, Somerset, July 2023.

I came on the back of a motorbike all the way from Harran (we had to double-back and take an off-road detour at one point so my driver could avoid a police check-point, he didn't have a license), and the back wheel blew just before Soğmatar . It couldn't be fixed and I had to hitch out that evening, but I would've liked to have stayed overnight to see more of the area, the most atmospheric and interesting I visited in my 2 weeks in SE Turkey. One man who treated me to tea and a snack in his home told me that at @ a mile from the village there's another relief on a rock wall of a figure of a man or god with the paws and claws of a lion for hands.

- That same man took me on a tour of some abandoned ancient houses in the cliff handy to his home, and in one there was a large ancient sculpture of a bird on the floor in a low hole in a wall, an eagle I believe.

- This was one of my last shots taken here before my camera battery died. :(

 

- youtu.be/JCjwxMlW7V8?si=vfxguF_SUVS8qQOv

 

- This Croatian vlogger explores this 'Demonski hram', 'Demon temple' (Clickbait!) in this video, with some fun editing right at the 16:45 min. pt.: youtu.be/J54PbH2RTI8?si=f2tD8lv49pNQY1sf

---- ( ---- ---- ) ----

 

---- ( ---- ---- ) ----

  

the slideshow

  

Qi Bo's photos on Fluidr

  

Qi Bo's photos on Flickriver

  

Qi Bo's photos on FlickeFlu

  

……………………………………………………………………………….

  

From 19 to 21 August 2016 in the Sicilian town of Ali, there was the so-called "Great Feast" ("Festa Ranni" in Sicilian dialect) in honor of their patron Saint Agatha.

 

The feast, which lasts three days, it is called "Feast Ranni" (Great Feast) to emphasize the exceptional nature of the event, since it falls only once every ten years. Preparations officially begin early as a month before and are involved both the "ciliary" (ie families entrusted from time to time, which shall prepare at their own expense at the solemn celebration for Her Patron Saint), both the "Deputation of St. Agatha" collaborating with the parish priest, plays a role during the organizational phase.

 

The passage of the Holy Relics of the Martyr Agatha in the village of Ali (Messina) in their return to Catania, on the morning of August 17 of the year 1126, it was for this Sicilian center an extraordinary and grandiose event, that led to the building of the great Mother Church , which took place in the sixteenth century; then the celebration of the annual festival but especially the so-called "Great Feast", which recalls the three-day feasts taking place in the city of Catania.

  

We don't known the origins of this ancient feast, whose complex ritual was entrusted, almost to the present day only to the oral tradition; Father Seraphim of Ali (junior) speaks in 1754, in his book "Of story of Ali and his territory".

Long and laborious preparations are assigned to two groups each formed by twelve families belonging to two different districts of the country, they receive instructions to draw up each other's "Ciliium of Bread" and the other the "Cilium of Girls". These families are appointed by the Deputation of St. Agatha (Advisory body that exercises within the Church Mother, economic and organizational functions) and by the parish priest.

The names of the families of "ciliary", as they are called, are made known by the parish priest, after the morning Mass of the 5 February of the current year.

  

Traditionally the families of "Ciliium of Girls" traveling in neighboring countries (Fiumedinisi, Itala and Ali Terme) with the sound of the accordion and tambourine, to communicate the imminent date of the festivities and take offerings and gold jewelry in part borrowed, in part donated, to adorn the "Cilium of Girls".

Liturgical events are intertwined with the traditional folk feast. The Feast attracts many faithful and many emigrants who, for the occasion, return to their native village of Ali. The last day of celebration the two Ciliums and the float of St. Agatha are carried in procession through the city.

 

Postscript: This report is dedicated to the German family of Jewish origin, consisting of father, mother and two children, on a boat they decided to take his own life to escape their Nazi persecutors, by binding them all together, and weighted with stones, they threw themselves off the waters of Mazzaro (Taormina); they were later fished out by now without life, by local fishermen: in the "graveyard of foreigners" of Taormina, now for ever and ever close together, they rest in peace.

  

---------------------------------------

 

Dal 19 al 21 Agosto 2016 nel paese Siciliano di Alì (Messina) si è svolta una caratteristica festa, della quale propongo un report fotografico.

 

La Festa , durata infatti tre giorni, è denominata "Festa Ranni" (Festa Grande) per porre in risalto l'eccezionalità del fenomeno e la grandiosità dell’evento, poiché essa ricade una sola volta ogni dieci anni. I preparativi iniziano ufficialmente già un mese prima e vedono coinvolti sia i “ciliari” (cioè le famiglie incaricate di volta in volta e scelte a rotazione, che provvedono a preparare a proprie spese la festa solenne per la Santa Patrona, con l’allestimento dei due “cilii” ovvero le due “vare” anche intese come “cerei”), sia la “Deputazione di S. Agata” che collaborando con il Parroco, svolge un ruolo durante la fase organizzativa.

 

Il passaggio delle Sacre Reliquie della Martire catanese dal paese di Ali (Messina) nel rientro loro verso Catania, la mattina del 17 agosto dell’anno 1126 , fu per questo centro Siciliano un evento straordinario e grandioso, che portarono alla edificazione della grande Chiesa Madre, avvenuta nel XVI secolo, quindi alla celebrazione della festa annuale ma soprattutto della così detta “Festa Ranni”, che ricorda i tre giorni di festa che avvengono nella città di Catania.

  

Oscure sono le origini e le antiche modalità di svolgimento di questa festa, il cui complesso rituale è stato affidato, fin quasi ai nostri giorni esclusivamente alla tradizione orale, Padre Serafino d’Alì (junior) ne parla nel 1754, nel suo libro “Della storia di Alì e suo territoro”.

Lunghi e laboriosi sono i preparativi affidati a due gruppi formati ciascuno da dodici famiglie appartenenti a due diversi quartieri del paese, che ricevono l’incarico di allestire l'uno il "Cilio del Pane" e l'altro il "Cilio delle Ragazze". Queste famiglie vengono nominate dalla Deputazione di S. Agata (Organo consultivo che esercita all’interno della Chiesa Madre, funzioni economico-organizzative) e dal Parroco, e la loro scelta segue una rotazione tale che nel corso degli anni nessun nucleo familiare, e di conseguenza nessun quartiere, ne rimane escluso.

 

I nomi dei "Ciliari", così vengono denominati, vengono resi noti dal Parroco, al termine della messa mattutina del 5 Febbraio dell’anno prestabilito per la Festa.

 

Come già detto sopra, ogni gruppo provvede autonomamente ad allestire l'uno il "Cilio del Pane" l'altro il "Cilio delle Ragazze".

  

Per tradizione le 12 famiglie di “ciliari delle ragazze”, anche loro sempre accompagnate da un nutrito gruppo (soprattutto giovani), si recano nei paesi vicini (Fiumedinisi, Itala e Alì Terme) a suon di fisarmonica e tamburello, per comunicare l’imminente data dei festeggiamenti e per raccogliere offerte e monili d’oro in parte in prestito, in parte ceduti, per adornare il “cilio delle ragazze”.

Le manifestazioni liturgiche si intrecciano con quelle folkloristiche; la festa richiama numerosi fedeli e parecchi emigrati che, per l’occasione, fanno ritorno al paese natio di Alì. L’ultimo giorno di festa i due cilii ed il fercolo di S. Agata vengono portati in processione lungo le vie cittadine.

Post scriptum: questo report lo dedico alla famiglia tedesca di origine ebrea, composta da padre, madre e da due bambini, che su di una barca decise di togliersi la vita per sfuggire ai loro persecutori nazisti, essi legandosi tutti tra di loro, ed appesantiti con pietre, si gettarono al largo delle acque di Mazzarò (Taormina); essi vennero poi ripescati, oramai senza vita, dai pescatori locali: nel “cimitero degli stranieri” di Taormina riposano le loro spoglie mortali.

  

Napfplatz - Napfbrunnen

 

Zürich (/ˈzjʊərɪk/ ZURE-ik, German: [ˈtsyːrɪç;) is the largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zürich. It is located in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zürich. As of January 2023 the municipality had 443,037 inhabitants, the urban area 1.315 million (2009), and the Zürich metropolitan area 1.83 million (2011). Zürich is a hub for railways, roads, and air traffic. Both Zurich Airport and Zürich's main railway station are the largest and busiest in the country.

 

Permanently settled for over 2,000 years, Zürich was founded by the Romans, who called it Turicum. However, early settlements have been found dating back more than 6,400 years (although this only indicates human presence in the area and not the presence of a town that early). During the Middle Ages, Zürich gained the independent and privileged status of imperial immediacy and, in 1519, became a primary centre of the Protestant Reformation in Europe under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli.

 

The official language of Zürich is German,[a] but the main spoken language is Zürich German, the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect.

 

Many museums and art galleries can be found in the city, including the Swiss National Museum and Kunsthaus. Schauspielhaus Zürich is generally considered to be one of the most important theatres in the German-speaking world.

 

As one of Switzerland's primary financial centres, Zürich is home to many financial institutions and banking companies.

 

History

 

Early history

 

Settlements of the Neolithic and Bronze Age were found around Lake Zürich. Traces of pre-Roman Celtic, La Tène settlements were discovered near the Lindenhof, a morainic hill dominating the SE - NW waterway constituted by Lake Zurich and the river Limmat. In Roman times, during the conquest of the alpine region in 15 BC, the Romans built a castellum on the Lindenhof. Later here was erected Turicum (a toponym of clear Celtic origin), a tax-collecting point for goods trafficked on the Limmat, which constituted part of the border between Gallia Belgica (from AD 90 Germania Superior) and Raetia: this customs point developed later into a vicus. After Emperor Constantine's reforms in AD 318, the border between Gaul and Italy (two of the four praetorian prefectures of the Roman Empire) was located east of Turicum, crossing the river Linth between Lake Walen and Lake Zürich, where a castle and garrison looked over Turicum's safety. The earliest written record of the town dates from the 2nd century, with a tombstone referring to it as the Statio Turicensis Quadragesima Galliarum ("Zürich post for collecting the 2.5% value tax of the Galliae"), discovered at the Lindenhof.

 

In the 5th century, the Germanic Alemanni tribe settled in the Swiss Plateau. The Roman castle remained standing until the 7th century. A Carolingian castle, built on the site of the Roman castle by the grandson of Charlemagne, Louis the German, is mentioned in 835 (in Castro Turicino iuxta fluvium Lindemaci). Louis also founded the Fraumünster abbey in 853 for his daughter Hildegard. He endowed the Benedictine convent with the lands of Zürich, Uri, and the Albis forest, and granted the convent immunity, placing it under his direct authority. In 1045, King Henry III granted the convent the right to hold markets, collect tolls, and mint coins, and thus effectively made the abbess the ruler of the city.

 

Zürich gained Imperial immediacy (Reichsunmittelbar, becoming an Imperial free city) in 1218 with the extinction of the main line of the Zähringer family and attained a status comparable to statehood. During the 1230s, a city wall was built, enclosing 38 hectares, when the earliest stone houses on the Rennweg were built as well. The Carolingian castle was used as a quarry, as it had started to fall into ruin.

 

Emperor Frederick II promoted the abbess of the Fraumünster to the rank of a duchess in 1234. The abbess nominated the mayor, and she frequently delegated the minting of coins to citizens of the city. The political power of the convent slowly waned in the 14th century, beginning with the establishment of the Zunftordnung (guild laws) in 1336 by Rudolf Brun, who also became the first independent mayor, i.e. not nominated by the abbess.

 

An important event in the early 14th century was the completion of the Manesse Codex, a key source of medieval German poetry. The famous illuminated manuscript – described as "the most beautifully illumined German manuscript in centuries;" – was commissioned by the Manesse family of Zürich, copied and illustrated in the city at some time between 1304 and 1340. Producing such a work was a highly expensive prestige project, requiring several years of work by highly skilled scribes and miniature painters, and it testifies to the increasing wealth and pride of Zürich citizens in this period. The work contains 6 songs by Süsskind von Trimberg, who may have been a Jew, since the work itself contains reflections on medieval Jewish life, though little is known about him.

 

The first mention of Jews in Zürich was in 1273. Sources show that there was a synagogue in Zürich in the 13th century, implying the existence of a Jewish community. With the rise of the Black Death in 1349, Zürich, like most other Swiss cities, responded by persecuting and burning the local Jews, marking the end of the first Jewish community there. The second Jewish community of Zürich formed towards the end of the 14th century, was short-lived, and Jews were expulsed and banned from the city from 1423 until the 19th century.

 

Archaeological findings

 

A woman who died in about 200 BC was found buried in a carved tree trunk during a construction project at the Kern school complex in March 2017 in Aussersihl. Archaeologists revealed that she was approximately 40 years old when she died and likely carried out little physical labor when she was alive. A sheepskin coat, a belt chain, a fancy wool dress, a scarf, and a pendant made of glass and amber beads were also discovered with the woman.

 

Old Swiss Confederacy

 

On 1 May 1351, the citizens of Zürich had to swear allegiance before representatives of the cantons of Lucerne, Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden, the other members of the Swiss Confederacy. Thus, Zürich became the fifth member of the Confederacy, which was at that time a loose confederation of de facto independent states. Zürich was the presiding canton of the Diet from 1468 to 1519. This authority was the executive council and lawmaking body of the confederacy, from the Middle Ages until the establishment of the Swiss federal state in 1848. Zürich was temporarily expelled from the confederacy in 1440 due to a war with the other member states over the territory of Toggenburg (the Old Zürich War). Neither side had attained significant victory when peace was agreed upon in 1446, and Zürich was readmitted to the confederation in 1450.

 

Zwingli started the Swiss Reformation at the time when he was the main preacher at the Grossmünster in 1519. The Zürich Bible was printed by Christoph Froschauer in 1531. The Reformation resulted in major changes in state matters and civil life in Zürich, spreading also to several other cantons. Several cantons remained Catholic and became the basis of serious conflicts that eventually led to the outbreak of the Wars of Kappel.

 

During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Council of Zürich adopted an isolationist attitude, resulting in a second ring of imposing fortifications built in 1624. The Thirty Years' War which raged across Europe motivated the city to build these walls. The fortifications required a lot of resources, which were taken from subject territories without reaching any agreement. The following revolts were crushed brutally. In 1648, Zürich proclaimed itself a republic, shedding its former status of a free imperial city. In this time the political system of Zürich was an oligarchy (Patriziat): the dominant families of the city were the following ones: Bonstetten, Brun, Bürkli, Escher vom Glas, Escher vom Luchs, Hirzel, Jori (or von Jori), Kilchsperger, Landenberg, Manesse, Meiss, Meyer von Knonau, Mülner, von Orelli.

 

The Helvetic Revolution of 1798 saw the fall of the Ancien Régime. Zürich lost control of the land and its economic privileges, and the city and the canton separated their possessions between 1803 and 1805. In 1839, the city had to yield to the demands of its urban subjects, following the Züriputsch of 6 September. Most of the ramparts built in the 17th century were torn down, without ever having been besieged, to allay rural concerns over the city's hegemony. The Treaty of Zürich between Austria, France, and Sardinia was signed in 1859.

 

Modern history

 

Zürich was the Federal capital for 1839–40, and consequently, the victory of the Conservative party there in 1839 caused a great stir throughout Switzerland. But when in 1845 the Radicals regained power at Zürich, which was again the Federal capital for 1845–46, Zürich took the lead in opposing the Sonderbund cantons. Following the Sonderbund War and the formation of the Swiss Federal State, Zürich voted in favor of the Federal constitutions of 1848 and 1874. The enormous immigration from the country districts into the town from the 1830s onwards created an industrial class which, though "settled" in the town, did not possess the privileges of burghership, and consequently had no share in the municipal government. First of all in 1860 the town schools, hitherto open to "settlers" only on paying high fees, were made accessible to all, next in 1875 ten years' residence ipso facto conferred the right of burghership, and in 1893 the eleven outlying districts were incorporated within the town proper.

 

When Jews began to settle in Zürich following their equality in 1862, the Israelitische Cultusgemeinde Zürich was founded.

 

Extensive developments took place during the 19th century. From 1847, the Spanisch-Brötli-Bahn, the first railway on Swiss territory, connected Zürich with Baden, putting the Zürich Hauptbahnhof at the origin of the Swiss rail network. The present building of the Hauptbahnhof (the main railway station) dates to 1871. Zürich's Bahnhofstrasse (Station Street) was laid out in 1867, and the Zürich Stock Exchange was founded in 1877. Industrialisation led to migration into the cities and to rapid population growth, particularly in the suburbs of Zürich.

 

The Quaianlagen are an important milestone in the development of the modern city of Zürich, as the construction of the new lakefront transformed Zürich from a small medieval town on the rivers Limmat and Sihl to a modern city on the Zürichsee shore, under the guidance of the city engineer Arnold Bürkli.

 

In 1893, the twelve outlying districts were incorporated into Zürich, including Aussersihl, the workman's quarter on the left bank of the Sihl, and additional land was reclaimed from Lake Zürich.

 

In 1934, eight additional districts in the north and west of Zürich were incorporated.

 

Zürich was accidentally bombed during World War II. As persecuted Jews sought refuge in Switzerland, the SIG (Schweizerischer Israelitischer Gemeindebund, Israelite Community of Switzerland) raised financial resources. The Central Committee for Refugee Aid, created in 1933, was located in Zürich.

 

The canton of Zürich did not recognize the Jewish religious communities as legal entities (and therefore as equal to national churches) until 2005.

 

Geography

 

Zürich is situated at 408 m (1,339 ft) above sea level on the lower (northern) end of Lake Zürich (Zürichsee) about 30 km (19 mi) north of the Alps, nestling between the wooded hills on the west and east side. The Old Town stretches on both sides of the Limmat, which flows from the lake, running northwards at first and then gradually turning into a curve to the west. The geographic (and historic) centre of the city is the Lindenhof, a small natural hill on the west bank of the Limmat, about 700 m (2,300 ft) north of where the river issues from Lake Zürich. Today the incorporated city stretches somewhat beyond the natural confines of the hills and includes some districts to the northeast in the Glatt Valley (Glattal) and to the north in the Limmat Valley (Limmattal). The boundaries of the older city are easy to recognize by the Schanzengraben canal. This artificial watercourse has been used for the construction of the third fortress in the 17th and 18th centuries.

 

Quality of living

 

Zürich often performs very well in international rankings, some of which are mentioned below:

 

Monocle's 2012 "Quality of Life Survey" ranked Zürich first on a list of the top 25 cities in the world "to make a base within". In 2019 Zürich was ranked among the ten most liveable cities in the world by Mercer together with Geneva and Basel.

In fDi Magazine's "Global Cities of the Future 2021/22" report, Zürich placed 16th in the overall rankings (all categories). In the category "Mid-sized and small cities", Zürich was 2nd overall, behind Wroclaw, having also placed 2nd in the subcategory "Human capital and lifestyle" and 3rd under "Business friendliness". In the category "FDI strategy, overall" (relating to foreign direct investment), Zürich ranked 9th, behind such cities as New York, Montreal (1st and 2nd) and Dubai (at number 8).

 

Main sites

 

Most of Zürich's sites are located within the area on either side of the Limmat, between the Main railway station and Lake Zürich. The churches and houses of the old town are clustered here, as are the most expensive shops along the famous Bahnhofstrasse. The Lindenhof in the old town is the historical site of the Roman castle, and the later Carolingian Imperial Palace.

 

(Wikpedia)

 

Zürich (zürichdeutsch Züri [ˈt͡sʏ̞rɪ, ˈt͡sʏrɪ, ˈt͡sy̞rɪ],[6] französisch Zurich [zyʁik], italienisch Zurigo [tsuˈriːɡo, dzu-], Rumantsch Grischun Turitg) ist eine schweizerische Stadt, politische Gemeinde sowie Hauptort des gleichnamigen Kantons.

 

Die Stadt Zürich ist mit 427'721 Einwohnern (Stand 31. Dezember 2022) die grösste Stadt der Schweiz und weist eine Bevölkerungsdichte von 4655 Einwohnern pro Quadratkilometer auf. Das Umland ist dicht besiedelt, so dass in der Agglomeration Zürich etwa 1,3 Millionen und in der Metropolitanregion Zürich etwa 1,83 Millionen Menschen leben. Der Bezirk Zürich ist mit dem Stadtgebiet identisch.

 

Die Stadt liegt im östlichen Schweizer Mittelland, an der Limmat am Ausfluss des Zürichsees. Ihre Einwohner werden Zürcher genannt (bzw. Stadtzürcher zur Differenzierung von den übrigen Einwohnern des Kantons).

 

Das aus der römischen Siedlung Turicum entstandene Zürich wurde 1262 freie Reichsstadt und 1351 Mitglied der Eidgenossenschaft. Die Stadt des Reformators Huldrych Zwingli wurde 1519 zum zweitwichtigsten (nach Wittenberg) Zentrum der Reformation. Bis heute gilt sie als Ausgangspunkt der weltweiten reformierten Kirche und der Täufer. Die Stadt erlebte im Industriezeitalter ihren Aufstieg zur heutigen Wirtschaftsmetropole der Schweiz.

 

Mit ihrem Hauptbahnhof, dem grössten Bahnhof der Schweiz, und dem Flughafen (auf dem Gebiet der Gemeinde Kloten) ist die Stadt Zürich ein kontinentaler Verkehrsknotenpunkt. Aufgrund der ansässigen Grossbanken (u. a. UBS, der Zürcher Kantonalbank und Credit Suisse) und Versicherungen (Zurich Insurance Group und Swiss Re) ist sie ein internationaler Finanzplatz und der grösste Finanzplatz der Schweiz, gefolgt von Genf und Lugano. Daneben beherbergt die Stadt mit der Eidgenössischen Technischen Hochschule Zürich und der Universität Zürich die zwei grössten universitären Hochschulen der Schweiz. Trotz der vergleichsweise geringen Einwohnerzahl wird Zürich zu den Weltstädten gezählt. Zürich ist das wichtigste Zentrum der Schweizer Medien- und Kreativbranche. Mit seiner Lage am Zürichsee, seiner gut erhaltenen mittelalterlichen Altstadt und einem vielseitigen Kulturangebot und Nachtleben ist es zudem ein Zentrum des Tourismus.

 

Seit Jahren wird Zürich neben Basel und Genf als eine der Städte mit der weltweit höchsten Lebensqualität und zugleich neben Genf mit den höchsten Lebenshaltungskosten weltweit gelistet. Zürich ist nach Monaco und Genf die Stadt mit der dritthöchsten Millionärsdichte weltweit.

 

Geografie

 

Zürich liegt auf 408 m ü. M. am unteren (nördlichen) Ende des Zürichsees im Tal der Limmat und im unteren Tal der Sihl, eingebettet zwischen den Höhen von Uetliberg im Westen und Zürichberg im Osten. Die Limmat entspringt dem See, während die westlich des Sees fliessende Sihl nördlich der Zürcher Altstadt beim Platzspitz in die Limmat mündet. Die Altstadt erstreckt sich beidseits der Limmat, die zunächst nordwärts fliesst und dann in einem Bogen allmählich nach Westen abbiegt.

 

Die einstige Stadt reichte nicht bis zur Sihl, sondern hatte als westliche Abgrenzung den im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert angelegten Schanzengraben. Damals wurde Wasser aus dem See abgeleitet und in einem Graben ausserhalb der Bastionen und Bollwerke zur Limmat geführt. Noch früher erstreckte sich die Stadt im Westen nur bis zum Fröschengraben, der ungefähr parallel zur Limmat verlief. Dieser Graben wurde 1864 zugeschüttet, um Raum für den Bau der Bahnhofstrasse zu schaffen, die vom heutigen Paradeplatz bis zum Rennweg dem Verlauf des einstigen Grabens folgt.

 

Geschichte

 

Frühgeschichte, Mittelalter und ältere Neuzeit

Im Unterschied zu den meisten anderen Schweizer Grossstädten stieg Zürich im Frühmittelalter in den Rang einer Stadt auf. In Turīcum gab es zwar bereits zur Römerzeit eine Zollstation, ein hadrianisches Heiligtum auf dem Grossen Hafner im untersten Seebecken beim Ausfluss der Limmat und ein Kastell, die zugehörige Siedlung kann aber noch nicht als Stadt bezeichnet werden. Das frühmittelalterliche, alemannische Zürich war eng verbunden mit dem Herzogtum Schwaben und zwei bedeutenden geistlichen Stiftungen der deutschen Könige, dem Grossmünster und dem Fraumünster, die dem Kult um die Stadtpatrone Felix und Regula geweiht waren. Nach dem Zerfall der zentralen Gewalt im Herzogtum Schwaben und dem Aussterben der Zähringer 1218 konnte sich Zürich den Status der Reichsunmittelbarkeit sichern; 1262 wurde auch die Reichsfreiheit der Bürgerschaft ausdrücklich bestätigt. Der Titel einer Reichsstadt bedeutete de facto die Unabhängigkeit der Stadt. De jure löste sich Zürich jedoch erst 1648 von der Oberhoheit des Kaisers des Heiligen Römischen Reiches.

 

Im Spätmittelalter erwarb und eroberte Zürich in seinem Umland bedeutende Territorien, die der Stadt bis 1798 politisch untergeordnet waren (siehe Territoriale Entwicklung Zürichs). Im Innern wurden die Geschicke Zürichs seit der Zunftrevolution durch Bürgermeister Rudolf Brun im Jahr 1336 durch den Stadtadel und die Handwerkervereinigungen (Zünfte) gemeinsam geleitet (Brunsche Zunftverfassung). Brun war auch verantwortlich für den Überfall von Rapperswil. 1351 schloss sich Zürich zur Sicherung seiner Unabhängigkeit gegen das aufstrebende süddeutsche Adelsgeschlecht der Habsburger der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft an und wurde zusammen mit Bern zum Vorort dieses Staatenbundes.

 

Der wohl bis heute wichtigste Beitrag Zürichs zur Weltgeschichte war die Reformation von Huldrych Zwingli. Unter seiner geistigen Führung wurde seit 1519 Zürich zum reformierten Rom an der Limmat. Die Zürcher Bibel, eine der ersten deutschen Bibelübersetzungen, entstand in der Prophezei unter Zwingli, Leo Jud und weiteren Mitarbeitern 1524 bis 1525 und wurde vom Zürcher Buchdrucker Christoph Froschauer zuerst in Teilen und später als ganze Bibel herausgegeben.

 

Die Täuferbewegung nahm ihren Ausgangspunkt ab 1523 in Zürich unter Führung von Konrad Grebel, Felix Manz, Jörg Blaurock, Balthasar Hubmaier und weiteren Personen, die sich von Zwingli trennten und kurz darauf verfolgt und gefangen genommen wurden. Im Januar 1527 wurde Felix Manz in der Limmat ertränkt, viele Täufer flüchteten nach Schaffhausen oder ins Zürcher Oberland.

 

Heinrich Bullinger 1531–1575 und Rudolf Gwalther 1575–1586 konsolidierten als Antistes und Nachfolger von Zwingli die Reformation in Zürich und pflegten zahlreiche Kontakte europaweit. Während ihrer Zeit wurden viele evangelische Flüchtlinge aus dem Tessin, Italien, Frankreich und England aufgenommen. Diese trugen in der Folge durch Handwerk, Produktion noch unbekannter Textilien und Handel wesentlich zum wirtschaftlichen Gedeihen Zürichs bei.[38][39][40]

 

Zur Zeit der Hexenverfolgungen wurden in Zürich von 1487 bis 1701 Hexenprozesse gegen 79 Personen geführt. Im Hexenprozess 1701 wurden acht Menschen aus Wasterkingen wegen angeblicher Hexerei verurteilt. Regierungspräsident Markus Notter und Kirchenratspräsident Ruedi Reich verurteilten 2001 diese Justizmorde.

 

18. und 19. Jahrhundert

 

Das Zürich des 18. Jahrhunderts galt als «das grösste Rätsel deutscher Geistesgeschichte». Trotz relativ geringer Bevölkerungszahl entwickelte sich rund um Johann Jakob Bodmer neben dem wissenschaftlichen auch ein literarisches Zürich mit entscheidenden Beiträgen zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte.

 

Mit dem Untergang der freien Republik der Stadt Zürich nach dem Einmarsch der Franzosen in die Schweiz ging die Stadt zusammen mit dem ehemaligen Untertanenland im neuen Kanton Zürich auf, dessen Hauptort sie wurde. Im beginnenden 19. Jahrhundert kam es zwar zu einer Restauration der städtischen Vorherrschaft im Kanton, die jedoch von kurzer Dauer war.

 

Der Aufstieg Zürichs zum wirtschaftlichen Zentrum der Schweiz begann bereits mit der Textilindustrie im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert. Unter der politischen und wirtschaftlichen Führung der Liberalen, insbesondere von Alfred Escher, wurde die führende Rolle Zürichs ab 1846 durch die Gründung von zahlreichen Banken und Versicherungen auch auf den Finanz- und Dienstleistungssektor ausgedehnt. Seit dem Niedergang der Zürcher Industrie in der Nachkriegszeit hat die Bedeutung dieses Sektors noch zugenommen.

 

In den Jahren 1855 und 1867 starben in der Stadt Zürich in Folge prekärer hygienischer Verhältnisse in vielen Wohnungen ca. 500 Menschen an Cholera. 1867 wurde mit dem Bau einer Kanalisation begonnen. 1884 brach Typhus aus.

 

In der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts begann ein bis in die 1970er Jahre andauernder Bauboom, der Zürich von einer Kleinstadt zur Grossstadt mit all ihren Problemen wachsen liess. Das stürmische Wachstum beschränkte sich zuerst auf einen Um- und Neubau des Zentrums und erfasste zunehmend die umliegenden ländlichen Gemeinden. In zwei Eingemeindungswellen wurden 1893 und 1934 20 Landgemeinden mit der alten Stadtgemeinde zusammengefasst. Die Errichtung eines «Millionenzürich» scheiterte jedoch bis heute. Während nämlich ursprünglich die Finanzstärke der Stadt bzw. die leeren Kassen der Vororte Motor der freiwilligen Stadterweiterungen waren, sind heute die verbleibenden Vororte finanziell eher besser gestellt als die Stadt. Dies schlägt sich insbesondere in den Steuersätzen nieder.

 

Zwei ausgeprägte Wachstumswellen in den Jahren 1888–1910 sowie 1950–1970 entstanden durch Zuzüger aus dem Ausland. Im Jahr 1912 waren die Bewohner Zürichs zu einem Drittel Ausländer, und Zürich war wie ein grosser Teil der Deutschschweiz im Vorfeld des Ersten Weltkriegs deutschfreundlich, wobei Hochdeutsch zu sprechen in gehobenen Kreisen zum guten Ton gehörte.

 

20. Jahrhundert

 

In der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts stand Zürich politisch im Bann der Arbeiterbewegung. Schon vor dem Landesstreik 1918 war in Zürich die Konfrontation zwischen Bürgertum und Arbeiterschaft besonders heftig ausgefallen, da Zürich grosse Industriebetriebe mit tausenden von Arbeitern aufwies und zugleich eine Hochburg des Grossbürgertums war. Als 1928 die Sozialdemokratische Partei unter der Führung von David Farbstein erstmals eine absolute Mehrheit in Stadtrat (Exekutive) und Gemeinderat (Legislative) erlangte, wurde in der Zwischenkriegszeit das Rote Zürich zu einem Aushängeschild für die Regierungsfähigkeit der Sozialdemokratie. Trotzdem wurde gerade in Zürich 1939 die als Landi bekannt gewordene Landesausstellung zu einem Symbol für den Zusammenhalt und den Widerstandswillen der Schweiz im Zeichen der Geistigen Landesverteidigung gegen Hitlerdeutschland. Schliesslich wurde 1943 der Zürcher Stadtpräsident Ernst Nobs als erster Sozialdemokrat in den Bundesrat gewählt. In der Nachkriegszeit blieb Zürich Sammelbecken und Bühne für Protestbewegungen, wie 1968 anlässlich der Globus-Krawalle und 1980 für die Jugendunruhen. Noch heute ist der 1. Mai in Zürich jährlich von Auseinandersetzungen des autonomen «Schwarzen Blockes» mit der Polizei gekennzeichnet.

 

Ein Problem der Stadt war lange auch die offene Drogenszene. In der Mitte der 1980er Jahre wurde der Platzspitz weltweit als Needlepark bekannt. Er wurde am 5. Februar 1992 zwangsgeräumt und abgeriegelt, daraufhin verschob sich die Drogenszene an den stillgelegten Bahnhof Letten.

 

Das Areal des stillgelegten Bahnhofs Letten bot ab 1992 die Kulisse für die grösste offene Drogenszene Europas. Mehrere tausend Drogenabhängige aus dem In- und Ausland lebten hier oder besorgten sich ihren Stoff. Hundertschaften von Polizisten nahmen des Öfteren in der Anwesenheit von Kamerateams Razzien vor und versuchten so den Markt auszutrocknen. Diese Versuche blieben erfolglos und so wurde der Letten am 14. Februar 1995 polizeilich geräumt. Auswärtige Drogenabhängige wurden grösstenteils an ihre Herkunftsgemeinden respektive Wohnortgemeinden zurückgeführt, ausländische Abhängige zwangsausgeschafft. Die Reste der Drogenszene verlagerten sich zunehmend ins Gebiet entlang der Langstrasse. Zur Entschärfung der Situation trug dabei sehr stark der Versuch der staatlichen Heroinabgabe bei, so dass sich nicht umgehend eine neue Szene bildete. Heute ist die staatliche, ärztlich kontrollierte Drogenabgabe gesetzlich verankert und vom Volk per Referendum abgesegnet.

 

Die Langstrasse ist ein Zentrum des Zürcher Nachtlebens. Seit der Auflösung der offenen Drogenszenen wurde das Viertel zur Jahrtausendwende hin zum Zentrum des Drogenhandels. Die Kriminalitätsrate im Langstrassenquartier ist zwar weiterhin verhältnismässig hoch, jedoch verbesserte sich die Situation aufgrund verschiedener Projekte der öffentlichen Hand. Heute hat sich die Situation stabilisiert und der Stadtteil ist zu einer festen Grösse im Kultur- und Nachtleben Zürichs geworden. Nach wie vor ist die Stadt Anziehungspunkt für Drogenkonsumenten aus den benachbarten Kantonen.

 

Gegenwart

 

In den 1980er Jahren war Zürich in einem Teufelskreis zwischen der Nachfrage nach mehr Bürofläche in der Innenstadt, der Stadtflucht und der drohenden Verslumung ganzer Stadtkreise wegen der Drogenprobleme gefangen. Massnahmen zur Attraktivitätssteigerung der Innenstadt wie die Verkehrsbefreiung des Niederdorfs konnten nicht verhindern, dass die Innenstadt Zürichs immer unattraktiver wurde. Veränderungen schienen unmöglich – 1986 brachte die damalige Baudirektorin Ursula Koch mit ihrem berühmtgewordenen Satz «Zürich ist gebaut» die Perspektivlosigkeit der Politik in Bezug auf die weitere Zukunft Zürichs zum Ausdruck. Erst Mitte der 1990er Jahre konnte die Blockade überwunden werden, zuerst durch eine neue Bau- und Zonenordnung 1996 und die Liberalisierung des Gastgewerbegesetzes 1997. Besonders letzteres wirkte enorm belebend auf das Nachtleben Zürichs und liess innerhalb kürzester Zeit unzählige neue und innovative Restaurants, Bars und Diskotheken aus dem Boden schiessen. 1998 konnte unter dem neuen Baudirektor Elmar Ledergerber (von 2002 bis April 2009 Stadtpräsident) die jahrelang nur langsam vorankommende Neugestaltung der Industriebrachen in Zürich-West und in Oerlikon beschleunigt werden, so dass sich bis heute an beiden Standorten trendige und moderne neue Stadtquartiere entwickeln konnten. Bis 2020 entsteht westlich des Hauptbahnhofs das neue Quartier Europaallee.

 

Im Tourismusbereich trat Zürich in den 2000er Jahren (bis 2011) mit dem Zusatz «Downtown Switzerland» auf.

 

Wirtschaft

 

Zürich gilt als das Wirtschaftszentrum der Schweiz. Der gesamte Wirtschaftsraum in und um Zürich wird auch als Greater Zurich Area bezeichnet. International zeichnet er sich insbesondere durch tiefe Steuersätze und eine hohe Lebensqualität aus, weshalb einige internationale Konzerne einen Sitz in Zürich haben. 2018 waren 5,4 % der Bevölkerung Millionäre (gerechnet in US-Dollar). Zürich ist damit, hinter Monaco und Genf, die Stadt mit der dritthöchsten Millionärsdichte weltweit. Aufgrund ihrer internationalen wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung wird die Stadt Zürich oft zu den Global- bzw. Weltstädten gezählt.

 

Die Wirtschaft ist sehr stark auf den Dienstleistungssektor ausgerichtet, in dem knapp 90 % der Zürcher Beschäftigten tätig sind. Im Industriesektor sind rund 10 % tätig und in der Landwirtschaft sind es heute weniger als 1 %. Bei einer erwerbstätigen Wohnbevölkerung von 200'110 (Stand: Volkszählung 2000) weist die Stadt 318'543 Arbeitsplätze vor. Die Mehrheit der Beschäftigten (56 %) waren Pendler aus anderen Gemeinden. Neben den rund 178'000 Zupendelnden gibt es rund 39'000 aus der Stadt Wegpendelnde.

 

Der wichtigste Wirtschaftszweig in Zürich ist der Finanzdienstleistungssektor, der am Paradeplatz sein Zentrum hat. Die beiden bis 2023 selbständigen Grossbanken UBS, die weltweit grösste Vermögensverwalterin, und Credit Suisse, die Schweizerische Nationalbank, die Zürcher Kantonalbank, die traditionsreiche Privatbank Julius Bär sowie etliche kleinere Bankinstitute haben ihren Sitz in der Stadt. Auch über 100 Auslandbanken sind in Zürich vertreten. Auf dem Bankenplatz Zürich sind rund 45'000 Personen beschäftigt, knapp die Hälfte aller Bankangestellten der Schweiz. Eine grosse Bedeutung hat das Privatkundengeschäft, da über 25 % der weltweit grenzüberschreitend angelegten Vermögenswerte in Zürich verwaltet werden (schweizweit sind es rund ein Drittel). Die schweizerische Post betrieb von 1920 bis 1996 in Zürich ein Rohrpostsystem, zu deren diskreten Kunden auch die Banken zählten. Auch die Börse SIX Swiss Exchange spielt international eine wesentliche Rolle und verstärkt die Bedeutung des Finanzplatzes Zürich. Sie gehört zu den technologisch führenden Börsen der Welt. Im Weiteren repräsentiert Zürich weltweit den drittgrössten Versicherungsmarkt. Swiss Re, eine der weltweit grössten Rückversicherungen, und Swiss Life, der grösste Lebensversicherungskonzern der Schweiz, haben ihre Hauptsitze in Zürich. Eine weitere Versicherungsgesellschaft von internationaler Bedeutung ist die Zurich Insurance Group. Der gesamte Finanzdienstleistungssektor generiert nahezu 50 % der Steuereinnahmen der Stadt Zürich.

 

Als zweitwichtigster Wirtschaftszweig folgen die unternehmensbezogenen Dienstleistungen wie Rechts- und Unternehmensberatung, Informatik oder Immobilienverwaltung. Zu erwähnen ist etwa das Unternehmen IBM Schweiz, das in Rüschlikon ein bedeutendes Forschungslabor betreibt. Seit 2004 betreibt zudem Google in Zürich das europäische Forschungszentrum. Auf dem ehemaligen Areal der Hürlimann AG wurde der zweitgrösste Standort des Unternehmens nach Mountain View eingerichtet.

 

Infolge des Strukturwandels hat die Bedeutung der produzierenden Industrie und der Bauwirtschaft abgenommen. Allerdings haben immer noch bedeutende Industriefirmen Niederlassungen in der Stadt Zürich, so zum Beispiel Siemens. Der Elektrotechnikkonzern ABB hat zudem seinen Hauptsitz in Zürich.

 

Aus den übrigen Wirtschaftszweigen sind insbesondere zu erwähnen: der grösste Schweizer Detailhandelskonzern Migros, der weltgrösste Schokoladenproduzent Barry Callebaut, die beiden grössten Automobilhändler AMAG-Gruppe und Emil Frey Gruppe, sowie der grösste Schweizer Reisekonzern Kuoni.

 

Nicht zuletzt dank der kulturellen Vielfalt in Zürich ist auch der Tourismus in den letzten Jahren ein bedeutender Wirtschaftsfaktor geworden. Jedes Jahr empfängt die Stadt Zürich rund neun Millionen Tagestouristen sowie zwei Millionen Übernachtungsgäste, von denen sich eine Mehrheit auch geschäftlich in Zürich aufhält.

 

Lebensqualität

 

Zürich galt bis zum Jahr 2008 siebenmal in Folge als Stadt mit der höchsten Lebensqualität weltweit. In der Studie «Worldwide Quality of Living Survey» («Studie zur weltweiten Lebensqualität») untersuchte die renommierte Beratungsfirma Mercer 215 Grossstädte anhand von 39 Kriterien, darunter Freizeit, Erholung, Sicherheit, Sauberkeit, politische und ökonomische Stabilität, sowie medizinische Versorgung. Seit 2009 rangiert Zürich neu an zweiter Stelle hinter Wien. Zudem wird Zürich als eine der Städte mit den weltweit höchsten Lebenshaltungskosten gelistet.

 

In einer Studie der Globalization and World Cities Research Group an der britischen Universität Loughborough landete Zürich in der Kategorie der Beta-Weltstädte auf dem ersten Rang, zusammen mit San Francisco, Sydney und Toronto.

 

Zürich besitzt die Auszeichnung Energiestadt Gold für eine nachhaltige Energiepolitik. Die offiziellen Gebäude im Eigentum der Stadt Zürich werden in der Regel nach Minergie gebaut.

 

Um die Lebensqualität für Geringverdiener im Hinblick auf den Wohnungsmarkt zu verbessern, hat die Stadt Zürich die Stiftungen Wohnungen für kinderreiche Familien und Alterswohnungen der Stadt Zürich gegründet.

 

Kunst, Kultur und Tourismus

 

Allgemeine Sehenswürdigkeiten

 

Die meisten Sehenswürdigkeiten Zürichs sind in und um die Altstadt gruppiert und deswegen am einfachsten zu Fuss oder mit kurzen Fahrten in Tram oder Bus erreichbar. Neben Gebäuden und Denkmälern ist auch die Lage Zürichs am Zürichsee einen Blick wert. Am Bellevue oder am Bürkliplatz bietet sich bei gutem Wetter ein schöner Blick auf den See und die Alpen. Beide Seeufer mit ihren Promenaden und Parkanlagen sind dann jeweils Anziehungspunkte für viele Einheimische und Touristen.

 

Der Zürcher Hausberg Uetliberg ist mit der Sihltal-Zürich-Uetliberg-Bahn (SZU) zu erreichen, die ab dem Hauptbahnhof verkehrt.

 

(Wikipedia)

Le Manneken-pis, de son nom en dialecte brusseleer (bruxellois) Manniken Pis signifiant « le môme qui pisse », est une statue en bronze d'une cinquantaine de centimètres qui est en fait une fontaine représentant un petit garçon nu en train d'uriner. Elle est située au cœur de Bruxelles, dans le quartier Saint-Jacques, à deux pas de la Grand-Place, à l'intersection de la rue de l'Étuve et de la rue du Chêne. Cette statue est le symbole de l'indépendance d'esprit des Bruxellois.

 

On trouve trace, dès 1388, de l'ancêtre de la statue actuelle : une fontaine située à l'angle des rues de l'Étuve et du Chêne, constituée d'une statuette en pierre dénommée « Petit Julien » (Julianekensborre), un nom qui est encore parfois utilisé pour désigner Manneken-Pis. On ne dispose d'aucune représentation de cette fontaine, mais dès 1452, le nom de Manneken-Pis apparait dans un texte. À cette époque, la fontaine jouait un rôle essentiel dans l’ancienne distribution d’eau potable. La statuette de pierre est remplacée par une statuette en bronze commandée en 1619 à Jérôme Duquesnoy l'Ancien (1570-1641), grand sculpteur bruxellois de l'époque, père de Jérôme Duquesnoy le Jeune et de François Duquesnoy. À l'origine, elle se dressait sur un pilier et l'eau se déversait dans une cuvette rectangulaire (comme le prouve une gravure de Harrewijn, conservée au Musée communal de Bruxelles). Ce n'est qu'en 1770 que ce pilier fut remplacé par la niche actuelle.

 

L'obscurité entourant ses origines a donné matière à de nombreuses historiettes. Parmi les plus souvent citées figurent les suivantes. En 1142, alors que le duc de Lotharingie Godefroid III était encore un tout jeune enfant au berceau, certains de ses vassaux se révoltèrent et affrontèrent les troupes ducales lors de la bataille de Ransbeke. Pour donner du cœur au ventre à ses partisans, le berceau de l'enfant fut pendu à un chêne sur le champ de bataille. Alors que ses troupes étaient en mauvaise posture, le petit duc se dressa dans son berceau et satisfit un besoin naturel. Ce geste redonna courage à ses troupes qui l'emportèrent. La fontaine perpétuerait le souvenir de cette victoire. Le nom de la rue du Chêne, au coin de laquelle se dresse la statue, rappellerait l'arbre qui se dressait sur le champ de bataille. Une autre légende raconte qu'un enfant aurait éteint, à sa manière, la mèche d'une bombe avec laquelle les ennemis voulaient mettre le feu à la cité. Une autre encore qu'un enfant perdu aurait été retrouvé par son père, riche bourgeois de Bruxelles, dans la position que l'on imagine. La dernière est qu'un petit garçon avait pour habitude d'uriner sur la maison d'une sorcière. Un jour, la sorcière voulut figer le petit garçon, mais un saint homme mit à la place une statue du petit garçon le représentant.

La statue fut cachée par les Bruxellois lors du bombardement de Bruxelles de 1695 par l'armée française. Le 16 août 1695, elle fut replacée triomphalement sur son socle. On inscrivit alors au-dessus de sa tête un passage de la Bible : «In petra exaltavit me, et nunc exaltavi caput meum super inimicos meos.» (le Seigneur m'a élevé sur un socle de pierre, et maintenant moi, j'élève ma tête au-dessus de mes ennemis).

 

Manneken-Pis de Grammont

La statue fut volée à plusieurs reprises. En 1745, des soldats anglais l'emportèrent jusqu'à Grammont, dont les habitants aidèrent les Bruxellois à la récupérer. En témoignage de reconnaissance, la ville de Bruxelles offrit une réplique de Manneken-Pis à Grammont. Deux ans plus tard, ce fut un groupe de soldats français qui retira la statue de son socle. Pour calmer les esprits, le roi Louis XV offrit un habit à Manneken-Pis et le décora de la croix de Louis XIV. Elle fut volée à nouveau en 1817 par un forçat gracié nommé Antoine Licas. Le coupable fut lourdement puni : condamné aux travaux forcés à perpétuité, il fut d'abord attaché pendant une heure à un carcan sur la grand-place. L'original ayant été brisé lors de son enlèvement en 1817, certains pensent que l'on fabriqua un nouveau moule et que la statue actuelle serait une réplique. Il n'existe cependant aucun document le prouvant de manière incontestable. Manneken-Pis connut d'autres péripéties au XXe siècle. Dérobé en 1963, il fut aussitôt retrouvé à Anvers. Les choses furent plus graves lors de sa disparition en 1965 : la statuette avait été brisée et il n'en subsistait que les pieds et les chevilles. Le corps fut néanmoins retrouvé en 19667. L'«original» est conservé au deuxième étage de la Maison du Roi.

Le jet d'eau est, à l'occasion de fêtes, remplacé par des breuvages. Ainsi, on rapporte qu'en 1890, au cours de grandes fêtes bruxelloises qui se déroulèrent durant deux jours, le petit bonhomme distribua du vin et du lambic (bière bruxelloise). Actuellement, certaines sociétés folkloriques bruxelloises ont gardé pour tradition lors de célébrations annuelles (Saint-Verhaegen…) d'offrir à boire en faisant couler de la bière par le Manneken-pis.

Le Manneken-pis est devenu, avec la Grand-Place et l'Atomium, un des symboles de Bruxelles.

 

- Traitement photo (normal et traitement noir et blanc) essais de quelques effets en HDR (High dynamic range).

Poetry in translation, Francesco GABELLINI (b. 1962, Emilia Romagna, Italy):

“Timpul care îl dai”, “The Time you give”

 

Timpul care îl dai

(The Time You Give)

Francesco GARBELLINI

(b. 1962, Riccione, Emilia Romagna)

 

Timpul care îl dai, timpul

care îl iei, grăunte de nisip,

care îţi orbeşte ochiul.

Frăgezimea jocului şi pielea ta

albă cu parfum de pâine proaspătă

din zorii zilei.

 

Timpul care îl dai, timpul

care îl iei, ca mâna

care mângâie colina,

bate piatra, cântăreşte oasele.

Timpul care trece domol,

pe care îl ghiceşti.

 

Rendered in Romanian by Constantin ROMAN

© Copyright, Constantin ROMAN, London

BIO NOTE: Francesco Gabellini è nato nel 1962 a Riccione. Vive a Montecolombo (Rn). Ha pubblicato cinque raccolte di poesie in dialetto romagnolo: nel 1997 “Aqua de silénzie” (Acqua del silenzio) per l’Editore “AIEP” di San Marino; nel 2000 “Da un scur a cl’èlt” (Da un buio all’altro) per le Edizioni “La vita felice” di Milano. Nel 2003 “Sluntanès”, Pazzini Editore, Villa Verucchio (RN). Nel 2008 “Caléndre” Raffaelli Editore Rimini. Nel 2011, “A la mnuda” Giuliano Ladolfi Editore, Borgo Manero (Novara). Le sue opere sono risultate vincitrici o finaliste in numerosi importanti concorsi letterari nazionali e sono state pubblicate su varie riviste culturali. Note critiche sulla sua poesia, insieme ad alcuni testi, appaiono in “Poeti in romagnolo del secondo Novecento”, a cura di Pietro Civitareale, Editrice “La Mandragora”, 2005. Suoi testi poetici sono inclusi nell’antologia “Poeti in romagnolo del novecento” a cura di Pietro Civitareale, Edizioni Cofine Roma, 2006. Nel 2006 viene inserito nel “Dizionario dei poeti dialettali romagnoli del 900” a cura di Gianni Fucci e Giuseppe Bellosi, Edizioni Pazzini 2006 Villa Verucchio (RN).

Con il monologo in dialetto romagnolo “L’ultimo sarto” è stato finalista nel 2005 alla 48ª edizione del Premio Riccione per il teatro. Nel 2009, riceve il Premio Franco Enriquez per la drammaturgia.

Durante la stagione teatrale 2010/2011, l’attore Ivano Marescotti ha messo in scena un suo testo, intitolato “Detector”.

  

EDITOR’S NOTE: The translation of the anthology ‘Poets from Romagna’ is part of a larger and innovative project conceived by the translators to present ‘Italian authors who do not speak/write/dream only in Italian but in regional languages, to reach the world in English’. In the second in this unique series Guiseppe Bellosi presents parallel texts in Romagnolo and English from nine poets: Nevio Spadoni, Giuseppe Bellosi and Giovanni Nadiani belong to the Ravenna plain dialects; Laura Turci writes in the Meldola dialect, the hill area of Forlì; Dolfo Nardini uses the Cesena dialect; Fabio Molari a dialect of the Cesena hill area similar to the Santarcangelo dialect of Annalisa Teodorani and Miro Gori from San Mauro. At the extreme south of Romagna is Francesco Gabellini, Riccione having distinctive characteristics from nearby Rimini.

The Romagna poets featured in this anthology are part of a long and well-established tradition in the panorama of literature in dialect after the Second World War.

GIUSEPPE BELLOSI is a journalist and researching working in the documentation and the study of dialects, dialectal literature and folk traditions. He has published several academic books in these areas as well as several poetry collections.

Flight LIN-FCO

 

Piacenza (Placentia in Latin and scholarly English, Piasëinsa in the local dialect of Emiliano-Romagnolo) is a city in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Piacenza. Modern forms of the name descend from Latin Placentia.[note 1] The etymology is long-standing, tracing an origin from the Latin verb, placēre, "to please."[1] It is thus a "pleasant abode" or as James Boswell reported some of the etymologists of his time to have translated, "comely."[2] This was a name "of good omen."[3]

Before its settlement by the Romans, the area was populated by other peoples; specifically, most recently to the Roman settlement, the region on the right bank of the Po River between the Trebbia River and the Taro River had been occupied by the Ananes or Anamari, a tribe of Cisalpine Gauls.[4] Before then, says Polybius,[5] "These plains were anciently inhabited by Etruscans", before the Gauls took the entire Po valley from them. Although Polybius says the Etruscans were expelled, he meant perhaps selectively, as Etruscan culture continued in the area until assimilated to the Roman. The Etruscans were well known for the practice of divining by the entrails of sheep. A bronze sculpture of a liver called the "Liver of Piacenza" was discovered in 1877 at Gossolengo just to the south of Piacenza complete with the name of regions marked on it which were assigned to various gods. It has been connected to the practice of haruspicy, which was adopted by the Romans; certainly, the liver dates to the middle Roman Republic.

Piacenza and Cremona were founded as a Roman military colonies in May of 218 BC. The Romans had planned to construct them after the successful conclusion of the latest war with the Gauls ending in 219 BC. In the spring of 218 BC after declaring war on Carthage the Senate decided to accerate the foundation and gave the colonists 30 days to appear on the sites to receive their lands. They were each to be settled by 6000 Roman citizens but the cities were to receive Latin Rights;[6] that is, they were to have the same legal status as the many colonies that had been co-founded by Rome and towns of Latium.

 

The reaction of the Gauls in the region was swift; they drove the colonists off the lands. Taking refuge in Mutina the latter sent for military assistance. A small force under Lucius Manlius was prevented from reaching the area. The Senate now sent two legions under Gaius Atelius. Collecting Manlius and the colonists they descended on Piacenza and Cremona and successfully placed castra there of 480 m2 (0.12 acres) to support the building of the city. Piacenza must have been walled immediately as the walls were in place when the Battle of the Trebbia was fought around the city in December. There is no evidence either textual or archaeological of a prior settlement on that exact location; however, the site would have been obliterated by construction. Piacenza was the 53rd colony to be placed by Rome since its foundation.[7] It was the first among the Gauls of the Po valley.

Piacenza was sacked during the course of the Gothic Wars (535–552). After a short period as a Byzantine Empire city, it was conquered by the Lombards, who made it a duchy seat. After the Frank conquest (9th century) the city began to recover, aided by its location along the Via Francigena that connected the Holy Roman Empire with Rome. Its population and importance grew further after the year 1000. That period marked a gradual transfer of governing powers from the feudal lords to a new enterprising class, as well to the feudal class of the countryside.

 

In 1095 the city was the site of the Council of Piacenza, in which the First Crusade was proclaimed. From 1126 Piacenza was a free commune and an important member of the Lombard League. In this role it took part in the war against the emperor Frederick Barbarossa and in the subsequent battle of Legnano (1176). It also successfully fought the neighbouring communes of Cremona, Pavia and Parma, expanding its possessions. Piacenza also captured control of the trading routes with Genoa, where the first Piacentini bankers had already settled, from the Malaspina counts and the bishop of Bobbio.

 

In the 13th century, despite unsuccessful wars against emperor Frederick II, Piacenza managed to gain strongholds on the Lombardy shore of the Po River. The primilaries of the Peace of Constance were signed in 1183 in the Saint Antoninus church. Agriculture and trade flourished in these centuries, and Piacenza became one of the richest cities in Europe. This is reflected in the construction of many important buildings and in the general revision of the urban plan. Struggles for control were commonplace in the second half of the 13th century, not unlike the large majority of Medieval Italian communes. The Scotti family, Pallavicino family and Alberto Scoto (1290-1313) held power in that order during the period. Scoto's government ended when the Visconti of Milan captured Piacenza, which they would hold until 1447. Duke Gian Galeazzo rewrote Piacenza's statutes and relocated the University of Pavia to the city. Piacenza then became a Sforza possession until 1499.

See also: Duchy of Parma and Piacenza

A coin from the 16th century features the motto: Placentia floret ("Piacenza flourishes") on one of its sides. The city was progressing economically, chiefly due to the expansion of agriculture in the countryside surrounding the city. Also in the course of that century a new city wall was erected. Piacenza was ruled by France until 1521, and briefly, under Leo X, it became part of the Papal States. In 1545, it became part of the newly created Duchy of Parma and Piacenza, which was ruled by the Farnese family.

 

Piacenza was the capital city of the duchy until Ottavio Farnese (1547-1586) moved it to Parma. The city underwent some of its most difficult years during the rule of duke Odoardo (1622-1646), when between 6,000 and 13,000 Piacentini out of the poulation of 30,000 died from famine and plague, respectively. The city and its countryside were also ravaged by bandits and French soldiers.

 

Between 1732 and 1859, Parma and Piacenza were ruled by the House of Bourbon. In the 18th century, several edifices which belonged to noble families such as Scotti, Landi and Fogliani were built in Piacenza.

 

In 1802, Napoleon's army annexed Piacenza to the French Empire. Young Piacentini recruits were sent to fight in Russia, Spain and Germany, while the city was plundered of a great number of artworks which are currently exhibited in many French museums.

 

The Habsburg government of Maria Luisa 1816-1847 is remembered fondly as one of the best in the history of Piacenza; the duchess drained many lands, built several bridges across the Trebbia river and the Nure stream, and created educational and artistic activities.

 

Website :

www.dunkerque-tourisme.fr

  

english

 

Is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the Belgian border. The population of the city (commune) at the 1999 census was 70,850 inhabitants (71,300 inhabitants as per February 2004 estimates). The population of the metropolitan area was 265,974 inhabitants as per the 1999 census.

The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish "dun(e)" (dune) and "kerke" (church – related to the Scots English "kirk"). Until the middle of the 20th century the city was situated in the French Flemish area; today the local Flemish dialect, a variety of the Dutch language, can still be found but has been largely replaced by French.

Middle Ages

Dunkirk was first mentioned in 1067 as Dunkirk (Dutch: “Church of the Dune” or "Dune Church").

The area was much disputed between Spain, the Netherlands, England and France.

At the beginning of the Eighty Years' War, Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, from 1577. Spanish forces under the Duke of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious Dunkirkers.

The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when the city was conquered by the French in 1646 but Spanish forces recaptured the city in 1652.

In 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured by Franco-English forces. It was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco-English alliance against Spain.

It came under French rule when Charles II of England sold it to France for £320,000 on 17 October 1662.

During the reign of Louis XIV, a large number of commerce raiders once again made their base at Dunkirk. Jean Bart was the most famous. The Man in the Iron Mask was arrested at Dunkirk.

The 18th century Swedish privateers and pirates Lars Gathenhielm and his wife and partner Ingela Hammar, are known to have sold their ill-gotten gains in Dunkirk.

The 1763 "Treaty of Paris" between France and Great Britain included a clause restricting French rights to fortify Dunkirk, to allay British fears of it being used as an invasion base.

 

French

 

est une commune française de 68 292 habitants (2008), sous-préfecture du département du Nord et de la région Nord-Pas-de-Calais. La ville est baignée par la mer du Nord et plusieurs canaux. Ses habitants sont appelés les Dunkerquois et les Dunkerquoises.

La ville et ses alentours ont appartenu au comté de Flandre et ils relèvent de la zone linguistique flamande. L'histoire de la « cité de Jean Bart» est liée à la mer : à l'origine, Dunkerque était un village de pêcheurs construit à l'extrémité ouest d'une île longue et étroite « à la frisonne » comprenant l'abbaye des Dunes de Coxyde (d'où le nom : en ouest-flamand duun-kerke = église des dunes) et allant jusqu'à Oostduinkerke qui était à l'époque au bord d'une anse de l'Yser. Des siècles plus tard, la ville abrita des corsaires dont le célèbre Jean Bart, héros de la bataille du Texel. De par sa position sur la mer du Nord, Dunkerque a souvent suscité les convoitises, elle fut le théâtre de nombreuses opérations militaires. Demeurée aux mains des alliés durant la Première Guerre mondiale, elle fut sévèrement bombardée par les Allemands conscient du rôle primordial du port. Au cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale elle fut le théâtre de l'opération Dynamo. Sortie anéantie de cette guerre, la ville doit son salut à l'installation dans son port de l'usine sidérurgique Usinor qui accéléra sa reconstruction et son développement.

De nos jours, Dunkerque est le cœur d'une agglomération de 200 000 habitants. C'est la première plate-forme énergétique du Nord-Pas-de-Calais et l'un des pôles économiques de la région notamment grâce à son port, le troisième de France : trafic minéralier et pétrolier, porte-conteneurs, production d'acier.

Elle est aussi connue pour son carnaval, festivités s'étalant sur une période comprise entre janvier et mars, où les habitants se réunissent dans les rues aux rythmes de la fanfare guidée par le « tambour-major ».

  

Português

 

Dunquerque (em francês Dunkerque; em neerlandês, Duinkerke; em flamengo ocidental Duynkercke)) é uma cidade portuária no norte de França, no departamento do Nord, região de Nord-Pas-de-Calais, situada a 10 km da fronteira com a Bélgica. Tem cerca de 70.000 habitantes. Está ligada por ferry-boat a Ramsgate e Dover, em Inglaterra.

Dunquerque é o terceiro maior porto francês, depois de Le Havre e Marselha. É também uma cidade industrial, dependente do aço, indústria alimentar, refinação de petróleo, estaleiros navais e indústria química.

Historicamente, a cidade e seus arredores pertenceram ao Condado de Flandres e fazem parte da zona linguística flamenga.

Em Dunquerque fala-se um dialeto muito particular - dunkerquois - com palavras tomadas de empréstimo à linguagem dos marinheiros e ao flamengo ocidental .

O nome de Dunquerque provém do neerlandês Duinkerk, que significa « igreja nas dunas».

Segundo a tradição, a cidade foi fortificada pelo filho de Pepino de Landen, o terrível Allowyn, um franco convertido por Santo Elói. Assim, Dunquerque foi a única cidade da costa, até Saint-Omer, a ser preservada contra os ataques e pilhagens dos normandos. Hoje em dia, Allowyn "reaparece" todos os anos como Reuze (reuze em flamengo significa "gigante"), para presidir a saída do tradicional bando dos pescadores, durante o carnaval de Dunkerque.

Em 960, Balduíno III, dito Balduíno o Jovem, quarto conde de Flandres, faz construir as primeiras muralhas da cidade.

Em 1383 a Dunkerque flamenga é pilhada pelos ingleses e depois, pelos franceses.

A partir do século XVI, Dunquerque passou a ser posessão - juntamente com o território dos Países Baixos espanhóis - dos Habsburgos espanhóis. Em 1520, Carlos V, 31° conde de Flandres, é recebido triunfalmente na cidade.

Dunquerque foi disputada em diferentes ocasiões pelas coroas de Inglaterra, Países Baixos e França. Durante a Guerra de Flandres (1568-1648) e no reinado de Luís XIV, serviu como base de operações de corsários, sendo Jan Bart o mais famoso deles - conhecido por atacar os barcos holandeses.

A cidade foi tomada pelos ingleses sob Filipe II da Espanha, conde de Flandres, e retomada pelos franceses em 1558. Pelo Tratado de Cateau-Cambraisis os franceses a cedem à Espanha em 1559.

Sitiada por Turenne, em 25 de maio de 1658, após a batalha das Dunas, a cidade se rende aos franceses, em 25 de junho. Na mesma noite, Luís XIV a entrega a Oliver Cromwell, segundo o acordado por Inglaterra e França pelo Tratado de Paris do ano anterior.

Dunquerque será definitivamente incorporada ao reino da França em 1662, depois que Carlos II da Inglaterra vende a cidade à França, por 5.000.000 libras - embora o pagamento nunca tenha sido completado.

A construção dos sistemas defensivos da cidade ficou a cargo do engenheiro militar Vauban, que também desenvolve o seu porto. Mais tarde, em 1713, pelo Tratado de Utrecht, a França será obrigada a inundar o porto e a arrasar as fortificações, o que entretanto não foi executado senão em parte, e Luís XV voltou a fortificá-la.

Em 1793, o duque de York tenta inutilmente tomar a cidade. Após a batalha de Hondschoote, a cidade é renomeada Duna Livre.

Durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial, Dunquerque é duramente bombardeada por diversas vezes. A Igreja de Santo Elói (construída em meados do século XV) é parcialmente destruída.

Mas a cidade sofreria especialmente durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, tendo sido palco da célebre Batalha de Dunquerque, em 1940. Uma pausa na intensidade dos combates permitiu inesperadamente a evacuação de um grande número de soldados franceses e britânicos para Inglaterra. Mais de 300.000 homens foram evacuados apesar do bombardeamento constante ("o milagre de Dunquerque", nas palavras de Winston Churchill). A evacuação britânica de Dunquerque recebeu o nome de código Operação Dínamo

 

Lauzerte (Languedocien: Lausèrta) is a commune in the Tarn-et-Garonne department in the Occitanie region in southern France.

 

Etymology of the name: Two interpretations include the possible Latin root of “Villaserta” and more likely, the Gallic root, “lauzes”, flat stones used as paving or roofing, and “erta” from the local Occitan dialect, meaning hill, thus Hill of Stones. The fact that the barbican was exploited as a quarry supports this derivation.

 

A medieval bastide perched above the valleys and hills of the area known as the Quercy Blanc, Lauzerte is one of the Most Beautiful Villages of France, a distinction granted to only 155 villages in the country. Founded in the 12th century by the Count of Toulouse, the village is located on the routes of the Santiago de Compostella. Lauzerte is described by its tourism agency as "a nature stop for family excursions and weekends exploring the rich past and present of the South West: our heritage and architecture, our leisure activities and festivities."

 

Geography/Topography

In the northwest corner of the Tarn et Garonne department, Lauzerte lies between the foothills of the Massif Central and the Garonne river plain in the region known as Quercy Blanc and Pays de Serres because of the limestone which predominates in the landscape. The hill town rises above parallel valleys and rivers, the Barguelonnes, the Lendou and the Seoune which feed into the Garonne River.

 

Lauzerte is surrounded by agricultural land known for Melons de Quercy, Chasselas de Moissac (white dessert grapes), and Pruneaux d’Agen (prunes).

 

History

BC: The discovery of copper coins from several years BC indicate that Lauzerte was an oppidum, part of Roman Gaul.

 

Eleventh century: the area belonged to the Lords of Castelnau Montratier.

 

At the end of the twelfth century, two local noblemen approached Raymond V, Count of Toulouse, to establish a castelnau, a plot of 200 houses, prefiguring the bastide movement which would later predominate in the region. The motivation to do so would have been the same, however, to establish a small community of rent-paying supporters. With its castle, enclosure, towers and six fortified gateways, the fortified town was the pride of the region. Henry IV, King of France, described it as “one of four keys of the said Quercy land.” Despite this reputation, it was later occupied by the English and suffered attack in the Wars of Religion.

 

Thirteenth century: Alphonse of Poitiers and his wife, Jeanne of Toulouse visited the hospice located here, founded in 1222 ( the oldest building in the village, it still serves 110 pensioners.) When Alphonse died, Lauzerte passed directly to the King of France. The English king contested the will, as The Treaty of Paris had granted Quercy to the King of England who garnered a rent of 3,000 pounds a year. The many weapons and bones in the charnel house indicate the extent of slaughter and resistance to the English.

 

During the Hundred Years' War, Lauzerte was occupied by the English. Despite foreign occupation, some Lauzertins charged interest in exchange for ransom fees to nobility captured by the English. From this same period, legend has it that an old lady named Gandilhonne noticed the English were leaving. Although illiterate, she counted the number departing by putting a chestnut in her pocket to count each individual. She reported the exodus to the town consuls, who closed the gates, thus preventing the English from reentering.

 

Fourteenth century: A Carmelite convent was established. “Pastoureux”, the shepherds who preyed on pilgrims and other travellers, conducted a massacre of Jews.

 

Sixteenth century: Lauzerte passed first to Protestant control, after a battle resulting in 567 deaths, then back to Catholic control under the leadership of Terride.

 

Lauzerte continued to prosper for various reasons. It was the seat of a secondary seneschalsy (court of appeals) and administrative center for collecting taxes from the surrounding countryside. The region provided much of the wheat for Cahors. Pilgrims provided income to Lauzerte as well.

 

At the time of the Revolution, the town elected Gouges Cartou, a bourgeois, to represent the town at the new Estates General, the parliament.

 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Napoleon created the Departement of Tarn et Garonne. Lauzerte, which was until then part of the Lot, was attached to the new Departement.

 

The cellist and composer Louis-Charles-Joseph Rey (1738–1811) was born in Lauzerte as well as his elder brother Jean-Baptiste Rey (1734–1810), conductor and composer.

 

Architecture

The mairie, the town hall, originally housed the Mirepoise Sisters, nuns who founded a school for daughters of the nobility in the eighteenth century. Next to this were housed the “Penitents Bleus”, a Catholic brotherhood and mutual help society. The leather Christ on the Cross displayed in the Church would have been carried in processions by the brothers on Mardi Gras and Good Friday.

 

The senechaussee, the administrative center, constructed between 1360 and 1370 has beneath it a vaulted cellar, which includes a tunnel that reputedly leads to Beaucaire, a hamlet 3 kilometers away.

 

The large arched doorways in merchant homes acted as shop windows. Goods would have been displayed in the upper half, while doors across the lower half would serve as windbreak. The smaller arches beside them entered to the home above. Tiny windows on the next storey provided light to the store rooms. Above these, the pair of long windows serve on to the main living area, whilst the oculus at the top is at the attic level.

 

The half-timbered upstairs additions on some buildings extend out further over the street as a means to increase living area whilst only paying taxes on the area of the ground floor.

 

In addition to the other holy orders located in Lauzerte, the sisters of St. Clare established a school in 1623 on Rue de la Gendarmerie. Its door is in the shape of a basket handle, and the square tower to its right houses the chapel. The school attracted rich young women whose fathers encouraged them to take the veil as the dowry was less than the cost to marry them off. Records indicate widows and unhappy wives resided at the convent as well.

 

Arts and Culture

 

Paving of the Place des Cornières, 1988, Lauzerte, France

The main square, Place des Cornieres, features an uplifted corner of pavers, a unique and whimsical sculpture created in 1988 by local ceramic artist, Jacques Buchholtz whose work also appears in the Jardin de la Brèche.

 

The local market takes place in the square on Saturday mornings throughout the year.

 

Wrought iron signs hanging from the exterior of a number of buildings indicate the type of business located within.

 

Lauzerte has a lively artistic community with artists working in such mediums as illuminated manuscripts, artist books, pottery, and textiles.

 

Festivals in Lauzerte include the Place Aux Fleurs in late April, the Journées du Patrimoine et des Moulins in mid-June, the Marché aux Potiers in early July, les Marchés Gourmands every Thursday in July and August in the main square up top...!

Photo taken just South of the border looking northtward.

 

Monégasque dialect and French inscription:

'Principatu de Munegu'

'Principauté de Monaco'

 

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beausoleil_(Alpes-Maritimes)

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beausoleil,_Alpes-Maritimes

 

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontière_entre_la_France_et_Monaco

 

View from above: wikimapia.org/#lang=fr&lat=43.746009&lon=7.428757...

 

Another viewpoint: www.openstreetmap.org/#map=19/43.74602/7.42878

 

Another identical Monaco border stone in the set: www.flickr.com/photos/31594504@N06/19415823728/in/datepos...

Looking northeast close to Dlouhá.

 

"Cheb (German Eger, in the Sudeten German dialect of Cheb Egha; obsoletely also Heb) is a town in the district of the same name in the Karlovy Vary Region, 40 km southwest of Karlovy Vary and 5 km from the border with Germany on the Ohři River, from which it is derived from the German name of the city. The first historically preserved mention of Cheb, the central city of the entire former Chebsko, dates from 1061. Until the end of World War II, the majority of the population was German, and Cheb was an important part of the Sudetenland. After the end of the war, the German residents were displaced and the town became largely depopulated. Approximately 32 thousand inhabitants live here, which makes Cheb the second largest city in the region after Karlovy Vary. There are seven primary schools, two secondary schools, one practical school, two grammar schools and the Faculty of Economics of the University of West Bohemia in Cheb. The main industries here are engineering, textiles, metalworking, construction, woodworking and food. The neighboring municipalities of the seat are Okrouhlá, Třebeň, Pomezí nad Ohří, Nebanice, Tuřany, Odrava, Lipová, Libá, Františkovy Lázně, Waldsassen and Schirnding.

 

Bohemia (Latin Bohemia, German Böhmen, Polish Czechy) is a region in the west of the Czech Republic. Previously, as a kingdom, they were the center of the Czech Crown. The root of the word Czech probably corresponds to the meaning of man. The Latin equivalent of Bohemia, originally Boiohaemum (literally "land of Battles"), which over time also influenced the names in other languages, is derived from the Celtic tribe of the Boios, who lived in this area from the 4th to the 1st century BC Bohemia on it borders Germany in the west, Austria in the south, Moravia in the east and Poland in the north. Geographically, they are bounded from the north, west and south by a chain of mountains, the highest of which are the Krkonoše Mountains, in which the highest mountain of Bohemia, Sněžka, is also located. The most important rivers are the Elbe and the Vltava, with the fertile Polabean Plain extending around the Elbe. The capital and largest city of Bohemia is Prague, other important cities include, for example, Pilsen, Karlovy Vary, Kladno, Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, Hradec Králové, Pardubice and České Budějovice, Jihlava also lies partly on the historical territory of Bohemia." - info from Wikipedia.

 

Summer 2019 I did a solo cycling tour across Europe through 12 countries over the course of 3 months. I began my adventure in Edinburgh, Scotland and finished in Florence, Italy cycling 8,816 km. During my trip I took 47,000 photos.

 

Now on Instagram.

 

Become a patron to my photography on Patreon or donate.

Box Hill Cemetery

 

www.ancestry.com.au/mediaui-viewer/tree/10186368/person/1...

 

Ticino is the most southerly Canton in Switzerland and borders Italy. Its religion is mainly Catholic and the first language is Italian, although French, German and a local dialect are spoken too.

 

Campello and Calpiogna are mountain villages perched on the mountainside of the Leventina Valley between Airolo and Biasca.

 

Historically in order to support their families the menfolk have migrated into northern Italy then to France and England to work for a living. In the early 1800's they would have worked as chestnut men selling roasted chestnuts gathered from the hillsides around these villages. Latterly they became restaurateurs with premises in Lyons and Paris, France and also in London, England.

 

The surname Diviani first appears in the parish records of St. Atanasio, Calpiogna, Ticino, in the 1660's. Calpiogna and its daughter parish of St Margherita, Campello are in the Leventina Valley on the southern side of the St Gottard Tunnel. The Comune of Campello holds some early documents dating back to the 15C showing entries for the name of D'Ivano.

 

Early records for the area indicate settlements and administrations were in place in 1171 and a parocchio (parish) dedicated to St Siro existed in Mairengo at that time, unfortunately the parish records were destroyed in a fire many years ago - how useful they would have been! The parish records of St Atanasio, Calpiogna exist from 1661. This parish was created from Mairengo and had an oratory in Campello, which in 1837 became the parish church of St Margherita.

 

The earliest known mention of the family name of Diviani is made in 1610 regarding brothers Giovanni and Pietro (John & Peter) d’Iviano of Fontanedo and their grazing rights in a nearby village. Fontanedo was the major settlement for the Diviani and Brentini families in the 1600’s; a small (and now derelict) village on the mountain side just above the town of Faido and close to Rossura. In 1630 the Plague came to Faido and some of the families moved higher up the mountain to Campello, almost 4,500ft above sea level, to escape the disease. The village of Fontanedo continued to be occupied until the early 1800’s. Although it is now unoccupied the tiny chapel dedicated to Saint Sebastian has been recently restored by the people of Campello and is used to celebrate the annual Castagnata (chestnut festival).

  

Campello is a compact village with little means of sustenance for the many people that once lived there. A Census of all residents carried out in 1836 shows that there were 221 males and 189 females over the age of 10 years (in 2004 there was just a total population of 58). Traditional Swiss farming methods were adopted, rye (no wheat) and maize (for Polenta) were grown and the upper Alps used for grazing of sheep, goats and cows in the summer. Cheese was made (and still is today) and stored in a large cave within the mountain in Carì just above Campello. However by the 1800’s there was just not enough food to support everyone.

 

As early as 1808 men were moving to places such as Genoa in Italy and Lyons in France to earn a living as “Hot Chestnut Men” (Maronnari). They would return to Switzerland in the spring or early summer with the money earned in the previous winter and then in late summer harvest the chestnuts from the trees in the chestnut woods that cover the side of the mountain before returning to their winter “quarters” to sell their wares.

 

By this time there was unrest in Switzerland due to Napoleon’s actions and then there were problems with Italy too, so by the mid 1800’s there was a need for the men to travel even further to earn money to support their families. The Diviani families had already travelled to Pavia (Italy), Geneva, Lyons, Paris and Fresnes-en Woevres (France) and must have heard how the streets of London were supposedly paved with gold. An 1851 Census entry for Kirby Street in Holborn, London - part of “Little Italy”- shows that some of the Ticinese families from Campello as well as Calpiogna, including Diviani and Brentini had already arrived and were employed as artisans. Others worked as proprietors or waiters in the many cafés and restaurants in and around central London.

 

Perhaps for the above reasons Pietro Diviani decided to travel (apparently by foot) to UK around 1850. There was no railway or St. Gottard Tunnel then, so he like many others would have walked or perhaps obtained the occasional lift on a passing cart over the St. Gottard pass, which is only open June to September the rest of the year it being impassable due to snow, and then travelled onto Calais via Geneva, Lyons in France and perhaps Paris.

 

My earliest English information is Pietro's marriage in 1852 at the Sardinian Chapel in Holborn, a Catholic Embassy Chapel, to an Irish girl- Mary O'Connor. It would appear that the Catholic Swiss married Irish girls because they shared the same faith. Despite the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829) Catholicism in the UK was still mainly undeveloped and there were very few places in which Catholics could worship.

 

Pietro spent his life in London working as a Looking Glass Frame Maker and then as a Litho Engraver, but it would appear he never returned to Switzerland and his descendants lost their Swiss status.

Nong Khai is the northernmost of the north - eastern or Issan part of Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are Bueng Kan, Sakon Nakhon, Udon Thani and Loei. To the north it borders Vientiane Province, Vientiane Prefecture and Bolikhamxai of Laos. The province is located in the valley of the Mae Nam Kong ( Mekong river ), which also forms the border with Laos. There are highlands to the south. The Laotian capital Vientiane is only 25 kilometres away from the provincial capital of Nong Khai. The Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge, which connects the two countries, was built jointly by the governments of Thailand, Laos and Australia, and was opened in 1994. Over the centuries the control of the province swung between the Thai Kingdom Ayutthaya, and the Laotian kingdom Lan Xang, as their respective powers ebbed and flowed in the region. Most locals speak both Thai and the local dialect called Isaan, which is closely related to both the Thai and Lao languages. Many locals speak a little bit of English, mostly tourism-related words, and are generally very friendly and helpful if you smile and are polite.

Getting to Nong Khai By Plane The nearest airport ( on the Thai side ) is in Udon Thani, 56 km away. There are direct shuttle buses four times a day between the airport and the Friendship Bridge ( 2 km outside Nong Khai ), plus taxis and minibuses that will take you into Nong Khai proper. Thai Airways and Air Asia operate flights between Bangkok ( Suvarnabhumi ) and Udon Thani. Nok Air operates a service between Bangkok (Don Muang) and Udon.

By Train Nong Khai is the terminus of the North~eastern railway line from Bangkok via Khon Kaen and Udon Thani. The trip takes 10-12 hours and a first class sleeper ticket from Bangkok to Nong Khai or vice versa is about 1200 Baht, and a second class sleeper ticket ( not bad for the price ) is 748 Baht. Sleepers often sell out at peak times so you may need to book in advance. Shuttle services now operate onward from Nong Khai to Tha Nalaeng, Laos ( near Vientiane ) four times a day, synced to the arrivals and departures of the Bangkok trains. You can only buy tickets at Nong Khai station, and you need to pass through immigration as well. (If coming in on train #69 from Bangkok, there's a 90-minute window to do this.) Once the formalities are done, the trip itself across the Friendship Bridge only takes 15 minutes. Visa on arrival is now available on the Lao side

By Bus There are departures to Udon Thani at least once per hour from the BKS station on the main drag, Prajak road. The hour-long ride costs 20 Baht in 3rd class ( non-air con ) 40 Baht in 2nd class (air con). There are several departures daily from Bangkok ( about 9 hours ), Khon Kaen ( 110 Baht, class 2, with stoppage at Udon Thani ) and across the border direct from Vientiane ( 55 Baht, 17000 kip, two hours ) via the Friendship Bridge. A 1st class bus service connects Nong Khai directly with Suvarnabhumi Airport.

Getting around when there ~ The only mode of public transport in the city is by tuk-tuk. Although the price has gone up recently due to the increased cost of gasoline, they remain inexpensive at 20-30 Baht / person to anywhere around the city centre. Some tuk-tuk drivers will ask for much more than 20 / 30 Baht/ per person, but you can generally bargain with them to reach a reasonable price. When bargaining, smile and be patient and polite ( or just walk down the street until you see a roaming tuk-tuk, which will probably be cheaper - and walking a short distance is sometimes the only way to get a reasonable price when arriving at the Friendship Bridge from Laos ). A trip to or from the Friendship Bridge can cost upwards of 70 Baht for tourists if only one passenger is on board, although the normal price is 40-50 Baht.

Sala Keoku or Wat Khaek is a park featuring giant fantastic concrete sculptures inspired by Buddhism. It is located near Nong Khai, Thailand in immediate proximity of the Thai-Lao border and the Mekong river. The park has been built by, and reflects the personal vision of Luang Pu Bunleua Sulilat and his followers ( the construction started in 1978 ). It shares the style of Sulilat's earlier creation, Buddha Park on the Lao side of Mekong, but is marked by even more extravagant fantasy and greater proportions. Some of the Sala Keoku sculptures tower up to 25 mtrs. in the sky. Those include a monumental depiction of Buddha meditating under the protection of a seven-headed Naga snake. While the subject (based on a Buddhist legend) is one of the recurrent themes in the religious art of the region, Sulilat's approach is highly unusual, with its naturalistic representation of the snakes, whose giant protruding tongues beautifully compliment the awe-inspiring composition. The Sala Keoku pavilion is a large three-story concrete building, whose domes bear the surprising resemblance to a mosque. It was constructed following Sulilat's plans after his death. The 3rd floor hosts many Sulilat-related artefacts, as well as his mummified body. Perhaps the most enigmatic part of the park is the Wheel of Life, a circular multi-part group of sculptures representing the karmic cycle of birth and death through a progression of tarot-like characters. The composition culminates with a young man taking a step across the fence surrounding the entire installation to become a Buddha statue on the other side.

Nong Khai is a charming city to wander around on foot or rented bicycle (30 Baht/day) and meet the friendly and helpful locals. It's also a good place from which soak up the Isaan culture of the neighbouring towns, which can easily be reached by bus from the main BKS bus station in the city centre, on Prajak road. If you expect the usual tourist traps of Bangkok and Phuket, you will be disappointed. There are no super clubs, go-go bars and mega malls to fill your hours. This is a place to chill by the Mekong river watching passenger and cargo boats transit between Thailand and Laos, or to finish that paperback that has been sitting in your luggage for weeks. You may also consider stocking up on travel necessities before trudging onto Laos. Many who have planned an overnight stay for transit means have ended staying for weeks.

Le Manneken-pis, de son nom en dialecte brusseleer (bruxellois) Manniken Pis signifiant « le môme qui pisse », est une statue en bronze d'une cinquantaine de centimètres qui est en fait une fontaine représentant un petit garçon nu en train d'uriner. Elle est située au cœur de Bruxelles, dans le quartier Saint-Jacques, à deux pas de la Grand-Place, à l'intersection de la rue de l'Étuve et de la rue du Chêne. Cette statue est le symbole de l'indépendance d'esprit des Bruxellois.

 

On trouve trace, dès 1388, de l'ancêtre de la statue actuelle : une fontaine située à l'angle des rues de l'Étuve et du Chêne, constituée d'une statuette en pierre dénommée « Petit Julien » (Julianekensborre), un nom qui est encore parfois utilisé pour désigner Manneken-Pis. On ne dispose d'aucune représentation de cette fontaine, mais dès 1452, le nom de Manneken-Pis apparait dans un texte. À cette époque, la fontaine jouait un rôle essentiel dans l’ancienne distribution d’eau potable. La statuette de pierre est remplacée par une statuette en bronze commandée en 1619 à Jérôme Duquesnoy l'Ancien (1570-1641), grand sculpteur bruxellois de l'époque, père de Jérôme Duquesnoy le Jeune et de François Duquesnoy. À l'origine, elle se dressait sur un pilier et l'eau se déversait dans une cuvette rectangulaire (comme le prouve une gravure de Harrewijn, conservée au Musée communal de Bruxelles). Ce n'est qu'en 1770 que ce pilier fut remplacé par la niche actuelle.

 

L'obscurité entourant ses origines a donné matière à de nombreuses historiettes. Parmi les plus souvent citées figurent les suivantes. En 1142, alors que le duc de Lotharingie Godefroid III était encore un tout jeune enfant au berceau, certains de ses vassaux se révoltèrent et affrontèrent les troupes ducales lors de la bataille de Ransbeke. Pour donner du cœur au ventre à ses partisans, le berceau de l'enfant fut pendu à un chêne sur le champ de bataille. Alors que ses troupes étaient en mauvaise posture, le petit duc se dressa dans son berceau et satisfit un besoin naturel. Ce geste redonna courage à ses troupes qui l'emportèrent. La fontaine perpétuerait le souvenir de cette victoire. Le nom de la rue du Chêne, au coin de laquelle se dresse la statue, rappellerait l'arbre qui se dressait sur le champ de bataille. Une autre légende raconte qu'un enfant aurait éteint, à sa manière, la mèche d'une bombe avec laquelle les ennemis voulaient mettre le feu à la cité. Une autre encore qu'un enfant perdu aurait été retrouvé par son père, riche bourgeois de Bruxelles, dans la position que l'on imagine. La dernière est qu'un petit garçon avait pour habitude d'uriner sur la maison d'une sorcière. Un jour, la sorcière voulut figer le petit garçon, mais un saint homme mit à la place une statue du petit garçon le représentant.

La statue fut cachée par les Bruxellois lors du bombardement de Bruxelles de 1695 par l'armée française. Le 16 août 1695, elle fut replacée triomphalement sur son socle. On inscrivit alors au-dessus de sa tête un passage de la Bible : «In petra exaltavit me, et nunc exaltavi caput meum super inimicos meos.» (le Seigneur m'a élevé sur un socle de pierre, et maintenant moi, j'élève ma tête au-dessus de mes ennemis).

 

Manneken-Pis de Grammont

La statue fut volée à plusieurs reprises. En 1745, des soldats anglais l'emportèrent jusqu'à Grammont, dont les habitants aidèrent les Bruxellois à la récupérer. En témoignage de reconnaissance, la ville de Bruxelles offrit une réplique de Manneken-Pis à Grammont. Deux ans plus tard, ce fut un groupe de soldats français qui retira la statue de son socle. Pour calmer les esprits, le roi Louis XV offrit un habit à Manneken-Pis et le décora de la croix de Louis XIV. Elle fut volée à nouveau en 1817 par un forçat gracié nommé Antoine Licas. Le coupable fut lourdement puni : condamné aux travaux forcés à perpétuité, il fut d'abord attaché pendant une heure à un carcan sur la grand-place. L'original ayant été brisé lors de son enlèvement en 1817, certains pensent que l'on fabriqua un nouveau moule et que la statue actuelle serait une réplique. Il n'existe cependant aucun document le prouvant de manière incontestable. Manneken-Pis connut d'autres péripéties au XXe siècle. Dérobé en 1963, il fut aussitôt retrouvé à Anvers. Les choses furent plus graves lors de sa disparition en 1965 : la statuette avait été brisée et il n'en subsistait que les pieds et les chevilles. Le corps fut néanmoins retrouvé en 19667. L'«original» est conservé au deuxième étage de la Maison du Roi.

Le jet d'eau est, à l'occasion de fêtes, remplacé par des breuvages. Ainsi, on rapporte qu'en 1890, au cours de grandes fêtes bruxelloises qui se déroulèrent durant deux jours, le petit bonhomme distribua du vin et du lambic (bière bruxelloise). Actuellement, certaines sociétés folkloriques bruxelloises ont gardé pour tradition lors de célébrations annuelles (Saint-Verhaegen…) d'offrir à boire en faisant couler de la bière par le Manneken-pis.

Le Manneken-pis est devenu, avec la Grand-Place et l'Atomium, un des symboles de Bruxelles.

 

- Traitement photo (normal et traitement noir et blanc) essais de quelques effets en HDR (High dynamic range).

Name

In the twelfth century, Olomuc and Olmuc were the first handed down name forms. In the fifteenth century an alleged first form Juliomontium (Julius hill) was assumed, according to Julius Caesar as the alleged founder. The original meaning is unclear. In the Czech, Olomouc means 'bare mountain' (Old Czech holy, 'bald' and mauc 'mountain'). The name of the city is in the Moravian-Haná dialect, a subgroup of the Middle-Moravian dialects of the Czech, Olomóc or Holomóc, in German language Ölmütz, in Polish Ołomuniec and in Latin Eburum or Olomucium.

History

Beginnings

At the end of the second century there was a Roman army camp, the northernmost known in Central Europe. Up to the fifth century there was a Germanic settlement.

In the late 7th century a first Slavic settlement arose in today's Povel district. Around 830 this was destroyed. A new castle was built on the Peter's hill (Předhrad), which was probably one of the important castles of the Moravian empire. In the ninth century three churches were built.

Přemyslidenstaat (Přemyslid dynasty)

Olomouc was first mentioned in writing in 1017 when Moravia became part of the Bohemian state of Přemysliden. In 1055 it was the seat of a separate part of the Principality. In 1063 the bishopric of Olomouc was founded by Vratislav II. Around 1070 a new castle was built. In 1077 the monastery Hradisko was founded. In 1126 Heinrich Zdik became a bishop.

At the beginning of the 13th century, the last prince of Olomouz died, Moravia was united and placed under the jurisdiction of a Margrave of the Přemyslids. In 1248, Olomouc was first mentioned as a royal town. In 1306, King Wenceslas III resided during a campaign to Poland in Olomouc, and was murdered here, which resulted in the extinction of the Přemyslids dynasty in the male family tree. The city developed economically very quickly and became the capital of Moravia.

In the Hussite wars, Olomouc was an integral part of the Catholic side. In the succession of the Charterhouse Dolein, which had been lost in the Hussite wars, the Charterhouse Olomouc was founded in 1443, which existed until the abolition in 1782. In the 16th century numerous palaces were built in the Renaissance style. In 1566 the Jesuits came to Olomouc. They founded a school which was raised to a university in 1573. In 1588, the bishop became an imperial prince.

17th and 18th centuries

In the Thirty Years' War the town was taken by the Swedes in 1642 and occupied for eight years. After the Thirty Years' War, the largely destroyed and depopulated city lost the status of the Moravian capital and abandoned it to Brno. Since a great deal of damage had been caused by fires, a detailed "fire extinguishing order" was issued in 1711, in which a number of preventive measures were also discussed.

On 26 December 1741, the city was occupied by the Prussians during the First Silesian War. After this event the fortifications were extensively expanded. A second siege by the Prussians in 1758 withstood the new fortification. In 1777, the diocese became an archbishopric.

In 1794-1797 the prominent French-American soldier and politician Marquis Lafayette was interned in Olomouc as a political prisoner of the Donaumonarchy, after being captured in Flanders by the French coalition in 1792, and then, for the time being, imprisoned by Prussia.

19th century

In 1841, the city received a railway connection. In the middle of 1845, the railway from Olomouc to Prague ("Northern State Railway") was put into operation (Olomouc-Moravská Třebová, Moravská Třebová-Prague). In 1848, the Archbishop's Palace housed the Imperial Court, which had fled here because of the revolution in Vienna. Emperor Ferdinand I handed over the government to the eighteen-year-old Francis Joseph I on December 2, 1848. On 29 November 1850, the German Confederation under Austrian leadership was restored in Olomouc by the Agreement of Olomouc (also known as the Olomouc Treaty) between Prussia, Austria and Russia. In the years 1850 to 1866 the fortification systems were extended again. In 1886, the fortress status was abolished. 1899 drove in the city the first tram.

20th century

After the collapse of the Austrian Empire in 1918 and the founding of Czechoslovakia, the Czech citizens became majority, which included, among other things, the integration of the two towns of Hodolina and Nová ulice, as well as eleven other municipalities (Bělidla, Černovír, Hejčín, Chválkovice, Lazce, Nové Sady, Nový Svět, Neředín, Pavlovičky, Povel and Řepčín) in 1919. In 1921 lived in Olomouc 57,206 inhabitants.

On March 15, 1939, the city, as well as the other areas of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, erected on the same day by the German Reich, was occupied by the Wehrmacht. As early as 1939, the Olomouc University was closed by the German occupying forces. It was not until 1946 that it was restored under the name Palacký University of Olomouc.

The German-speaking population was expelled from Olomouc in 1945/1946. Their assets were confiscated by the Beneš decree 108, the assets of the Protestant church were liquidated by the Beneš decree 131, and the Catholic churches were expropriated.

In the 1970s and 1980s, a number of prefabricated housing estates were built in the peripheral areas.

Since 1971, the entire old town has been protected as a historic preservation reserve. Floods in 1997 made the city very vulnerable, about a third of the city area was flooded. In the year 2000, the Trinity Column was included in the UNESCO World Heritage list. According to the administrative reform of 2000 the former district town with the establishment of the Olomouc region became its administrative seat.

Jews in Olomouc

The synagogue in Olomouc

The first Jews settled in Olomouc as early as 906. From the year 1060 they had to live in a ghetto and bear a yellow identification mark. In 1454 all Jews from Olomouc were expelled. This law was valid until 1848.

The Olomouc Synagogue was built between 1895 and 1897. On the night of March 15, 1939, after the occupation by the Wehrmacht, the synagogue was lit and burnt down. At the same time about 800 Jews were arrested and later deported to the Dachau concentration camp. Some of the synagogue 's benches were removed, serving as church benches in a village church near Prostějov and were finally put up in the renovated synagogue in Krnov in 2004. Some of them are now in the Synagogue of Loštice and are reminiscent of the Jewish citizens murdered in concentration camps. The seat of honor is dedicated to Berthold Oppenheim, the Rabbi of Olomouc and Loštice.

During the period of National Socialism, 3,489 people were deported to the Theresienstadt Ghetto in five transports, on 26 and 30 June 1942, on July 4, 1942, and on March 7. Only 285 Jews of the city population survived. This was the end of the Jewish life in Olomouc for a long time. Since 2011, by artist Gunter Demnig Stolpersteine (stumbling blocks) have been and still are being laid to the memory of murdered Jews in Olomouc. Olomouc is one of the cities with the most stumbling blocks in the Czech Republic (as of 2016) with Prague and Brno.

Only since 1989 there has been a revival of the Jewish cultic life in the city. In 1991, an independent Jewish community was established with a field of activity for the districts of Olomouc, Šumperk, Jeseník, Bruntál and Přerov.

 

Name

Im 12. Jahrhundert waren Olomuc und Olmuc die ersten überlieferten Namensformen. Im 15. Jahrhundert wurde eine angebliche erste Form Juliomontium (Juliusberg) vermutet, nach Julius Caesar als angeblichem Gründer. Die ursprüngliche Bedeutung ist unklar. Im Tschechischen bedeutet Olomouc ‚kahler Berg‘ (alttschech. holy ‚kahl‘ und mauc ‚Berg‘). Der Name der Stadt lautet im mährisch-hannakischen Dialekt, einer Untergruppe der mittelmährischen Dialekte des Tschechischen, Olomóc oder Holomóc, auf Deutsch Olmütz, auf Polnisch Ołomuniec und auf Lateinisch Eburum oder Olomucium.

Geschichte

Anfänge

Ende des 2. Jahrhunderts befand sich hier ein römisches Heerlager, das nördlichste bekannte in Mitteleuropa. Bis ins 5. Jahrhundert gab es eine germanische Besiedelung.

Im späten 7. Jahrhundert entstand eine erste slawische Siedlung im heutigen Ortsteil Povel. Um 830 wurde diese zerstört. Es entstand eine neue Burg auf dem Petersberg (Předhrad), die nach ihrer Größe vermutlich zu den wichtigen Burgen des Mährerreiches zählte. Im 9. Jahrhundert wurden drei Kirchen gebaut.

Přemyslidenstaat

Olomouc wurde im Jahr 1017 erstmals schriftlich erwähnt, als Mähren Teil des böhmischen Staates der Přemysliden wurde. 1055 war es Sitz eines eigenen Teilfürstentums. 1063 wurde das Bistum Olmütz durch Vratislav II. gegründet. Um 1070 entstand eine neue Burg. 1077 wurde das Kloster Hradisko gegründet. 1126 wurde Heinrich Zdik zum Bischof.

Anfang des 13. Jahrhunderts starb der letzte Olmützer Fürst, Mähren wurde vereint und einem Markgrafen aus dem Geschlecht der Přemysliden unterstellt. Zum Jahr 1248 wird Olomouc erstmals als Königsstadt erwähnt. 1306 hielt sich König Wenzel III. während eines Feldzuges nach Polen in Olmütz auf und wurde hier ermordet, wodurch die Dynastie der Přemysliden im Mannesstamm erlosch. Die Stadt entwickelte sich wirtschaftlich sehr schnell und wurde zur Hauptstadt Mährens.

In den Hussitenkriegen war Olmütz fester Bestandteil der katholischen Seite. In der Nachfolge der Kartause Dolein, die in den Hussitenkriegen untergegangen war, wurde 1443 die Kartause Olmütz gegründet, die bis zur Aufhebung 1782 bestand. Im 16. Jahrhundert entstanden zahlreiche Paläste im Renaissancestil. 1566 kamen die Jesuiten nach Olmütz. Diese gründeten eine Schule, welche 1573 zur Universität erhoben wurde. 1588 wurde der Bischof zum Reichsfürsten erhoben.

17. und 18. Jahrhundert

Im Dreißigjährigen Krieg wurde die Stadt 1642 von den Schweden eingenommen und acht Jahre okkupiert. Nach dem Dreißigjährigen Krieg verlor die großteils zerstörte und entvölkerte Stadt den Status der mährischen Hauptstadt und trat diesen an Brünn ab. Da durch Brände viel Schaden entstanden war, wurde 1711 eine detaillierte „Feuerlösch-Ordnung“ erlassen, in der auch eine Reihe vorbeugender Maßnahmen zur Sprache kam.

Am 26. Dezember 1741 wurde die Stadt von den Preußen im Ersten Schlesischen Krieg eingenommen. Nach diesem Ereignis wurden die Festungsanlagen umfangreich ausgebaut. Einer zweiten Belagerung durch die Preußen im Jahre 1758 hielt die neue Festungsanlage stand. 1777 wurde das Bistum zum Erzbistum erhoben.

1794–1797 wurde der prominente französisch-amerikanische Soldat und Politiker Marquis Lafayette in Olmütz als politischer Häftling der Donaumonarchie interniert, nachdem er von der antifranzösischen Koalition 1792 in Flandern gefangengenommen und dann vorerst von Preußen eingekerkert worden war.

19. Jahrhundert

1841 erhielt die Stadt einen Eisenbahnanschluss. Mitte 1845 wurde die Eisenbahn von Olmütz nach Prag („k.k. Nördliche Staatsbahn“) in Betrieb genommen (Olmütz–Trübau, Trübau–Prag). Im Jahr 1848 beherbergte das Schloss des Erzbischofs den wegen der Revolution in Wien hierher geflohenen kaiserlichen Hof. Kaiser Ferdinand I. übertrug hier am 2. Dezember 1848 dem achtzehnjährigen Franz Joseph I. die Regierung. Am 29. November 1850 wurde in Olmütz durch die Olmützer Punktation (auch „Olmützer Vertrag“ genannt) zwischen Preußen, Österreich und Russland der Deutsche Bund unter österreichischer Führung wieder hergestellt. In den Jahren 1850 bis 1866 wurden erneut die Befestigungsanlagen erweitert. 1886 wurde dann der Festungsstatus aufgehoben. 1899 fuhr in der Stadt die erste Straßenbahn.

20. Jahrhundert

Nach dem Zerfall des Kaiserreichs Österreich 1918 und der Gründung der Tschechoslowakei kamen die tschechischen Stadtbürger in die Mehrzahl, was unter anderem auf die Eingemeindung der zwei Städte Hodolein (Hodolany) und Neugasse (Nová ulice) sowie elf weiterer Gemeinden (Bělidla, Černovír, Hejčín, Chválkovice, Lazce, Nové Sady, Nový Svět, Neředín, Pavlovičky, Povel und Řepčín) im Jahr 1919 zurückzuführen ist. Im Jahr 1921 lebten in Olomouc 57.206 Einwohner.

Am 15. März 1939 wurde die Stadt, wie auch die übrigen Gebiete des am selben Tag vom Deutschen Reich errichteten Protektorats Böhmen und Mähren, von der Wehrmacht besetzt. Noch im Jahr 1939 wurde die Olmützer Universität von der deutschen Besatzungsmacht geschlossen. Erst im Jahr 1946 konnte sie unter dem Namen Palacký-Universität Olmütz wiederhergestellt werden.

Die deutschsprachige Bevölkerung wurde 1945/1946 aus Olmütz vertrieben. Ihr Vermögen wurde durch das Beneš-Dekret 108 konfisziert, das Vermögen der evangelischen Kirche durch das Beneš-Dekret 131 liquidiert und die katholischen Kirchen enteignet.

In den 1970er und 1980er Jahren entstanden in den Randgebieten mehrere Plattenbausiedlungen.

Seit 1971 ist die ganze Altstadt als Denkmalschutzreservat geschützt. Das Hochwasser im Jahr 1997 zog die Stadt schwer in Mitleidenschaft, etwa ein Drittel des Stadtgebiets wurde überschwemmt. Im Jahr 2000 wurde die Dreifaltigkeitssäule in die Liste des UNESCO-Welterbes aufgenommen. Nach der Verwaltungsreform von 2000 wurde die bisherige Kreisstadt mit der Errichtung der Olmützer Region dessen Verwaltungssitz.

Juden in Olmütz

Die Synagoge in Olmütz

Die ersten Juden siedelten in Olmütz bereits 906. Ab dem Jahre 1060 hatten sie in einem Ghetto zu wohnen und ein gelbes Erkennungszeichen zu tragen. Im Jahr 1454 wurden sämtliche Juden aus Olmütz ausgewiesen. Dieses Gesetz war bis 1848 gültig.

Die Olmützer Synagoge wurde von 1895 bis 1897 erbaut. In der Nacht vom 15. auf den 16. März 1939, nach der Besetzung durch die Wehrmacht, wurde die Synagoge angezündet und brannte ab. Gleichzeitig wurden etwa 800 Juden festgenommen und später in das Konzentrationslager Dachau deportiert. Einige Sitzbänke der Synagoge wurden ausgebaut, dienten lange als Kirchenbänke in einer Dorfkirche bei Prostějov und wurden schließlich 2004 in der renovierten Synagoge in Krnov aufgestellt. Einige davon stehen heute in der Synagoge von Loštice und erinnern an die in den Konzentrationslagern ermordeten jüdischen Bürger. Der Ehrensitz ist Berthold Oppenheim gewidmet, dem Rabbi von Olmütz und Loštice.

Während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus wurden 3.489 Menschen in fünf Transporten, am 26. und 30. Juni 1942, am 4. Juli 1942 und am 7. März 1945 in das Ghetto Theresienstadt deportiert. Nur 285 Juden der Stadtbevölkerung überlebten. Damit erlosch das jüdische Leben in Olmütz für lange Zeit. Seit 2011 wurden und werden in Olmütz von Gunter Demnig Stolpersteine zur Erinnerung an ermordete Juden verlegt. Olmütz gehört mit Prag und Brünn zu den Städten mit den meisten Stolpersteinen in Tschechien (Stand 2016).

Erst seit 1989 gibt es eine Belebung des jüdischen Kultuslebens in der Stadt. 1991 wurde eine selbständige jüdische Gemeinde mit einem Wirkungskreis für die Bezirke Olmütz, Šumperk, Jeseník, Bruntál und Přerov wiederbegründet.

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olm%C3%BCtz

Dr Alex Bellem

Durham University (UK) & CBRL

  

Monday, March 21st, 2016, 6 pm

Ifpo, Jabal Amman, 3 Ibrahim A. Zahri st.

in the Abd al-Rahman Munif conference room

  

Lecture in English

محاضرة باللغة الإنكليزية

 

Dr Alex Bellem is a linguist specialising in comparative and theoretical phonology and phonetics, Arabic dialectology, language documentation, and language varieties of the Middle East. She has a BA in Middle Eastern Studies (Manchester) and an MA and PhD in Linguistics (London) and has previously held academic posts at the University of Salford and the CBRL in Amman and Damascus. She is now Lecturer in Arabic at Durham University and is also currently a CBRL Senior Visiting Fellow at the CBRL British Institute Amman working on a pilot study investigating rural dialects (January – April 2016).

 

Abstract

 

Across the Arab world, rapid social changes, technological development and increasing migration underpin massive language change. With large-scale migration into cities, alongside marginalisation of rural settlements and simultaneous increased exposure to the prestige of the urban lifestyle – with all it promises over the hardships of the old country ways of life – comes the erosion and potentially the disappearance of traditional rural lifestyles. With that erosion comes the erosion of rural identities, one major aspect of which is linguistic.

 

The linguistic impact of changing rural lifestyles is significant. The first question is: are rural dialects dying out? And if so, how? Inevitably, in all languages some words will disappear or change with outdated concepts and changing physical environments. However, it appears that in addition to these lexical and semantic changes, rural dialects of Arabic may be undergoing more systematic phonological and morpho-syntactic changes, often in the direction of typically urban patterns. In this case (rural) dialect change is not just gradual evolution of that dialect but actual loss. This lecture will discuss this assumption alongside the search for endangered rural dialects in Jordan. In the context of increased awareness of the value of intangible cultural heritage, and its preservation, the second question focuses on documentation of these language varieties. The lecture also discusses the greater invisibility of women's culture, especially within rural communities that are already low-profile, and how this is being addressed in ongoing linguistic fieldwork.

 

www.ifporient.org/node/1790

---- ( ---- ---- ) ----

 

---- ( ---- ---- ) ----

  

the slideshow

  

Qi Bo's photos on Fluidr

  

Qi Bo's photos on Flickriver

  

Qi Bo's photos on FlickeFlu

  

……………………………………………………………………………….

  

From 19 to 21 August 2016 in the Sicilian town of Ali, there was the so-called "Great Feast" ("Festa Ranni" in Sicilian dialect) in honor of their patron Saint Agatha.

 

The feast, which lasts three days, it is called "Feast Ranni" (Great Feast) to emphasize the exceptional nature of the event, since it falls only once every ten years. Preparations officially begin early as a month before and are involved both the "ciliary" (ie families entrusted from time to time, which shall prepare at their own expense at the solemn celebration for Her Patron Saint), both the "Deputation of St. Agatha" collaborating with the parish priest, plays a role during the organizational phase.

 

The passage of the Holy Relics of the Martyr Agatha in the village of Ali (Messina) in their return to Catania, on the morning of August 17 of the year 1126, it was for this Sicilian center an extraordinary and grandiose event, that led to the building of the great Mother Church , which took place in the sixteenth century; then the celebration of the annual festival but especially the so-called "Great Feast", which recalls the three-day feasts taking place in the city of Catania.

  

We don't known the origins of this ancient feast, whose complex ritual was entrusted, almost to the present day only to the oral tradition; Father Seraphim of Ali (junior) speaks in 1754, in his book "Of story of Ali and his territory".

Long and laborious preparations are assigned to two groups each formed by twelve families belonging to two different districts of the country, they receive instructions to draw up each other's "Ciliium of Bread" and the other the "Cilium of Girls". These families are appointed by the Deputation of St. Agatha (Advisory body that exercises within the Church Mother, economic and organizational functions) and by the parish priest.

The names of the families of "ciliary", as they are called, are made known by the parish priest, after the morning Mass of the 5 February of the current year.

  

Traditionally the families of "Ciliium of Girls" traveling in neighboring countries (Fiumedinisi, Itala and Ali Terme) with the sound of the accordion and tambourine, to communicate the imminent date of the festivities and take offerings and gold jewelry in part borrowed, in part donated, to adorn the "Cilium of Girls".

Liturgical events are intertwined with the traditional folk feast. The Feast attracts many faithful and many emigrants who, for the occasion, return to their native village of Ali. The last day of celebration the two Ciliums and the float of St. Agatha are carried in procession through the city.

 

Postscript: This report is dedicated to the German family of Jewish origin, consisting of father, mother and two children, on a boat they decided to take his own life to escape their Nazi persecutors, by binding them all together, and weighted with stones, they threw themselves off the waters of Mazzaro (Taormina); they were later fished out by now without life, by local fishermen: in the "graveyard of foreigners" of Taormina, now for ever and ever close together, they rest in peace.

  

---------------------------------------

 

Dal 19 al 21 Agosto 2016 nel paese Siciliano di Alì (Messina) si è svolta una caratteristica festa, della quale propongo un report fotografico.

 

La Festa , durata infatti tre giorni, è denominata "Festa Ranni" (Festa Grande) per porre in risalto l'eccezionalità del fenomeno e la grandiosità dell’evento, poiché essa ricade una sola volta ogni dieci anni. I preparativi iniziano ufficialmente già un mese prima e vedono coinvolti sia i “ciliari” (cioè le famiglie incaricate di volta in volta e scelte a rotazione, che provvedono a preparare a proprie spese la festa solenne per la Santa Patrona, con l’allestimento dei due “cilii” ovvero le due “vare” anche intese come “cerei”), sia la “Deputazione di S. Agata” che collaborando con il Parroco, svolge un ruolo durante la fase organizzativa.

 

Il passaggio delle Sacre Reliquie della Martire catanese dal paese di Ali (Messina) nel rientro loro verso Catania, la mattina del 17 agosto dell’anno 1126 , fu per questo centro Siciliano un evento straordinario e grandioso, che portarono alla edificazione della grande Chiesa Madre, avvenuta nel XVI secolo, quindi alla celebrazione della festa annuale ma soprattutto della così detta “Festa Ranni”, che ricorda i tre giorni di festa che avvengono nella città di Catania.

  

Oscure sono le origini e le antiche modalità di svolgimento di questa festa, il cui complesso rituale è stato affidato, fin quasi ai nostri giorni esclusivamente alla tradizione orale, Padre Serafino d’Alì (junior) ne parla nel 1754, nel suo libro “Della storia di Alì e suo territoro”.

Lunghi e laboriosi sono i preparativi affidati a due gruppi formati ciascuno da dodici famiglie appartenenti a due diversi quartieri del paese, che ricevono l’incarico di allestire l'uno il "Cilio del Pane" e l'altro il "Cilio delle Ragazze". Queste famiglie vengono nominate dalla Deputazione di S. Agata (Organo consultivo che esercita all’interno della Chiesa Madre, funzioni economico-organizzative) e dal Parroco, e la loro scelta segue una rotazione tale che nel corso degli anni nessun nucleo familiare, e di conseguenza nessun quartiere, ne rimane escluso.

 

I nomi dei "Ciliari", così vengono denominati, vengono resi noti dal Parroco, al termine della messa mattutina del 5 Febbraio dell’anno prestabilito per la Festa.

 

Come già detto sopra, ogni gruppo provvede autonomamente ad allestire l'uno il "Cilio del Pane" l'altro il "Cilio delle Ragazze".

  

Per tradizione le 12 famiglie di “ciliari delle ragazze”, anche loro sempre accompagnate da un nutrito gruppo (soprattutto giovani), si recano nei paesi vicini (Fiumedinisi, Itala e Alì Terme) a suon di fisarmonica e tamburello, per comunicare l’imminente data dei festeggiamenti e per raccogliere offerte e monili d’oro in parte in prestito, in parte ceduti, per adornare il “cilio delle ragazze”.

Le manifestazioni liturgiche si intrecciano con quelle folkloristiche; la festa richiama numerosi fedeli e parecchi emigrati che, per l’occasione, fanno ritorno al paese natio di Alì. L’ultimo giorno di festa i due cilii ed il fercolo di S. Agata vengono portati in processione lungo le vie cittadine.

Post scriptum: questo report lo dedico alla famiglia tedesca di origine ebrea, composta da padre, madre e da due bambini, che su di una barca decise di togliersi la vita per sfuggire ai loro persecutori nazisti, essi legandosi tutti tra di loro, ed appesantiti con pietre, si gettarono al largo delle acque di Mazzarò (Taormina); essi vennero poi ripescati, oramai senza vita, dai pescatori locali: nel “cimitero degli stranieri” di Taormina riposano le loro spoglie mortali.

  

Sudbury (/ˈsʌdbəri/, Suffolk dialect: /ˈsʌbri/) is a small market town in the English county of Suffolk. It is located on the River Stour near the Essex border, and is 60 miles (97 km) north-east of London. At the 2011 census, the town has a population of 13,063, rising to 21,971 including the adjoining parish of Great Cornard. It is the largest town of Babergh district council, the local government district, and is represented in the UK Parliament as part of the South Suffolk constituency.

 

Evidence of Sudbury as a settlement originates from the end of the 8th century during the Anglo-Saxon era, and its market was established in the early 11th century. Its textile industries prospered during the Late Middle Ages; the wealth of which funded many of its buildings and churches. The town became notable for its art in the 18th century, being the birthplace of Thomas Gainsborough, whose landscapes offered inspiration to John Constable, another Suffolk painter of the surrounding Stour Valley area. The 19th century saw the arrival of the railway with the opening of a station on the historic Stour Valley Railway, and Sudbury railway station forms the current terminus of the Gainsborough Line. During World War II, US Army Airforce bombers operated from RAF Sudbury.

 

Today, Sudbury retains its status as a market town with a twice-weekly market in the town centre in front of the redundant St Peter's Church, which is now a local community point for events such as concerts and exhibitions. In sport, the town has a semi-professional football club, A.F.C. Sudbury, which competes at the seventh level of the football pyramid.

 

Early history[edit]

Sudbury’s history dates back into the age of the Saxons.[2] The town’s earliest mention is in 799 AD, when Aelfhun, Bishop of Dunwich, died in the town.[3] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the town as Suthberie ("south-borough"), presumed to distinguish it from Norwich or Bury St Edmunds, to the north.[2] The town is also mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, as a market town where the local people came to barter their goods.[3] The market was established in 1009.[4]

 

A community of Dominicans arrived in the mid-13th century and gradually extended the size of their priory, which was one of three Dominican priories in the county of Suffolk.[5] Sudbury was one of the first towns in which Edward III settled the Flemings,[2] allowing the weaving and silk industries to prosper for centuries during the Late Middle Ages. As the main town in the area, Sudbury prospered too, and many great houses and churches were built, giving the town a major historical legacy. The Woolsack in the House of Lords was originally stuffed with wool from the Sudbury area, a sign of both the importance of the wool industry and of the wealth of the donors.

 

One citizen of Sudbury, Archbishop Simon Sudbury showed that not even the Tower of London guarantees safety. On 14 June 1381 guards opened the Tower’s doors and allowed a party of rebellious peasants to enter. Sudbury, inventor of the poll tax, was dragged to Tower Hill and beheaded.[6] His body was afterwards buried in Canterbury Cathedral, but his skull is kept in St. Gregory’s with St. Peter’s Church,[7] one of the three medieval churches in Sudbury. Simon's concerns for his native town are reflected in the founding of St Leonard's Hospital in 1372, a place of respite, towards Long Melford, for lepers.[8] For the College of St Gregory, which he founded in 1375 to support eight priests, he used his father's former house and an adjoining plot.[9]

 

From the 16th to 18th century the weaving industry was less consistently profitable and Sudbury experienced periods of varying prosperity.[10] By means of the borough court, the mayor and corporation directed the affairs of the town. They built a house of correction (1624) for 'rogues, vagabonds and sturdy beggars' and tried to finance the reconstruction of Ballingdon Bridge, which disappeared during a storm on 4 September 1594. Among theatrical companies they paid to visit Sudbury were Lord Strange's Men (1592) and the King's Men (1610). Minor infringements, such as not attending church, were punished by fines, for worse offenders there was a stocks or a whipping. During the Civil War a 12-strong band of watchmen was created to prevent the town's enemies, presumed to be Royalists, burning it down.[11]

 

Sudbury and the surrounding area, like much of East Anglia, was a hotbed of Puritan sentiment during much of the 17th century. Sudbury was among the town's called "notorious wasps' nests of dissent."[12] During the decade of the 1630s, many families departed for the Massachusetts Bay Colony as part of the wave of emigration that occurred during the Great Migration.

 

By the 18th century the fees charged to become a freeman, with voting rights, were exorbitant and the borough of Sudbury, along with 177 other English towns, was reformed by a Municipal Reform Act (1835).

  

Statue of Thomas Gainsborough on Market Hill

During the 18th century Sudbury became famous for its local artists. John Constable painted in the area, especially the River Stour. Painter Thomas Gainsborough was born in Sudbury in 1727, and was educated at Sudbury Grammar School.[13] His birthplace, now named Gainsborough's House, is a museum to his work and is open to the public. It houses many valuable pictures and some of his family possessions. A statue of Gainsborough was unveiled in the town centre outside St Peter’s Church on Market Hill in 1913.[3]

 

Victorian times to present day[edit]

The 1832 Reform Act saw the villages of Ballingdon and Brundon appended to the town.[14] In the 1841 general election Sudbury became the first place in the UK to elect a member of an ethnic minority to parliament, with David Ochterlony Dyce Sombre, the son of an Indian queen, winning the seat. However, he was not allowed to take his place in parliament as he was subsequently declared insane.[15]

 

Sudbury's Catholic Church, Our Lady Immaculate and St. John the Evangelist, was designed by Leonard Stokes and erected in 1893. The shrine of Our Lady of Sudbury sits within its nave.[16]

 

During the Second World War an American squadron of B-24 Liberator bombers of the 834th Squadron (H), 486th Bomb Group (H), 8th Air Force was based at RAF Sudbury. This squadron performed many important bombing and photographic missions during the war, but is perhaps best known as the "Zodiac Squadron", as its bombers were decorated with colourful images of the twelve signs of the zodiac painted by a professional artist named Phil Brinkman,[17] who was taken into the squadron by its commander, Capt. Howell, specifically for the purpose of painting the bombers. Now most of the airfield buildings have been demolished, including the control tower. Sections of perimeter track, aircraft hard stand areas, and two narrow crossing lengths of former runways, provide footpaths between Chilton, Newmans Green and Great Waldingfield.

 

The Sudbury Society was formed in 1973 after a successful campaign to save the town's corn exchange from developers. However, in protecting its ancient centre the town has not shut itself off from modern development. As the town has expanded (to a population in 2005 of 12,080) modern retail and industrial developments have been added on sites close to the centre and on the eastern edge at Chilton. The 18th and 19th century houses near the town centre have been added to by modern developments. wikipedia

"Two-story gable roof building with curved gables in the corner, plastered masonry with limestone frames, Renaissance, 16th century, conversion in the 18th century, historicizing renovation in 1938.

 

Heidingsfeld is a left-wing Main district and also a district in the south of Würzburg with around 10,200 inhabitants. The former urban area, which existed before the incorporation in 1930, stretched from the Steinbachtal to the current Heuchelhof district. The locals call their place Hätzfeld in the dialect.

 

Heidingsfeld was mentioned in a document in a market description from 779. The name originally comes from “Hedans Feld”, i.e. the town of the Thuringian Duke Hedan. The place belonged to the Würzburg Mark and has been a royal estate since 849. Louis the German gave the place away to the Fulda monastery, from which it came to the Hohenstaufens in the 12th century. In 1160, the monastery of St. Burkard (Würzburg) in Heidingsfeld (and Leinach) acquired the tithe “with great difficulty”. In 1297, Heidingsfeld was pledged to the Würzburg Monastery by Adolf von Nassau.

 

In 1273, Bishop Hermann I of Lobdeburg decreed that Beguines living in front of St. Nicholas Gate should found a Benedictine monastery (“To Paradise”) in Heidingsfeld. In Heidingsfeld on today's Wenzelstrasse, the St. Nikolausspital, a hospital founded as a foundation for poor citizens of Heidingsfeld, had existed since the 14th century. For the hospital chapel dedicated to St. Nicholas, the dean of Haug Abbey in Würzburg, Conrad Minner, donated a vicarage of St. Peter and Paul, confirmed in 1413. In 1516 the hospital operations were stopped. The hospital church was renovated again under Julius Echter. As in neighboring Würzburg and other cities, there were also bathing rooms in Heidingsfeld. A barber named “Sygel” is documented for the year 1433 and the barber “Hans Beckman in der Klinge” a year later.

 

In 1367 Heidingsfeld was granted city rights. In 1565, Jews expelled from Würzburg settled in Heidingsfeld. Heidingsfeld thus became an important religious center for the Jewish community and was the seat of the Chief Rabbi of Lower Franconia from the early 18th century until the rabbinate was moved to Würzburg in 1814. As a result, the Jewish cemetery in Heidingsfeld was inaugurated in 1811. In the early 19th century, Heidingsfeld had the second largest Jewish community in what was then the Kingdom of Bavaria after Fürth. There is evidence of an infirmary in Heidingsfeld from around 1321. According to data from the Society for Leprosy, there was evidence of a medieval leprosy in Heidingsfeld from 1325 onwards.

 

The Swedes under Gustav Adolf conquered the city in the Thirty Years' War.

 

Heidingsfeld was an independent town from 1367 to 1929. This is where today's colloquial name “Städtle” (for the old town of Heidingsfeld) comes from, since Heidingsfeld (in 1818, with fewer than 500 families living there, still referred to as a “third class town”) was essentially a small town within the big city Würzburg represents. Since 1909 there have been efforts to connect Heidingsfeld to Würzburg. After the Würzburg city council rejected incorporation with a narrow majority on March 28 and October 28, 1913, Heidingsfeld was reorganized on January 1, 1930 under the mayors Hans Löffler (Würzburg) and Max Schnabel (Heidingsfeld) at the request of the citizens incorporated into Würzburg after a vote. With this (increased by 5,700 inhabitants and 2,466 hectares of district area), Würzburg became a major city. In 1850 a hospital was built in Heidingsfeld. In 1855, the Poor School Sisters founded a secondary school for girls and then expanded their care activities to two more girls' schools in 1857 and 1867 and to the district orphanage in 1859. In 1864 Heidingsfeld received a fire department.

 

In 1892, the Sisters of Mercy founded a municipal retirement home in the former tithe of the Würzburg noble secular canon monastery of St. Burkard.

 

The Protestant parish church of St. Paul was built from 1912 to 1913.

 

During Kristallnacht in 1938, the synagogue, a central reference point for Heidingsfeld Jews, was set on fire and destroyed by the National Socialists at 2:30 a.m. On March 16, 1945, 85% of the town was severely damaged in the heavy British air raid on Würzburg, including the rectory in which the Heidingsfeld doctor and world-famous Japan researcher Philipp Franz von Siebold and his mother lived. On April 2nd, three days before Würzburg's surrender, American troops reached Heidingsfeld.

 

During the term of office of Bishop Matthias Ehrenfried (1924 to 1948), the “Werkinghaus” was set up, supported by the Working Group for Charitable and Social Tasks of the Catholic parish of Heidingsfeld. It is the first church community center in what is now the city of Würzburg.

 

On July 18, 2016, an attack occurred on a regional train near Würzburg, which ended with the assassin being shot in Heidingsfeld.

 

The redesign of the town hall square, which has been planned since 1979/1980, began with the groundbreaking ceremony on October 11, 2018 and was completed with the handover to the citizens on December 11, 2019. The redesign introduced new traffic routing and larger areas for pedestrians.

 

Lower Franconia (German: Unterfranken) is one of seven districts of Bavaria, Germany. The districts of Lower, Middle and Upper Franconia make up the region of Franconia. It consists of nine districts and 308 municipalities (including three cities).

 

After the founding of the Kingdom of Bavaria the state was totally reorganised and, in 1808, divided into 15 administrative government regions (German: Regierungsbezirke, singular Regierungsbezirk), in Bavaria called Kreise (singular: Kreis). They were created in the fashion of the French departements, quite even in size and population, and named after their main rivers.

 

In the following years, due to territorial changes (e. g. loss of Tyrol, addition of the Palatinate), the number of Kreise was reduced to 8. One of these was the Untermainkreis (Lower Main District). In 1837 king Ludwig I of Bavaria renamed the Kreise after historical territorial names and tribes of the area. This also involved some border changes or territorial swaps. Thus the name Untermainkreis changed to Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg, but the city name was dropped in the middle of the 20th century, leaving just Lower Franconia.

 

From 1933, the regional Nazi Gauleiter, Otto Hellmuth, (who had renamed his party Gau "Mainfranken") insisted on renaming the government district Mainfranken as well. He encountered resistance from Bavarian state authorities but finally succeeded in having the name of the district changed, effective 1 June 1938. After 1945 the name Unterfranken was restored.

 

Franconia (German: Franken, pronounced [ˈfʁaŋkŋ̍]; Franconian: Franggn [ˈfrɑŋɡŋ̍]; Bavarian: Frankn) is a region of Germany, characterised by its culture and Franconian dialect (German: Fränkisch).

 

Franconia is made up of the three Regierungsbezirke of Lower, Middle and Upper Franconia in Bavaria, the adjacent, Franconian-speaking, South Thuringia, south of the Thuringian Forest—which constitutes the language boundary between Franconian and Thuringian— and the eastern parts of Heilbronn-Franconia in Baden-Württemberg.

 

Those parts of the Vogtland lying in Saxony (largest city: Plauen) are sometimes regarded as Franconian as well, because the Vogtlandian dialects are mostly East Franconian. The inhabitants of Saxon Vogtland, however, mostly do not consider themselves as Franconian. On the other hand, the inhabitants of the Hessian-speaking parts of Lower Franconia west of the Spessart (largest city: Aschaffenburg) do consider themselves as Franconian, although not speaking the dialect. Heilbronn-Franconia's largest city of Heilbronn and its surrounding areas are South Franconian-speaking, and therefore only sometimes regarded as Franconian. In Hesse, the east of the Fulda District is Franconian-speaking, and parts of the Oden Forest District are sometimes regarded as Franconian for historical reasons, but a Franconian identity did not develop there.

 

Franconia's largest city and unofficial capital is Nuremberg, which is contiguous with Erlangen and Fürth, with which it forms the Franconian conurbation with around 1.3 million inhabitants. Other important Franconian cities are Würzburg, Bamberg, Bayreuth, Ansbach and Coburg in Bavaria, Suhl and Meiningen in Thuringia, and Schwäbisch Hall in Baden-Württemberg.

 

The German word Franken—Franconians—also refers to the ethnic group, which is mainly to be found in this region. They are to be distinguished from the Germanic people of the Franks, and historically formed their easternmost settlement area. The origins of Franconia lie in the settlement of the Franks from the 6th century in the area probably populated until then mainly by the Elbe Germanic people in the Main river area, known from the 9th century as East Francia (Francia Orientalis). In the Middle Ages the region formed much of the eastern part of the Duchy of Franconia and, from 1500, the Franconian Circle. The restructuring of the south German states by Napoleon, after the demise of the Holy Roman Empire, saw most of Franconia awarded to Bavaria." - info from Wikipedia.

 

Summer 2019 I did a solo cycling tour across Europe through 12 countries over the course of 3 months. I began my adventure in Edinburgh, Scotland and finished in Florence, Italy cycling 8,816 km. During my trip I took 47,000 photos.

 

Now on Instagram.

 

Become a patron to my photography on Patreon or donate.

The Toraja are an ethnic group indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Their population is approximately 1,100,000, of whom 450,000 live in the regency of Tana Toraja ("Land of Toraja"). Most of the population is Christian, and others are Muslim or have local animist beliefs known as aluk ("the way"). The Indonesian government has recognized this animist belief as Aluk To Dolo ("Way of the Ancestors").

 

The word toraja comes from the Bugis Buginese language term to riaja, meaning "people of the uplands". The Dutch colonial government named the people Toraja in 1909. Torajans are renowned for their elaborate funeral rites, burial sites carved into rocky cliffs, massive peaked-roof traditional houses known as tongkonan, and colorful wood carvings. Toraja funeral rites are important social events, usually attended by hundreds of people and lasting for several days.

 

Before the 20th century, Torajans lived in autonomous villages, where they practised animism and were relatively untouched by the outside world. In the early 1900s, Dutch missionaries first worked to convert Torajan highlanders to Christianity. When the Tana Toraja regency was further opened to the outside world in the 1970s, it became an icon of tourism in Indonesia: it was exploited by tourism developers and studied by anthropologists. By the 1990s, when tourism peaked, Toraja society had changed significantly, from an agrarian model - in which social life and customs were outgrowths of the Aluk To Dolo - to a largely Christian society. Today, tourism and remittances from migrant Torajans have made for major changes in the Toraja highland, giving the Toraja a celebrity status within Indonesia and enhancing Toraja ethnic group pride.

 

ETHNIC IDENTITY

The Torajan people had little notion of themselves as a distinct ethnic group before the 20th century. Before Dutch colonization and Christianization, Torajans, who lived in highland areas, identified with their villages and did not share a broad sense of identity. Although complexes of rituals created linkages between highland villages, there were variations in dialects, differences in social hierarchies, and an array of ritual practices in the Sulawesi highland region. "Toraja" (from the coastal languages' to, meaning people; and riaja, uplands) was first used as a lowlander expression for highlanders. As a result, "Toraja" initially had more currency with outsiders - such as the Bugis and Makassarese, who constitute a majority of the lowland of Sulawesi - than with insiders. The Dutch missionaries' presence in the highlands gave rise to the Toraja ethnic consciousness in the Sa'dan Toraja region, and this shared identity grew with the rise of tourism in the Tana Toraja Regency. Since then, South Sulawesi has four main ethnic groups - the Bugis (the majority, including shipbuilders and seafarers), the Makassarese (lowland traders and seafarers), the Mandarese (traders and fishermen), and the Toraja (highland rice cultivators).

 

HISTORY

From the 17th century, the Dutch established trade and political control on Sulawesi through the Dutch East Indies Company. Over two centuries, they ignored the mountainous area in the central Sulawesi, where Torajans lived, because access was difficult and it had little productive agricultural land. In the late 19th century, the Dutch became increasingly concerned about the spread of Islam in the south of Sulawesi, especially among the Makassarese and Bugis peoples. The Dutch saw the animist highlanders as potential Christians. In the 1920s, the Reformed Missionary Alliance of the Dutch Reformed Church began missionary work aided by the Dutch colonial government. In addition to introducing Christianity, the Dutch abolished slavery and imposed local taxes. A line was drawn around the Sa'dan area and called Tana Toraja ("the land of Toraja"). Tana Toraja was first a subdivision of the Luwu kingdom that had claimed the area. In 1946, the Dutch granted Tana Toraja a regentschap, and it was recognized in 1957 as one of the regencies of Indonesia.

 

Early Dutch missionaries faced strong opposition among Torajans, especially among the elite, because the abolition of their profitable slave trade had angered them. Some Torajans were forcibly relocated to the lowlands by the Dutch, where they could be more easily controlled. Taxes were kept high, undermining the wealth of the elites. Ultimately, the Dutch influence did not subdue Torajan culture, and only a few Torajans were converted. In 1950, only 10% of the population had converted to Christianity.

 

In the 1930s, Muslim lowlanders attacked the Torajans, resulting in widespread Christian conversion among those who sought to align themselves with the Dutch for political protection and to form a movement against the Bugis and Makassarese Muslims. Between 1951 and 1965 (following Indonesian independence), southern Sulawesi faced a turbulent period as the Darul Islam separatist movement fought for an Islamic state in Sulawesi. The 15 years of guerrilla warfare led to massive conversions to

 

CHRISTIANITY

Alignment with the Indonesian government, however, did not guarantee safety for the Torajans. In 1965, a presidential decree required every Indonesian citizen to belong to one of five officially recognized religions: Islam, Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism), Hinduism, or Buddhism. The Torajan religious belief (aluk) was not legally recognized, and the Torajans raised their voices against the law. To make aluk accord with the law, it had to be accepted as part of one of the official religions. In 1969, Aluk To Dolo ("the way of ancestors") was legalized as a sect of Agama Hindu Dharma, the official name of Hinduism in Indonesia.

 

SOCIETY

There are three main types of affiliation in Toraja society: family, class and religion.

 

FAMILY AFFILIATION

Family is the primary social and political grouping in Torajan society. Each village is one extended family, the seat of which is the tongkonan, a traditional Torajan house. Each tongkonan has a name, which becomes the name of the village. The familial dons maintain village unity. Marriage between distant cousins (fourth cousins and beyond) is a common practice that strengthens kinship. Toraja society prohibits marriage between close cousins (up to and including the third cousin) - except for nobles, to prevent the dispersal of property. Kinship is actively reciprocal, meaning that the extended family helps each other farm, share buffalo rituals, and pay off debts.

 

Each person belongs to both the mother's and the father's families, the only bilateral family line in Indonesia. Children, therefore, inherit household affiliation from both mother and father, including land and even family debts. Children's names are given on the basis of kinship, and are usually chosen after dead relatives. Names of aunts, uncles and cousins are commonly referred to in the names of mothers, fathers and siblings.

 

Before the start of the formal administration of Toraja villages by the Tana Toraja Regency, each Toraja village was autonomous. In a more complex situation, in which one Toraja family could not handle their problems alone, several villages formed a group; sometimes, villages would unite against other villages. Relationship between families was expressed through blood, marriage, and shared ancestral houses (tongkonan), practically signed by the exchange of water buffalo and pigs on ritual occasions. Such exchanges not only built political and cultural ties between families but defined each person's place in a social hierarchy: who poured palm wine, who wrapped a corpse and prepared offerings, where each person could or could not sit, what dishes should be used or avoided, and even what piece of meat constituted one's share.

 

CLASS AFFILIATION

In early Toraja society, family relationships were tied closely to social class. There were three strata: nobles, commoners, and slaves (slavery was abolished in 1909 by the Dutch East Indies government). Class was inherited through the mother. It was taboo, therefore, to marry "down" with a woman of lower class. On the other hand, marrying a woman of higher class could improve the status of the next generation. The nobility's condescending attitude toward the commoners is still maintained today for reasons of family prestige.

 

Nobles, who were believed to be direct descendants of the descended person from heaven, lived in tongkonans, while commoners lived in less lavish houses (bamboo shacks called banua). Slaves lived in small huts, which had to be built around their owner's tongkonan. Commoners might marry anyone, but nobles preferred to marry in-family to maintain their status. Sometimes nobles married Bugis or Makassarese nobles. Commoners and slaves were prohibited from having death feasts. Despite close kinship and status inheritance, there was some social mobility, as marriage or change in wealth could affect an individuals status. Wealth was counted by the ownership of water buffaloes.

 

Slaves in Toraja society were family property. Sometimes Torajans decided to become slaves when they incurred a debt, pledging to work as payment. Slaves could be taken during wars, and slave trading was common. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited slave status. Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold, carving their houses, eating from the same dishes as their owners, or having sex with free women - a crime punishable by death.

 

RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION

Toraja's indigenous belief system is polytheistic animism, called aluk, or "the way" (sometimes translated as "the law"). In the Toraja myth, the ancestors of Torajan people came down from heaven using stairs, which were then used by the Torajans as a communication medium with Puang Matua, the Creator. The cosmos, according to aluk, is divided into the upper world (heaven), the world of man (earth), and the underworld. At first, heaven and earth were married, then there was a darkness, a separation, and finally the light. Animals live in the underworld, which is represented by rectangular space enclosed by pillars, the earth is for mankind, and the heaven world is located above, covered with a saddle-shaped roof. Other Toraja gods include Pong Banggai di Rante (god of Earth), Indo' Ongon-Ongon (a goddess who can cause earthquakes), Pong Lalondong (god of death), and Indo' Belo Tumbang (goddess of medicine); there are many more.

 

The earthly authority, whose words and actions should be cleaved to both in life (agriculture) and death (funerals), is called to minaa (an aluk priest). Aluk is not just a belief system; it is a combination of law, religion, and habit. Aluk governs social life, agricultural practices, and ancestral rituals. The details of aluk may vary from one village to another. One common law is the requirement that death and life rituals be separated. Torajans believe that performing death rituals might ruin their corpses if combined with life rituals. The two rituals are equally important. During the time of the Dutch missionaries, Christian Torajans were prohibited from attending or performing life rituals, but were allowed to perform death rituals. Consequently, Toraja's death rituals are still practised today, while life rituals have diminished.

 

CULTURE

TONGKONAN

Tongkonan are the traditional Torajan ancestral houses. They stand high on wooden piles, topped with a layered split-bamboo roof shaped in a sweeping curved arc, and they are incised with red, black, and yellow detailed wood carvings on the exterior walls. The word "tongkonan" comes from the Torajan tongkon ("to sit").

 

Tongkonan are the center of Torajan social life. The rituals associated with the tongkonan are important expressions of Torajan spiritual life, and therefore all family members are impelled to participate, because symbolically the tongkonan represents links to their ancestors and to living and future kin. According to Torajan myth, the first tongkonan was built in heaven on four poles, with a roof made of Indian cloth. When the first Torajan ancestor descended to earth, he imitated the house and held a large ceremony.

 

The construction of a tongkonan is laborious work and is usually done with the help of the extended family. There are three types of tongkonan. The tongkonan layuk is the house of the highest authority, used as the "center of government". The tongkonan pekamberan belongs to the family members who have some authority in local traditions. Ordinary family members reside in the tongkonan batu. The exclusivity to the nobility of the tongkonan is diminishing as many Torajan commoners find lucrative employment in other parts of Indonesia. As they send back money to their families, they enable the construction of larger tongkonan.

 

WOOD CARVINGS

To express social and religious concepts, Torajans carve wood, calling it Pa'ssura (or "the writing"). Wood carvings are therefore Toraja's cultural manifestation.

 

Each carving receives a special name, and common motifs are animals and plants that symbolize some virtue. For example, water plants and animals, such as crabs, tadpoles and water weeds, are commonly found to symbolize fertility. In some areas noble elders claim these symbols refer to strength of noble family, but not everyone agrees. The overall meaning of groups of carved motifs on houses remains debated and tourism has further complicated these debates because some feel a uniform explanation must be presented to tourists. The image to the left shows an example of Torajan wood carving, consisting of 15 square panels. The center bottom panel represents buffalo or wealth, a wish for many buffaloes for the family. The center panel represents a knot and a box, a hope that all of the family's offspring will be happy and live in harmony, like goods kept safe in a box. The top left and top right squares represent an aquatic animal, indicating the need for fast and hard work, just like moving on the surface of water. It also represents the need for a certain skill to produce good results.

 

Regularity and order are common features in Toraja wood carving (see table below), as well as abstracts and geometrical designs. Nature is frequently used as the basis of Toraja's ornaments, because nature is full of abstractions and geometries with regularities and ordering. Toraja's ornaments have been studied in ethnomathematics to reveal their mathematical structure, but Torajans base this art only on approximations. To create an ornament, bamboo sticks are used as a geometrical tool.

 

FUNERAL RITES

In Toraja society, the funeral ritual is the most elaborate and expensive event. The richer and more powerful the individual, the more expensive is the funeral. In the aluk religion, only nobles have the right to have an extensive death feast. The death feast of a nobleman is usually attended by thousands and lasts for several days. A ceremonial site, called rante, is usually prepared in a large, grassy field where shelters for audiences, rice barns, and other ceremonial funeral structures are specially made by the deceased family. Flute music, funeral chants, songs and poems, and crying and wailing are traditional Toraja expressions of grief with the exceptions of funerals for young children, and poor, low-status adults.

 

The ceremony is often held weeks, months, or years after the death so that the deceased's family can raise the significant funds needed to cover funeral expenses. Torajans traditionally believe that death is not a sudden, abrupt event, but a gradual process toward Puya (the land of souls, or afterlife). During the waiting period, the body of the deceased is wrapped in several layers of cloth and kept under the tongkonan. The soul of the deceased is thought to linger around the village until the funeral ceremony is completed, after which it begins its journey to Puya.

 

Another component of the ritual is the slaughter of water buffalo. The more powerful the person who died, the more buffalo are slaughtered at the death feast. Buffalo carcasses, including their heads, are usually lined up on a field waiting for their owner, who is in the "sleeping stage". Torajans believe that the deceased will need the buffalo to make the journey and that they will be quicker to arrive at Puya if they have many buffalo. Slaughtering tens of water buffalo and hundreds of pigs using a machete is the climax of the elaborate death feast, with dancing and music and young boys who catch spurting blood in long bamboo tubes. Some of the slaughtered animals are given by guests as "gifts", which are carefully noted because they will be considered debts of the deceased's family. However, a cockfight, known as bulangan londong, is an integral part of the ceremony. As with the sacrifice of the buffalo and the pigs, the cockfight is considered sacred because it involves the spilling of blood on the earth. In particular, the tradition requires the sacrifice of at least three chickens. However, it is common for at least 25 pairs of chickens to be set against each other in the context of the ceremony.

 

There are three methods of burial: the coffin may be laid in a cave or in a carved stone grave, or hung on a cliff. It contains any possessions that the deceased will need in the afterlife. The wealthy are often buried in a stone grave carved out of a rocky cliff. The grave is usually expensive and takes a few months to complete. In some areas, a stone cave may be found that is large enough to accommodate a whole family. A wood-carved effigy, called Tau tau, is usually placed in the cave looking out over the land. The coffin of a baby or child may be hung from ropes on a cliff face or from a tree. This hanging grave usually lasts for years, until the ropes rot and the coffin falls to the ground.

 

In the ritual called Ma'Nene, that takes place each year in August, the bodies of the deceased are exhumed to be washed, groomed and dressed in new clothes. The mummies are then walked around the village.

 

DANCE AND MUSIC

Torajans perform dances on several occasions, most often during their elaborate funeral ceremonies. They dance to express their grief, and to honour and even cheer the deceased person because he is going to have a long journey in the afterlife. First, a group of men form a circle and sing a monotonous chant throughout the night to honour the deceased (a ritual called Ma'badong). This is considered by many Torajans to be the most important component of the funeral ceremony. On the second funeral day, the Ma'randing warrior dance is performed to praise the courage of the deceased during life. Several men perform the dance with a sword, a large shield made from buffalo skin, a helmet with a buffalo horn, and other ornamentation. The Ma'randing dance precedes a procession in which the deceased is carried from a rice barn to the rante, the site of the funeral ceremony. During the funeral, elder women perform the Ma'katia dance while singing a poetic song and wearing a long feathered costume. The Ma'akatia dance is performed to remind the audience of the generosity and loyalty of the deceased person. After the bloody ceremony of buffalo and pig slaughter, a group of boys and girls clap their hands while performing a cheerful dance called Ma'dondan.

 

As in other agricultural societies, Torajans dance and sing during harvest time. The Ma'bugi dance celebrates the thanksgiving event, and the Ma'gandangi dance is performed while Torajans are pounding rice. There are several war dances, such as the Manimbong dance performed by men, followed by the Ma'dandan dance performed by women. The aluk religion governs when and how Torajans dance. A dance called Ma'bua can be performed only once every 12 years. Ma'bua is a major Toraja ceremony in which priests wear a buffalo head and dance around a sacred tree.

 

A traditional musical instrument of the Toraja is a bamboo flute called a Pa'suling (suling is an Indonesian word for flute). This six-holed flute (not unique to the Toraja) is played at many dances, such as the thanksgiving dance Ma'bondensan, where the flute accompanies a group of shirtless, dancing men with long fingernails. The Toraja have indigenous musical instruments, such as the Pa'pelle (made from palm leaves) and the Pa'karombi (the Torajan version of a jaw harp). The Pa'pelle is played during harvest time and at house inauguration ceremonies.

 

LANGUAGE

The ethnic Toraja language is dominant in Tana Toraja with the main language as the Sa'dan Toraja. Although the national Indonesian language is the official language and is spoken in the community, all elementary schools in Tana Toraja teach Toraja language.Language varieties of Toraja, including Kalumpang, Mamasa, Tae' , Talondo' , Toala' , and Toraja-Sa'dan, belong to the Malayo-Polynesian language from the Austronesian family. At the outset, the isolated geographical nature of Tana Toraja formed many dialects between the Toraja languages themselves. After the formal administration of Tana Toraja, some Toraja dialects have been influenced by other languages through the transmigration program, introduced since the colonialism period, and it has been a major factor in the linguistic variety of Toraja languages. A prominent attribute of Toraja language is the notion of grief. The importance of death ceremony in Toraja culture has characterized their languages to express intricate degrees of grief and mourning. The Toraja language contains many terms referring to sadness, longing, depression, and mental pain. Giving a clear expression of the psychological and physical effect of loss is a catharsis and sometimes lessens the pain of grief itself.

 

ECONOMY

Prior to Suharto's "New Order" administration, the Torajan economy was based on agriculture, with cultivated wet rice in terraced fields on mountain slopes, and supplemental cassava and maize crops. Much time and energy were devoted to raising water buffalo, pigs, and chickens, primarily for ceremonial sacrifices and consumption. Coffee was the first significant cash crop produced in Toraja, and was introduced in the mid 19th century, changing the local economy towards commodity production for external markets and gaining an excellent reputation for quality in the international market .

 

With the commencement of the New Order in 1965, Indonesia's economy developed and opened to foreign investment. In Toraja, a coffee plantation and factory was established by Key Coffee of Japan, and Torajan coffee regained a reputation for quality within the growing international specialty coffee sector Multinational oil and mining companies opened new operations in Indonesia during the 1970s and 1980s. Torajans, particularly younger ones, relocated to work for the foreign companies - to Kalimantan for timber and oil, to Papua for mining, to the cities of Sulawesi and Java, and many went to Malaysia. The out-migration of Torajans was steady until 1985. and has continued since, with remittances sent back by emigre Torajans performing an important role within the contemporary economy.

 

Tourism commenced in Toraja in the 1970s, and accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s. Between 1984 and 1997, a significant number of Torajans obtained their incomes from tourism, working in and owning hotels, as tour guides, drivers, or selling souvenirs. With the rise of political and economic instability in Indonesia in the late 1990s - including religious conflicts elsewhere on Sulawesi - tourism in Tana Toraja has declined dramatically. Toraja continues to be a well known origin for Indonesian coffee, grown by both smallholders and plantation estates, although migration, remittances and off-farm income is considered far more important to most households, even those in rural areas.

 

TOURISM AND CULTURAL CHANGE

Before the 1970s, Toraja was almost unknown to Western tourism. In 1971, about 50 Europeans visited Tana Toraja. In 1972, at least 400 visitors attended the funeral ritual of Puang of Sangalla, the highest-ranking nobleman in Tana Toraja and the so-called "last pure-blooded Toraja noble." The event was documented by National Geographic and broadcast in several European countries. In 1976, about 12,000 tourists visited the regency and in 1981, Torajan sculpture was exhibited in major North American museums. "The land of the heavenly kings of Tana Toraja", as written in the exhibition brochure, embraced the outside world.

 

In 1984, the Indonesian Ministry of Tourism declared Tana Toraja Regency the prima donna of South Sulawesi. Tana Toraja was heralded as "the second stop after Bali". Tourism was increasing dramatically: by 1985, a total number of 150,000 foreigners had visited the Regency (in addition to 80,000 domestic tourists), and the annual number of foreign visitors was recorded at 40,000 in 1989. Souvenir stands appeared in Rantepao, the cultural center of Toraja, roads were sealed at the most-visited tourist sites, new hotels and tourist-oriented restaurants were opened, and an airstrip was opened in the Regency in 1981.

 

Tourism developers have marketed Tana Toraja as an exotic adventure - an area rich in culture and off the beaten track. Western tourists expected to see stone-age villages and pagan funerals. Toraja is for tourists who have gone as far as Bali and are willing to see more of the wild, "untouched" islands. However, they were more likely to see a Torajan wearing a hat and denim, living in a Christian society. Tourists felt that the tongkonan and other Torajan rituals had been preconceived to make profits, and complained that the destination was too commercialized. This has resulted in several clashes between Torajans and tourism developers, whom Torajans see as outsiders.

 

A clash between local Torajan leaders and the South Sulawesi provincial government (as a tourist developer) broke out in 1985. The government designated 18 Toraja villages and burial sites as traditional tourist attractions. Consequently, zoning restrictions were applied to these areas, such that Torajans themselves were barred from changing their tongkonans and burial sites. The plan was opposed by some Torajan leaders, as they felt that their rituals and traditions were being determined by outsiders. As a result, in 1987, the Torajan village of Kété Kesú and several other designated tourist attractions closed their doors to tourists. This closure lasted only a few days, as the villagers found it too difficult to survive without the income from selling souvenirs.

 

Tourism has also transformed Toraja society. Originally, there was a ritual which allowed commoners to marry nobles (puang) and thereby gain nobility for their children. However, the image of Torajan society created for the tourists, often by "lower-ranking" guides, has eroded its traditional strict hierarchy. High status is not as esteemed in Tana Toraja as it once was. Many low-ranking men can declare themselves and their children nobles by gaining enough wealth through work outside the region and then marrying a noble woman.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Luzern - Kapellbrücke

 

Lucerne (/luːˈsɜːrn/ loo-SURN, French: [lysɛʁn]; High Alemannic: Lozärn) or Luzern (Swiss Standard German: [luˈtsɛrn]) is a city in central Switzerland, in the German-speaking portion of the country. Lucerne is the capital of the canton of Lucerne and part of the district of the same name. With a population of approximately 82,000 people, Lucerne is the most populous city in Central Switzerland, and a nexus of economics, transportation, culture, and media in the region. The city's urban area consists of 19 municipalities and towns with an overall population of about 220,000 people.

 

Owing to its location on the shores of Lake Lucerne (German: Vierwaldstättersee) and its outflow, the river Reuss, within sight of the mounts Pilatus and Rigi in the Swiss Alps, Lucerne has long been a destination for tourists. One of the city's landmarks is the Chapel Bridge (German: Kapellbrücke), a wooden bridge first erected in the 14th century.

 

The official language of Lucerne is German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect, Lucerne German.

 

History

 

Early history and founding (750–1386)

 

After the fall of the Roman Empire beginning in the 6th century, Germanic Alemannic peoples increased their influence on this area of present-day Switzerland.

 

Around 750 the Benedictine Monastery of St. Leodegar was founded, which was later acquired by Murbach Abbey in Alsace in the middle of the 9th century, and by this time the area had become known as Luciaria.

 

The origin of the name is uncertain, it is possibly derived from the Latin name of the pike, lucius, thus designating a pike fishing spot in the river Reuss. Derivation from the theonym Lugus has been suggested but is phonetically implausible. In any case, the name was associated by popular etymology with Latin lucerna "lantern" from an early time.

 

In 1178 Lucerne acquired its independence from the jurisdiction of Murbach Abbey, and the founding of the city proper probably occurred that same year. The city gained importance as a strategically located gateway for the growing commerce from the Gotthard trade route.

 

By 1290, Lucerne had become a self-sufficient city of reasonable size with about 3000 inhabitants. About this time King Rudolph I von Habsburg gained authority over the Monastery of St. Leodegar and its lands, including Lucerne. The populace was not content with the increasing Habsburg influence, and Lucerne allied with neighboring towns to seek independence from their rule. Along with Lucerne, the three other forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden formed the "eternal" Swiss Confederacy, known as the Eidgenossenschaft, on November 7, 1332.

 

Later the cities of Zürich, Zug and Bern joined the alliance. With the help of these additions, the rule of Austria over the area came to an end. The issue was settled by Lucerne's victory over the Habsburgs in the Battle of Sempach in 1386. For Lucerne this victory ignited an era of expansion. The city shortly granted many rights to itself, rights which had been withheld by the Habsburgs until then. By this time the borders of Lucerne were approximately those of today.

 

From city to city-state (1386–1520)

 

In 1415 Lucerne gained Reichsfreiheit from Emperor Sigismund and became a strong member of the Swiss confederacy. The city developed its infrastructure, raised taxes, and appointed its own local officials. The city's population of 3000 dropped about 40% due to the Black Plague and several wars around 1350.

 

In 1419 town records show the first witch trial against a male person.

 

Swiss-Catholic town (1520–1798)

 

Among the growing towns of the confederacy, Lucerne was especially popular in attracting new residents. Remaining predominantly Catholic, Lucerne hosted its own annual passion play from 1453 to 1616, a two-day-long play of 12 hours performance per day. As the confederacy broke up during the Reformation, after 1520, most nearby cities became Protestant, but Lucerne remained Catholic. After the victory of the Catholics over the Protestants in the Battle at Kappel in 1531, the Catholic towns dominated the confederacy. It was during this period that Jesuits first came to Lucerne in 1567, with their arrival given considerable backing by Cardinal Carlo Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. The region, though, was destined to be dominated by Protestant cities such as Zürich, Bern and Basel, which defeated the Catholic forces in the 1712 Toggenburg War. The former prominent position of Lucerne in the confederacy was lost forever. In the 16th and 17th centuries, wars and epidemics became steadily less frequent and as a result the population of the country increased strongly.

 

Lucerne was besieged by a peasant army and quickly signed a peace treaty with the rebels in the Swiss peasant war of 1653.

 

Century of revolutions (1798–1914)

 

In 1798, nine years after the beginning of the French Revolution, the French army marched into Switzerland. The old confederacy collapsed and the government became democratic. The industrial revolution hit Lucerne rather late, and by 1860 only 1.7% of the population worked in industry, which was about a quarter of the national average at that time.[citation needed] Agriculture, which employed about 40% of the workers, was the main form of economic output in the canton. Nevertheless, industry was attracted to the city from areas around Lucerne. From 1850 to 1913, the population quadrupled and the flow of settlers increased. In 1856 trains first linked the city to Olten and Basel, then Zug and Zürich in 1864 and finally to the south in 1897.

 

The 1804 play William Tell by Friedrich Schiller did much to establish the reputation of Lucerne and its environs. Schiller himself had not been to Lucerne, but was inspired to write the play by his wife Lotte and his friend Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who had both personally visited the city and its surrounding canton. Goethe had lodged in the Hirschenplatz on his route to Italy in 1779.

 

It was during the latter part of the 19th century that Lucerne became a popular destination for artists, royalty and others to escape to. The German composer Richard Wagner established a residence at Tribschen in 1866, where he lived and worked. The city was then boosted by a visit by Queen Victoria to the city in 1868, during which she went sightseeing at the Kapellbrücke and Lion Monument and relished speaking with local people in her native German. The American writer Mark Twain further popularised the city and its environs in his travel writings after visiting twice, in 1878 and 1897. In 1892 Swiss poet and future Nobel Prize laureate Carl Spitteler also established himself in Lucerne, living there until his death in 1924.

 

Lucerne's status as a fashionable destination led to it becoming one of the first centres of modern-style tourism. Some of the city's most recognisable buildings are hotels from this period, such as the Schweizerhof Hotel (1845), Grand Hotel National (1870), and Château Gütsch (1879). It was at the National that Swiss hotelier César Ritz would establish himself as manager between 1878 and 1888.

 

20th and 21st century

 

In August 1993, the Kapellbrücke in the centre of the city suffered from a great fire which destroyed two thirds of its interior paintings. The bridge was subsequently reconstructed and reopened to the public in April 1994, after a total of CHF 3.4 million was spent on its repair.

 

On June 17, 2007, voters of the city of Lucerne and the adjacent town of Littau agreed to a merger in a simultaneous referendum. This took effect on January 1, 2010. The new city, still called Lucerne, has a population of around 80,000 people, making it the seventh-largest city in Switzerland. The results of this referendum are expected to pave the way for negotiations with other nearby cities and towns in an effort to create a unified city-region, based on the results of a study.

 

Geography and climate

 

Topography

 

Lucerne is located at the outfall of Lake Lucerne into the river Reuss, which flows from south-east to north-west. The city occupies both banks of the river and the lowest reach of the lake, with the city centre straddling the river immediately downstream of the outfall. The city's suburbs climb the hills to the north-east and south-west, and stretch out along the river and lake banks, whilst the recently added area of Littau is to the north-west.

 

Besides this contiguous city area, the municipality also includes an exclave on the south shore of Lake Lucerne some 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) away, comprising the northern slopes of the Bürgenstock. This section of the municipality is entirely surrounded by the lake and by land of the canton of Nidwalden. It does not contain any significant settlements, but the summit of the Bürgenstock is the highest point of the municipality.

 

The municipality has an area of 29.1 square kilometers (11.2 sq mi). Of this area and as of 2009, 28.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while 22.3% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 47.6% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (2.1%) is non-productive (rivers, glaciers or mountains).

 

Climate

 

Between 1961 and 1990 Lucerne had an average of 138.1 days of rain per year and on average received 1,171 mm (46.1 in) of precipitation. The wettest month was June during which time Lucerne received an average of 153 mm (6.0 in) of rainfall. During this month there was rainfall for an average of 14.2 days. The driest month of the year was February with an average of 61 mm (2.4 in) of precipitation over 10.2 days. Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).

 

Sights

 

Since the city straddles the Reuss where it drains the lake, it has a number of bridges. These include the Chapel Bridge (Kapellbrücke), a 204 m (669 ft) long wooden covered bridge originally built in 1333, the oldest covered bridge in Europe, although much of it had to be replaced after a fire on 18 August 1993, allegedly caused by a discarded cigarette. Partway across, the bridge runs by the octagonal Water Tower (Wasserturm), a fortification from the 13th century. Inside the bridge are a series of paintings from the 17th century depicting events from Lucerne's history.

 

Downriver, between the Kasernenplatz and the Mühlenplatz, the Spreuer Bridge (Spreuerbrücke or Mühlenbrücke, Mill Bridge) zigzags across the Reuss. Constructed in 1408, it features a series of medieval-style 17th century plague paintings by Kaspar Meglinger titled Dance of Death (Totentanzzyklus). The bridge has a small chapel in the middle that was added in 1568.

 

Old Town Lucerne is mainly located just north of the Reuss, and still has several fine half-timber structures with painted fronts. Remnants of the old town walls exist on the hill above Lucerne, complete with eight tall watch towers. An additional gated tower sits at the base of the hill on the banks of the Reuss.

 

The twin needle towers of the Church of St. Leodegar, which was named after the city's patron saint, sit on a small hill just above the lake front. Originally built in 735, the present structure was erected in 1633 in the late Renaissance style. However, the towers are surviving remnants of an earlier structure. The interior is richly decorated. The church is popularly called the Hofkirche (in German) and is known locally as the Hofchile (in Swiss-German).

 

Bertel Thorvaldsen's carving of a dying lion (the Lion Monument, or Löwendenkmal) is found in a small park just off the Löwenplatz. The carving commemorates the hundreds of Swiss Guards who were massacred in 1792 during the French Revolution, when an armed mob stormed the Tuileries Palace in Paris.

 

The Swiss Museum of Transport is a large and comprehensive museum exhibiting all forms of transport, including locomotives, automobiles, ships, and aircraft. It is to be found beside the lake in the northern-eastern section of the city.

 

The Culture and Convention Center (KKL) beside the lake in the center of the city was designed by Jean Nouvel. The center has one of the world's leading concert halls, with acoustics by Russell Johnson.

 

The Richard Wagner Museum is found on the lake at Tribschen and is dedicated to the composer Richard Wagner. Wagner lived in Lucerne from 1866 to 1872 and his former villa now hosts the museum dedicated to him.

 

Culture and events

 

Culture

 

Since plans for the new culture and convention centre arose in the late 1980s, Lucerne has found a balance between the so-called established culture and alternative culture. A consensus was reached that culminated in a culture compromise (Kulturkompromiss). The established culture comprises the Lucerne Culture and Congress Centre (KKL), the city theater (Luzerner Theater) and, in a broader sense, smaller establishments such as the Kleintheater, founded by comedian Emil Steinberger, a Lucerne native, or Stadtkeller, a music restaurant in the city's old town. KKL houses a concert hall as well as the Museum of Art Lucerne (Kunstmuseum Luzern).

 

Alternative culture took place mostly on the premises of a former tube factory, which became known as Boa. Other localities for alternative culture have since emerged in the same inner city area as Boa. Initially, Boa staged various plays, but concerts became more and more common; this new use of the building clashed with the development of apartment buildings on nearby lots of land. Due to possible noise pollution, Boa was closed and a replacement in a less heavily inhabited area is currently under construction. Critics claimed though that the new establishment would not meet the requirements for an alternative culture.

 

Südpol is a center for performing arts in Lucerne presenting music-, dance- and theatre-events. The house at the foot of Pilatus opened in November 2008.

 

Lucerne is home to the Luzerner Sinfonieorchester, a category A symphonic orchestra, and to the 21st Century Symphony Orchestra, and they both hold most of their performances in the Lucerne Culture and Congress Centre.

 

Lucerne is also home to Keramikkonzerte, a series of classical chamber music concerts held throughout each year, as well as Zaubersee, a festival dedicated to Russian classical music.

 

Events

 

Every year, towards the end of winter, Fasnacht (Carnival) breaks out in the streets, alleyways and squares of the old town. This is a glittering outdoor party, where chaos and merriness reign and nothing is as it normally is. Strange characters in fantastic masks and costumes make their way through the alleyways, while Guggenmusiken (carnival bands) blow their instruments in joyful cacophony and thousands of bizarrely clad people sing and dance away the winter. The Lucerner Fasnacht, based on religious, Catholic backgrounds, starts every year on the Thursday before Aschermittwoch (Ash Wednesday) with a big bang at 5am called Morgenwacht (Morning Watch). There are big parades in the afternoon on Schmotzige Donnerstag (literally: Lardy Thursday) and the following Monday, called Güdismontag (literally: Paunch Monday), which attract tens of thousands of people. Lucerne's Carnival ends with a crowning finish on Güdisdienstag (literally: Paunch Tuesday) evening with the Monstercorso, a tremendous parade of Guggenmusiken, lights and lanterns with even a larger audience. Rather recently a fourth Fasnacht day has been introduced on the Saturday between the others Fasnacht days, the Rüüdige Samstag while mainly several indoor balls take place. From dusk till dawn on the evenings of Schmotzige Donnerstag, Güdismontag, and after the Monstercorso many bands wander through the historical part of the city playing typical Fasnacht tunes. Until midnight, the historical part of the city usually is packed with people participating. A large part of the audience are also dressed up in costumes, even a majority in the evenings.

 

The city hosts various renowned festivals throughout the year. The Lucerne Festival for classical music takes place in the summer. Its orchestra, the Lucerne Festival Orchestra, is hand-picked from some of the finest instrumentalists in the world. In June yearly the pop music festival B-Sides takes place in Lucerne. It focuses on international acts in alternative music, indie rock, experimental rock and other cutting edge and left field artistic musical genres. In July, the Blue Balls Festival brings jazz, blues and punk music to the lake promenade and halls of the Culture and Convention Center. The Lucerne Blues Festival is another musical festival which usually takes place in November. Since spring 2004, Lucerne has hosted the Festival Rose d'Or for television entertainment. And in April, the well-established comics festival Fumetto attracts an international audience.

 

Being the cultural center of a rather rural region, Lucerne regularly holds different folklore festivals, such as Lucerne Cheese Festival, held annually. In 2004, Lucerne was the focus of Swiss Wrestling fans when it had hosted the Swiss Wrestling and Alpine festival (Eidgenössisches Schwing- und Älplerfest), which takes place every three years in a different location. A national music festival (Eidgenössiches Musikfest) attracted marching bands from all parts of Switzerland in 2006. In summer 2008, the yodelling festival (Eidgenössisches Jodlerfest) had a similar impact.

 

The 2021 Winter Universiade will be hosted by Lucerne.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

The Kapellbrücke (literally, Chapel Bridge) is a covered wooden footbridge spanning the river Reuss diagonally in the city of Lucerne in central Switzerland. Named after the nearby St. Peter's Chapel, the bridge is unique in containing a number of interior paintings dating back to the 17th century, although many of them were destroyed along with a larger part of the centuries-old bridge in a 1993 fire. Subsequently restored, the Kapellbrücke is the oldest wooden covered bridge in Europe, as well as the world's oldest surviving truss bridge. It serves as the city's symbol and as one of Switzerland's main tourist attractions.

 

History

 

Painting by John Ruskin in 1861, Pencil, watercolour and bodycolour

Part of the bridge complex is the octagonal 34.5 m (113 ft) tall (from ground) "Wasserturm", which translates to "water tower," in the sense of "tower standing in the water." The tower pre-dated the bridge by about 30 years. Over the centuries, the tower has been used as a prison, torture chamber, and later a municipal archive as well as a local treasury. Today, the tower is closed to the public, although it houses a local artillery association and a tourist gift shop.

 

The bridge itself was originally built c.1365 as part of Lucerne's fortifications. It linked the old town on the right bank of the Reuss to the new town on the left bank, securing the town from attack from the south (i.e. from the lake). The bridge was initially over 270 metres (890 ft) long, although numerous shortenings over the years and river bank replenishments mean the bridge now totals only 204.7 metres (672 ft) long. It is the oldest surviving truss bridge in the world, consisting of strutted and triangulated trusses of moderate span, supported on piled trestles; as such, it is probably an evolution of the strutted bridge.

 

The Kapellbrücke almost burned down on 18 August 1993, destroying two thirds of its interior paintings. Shortly thereafter, the Kapellbrücke was reconstructed and again opened to the public on 14 April 1994 for a total of CHF 3.4 million.

 

Paintings

 

Lucerne is unique in that its three wooden pedestrian bridges, the 14th-century Hofbrücke (now destroyed) and Kapellbrücke and the 16th-century Spreuerbrücke, all featured painted interior triangular frames. None of Europe's other wooden footbridges have this feature. The paintings, dating back to the 17th century and executed by local Catholic painter Hans Heinrich Wägmann, depict events from Lucerne's history. Of the original 158 paintings, 147 existed before the 1993 fire. After the fire, the remains of 47 paintings were collected, but ultimately only 30 were fully restored.

 

The wooden boards that held the paintings varied from 150 centimetres (59 in) to 181 centimetres (71 in) wide and 85 centimetres (33 in) to 95 centimetres (37 in) wide. Most of the panels were made from spruce wood boards, and only a few were made from linden wood and maple. The paintings were created during the Counter-Reformation, featuring scenes promoting the Catholic Church. The paintings were sponsored by the city's council members, who, upon sponsoring a panel, were allowed to attribute their personal coat of arms on it. An explanation of each painting was printed below each scene. The paintings ran all along the bridge, dating from the life and death of Lucerne's patron saint St. Leger to the legends of the city's other patron saint St. Maurice.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Luzern (luzerndeutsch Lozärn [loˈtsæːrn], französisch Lucerne, italienisch Lucerna, rätoromanisch Lucerna) ist eine Stadt, Einwohnergemeinde sowie Hauptort des gleichnamigen Schweizer Kantons. Sie bildet zugleich den Wahlkreis Luzern-Stadt. Die Stadt hat 82'620 Einwohner (Dez. 2020), mit Agglomeration rund 223'000.

 

Luzern ist das gesellschaftliche und kulturelle Zentrum der Zentralschweiz. Im Bildungsbereich ist es unter anderem Sitz der Universität Luzern, der Pädagogischen Hochschule Luzern und der Hochschule Luzern. Anlässe mit überregionaler Ausstrahlung sind beispielsweise die Luzerner Fasnacht und das Lucerne Festival. Luzern ist ein bedeutendes Tourismusziel in der Schweiz, einerseits wegen seiner Lage am Vierwaldstättersee und der Nähe zu den Alpen und anderseits dank Sehenswürdigkeiten wie der Kapellbrücke und dem Verkehrshaus der Schweiz.

 

Geographie

 

Die Stadt Luzern liegt am nordwestlichen Ufer des Vierwaldstättersees beim Ausfluss der Reuss. Die Reuss teilt die Stadt in die Altstadt und Neustadt. Die Kapellbrücke mit dem Wasserturm und die Spreuerbrücke verbinden die Alt- und Neustadt. Zu Luzern gehört auch die Exklave Bürgenstock. Die Lage zwischen See und den Bergen Pilatus und Rigi ist besonders malerisch und begünstigte die Entwicklung Luzerns als Fremdenstadt und frühe Hochburg des Tourismus ab 1840.

 

Der höchste Punkt der Gemeinde ist der Gipfel des Bürgenstocks in der Exklave Bürgenstock mit einer Höhe von 1127,8 m ü. M. Der tiefste Punkt ist am Rotsee auf 419 m ü. M.

 

Die Fläche des Stadtgebiets beträgt 29,1 km², davon sind 44,2 % Siedlungsfläche, 30,2 % Landwirtschaftszonen und 23,7 % Wald. 2,0 % sind unproduktive Fläche.

 

Klima

 

Für die Normalperiode 1991–2020 beträgt die Jahresmitteltemperatur 10,1 °C, wobei im Januar mit 1,1 °C die kältesten und im Juli mit 19,5 °C die wärmsten Monatsmitteltemperaturen gemessen werden. Im Mittel sind hier rund 78 Frosttage und 15 Eistage zu erwarten. Sommertage gibt es im Jahresmittel rund 50, während normalerweise 9 Hitzetage zu verzeichnen sind. Die Messstation von MeteoSchweiz liegt auf einer Höhe von 454 m ü. M.

 

Der Höchstwert der Durchschnittssonnenscheindauer des Monats Januar wurde 2020 mit 98,5 Std. erreicht. Damit wurde der bisherige Rekord von 1999 (86,7 Std.) gebrochen.

 

Geschichte

 

Ortsname

 

Die frühesten bekannten Nennungen des Ortes sind ad monasterium Lucernense beziehungsweise ad Lucernense monasterium (9. Jahrhundert; Abschrift um 1200), monasterium Luciaria (840) und in quodam loco, qui Lucerna ex antiquitate est dictus (853; Abschrift des 11. Jahrhunderts). Die Bedeutung ist unklar. Vorgeschlagene Herleitungen von lateinisch lucerna «Leuchte» (vergleiche bis heute «Leuchtenstadt Luzern»), vom keltischen Gott Lugus und vom männlichen Personennamen Luz oder Luzius sind nicht haltbar. Eine mögliche Grundlage bleibt jedoch lateinisch lūcǐus «Hecht», verbunden mit dem eine Verbreitung ausdrückenden Suffix -ārǐa. Die Bedeutung des Namens Luzern wäre damit «Ort, wo sich Hechte in grossen Mengen aufhalten».

 

Frühzeit und Stadtgründung (um 750–1386)

 

Nach dem Zerfall des Römischen Reiches nahmen germanische Alemannen ab dem 7. Jahrhundert immer grösseren Besitz von dieser Gegend. Die alemannische Sprache ersetzte allmählich die lateinische. Um 710 entstand durch eine karolingische Gründung das Benediktinerkloster St. Leodegar (dort heute St. Leodegar im Hof), das Mitte des 9. Jahrhunderts unter die Herrschaft der elsässischen Abtei Murbach gelangte. Zu dieser Zeit bzw. um 750 nannte man das Gebiet Luciaria. Die Vogtei über das Kloster Murbach und damit auch über Luzern hatte seit 1135 das Adelsgeschlecht der Habsburger inne. Die Gründung der Stadt erfolgte wahrscheinlich durch die Brüder von Eschenbach, die Ende des 12. Jahrhunderts die Abtwürde von Murbach und Luzern gleichzeitig besassen. Das genaue Jahr der Stadtgründung ist unbekannt, es muss aber zwischen 1180 und 1200 liegen. Die Stadt gewann immer mehr an Bedeutung als Schlüsselstelle im wachsenden Gotthardverkehr und als Verwaltungszentrum. 1250 erreichte Luzern bereits die Grösse, die es bis ins 19. Jahrhundert beibehielt. Luzern war im 13. Jahrhundert durch Parteikämpfe zwischen Anhängern des Kaisers und des Papstes geprägt und schien bereits eine städtische Selbstverwaltung mit Rat und Bürgerversammlung besessen zu haben. 1291 erwarb der deutsche König Rudolf I. von Habsburg die Herrschaftsrechte des Klosters Murbach über Luzern, nachdem er schon die umliegenden Gebiete systematisch aufgekauft hatte.

 

Die Streitigkeiten um den deutschen Königsthron 1314–1325 führten auch zu Feindseligkeiten in den Ländern um den Vierwaldstättersee. Zur Stabilisierung der Verhältnisse ging Luzern 1332 einen Bund mit den benachbarten drei Waldstätten Uri, Schwyz und Unterwalden ein. Dieser Bund richtete sich nicht speziell gegen die Habsburger: Luzern behielt sich seine Verpflichtungen gegenüber der Herrschaft Österreich ausdrücklich vor.

 

Insbesondere ab der zweiten Hälfte des 14. Jahrhunderts begann Luzern erfolgreich, seinen Einfluss in den umliegenden ländlichen Gebieten zu verstärken und Herrschaftsrechte an sich zu binden. Diese expansive Territorialpolitik, welche auch von anderen eidgenössischen Städten wie Zürich vorangetrieben wurde, führte zwangsläufig zu Konflikten mit der Herrschaft Österreich und gipfelte 1386 in der Schlacht bei Sempach. Der Sieg der eidgenössischen Parteien erlaubte Luzern eine Konsolidierung des Herrschaftsgebiets, das in seiner Ausdehnung bereits ungefähr dem heutigen Kanton Luzern entsprach.

 

Von der Stadt zum Stadtstaat (1386–1520)

 

1415 erhielt Luzern von König Sigismund die Reichsfreiheit und war damit bis zum Westfälischen Frieden 1648 eine Reichsstadt. Luzern bildete ein kräftiges Glied im eidgenössischen Bund. Die Stadt baute ihre Territorialherrschaft aus, erhob Steuern und setzte beamtete Vögte ein. Die Zahl der Stadtbevölkerung von 3000 ging um etwa 40 Prozent zurück. Schuld daran waren die Pest (um 1350, in mehreren Wellen) und etliche Kriege (so genannte Ennetbirgische Feldzüge). Nachdem sich Hexenverfolgungen zunächst vorwiegend im frankophonen Sprachraum ausgebreitet hatten, tauchte der Begriff «Hexereye» 1419 in einem Zaubereiprozess gegen einen Mann in Luzern auf und damit erstmals im deutschsprachigen Raum.

 

Vorort der katholischen Schweiz (um 1520–1798)

 

Im wachsenden Staatenbund der Eidgenossenschaft gehörte Luzern zu den einflussreichen Stadtorten. Als die Reformation nach 1520 die Eidgenossenschaft spaltete, wurden die meisten Städte reformiert, Luzern aber blieb katholisch. Nach dem Sieg der Katholiken über die Reformierten in der Schlacht bei Kappel 1531 dominierten die katholischen Orte die Eidgenossenschaft. Trotz des militärischen Sieges im Ersten Villmergerkrieg 1656 verschoben sich die Gewichte zu Gunsten der reformierten Städte wie Zürich, Bern und Basel, die im Zweiten Villmergerkrieg 1712 die Katholiken besiegten. Die führende Stellung Luzerns in der Eidgenossenschaft war damit vorbei. Im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert wurden die Kriege und Seuchen immer seltener, die Bevölkerung nahm vor allem auf dem Land kräftig zu, während die Stadt innerhalb der Mauern kaum wuchs.

 

Jahrhundert der Revolutionen (1798–1914)

 

1798, neun Jahre nach Beginn der Französischen Revolution, marschierte die französische Armee in der Schweiz ein. Die Alte Eidgenossenschaft zerfiel und die Herrschaft der Patrizier wurde in eine Demokratie umgeformt, es entstand die Helvetische Republik, deren Hauptstadt Luzern für kurze Zeit war.

 

Die industrielle Revolution trat in Luzern erst spät ein. 1860 waren nur 1,7 Prozent der Bevölkerung in der Heim- oder Fabrikarbeit tätig, dies waren nur ein Viertel so viel wie in der übrigen Schweiz. Die Landwirtschaft mit einem hohen Anteil von 40 Prozent der Erwerbstätigen im Bauernstand prägte den Kanton. Dennoch zog die Stadt etliche Industrien an, die sich aber in den Gemeinden um Luzern ansiedeln. Von 1850 bis 1913 vervierfachte sich die Zahl der Bevölkerung und ihre Siedlungsfläche wuchs. Ab dem Jahre 1856 folgten die Bahnen, zuerst jene nach Olten und Basel, 1864 nach Zug und Zürich und 1897 in den Süden.

 

Von 1910 bis 1912 verkehrte in Luzern mit der Ville de Lucerne ein Luftschiff für Passagierrundflüge. Der Landeplatz mit der Halle und einem Gaskraftwerk befand sich im Tribschenmoos.

 

Entwicklungsakzente im 20. Jahrhundert (1914–2000)

 

Im 20. Jahrhundert gewannen die Vororte immer mehr an Bedeutung. Die Bevölkerungszahl im umliegenden Grossraum verdoppelte sich, während die städtische Bevölkerung nur langsam zunahm. 1981 folgte der Anschluss an die Autobahn A2.

 

Entwicklung im 21. Jahrhundert (ab 2001)

 

Am 17. Juni 2007 stimmten die Einwohner von Luzern und Littau für eine Gemeindefusion von Littau mit Luzern. In Luzern stimmten 9869 der Stimmberechtigten für die Fusion, 8875 dagegen (53 % zu 47 %, Stimmbeteiligung 46,2 %). Die Littauer stimmten mit 2824 gegen 2343 (55 % zu 45 %, Stimmbeteiligung 60,4 %) für die Fusion. Die Fusion wurde am 1. Januar 2010 vollzogen. Die «neue» Stadt heisst weiterhin Luzern und wird das alte Stadtwappen beibehalten. Die Einwohnerzahl beträgt nun rund 75'000 Personen.

 

Der Luzerner Stadtrat sah darin aber nur den ersten Schritt für weitere Fusionen. Im November 2011 entschieden sich Ebikon, Adligenswil und Kriens gegen eine Fusion. Im März 2012 lehnten die Stimmberechtigten von Emmen in einer Volksabstimmung die Aufnahme von Fusionsverhandlungen mit der Stadt Luzern ab.

 

Kultur

 

Als Veranstaltungsort von Konzerten, insbesondere der klassischen Musik, spielt das KKL eine schweizweit bedeutende Rolle. Residenzorchester des KKL ist das Luzerner Sinfonieorchester. Luzern hat drei grössere Theater, es sind dies das Luzerner Theater, das Kleintheater Luzern und der Theaterpavillon. Das Luzerner Theater verfügt neben dem Hauptgebäude über einen zweiten Aufführungsort, das «UG» in der Winkelriedstrasse.

 

Für die Alternativkultur wird insbesondere das Neubad genutzt, welches aus einer Zwischennutzung des ehemaligen Hallenbads Luzerns entstanden ist. Seit 1981 existiert im ehemaligen Gefängnis Sedel das Musikzentrum Sedel, welches Veranstaltungen in den Bereichen Punk und Rock anbietet. Ein eher adoleszentes Publikum spricht das Treibhaus Luzern an. Mit dem Konzerthaus Schüür steht eine weitere Konzertbühne zur Verfügung. In der Jazzkantine Luzern spielen vorwiegend Studenten der lokalen Musikhochschule vor Publikum. Daneben finden im Musik-Restaurant Stadtkeller Konzerte vorwiegend von Schweizer Grössen statt. Die Stadt verfügt über 13 Kinosäle in fünf Kinos. Die Kornschütte befindet sich im Rathaus Luzern. Dort steht sechsmal im Jahr ein Raum für Ausstellungen aus dem Luzerner Kulturleben zur Verfügung. Häufig finden Kunstausstellungen statt.

 

Veranstaltungen

 

Die Luzerner Fasnacht dauert vom Schmutzigen Donnerstag bis Güdisdienstag. Sie ist der grösste jährlich stattfindende Anlass der Zentralschweiz.

Das Stadtfest Luzern ist ein im Frühsommer stattfindendes Fest in der Stadt. Von 2009 bis 2018 fand es unter dem Namen Luzerner Fest statt, zuvor gab es die beiden Feste Luzerner Altstadtfest und Luzerner Seenachtsfest.

Fumetto: Jährlich im Frühling stattfindendes Comic-Festival.

Lucerne Blues Festival: Eines der weltweit wichtigsten Bluesfestivals, seit 1995 in und von Luzernern ausgetragen und mit diversesten Preisen ausgezeichnet (2006 zum Beispiel mit dem «Keeping The Blues Alive»-Award, der erstmals in der Geschichte ausserhalb der Vereinigten Staaten ausgehändigt wird).

Lucerne Festival (früher Musikfestwochen): Eines der bedeutendsten europäischen Festivals für klassische und neue Musik, bekannt durch Gastkonzerte der weltbesten Sinfonieorchester im KKL.

Blue Balls Festival: Von 1992 bis 2019 fand dieses Musikfestivals mit ca. 100'000 Besuchern während neun Tagen im Juli statt. Angeboten wurden Open-Air-Konzerte ums Luzerner Seebecken sowie Konzerte im Kultur- und Kongresszentrum und im Hotel Schweizerhof Luzern. Das Festival umfasste die Sparten Blues, Jazz, Soul, Rock- und Pop sowie Singer-Songwriter.

Funk am See: Ein Gratis-Open-Air, das alle zwei Jahre, jeweils zu geraden Jahreszahlen, auf der Lido-Wiese vor dem Verkehrshaus in Luzern stattfindet. Neben Rock- und Pop-Acts sind auch immer Hip-Hop-Acts vor Ort.

Ruderwelt Luzern: Internationale Ruderregatta, die jährlich im Rahmen des Ruder-Weltcups ausgetragen wird und jeweils Anfang Juli auf dem Rotsee stattfindet.

Spitzenleichtathletik Luzern: Jährliches, internationales Leichtathletikmeeting.

Luzerner Stadtlauf: Alljährlicher Lauf-Event durch die Neu- und Altstadt.

Lucerne Marathon: Drittgrösster Marathon der Schweiz

LUGA (Luzerner Gewerbeausstellung): Messe auf der Luzerner Allmend

PinkPanorama: Filmfestival Luzern

Das grösste Festival der Fernsehunterhaltung Rose d’Or fand von 2004 bis 2012 jährlich in Luzern statt. Bei diesem in Montreux gegründeten Festival werden die besten internationalen Fernsehformate mit der «Goldenen Rose» ausgezeichnet. Seit 2014 findet die Preisverleihung in Berlin statt.

 

Spezialitäten

 

Aus Luzern kommen viele kulinarische Spezialitäten, wie zum Beispiel der Birnenweggen, Luzerner Lebkuchen, Luzerner Chügelipastete (Fleischpastete, auch Fritschipastete genannt). Lokale Pâtissiers kreieren neue Spezialitäten wie Lozärner Rägetröpfli (Schokoladen-Praline) oder die Lozärner Chatzestreckerli.

 

Historisches

 

Kapellbrücke mit Wasserturm

 

Da die Stadt durch die Reuss geteilt wird, besitzt sie mehrere Brücken, welche die Altstadt mit der Neustadt verbinden. Die bekannteste davon ist die Kapellbrücke von 1365. Sie ist die älteste noch erhaltene und mit 202 Metern die zweitlängste gedeckte Holzbrücke Europas. Im Jahre 1993 zerstörte ein Feuer einen Grossteil der Brücke. Da diese in den 1960er-Jahren umfassend renoviert und jedes einzelne hölzerne Bauteil registriert worden war, konnte sie nach dem Brand originalgetreu wieder aufgebaut werden. Von den dreieckigen Originalgemälden aus dem frühen 17. Jahrhundert, die auf ihrer ganzen Länge im Giebel der Brücke angebracht waren, wurden beim Brand jedoch 81 von 111 unrettbar zerstört. In der Mitte der Brücke befindet sich das Wahrzeichen von Luzern, der Wasserturm mit einem achteckigen Grundriss. Brücke wie Turm bildeten einen Teil der Stadtbefestigung. Deshalb sind auf der Seite des Wasserturms die Holzgeländer höher.

 

Altstadt

Rathaus (erbaut 1602–1604, Spätrenaissance)

Spreuerbrücke

Museggmauer und Museggtürme (erbaut 1350–1403 als nördlicher Befestigungswall)

Ritter’scher Palast, Renaissancepalais mit dreistöckigem Arkadeninnenhof, erbaut ab 1556 für den Luzerner Schultheiss Lux Ritter, von 1577 bis 1773 Sitz des Luzerner Jesuitenkollegiums, seit 1804 Hauptgebäude der Kantonsregierung. Im zweiten Obergeschoss des Arkadenhofes hängen sieben grossformatige Ölgemälde mit einem kunstvollen Totentanzzyklus. Er wurde in den Jahren 1610 bis 1615 von dem Luzerner Maler Jakob von Wyl (auch von Wil) geschaffen. Das heute als achtes Bild («Beinhauskonzert» im Hochformat) hinzugefügte Tafelgemälde gehörte wahrscheinlich zu einem verloren gegangenen Totentanz aus dem benachbarten Franziskanerkloster.[59]

Löwendenkmal nach Bertel Thorvaldsen (1819)

Nadelwehr (1860)

Das Château Gütsch, ein 1888 im Stil des Historismus fertiggestelltes Hotel, gilt als eines der Wahrzeichen der Stadt. Eine bereits für 2012 geplante Generalrenovierung verzögerte sich mehrfach.

Fünf Raddampfer der SGV, die weltweit grösste aktive Dampferflotte auf einem See

Die Matthäuskirche ist ein bedeutender Zeuge der Neugotik.

Die Jesuitenkirche ist die älteste grosse Barockkirche der Schweiz.

Der Stiftsbezirk im Hof.

Die Hofkirche St. Leodegar im Hof ist der bedeutendste Kirchenbau der Renaissance der Schweiz.

Am Schweizerhofquai und dem Nationalquai entstanden in der Belle Époque der Kursaal (heute Grand Casino) und die Nobelhotels Schweizerhof, National und Palace Luzern.

Die Peterskapelle mit Innenausstattung im Nazarener Stil

Das Gotthardgebäude ist der repräsentativste Neurenaissancebau im Kanton Luzern.

Das Bourbaki-Panorama ist eines der wenigen erhaltenen Grosspanoramen.

Das Anderallmend-Haus als eines der baulichen Wahrzeichen der Stadt Luzern.

Das Kloster St. Anna auf dem Gerlisberg

Die Franziskanerkirche

Schloss Steinhof (erbaut 1759–1777 von Jakob Anton Thüring von Sonnenberg). Das barocke Schlossgebäude ist einer der bedeutendsten Profanbauten Luzerns.

 

Museen

 

Verkehrshaus der Schweiz: grösstes und meistbesuchtes Museum der Schweiz mit einer grossen Sammlung von Lokomotiven, Automobilen, Schiffen und Flugzeugen. Das Verkehrshaus beherbergt unter anderem das einzige IMAX-Kino und das einzige Grossplanetarium der Schweiz. Zudem befindet sich in ihm die Livemap Switzerland, eine 200 m² grosse begehbare Luftbildkarte.

Bourbaki-Panorama: eigens erbautes Panoramagebäude mit dem 112 × 10 m grossen Rundbild von Edouard Castres (1881)

Sammlung Rosengart: Werke von Pablo Picasso, Paul Klee und der Klassische Moderne, ehemals Picasso Museum

Richard-Wagner-Museum Tribschen, Räume Wagners und Sammlung klassischer Musikinstrumente. Das Landhaus an idyllischer Lage des Vierwaldstättersees führt immer wieder Musik- und Poesieabende durch.

Hans Erni Museum: Das Museum des bekannten Luzerner Malers Hans Erni im Verkehrshaus der Schweiz.

Kunstmuseum Luzern

Alpineum Luzern: 3D-Alpen-Panorama/-Diorama

Gletschergarten: Luzern während der Eiszeit vor 20'000 Jahren und im subtropischen Klima vor 20 Millionen Jahren, direkt neben dem Löwendenkmal

Historisches Museum: Im Depot kann die Geschichte lebendig und hautnah erlebt werden.

Naturmuseum Luzern: Die vielen Sonderausstellungen zeigen die Flora und Fauna der Zentralschweiz.

 

Sehenswürdigkeiten der Umgebung

 

Der Pilatus: Der ehemalige Pilatussee auf dem Hausberg von Luzern soll gemäss einer Sage die letzte Ruhestätte des Pontius Pilatus sein und die Besteigung war daher im Mittelalter strengstens verboten. Heute ist der Berg touristisch von beiden Seiten erschlossen: von der Alpnacher Seite mit der steilsten Zahnradbahn der Welt und auf der Luzerner Seite mit einer Panorama-Gondelbahn und einer Luftseilbahn.

Die Rigi: Sie wird die «Königin der Berge» genannt und besitzt die erste Bergbahn Europas.

Der Vierwaldstättersee hat mit fünf Raddampfern (Uri, Stadt Luzern, Unterwalden, Gallia und Schiller) die grösste Dampfschiffflotte der Schweiz.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Die Kapellbrücke ist eine mittelalterliche gedeckte Holzbrücke über die Reuss in Luzern (Schweiz). Sie gilt als ein Wahrzeichen und eine der bedeutendsten Touristenattraktionen der Stadt. In ihrer Mitte steht der Wasserturm. Brücke, Turm und Bilderzyklus stehen auf der Liste der Kulturgüter in Luzern in der Kategorie A (national bedeutend).

 

Allgemeines

 

Die Kapellbrücke ist die älteste und mit 202,90 Metern (inklusive Vordächer 204,70 Metern) die zweitlängste überdachte Holzbrücke Europas, nach der Holzbrücke Bad Säckingen–Stein AG (203,70 Meter, inklusive Vordächer 206,50 Meter). Sie wurde um 1365 als Wehrgang gebaut und verbindet die durch die Reuss getrennte Alt- und Neustadt (mindere Stadt). Ursprünglich war die Brücke länger; durch die Auffüllung des Ufers wurde ein etwa 75 Meter langes Stück um 1835 abgebrochen. Im Giebel der Brücke befanden sich (vor dem Brand 1993) 111 dreieckige Gemälde, die wichtige Szenen der Schweizer Geschichte darstellen.

 

Die Bilder der Kapellbrücke, der Spreuerbrücke und der Hofbrücke sind in dieser Verwendung einmalig. In keiner anderen Stadt Europas wurden gedeckte Holzbrücken mit dreieckigen Bildern ausgeschmückt.

 

Der Name stammt von der Peterskapelle, zu welcher das nördliche Ende der Brücke führt. Sie befindet sich zwischen der Seebrücke und dem Rathaussteg.

 

Geschichte

 

Bau und Funktion (14. Jahrhundert)

 

Der Bau der Kapellbrücke ist vor dem Hintergrund der Stadtentwicklung und der Errichtung von Befestigungsanlagen zu sehen. Zwischen 1230 und 1270 wuchs die Grossstadt von der Landseite gegen das Wasser hin an, und auch am linken Ufer der Reuss dehnte sich die Kleinstadt aus. In dieser Zeit entstand der Innere Befestigungsring der Grossstadt, und auch in der Kleinstadt wurde der Innere Ring errichtet. Um die Stadtteile miteinander zu verbinden, wurden Brücken gebaut. Bereits vor dem Bau der Kapellbrücke entstand ca. 1168 die an der engsten Stelle der Reuss gelegene Reussbrücke; eine zweite Brücke, die mit Holz gedeckte Hofbrücke, wurde zwischen 1252 und 1265 am rechten Seeufer zwischen dem Hofbezirk und der Grossstadt erstellt.

 

Während die Stadt durch ihre Wehrbauten von der Landseite her gesichert war, fehlte es an Schutz von der Seeseite und dem Reussufer her. Zunächst wurde deshalb um 1300 der Wasserturm errichtet. Wenige Jahrzehnte später – als wahrscheinlich gilt das Jahr 1332 – folgte der Bau einer zweiten mit Holz gedeckten Brücke, der Kapellbrücke, die eine Fortsetzung der Hofbrücke bildete. Darauf, dass die Kapellbrücke (wie die auch in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts abgebrochene Hofbrücke) zur Verteidigung gegen potentielle Schiffsangriffe dienen sollte, weisen die seeseitig vorgelagerten «Schwirren» (Palisadenreihe), welche die Durchfahrt von Schiffen verhindern sollten. Auf den Wehrcharakter der Brücke weist auch die höher gebaute Brückenbrüstung gegen die Seeseite hin. So erfüllte die Kapellbrücke über Jahrhunderte hinweg eine Doppelfunktion als Wehrgang und Verbindung (Fussgängerbrücke) zwischen Kleinstadt und Hof, genauer zwischen dem rechtsufrigen (Peterskapelle) und linksufrigen Eckpunkt (Freienhof) der Stadtbefestigung.

 

Mitten im Luzerner Stadtleben (15.–17. Jahrhundert)

 

Ab dem 15. Jh. diente die Kapellbrücke auch als Ort der Geselligkeit, insbesondere durch die Installation von Bänken. Sie wurde verschönert, v. a. durch die Errichtung des historischen Bilderzyklus. Daneben wurde ihre Länge für das Gewerbe der Seilerei genutzt. Es gab immer wieder Wiederherstellungsarbeiten, doch erlaubt die Quellenlage bis zum 19. Jh. nur einen lückenhaften Einblick in die Baugeschichte der Kapellbrücke. Von den Arbeiten an der Brücke sind im weiteren Verlauf besonders die beiden grösseren Renovationen von 1741/42 und 1819 zu nennen. Erstere war notwendig geworden, da nach einem Hochwasser Teile der Brücke mitsamt den darauf befindlichen Bildern eingestürzt waren.

 

Verkürzung und Erhaltung (19. Jahrhundert)

 

Die neuere Baugeschichte ab dem 19. Jahrhundert ist durch systematische Aufzeichnungen besser dokumentiert. Zwischen 1833 und 1838 wurde in drei Etappen das linke Ufer der Reuss aufgeschüttet. Das südliche Ende der Brücke musste dem neu errichteten Quai weichen. Sie wurde vom Freienhof getrennt, erheblich verkürzt und nach Süden hin abgeknickt, so dass sie senkrecht auf das Quai trifft. Die Schiffshütte am Wasserturm wurde 1859/60 wegen Baufälligkeit abgerissen und wich einem Kiosk, der zwecks Verkaufs von Touristenartikeln zwischen Wasserturm und Brücke errichtet wurde.

 

Einige Jahrzehnte später, um 1897/98, musste die Kapellbrücke auch am rechten Ufer wegen der Errichtung des Quais von ihrem Brückentor, der Peterskapelle, getrennt und verkürzt werden, diesmal jedoch nur um wenige Meter. Während derselben Arbeiten musste auch die zweite Schiffshütte bei der Peterskapelle abgerissen werden.

 

In dieser Zeit erreichte die Stadtluzerner Diskussion über einen möglichen Totalabbruch der Brücke, die seit dem Bau der See-Brücke von 1869 virulent wurde, ihren Höhepunkt. Die zur Seeseite hin vorgelagerte See-Brücke liess den alten Holzsteg zumindest für den Fussverkehr als überflüssig erscheinen, mehr noch nachdem man 1898 auf der anderen Seite der Kapellbrücke den senkrecht zum Fluss stehenden Rathaussteg errichtet hatte. Es gab Proteste aus dem In- und Ausland, und die Stadt Luzern entschied sich gegen die Minderheitsmeinung und (anders als noch vor einem halben Jahrhundert beim Abbruch der Hofbrücke) für einen Erhalt der Kapellbrücke als Touristenattraktion und Wahrzeichen der Stadt.

 

Brand

 

Die Brücke fiel in der Nacht auf den 18. August 1993 einer Feuersbrunst zum Opfer, welche nach Vermutungen durch eine weggeworfene Zigarette ausgelöst wurde. Der Brand zerstörte einen Grossteil der Brücke und unter anderem 78 der 111 berühmten Bilder. Nach dem Brand konnten die Überreste von 47 Bildern geborgen werden. 30 Bilder liessen sich bis 1998 restaurieren. Die Brücke wurde umgehend wiederaufgebaut, am 14. April 1994 eingeweiht und erneut für Fussgänger freigegeben.

 

Die bei der Verkürzung der Brücke um 1835 ausgelagerten 25 Giebelgemälde, die den Werdegang des heiligen Mauritius als Schutzpatron der Schweiz zeigen, wurden als Ersatz für die unrestaurierbar verbrannten Exponate im Mittelteil der Brücke aufgehängt. An den beiden äusseren Nahtstellen zwischen dem ursprünglich erhaltenen und dem rekonstruierten Brückenteil erinnern verkohlte Überreste der Originalbilder an den Brand.

 

Wasserturm

 

Nahe dem linken Ufer befindet sich der achteckige Wasserturm, der bereits um 1300, also noch vor der Kapellbrücke, erbaut wurde und von ihr aus über einen kurzen Quergang erreichbar ist. Der Turm diente wechselweise als Wachturm und Eckpfeiler der Stadtbefestigung, als Stadtarchiv und Schatzkammer sowie als Kerker und Folterkammer. Heute beherbergt er einen Souvenirladen sowie das Vereinslokal des Artillerievereins Luzern.

 

Der Bilderzyklus

 

Der Bilderzyklus umfasste ursprünglich 158 Bildtafeln. 147 Bilder blieben bis 1993 erhalten, davon wurden nach den Verkürzungen der Brücke im 19. Jahrhundert dort noch 110 Bilder gezeigt. Die Holztafeln sind bzw. waren an der Basis zwischen 150 und 181 cm breit und 85 bis 95 cm hoch. Jede Tafel bestand aus drei bis fünf Fichtenholzbrettchen. Nur wenige waren aus Linden- und Ahornholz.

 

Der Bilderzyklus entstand in der Zeit der Gegenreformation, in der die Stadtoberen in einem evangelisch-reformierten Umfeld Treue zur katholischen Kirche propagierten. Die Tafeln sind in diesem Sinn Propaganda. Die Darstellungen aus der luzernischen und eidgenössischen Geschichte sollten beim Passieren der Brücke auf dem Weg in die Stadt daran erinnern, dass ein frommer Lebenswandel – dazu gehörte durchaus auch der Dienst im Militär – und Glück im Leben zusammengehören. Ein guter Schweizer war damals der, den die Stadt und Republik Luzern in Soldverträgen nach Frankreich und anderen Staaten ausleihen konnte. Es fing am linken Ufer der Reuss neben der Jesuitenkirche mit dem Bild des Riesen von Reiden an. Dieser kraftstrotzende, mythische Riese galt damals als Ursprung der starken und mächtigen Luzerner. Am rechten Ufer endete es mit der Darstellung des Jesuitenkollegiums, dem späteren Ritter’schen Palast (heute das Regierungsgebäude des Kanton Luzern).

 

Das Konzept für die grosse Serie von Tafelbildern stammte – im Auftrag des Rats – vom Stadtschreiber Renward Cysat. Jedes Ratsmitglied (im engeren und im Grossen Rat) konnte eine Tafel für sich und seine Gattin stiften. Als Kennzeichnung der Stifter wurde deren Wappen jeweils unten links angebracht, dazu auf der gegenüberliegenden Seite das Frauenwappen. Verse, die auf dem Rahmen jedes Bildes stehen, erläutern und ergänzen die Bilddarstellung. Sie wurde dadurch auch gegen «Fehlinterpretationen» geschützt. Ausser um das Luzerner Geschichtsbild ging es auf dem Rückweg um das Leben und Sterben des heiligen Leodegar, des Luzerner Stadtpatrons, und die Legenden des schweizerischen Schutzpatrons, des heiligen Mauritius.

 

Der aus Zürich weggegangene und in Luzern eingebürgerte katholische Maler Hans Heinrich Wägmann sowie seine vier bei ihm in der Werkstatt mitarbeitenden Söhne erhielten den lukrativen Grossauftrag. Wägmann, ein Vertreter der Spätrenaissance, fertigte zunächst eine Skizze des geplanten Bildes auf Papier. Einige Entwürfe sind bis heute erhalten geblieben. (Von ihm und Renward Cysat stammt auch die älteste bekannte Karte des Kantons Luzern aus dem Jahr 1613.)

 

Zum Schutz werden die Bilder auf der Kapellbrücke während der Fasnachtszeit mit Fasnachtsbildern überhängt. Diese sind von diversen Fasnachtsorganisationen oder Guggenmusigen gestaltet und werden jedes Jahr neu aufgehängt.

 

Von den 146 Bildern wurden Kopien angefertigt, auch von den 86 bei dem Brand zerstörten. Es ist ein Streit darüber entbrannt, ob nur die nichtverbrannten Originale oder auch die Kopien an der wiederaufgebauten Brücke angebracht werden sollten.[8] Im November 2014 wurde bei einer Volksabstimmung eine Initiative zur Aufhängung von 146 Kopien der Brückenbilder abgelehnt.

 

(Wikipedia)

Panettone (pronounced /ˌpænɪˈtoʊni/;[1][2][3] Lombard pronunciation: [panetˈtoːne]) is an Italian type of sweet bread loaf originally from Milan (in Milanese dialect of the Lombard language it is called panetton, pronounced [paneˈtũː]),[4] usually prepared and enjoyed for Christmas and New Year in Western, Southern, and Southeastern Europe as well as in the Horn of Africa,[5] and to a lesser extent in former French, Spanish, and Portuguese colonies.

It has a cupola shape, which extends from a cylindrical base and is usually about 12–15 cm high for a panettone weighing 1 kg. Other bases may be used, such as an octagon, or a frustum with a star section shape more common to pandoro. It is made during a long process that involves curing the dough, which is acidic, similar to sourdough. The proofing process alone takes several days, giving the cake its distinctive fluffy characteristics. It contains candied orange, citron, and lemon zest, as well as raisins, which are added dry and not soaked. Many other variations are available such as plain or with chocolate. It is served in wedge shapes, vertically cut, accompanied with sweet hot beverages or a sweet wine, such as Asti or Moscato d'Asti. In some regions of Italy, it is served with crema di mascarpone, a cream made from mascarpone, eggs, sometimes dried or candied fruits, and typically a sweet liqueur such as amaretto; if mascarpone cheese is unavailable, zabaione is sometimes used as a substitute.

Efforts are under way to obtain Protected Designation of Origin and Denominazione di origine controllata status for this product, but, as of late 2008, this had not occurred.[6] Italian Agriculture Minister Paolo De Castro was looking at ways to protect genuine Italian cakes from growing competition in South America and whether action could be taken at the World Trade Organization.

Smarmy-looking sort of cove, wasn't I? Have you ever noticed, lads, that when you get married you always have to settle close to the bride's parents? When this photo was taken, in about 1996, I had been domiciled for five years in the pleasant North Somerset resort of Clevedon. These were the woods behind Clevedon Court, where a ridge of limestone rises out of the Somerset Plain. Ten miles north the Clifton Suspension Bridge spans a gorge excavated out of this material by the River Avon.

In the background is the Gordano Valley, an "inlet" ...literally so, since the sea must have come up here at one time and deposited the land as silt... of the Somerset Levels. It is criss-crossed with drainage channels known hereabouts as "rhynes". Surely this must be pure Anglo-Saxon, etymologically related to Rhine and the Dutch Rijn. The word must have persisted in local dialect for 1,500 years, long after it had ceased to be a "language" word. In the same way Bristolians (mostly very old ones) say "thee bist" and "thee bistn't" instead of "you are" and "you aren't" ...just as the modern Germans say "du bist". On the far side of the valley, up at the top edge of the picture, you can see the terrain beginning to rise towards another ridge, beyond which is the Bristol Channel.

Website :

www.dunkerque-tourisme.fr

  

english

 

Is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the Belgian border. The population of the city (commune) at the 1999 census was 70,850 inhabitants (71,300 inhabitants as per February 2004 estimates). The population of the metropolitan area was 265,974 inhabitants as per the 1999 census.

The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish "dun(e)" (dune) and "kerke" (church – related to the Scots English "kirk"). Until the middle of the 20th century the city was situated in the French Flemish area; today the local Flemish dialect, a variety of the Dutch language, can still be found but has been largely replaced by French.

Middle Ages

Dunkirk was first mentioned in 1067 as Dunkirk (Dutch: “Church of the Dune” or "Dune Church").

The area was much disputed between Spain, the Netherlands, England and France.

At the beginning of the Eighty Years' War, Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, from 1577. Spanish forces under the Duke of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious Dunkirkers.

The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when the city was conquered by the French in 1646 but Spanish forces recaptured the city in 1652.

In 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured by Franco-English forces. It was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco-English alliance against Spain.

It came under French rule when Charles II of England sold it to France for £320,000 on 17 October 1662.

During the reign of Louis XIV, a large number of commerce raiders once again made their base at Dunkirk. Jean Bart was the most famous. The Man in the Iron Mask was arrested at Dunkirk.

The 18th century Swedish privateers and pirates Lars Gathenhielm and his wife and partner Ingela Hammar, are known to have sold their ill-gotten gains in Dunkirk.

The 1763 "Treaty of Paris" between France and Great Britain included a clause restricting French rights to fortify Dunkirk, to allay British fears of it being used as an invasion base.

 

French

 

est une commune française de 68 292 habitants (2008), sous-préfecture du département du Nord et de la région Nord-Pas-de-Calais. La ville est baignée par la mer du Nord et plusieurs canaux. Ses habitants sont appelés les Dunkerquois et les Dunkerquoises.

La ville et ses alentours ont appartenu au comté de Flandre et ils relèvent de la zone linguistique flamande. L'histoire de la « cité de Jean Bart» est liée à la mer : à l'origine, Dunkerque était un village de pêcheurs construit à l'extrémité ouest d'une île longue et étroite « à la frisonne » comprenant l'abbaye des Dunes de Coxyde (d'où le nom : en ouest-flamand duun-kerke = église des dunes) et allant jusqu'à Oostduinkerke qui était à l'époque au bord d'une anse de l'Yser. Des siècles plus tard, la ville abrita des corsaires dont le célèbre Jean Bart, héros de la bataille du Texel. De par sa position sur la mer du Nord, Dunkerque a souvent suscité les convoitises, elle fut le théâtre de nombreuses opérations militaires. Demeurée aux mains des alliés durant la Première Guerre mondiale, elle fut sévèrement bombardée par les Allemands conscient du rôle primordial du port. Au cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale elle fut le théâtre de l'opération Dynamo. Sortie anéantie de cette guerre, la ville doit son salut à l'installation dans son port de l'usine sidérurgique Usinor qui accéléra sa reconstruction et son développement.

De nos jours, Dunkerque est le cœur d'une agglomération de 200 000 habitants. C'est la première plate-forme énergétique du Nord-Pas-de-Calais et l'un des pôles économiques de la région notamment grâce à son port, le troisième de France : trafic minéralier et pétrolier, porte-conteneurs, production d'acier.

Elle est aussi connue pour son carnaval, festivités s'étalant sur une période comprise entre janvier et mars, où les habitants se réunissent dans les rues aux rythmes de la fanfare guidée par le « tambour-major ».

  

Português

 

Dunquerque (em francês Dunkerque; em neerlandês, Duinkerke; em flamengo ocidental Duynkercke)) é uma cidade portuária no norte de França, no departamento do Nord, região de Nord-Pas-de-Calais, situada a 10 km da fronteira com a Bélgica. Tem cerca de 70.000 habitantes. Está ligada por ferry-boat a Ramsgate e Dover, em Inglaterra.

Dunquerque é o terceiro maior porto francês, depois de Le Havre e Marselha. É também uma cidade industrial, dependente do aço, indústria alimentar, refinação de petróleo, estaleiros navais e indústria química.

Historicamente, a cidade e seus arredores pertenceram ao Condado de Flandres e fazem parte da zona linguística flamenga.

Em Dunquerque fala-se um dialeto muito particular - dunkerquois - com palavras tomadas de empréstimo à linguagem dos marinheiros e ao flamengo ocidental .

O nome de Dunquerque provém do neerlandês Duinkerk, que significa « igreja nas dunas».

Segundo a tradição, a cidade foi fortificada pelo filho de Pepino de Landen, o terrível Allowyn, um franco convertido por Santo Elói. Assim, Dunquerque foi a única cidade da costa, até Saint-Omer, a ser preservada contra os ataques e pilhagens dos normandos. Hoje em dia, Allowyn "reaparece" todos os anos como Reuze (reuze em flamengo significa "gigante"), para presidir a saída do tradicional bando dos pescadores, durante o carnaval de Dunkerque.

Em 960, Balduíno III, dito Balduíno o Jovem, quarto conde de Flandres, faz construir as primeiras muralhas da cidade.

Em 1383 a Dunkerque flamenga é pilhada pelos ingleses e depois, pelos franceses.

A partir do século XVI, Dunquerque passou a ser posessão - juntamente com o território dos Países Baixos espanhóis - dos Habsburgos espanhóis. Em 1520, Carlos V, 31° conde de Flandres, é recebido triunfalmente na cidade.

Dunquerque foi disputada em diferentes ocasiões pelas coroas de Inglaterra, Países Baixos e França. Durante a Guerra de Flandres (1568-1648) e no reinado de Luís XIV, serviu como base de operações de corsários, sendo Jan Bart o mais famoso deles - conhecido por atacar os barcos holandeses.

A cidade foi tomada pelos ingleses sob Filipe II da Espanha, conde de Flandres, e retomada pelos franceses em 1558. Pelo Tratado de Cateau-Cambraisis os franceses a cedem à Espanha em 1559.

Sitiada por Turenne, em 25 de maio de 1658, após a batalha das Dunas, a cidade se rende aos franceses, em 25 de junho. Na mesma noite, Luís XIV a entrega a Oliver Cromwell, segundo o acordado por Inglaterra e França pelo Tratado de Paris do ano anterior.

Dunquerque será definitivamente incorporada ao reino da França em 1662, depois que Carlos II da Inglaterra vende a cidade à França, por 5.000.000 libras - embora o pagamento nunca tenha sido completado.

A construção dos sistemas defensivos da cidade ficou a cargo do engenheiro militar Vauban, que também desenvolve o seu porto. Mais tarde, em 1713, pelo Tratado de Utrecht, a França será obrigada a inundar o porto e a arrasar as fortificações, o que entretanto não foi executado senão em parte, e Luís XV voltou a fortificá-la.

Em 1793, o duque de York tenta inutilmente tomar a cidade. Após a batalha de Hondschoote, a cidade é renomeada Duna Livre.

Durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial, Dunquerque é duramente bombardeada por diversas vezes. A Igreja de Santo Elói (construída em meados do século XV) é parcialmente destruída.

Mas a cidade sofreria especialmente durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, tendo sido palco da célebre Batalha de Dunquerque, em 1940. Uma pausa na intensidade dos combates permitiu inesperadamente a evacuação de um grande número de soldados franceses e britânicos para Inglaterra. Mais de 300.000 homens foram evacuados apesar do bombardeamento constante ("o milagre de Dunquerque", nas palavras de Winston Churchill). A evacuação britânica de Dunquerque recebeu o nome de código Operação Dínamo

 

Máyi, a way.

 

From Roger Williams 1643 Algonquian phrase book, A Key into the Language of America. The word for a way or foot path was transcribed by Williams from the Narragansett dialect. James Hammond in his Natick Dictionary published in 1903, ostensibly derived from the Massachusett, transcribed the word for path as m'ay or maï. Here, the view along a path looks northeast towards a fork, Yo chippacháusin, there the way divides.

 

In the section on Travel, Williams transcribed the Narragansett compound word Mishimmayagat, “a great path.” Antiquarians appropriated this, shortening it to mishimayagat (dropping the euphony), and took what was a path type or attribute and turned it into a proper name. Mishimayagat, The Great Path or The Great Path of New England.

 

Creating a name from such an Algonquian compound perhaps missed the import of a distinction that Williams was trying to record. There are ways or paths, Máyi; there are little ways or paths, Peemáyagat; there are great ways or paths, Mishimmayagat; and there are stone or rocky paths, Machípscat. In other words, Williams was describing what were considered to be typical paths and other types of paths such as wide well-traveled ways contrasted to small narrow ways. There are paths and there are paths. There is no suggestion that Williams was saying there was one single great path or one small path running through southern New England.

 

In his Key to the Language of America, Williams provided phrases and words that described activities and interactions. His Key was a phrase book for those Colonial English living near, trading with or traveling among Algonquian speaking communities. In the section on Travel, he provided words and phrases that described how to get from here to there, ask directions and interpret directions. Knowing the difference between the types of paths probably was relevant to navigating them.

 

The contrast of path types, a typical path with a great path for example is also illustrated with definitions found in James Trumbull's Natick Dictionary, such as mishekishki or mishe kishki - "broad, wide" or "great from side to side" and mishonogok may - "(it is) a broad way."

 

Greatness or width wasn't strictly an attribute of paths. Trumbull also provided definitions of the Algonquian landscape in his book The Composition of Indian Geographical Names. The attribute mishi, for great, or it's variants show up in Algonquian compounds such as Mississippi (mishi sipu) or "great stream," Mystic (mishi tuk) "great tidal river" (compare to quinni tuk or Connecticutt, "winding tidal river”), Massachusetts (mishi wadchu set) "near the great hills," and Mashapaug (mishi paug) "great pond."

 

A possible loose translation of the compound “Mishimmayagat” as transcribed by Roger Williams might be mish 'im 'mayi at, "in” or “on a great way." The ending -gat possibly being a transcription of the Algonquian locative suffix “-et,” “-at,” or “-ut,” indicating being in, at or on as opposed to “-set,” being near. Williams offers two possible variants, “kat” or “gat” for the suffix, perhaps determined by the preceeding consonant or vowel (?). By way of comparison, Trumbull offers mayut, “in, to, or by the way.” Perhaps in keeping with William's handbook intent (as interpreted here), it may describe traveling the path, choosing the correct path to travel.

 

***

 

The photo above shows a section of a colonial era route, recorded as a private way, sometimes described as a particular or private road or bridle path, this as opposed to a Town Hy Way or Town Road that would have been considered town property. A survey of this private way was recorded in the town book in April 1750. Another survey was recorded in April 1752 extended the route.

 

Some documents refer to it as a road or highway but the state of the as-traveled path was the same, as seen in the photo. The 1750 survey linked three farms and roughly follows, or parts of it follow, the route of a “road” recorded in 1736 that went past the house of the town Constable. The 1752 survey linked four farms, essentially joining two separate but contiguous roads together.

 

A fork in the 1736 road provided a more direct route, parallel to this section, connecting the distant farms to the Constable's house and on to the horse shed next to the Meeting House. It would seem that for the most part, this section, although recorded, was bypassed and never really used by the public. For early colonial record keeping, this isn't unusual. Roads were marked and recorded and never used and roads were used and recorded decades after the fact. They all started out in the same foot-path state however. This section of the 1750 private way was officially discontinued or abandoned in 1867.

 

One feature of this section of the 1750 private way that calls attention is a well preserved bowl-like profile such as might be created by foot traffic. Judging by how wide the indention is and how deep the center is compared to the abutting grade level, this path was either highly traveled over a long period or there were a lot more people using it or perhaps cattle driven along it in Colonial times than is suggested by available written records. Other recorded roads from the same period that were later discontinued do not show the same state of use. Between 1730 and 1750 traffic would have been mostly horse and rider, possibly traveling to and from the Meeting House, although as noted, there was a more direct route available and apparently used.

 

This remnant of a private way is a section of an old ridge-line path a couple of miles from a traditional Shetucket/Wabaquasett/Mohegan gathering place. It is part of a network of paths assimilated by the first English colonial settlers, later expanded on, as documented in town records. This section of the 1750 private way is perhaps an overlooked and forgotten m'ay, or Mishi m'ay.

 

***

 

A more concise exploration of 17th Century southern New England Algonquian and the Colonial English understanding of it can be found in Roger Williams' Key and James Hammond Trumbull's Indian Names of Places, Composition of Indian Geographical Names and Trumbull’s Natick Dictionary. Another accessible resource is Zeisberger's Grammar of the Delaware. We have inherited a land alive with Algonquian words still eager to be voiced and understood.

  

Resources:

 

Trumbull, J. Hammond, The Composition of Indian Geographical Names, Illustrated from the Algonkin Languages, Hartford, 1870; Project Gutenberg, EBook # 18279.

 

Trumbull, J. Hammond, Natick Dictionary, A New England Indian Lexicon. Lincoln, 2009.

 

Williams, Roger, A Key into the Language of America, London, 1643. Applewood Books, Bedford, 1997.

 

Zeisberger, David. A Grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Deleware Indians. Translated from the German Manuscript of the late Rev. David Zeisberger, for the American Philosophical Society, Author(s) Peter Stephen Duponceau. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 3 (1830), pp, 65-251. jstor.org.

 

archive.org/

 

Taken with:

Bessa R, HP5, Processed by OldSchoolPhotolab.com

 

© 2018, 2019 mapgraphs, all rights reserved

 

Flash is a dialect word for lake. Flashes are common in this part of Cheshire which has a long history of salt mining dating back to Roman times. Flashes consist of a series of pools or lakes formed as a result of subsidence in the salt mines. Some flashes are highly saline, but others contain fresh water. I think Marston Flashes contain fresh water. Many flashes have been designated Sites of Special Scientific Interest as they support unusual communities of plants and animals. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandbach_Flashes

 

Marston Flashes are situated close to the Lion Saltworks just outside Northwich. The Lion Saltworks are now sadly derelict. They are said to be undergoing restoration, but I visited today and saw nothing but dereliction. I will be posting some images over the next few days.

Luzern

 

Reuss

 

Lucerne (/luːˈsɜːrn/ loo-SURN, French: [lysɛʁn]; High Alemannic: Lozärn) or Luzern (Swiss Standard German: [luˈtsɛrn]) is a city in central Switzerland, in the German-speaking portion of the country. Lucerne is the capital of the canton of Lucerne and part of the district of the same name. With a population of approximately 82,000 people, Lucerne is the most populous city in Central Switzerland, and a nexus of economics, transportation, culture, and media in the region. The city's urban area consists of 19 municipalities and towns with an overall population of about 220,000 people.

 

Owing to its location on the shores of Lake Lucerne (German: Vierwaldstättersee) and its outflow, the river Reuss, within sight of the mounts Pilatus and Rigi in the Swiss Alps, Lucerne has long been a destination for tourists. One of the city's landmarks is the Chapel Bridge (German: Kapellbrücke), a wooden bridge first erected in the 14th century.

 

The official language of Lucerne is German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect, Lucerne German.

 

History

 

Early history and founding (750–1386)

 

After the fall of the Roman Empire beginning in the 6th century, Germanic Alemannic peoples increased their influence on this area of present-day Switzerland.

 

Around 750 the Benedictine Monastery of St. Leodegar was founded, which was later acquired by Murbach Abbey in Alsace in the middle of the 9th century, and by this time the area had become known as Luciaria.

 

The origin of the name is uncertain, it is possibly derived from the Latin name of the pike, lucius, thus designating a pike fishing spot in the river Reuss. Derivation from the theonym Lugus has been suggested but is phonetically implausible. In any case, the name was associated by popular etymology with Latin lucerna "lantern" from an early time.

 

In 1178 Lucerne acquired its independence from the jurisdiction of Murbach Abbey, and the founding of the city proper probably occurred that same year. The city gained importance as a strategically located gateway for the growing commerce from the Gotthard trade route.

 

By 1290, Lucerne had become a self-sufficient city of reasonable size with about 3000 inhabitants. About this time King Rudolph I von Habsburg gained authority over the Monastery of St. Leodegar and its lands, including Lucerne. The populace was not content with the increasing Habsburg influence, and Lucerne allied with neighboring towns to seek independence from their rule. Along with Lucerne, the three other forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden formed the "eternal" Swiss Confederacy, known as the Eidgenossenschaft, on November 7, 1332.

 

Later the cities of Zürich, Zug and Bern joined the alliance. With the help of these additions, the rule of Austria over the area came to an end. The issue was settled by Lucerne's victory over the Habsburgs in the Battle of Sempach in 1386. For Lucerne this victory ignited an era of expansion. The city shortly granted many rights to itself, rights which had been withheld by the Habsburgs until then. By this time the borders of Lucerne were approximately those of today.

 

From city to city-state (1386–1520)

 

In 1415 Lucerne gained Reichsfreiheit from Emperor Sigismund and became a strong member of the Swiss confederacy. The city developed its infrastructure, raised taxes, and appointed its own local officials. The city's population of 3000 dropped about 40% due to the Black Plague and several wars around 1350.

 

In 1419 town records show the first witch trial against a male person.

 

Swiss-Catholic town (1520–1798)

 

Among the growing towns of the confederacy, Lucerne was especially popular in attracting new residents. Remaining predominantly Catholic, Lucerne hosted its own annual passion play from 1453 to 1616, a two-day-long play of 12 hours performance per day. As the confederacy broke up during the Reformation, after 1520, most nearby cities became Protestant, but Lucerne remained Catholic. After the victory of the Catholics over the Protestants in the Battle at Kappel in 1531, the Catholic towns dominated the confederacy. It was during this period that Jesuits first came to Lucerne in 1567, with their arrival given considerable backing by Cardinal Carlo Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. The region, though, was destined to be dominated by Protestant cities such as Zürich, Bern and Basel, which defeated the Catholic forces in the 1712 Toggenburg War. The former prominent position of Lucerne in the confederacy was lost forever. In the 16th and 17th centuries, wars and epidemics became steadily less frequent and as a result the population of the country increased strongly.

 

Lucerne was besieged by a peasant army and quickly signed a peace treaty with the rebels in the Swiss peasant war of 1653.

 

Century of revolutions (1798–1914)

 

In 1798, nine years after the beginning of the French Revolution, the French army marched into Switzerland. The old confederacy collapsed and the government became democratic. The industrial revolution hit Lucerne rather late, and by 1860 only 1.7% of the population worked in industry, which was about a quarter of the national average at that time.[citation needed] Agriculture, which employed about 40% of the workers, was the main form of economic output in the canton. Nevertheless, industry was attracted to the city from areas around Lucerne. From 1850 to 1913, the population quadrupled and the flow of settlers increased. In 1856 trains first linked the city to Olten and Basel, then Zug and Zürich in 1864 and finally to the south in 1897.

 

The 1804 play William Tell by Friedrich Schiller did much to establish the reputation of Lucerne and its environs. Schiller himself had not been to Lucerne, but was inspired to write the play by his wife Lotte and his friend Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who had both personally visited the city and its surrounding canton. Goethe had lodged in the Hirschenplatz on his route to Italy in 1779.

 

It was during the latter part of the 19th century that Lucerne became a popular destination for artists, royalty and others to escape to. The German composer Richard Wagner established a residence at Tribschen in 1866, where he lived and worked. The city was then boosted by a visit by Queen Victoria to the city in 1868, during which she went sightseeing at the Kapellbrücke and Lion Monument and relished speaking with local people in her native German. The American writer Mark Twain further popularised the city and its environs in his travel writings after visiting twice, in 1878 and 1897. In 1892 Swiss poet and future Nobel Prize laureate Carl Spitteler also established himself in Lucerne, living there until his death in 1924.

 

Lucerne's status as a fashionable destination led to it becoming one of the first centres of modern-style tourism. Some of the city's most recognisable buildings are hotels from this period, such as the Schweizerhof Hotel (1845), Grand Hotel National (1870), and Château Gütsch (1879). It was at the National that Swiss hotelier César Ritz would establish himself as manager between 1878 and 1888.

 

20th and 21st century

 

In August 1993, the Kapellbrücke in the centre of the city suffered from a great fire which destroyed two thirds of its interior paintings. The bridge was subsequently reconstructed and reopened to the public in April 1994, after a total of CHF 3.4 million was spent on its repair.

 

On June 17, 2007, voters of the city of Lucerne and the adjacent town of Littau agreed to a merger in a simultaneous referendum. This took effect on January 1, 2010. The new city, still called Lucerne, has a population of around 80,000 people, making it the seventh-largest city in Switzerland. The results of this referendum are expected to pave the way for negotiations with other nearby cities and towns in an effort to create a unified city-region, based on the results of a study.

 

Geography and climate

 

Topography

 

Lucerne is located at the outfall of Lake Lucerne into the river Reuss, which flows from south-east to north-west. The city occupies both banks of the river and the lowest reach of the lake, with the city centre straddling the river immediately downstream of the outfall. The city's suburbs climb the hills to the north-east and south-west, and stretch out along the river and lake banks, whilst the recently added area of Littau is to the north-west.

 

Besides this contiguous city area, the municipality also includes an exclave on the south shore of Lake Lucerne some 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) away, comprising the northern slopes of the Bürgenstock. This section of the municipality is entirely surrounded by the lake and by land of the canton of Nidwalden. It does not contain any significant settlements, but the summit of the Bürgenstock is the highest point of the municipality.

 

The municipality has an area of 29.1 square kilometers (11.2 sq mi). Of this area and as of 2009, 28.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while 22.3% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 47.6% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (2.1%) is non-productive (rivers, glaciers or mountains).

 

Climate

 

Between 1961 and 1990 Lucerne had an average of 138.1 days of rain per year and on average received 1,171 mm (46.1 in) of precipitation. The wettest month was June during which time Lucerne received an average of 153 mm (6.0 in) of rainfall. During this month there was rainfall for an average of 14.2 days. The driest month of the year was February with an average of 61 mm (2.4 in) of precipitation over 10.2 days. Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).

 

Sights

 

Since the city straddles the Reuss where it drains the lake, it has a number of bridges. These include the Chapel Bridge (Kapellbrücke), a 204 m (669 ft) long wooden covered bridge originally built in 1333, the oldest covered bridge in Europe, although much of it had to be replaced after a fire on 18 August 1993, allegedly caused by a discarded cigarette. Partway across, the bridge runs by the octagonal Water Tower (Wasserturm), a fortification from the 13th century. Inside the bridge are a series of paintings from the 17th century depicting events from Lucerne's history.

 

Downriver, between the Kasernenplatz and the Mühlenplatz, the Spreuer Bridge (Spreuerbrücke or Mühlenbrücke, Mill Bridge) zigzags across the Reuss. Constructed in 1408, it features a series of medieval-style 17th century plague paintings by Kaspar Meglinger titled Dance of Death (Totentanzzyklus). The bridge has a small chapel in the middle that was added in 1568.

 

Old Town Lucerne is mainly located just north of the Reuss, and still has several fine half-timber structures with painted fronts. Remnants of the old town walls exist on the hill above Lucerne, complete with eight tall watch towers. An additional gated tower sits at the base of the hill on the banks of the Reuss.

 

The twin needle towers of the Church of St. Leodegar, which was named after the city's patron saint, sit on a small hill just above the lake front. Originally built in 735, the present structure was erected in 1633 in the late Renaissance style. However, the towers are surviving remnants of an earlier structure. The interior is richly decorated. The church is popularly called the Hofkirche (in German) and is known locally as the Hofchile (in Swiss-German).

 

Bertel Thorvaldsen's carving of a dying lion (the Lion Monument, or Löwendenkmal) is found in a small park just off the Löwenplatz. The carving commemorates the hundreds of Swiss Guards who were massacred in 1792 during the French Revolution, when an armed mob stormed the Tuileries Palace in Paris.

 

The Swiss Museum of Transport is a large and comprehensive museum exhibiting all forms of transport, including locomotives, automobiles, ships, and aircraft. It is to be found beside the lake in the northern-eastern section of the city.

 

The Culture and Convention Center (KKL) beside the lake in the center of the city was designed by Jean Nouvel. The center has one of the world's leading concert halls, with acoustics by Russell Johnson.

 

The Richard Wagner Museum is found on the lake at Tribschen and is dedicated to the composer Richard Wagner. Wagner lived in Lucerne from 1866 to 1872 and his former villa now hosts the museum dedicated to him.

 

Culture and events

 

Culture

 

Since plans for the new culture and convention centre arose in the late 1980s, Lucerne has found a balance between the so-called established culture and alternative culture. A consensus was reached that culminated in a culture compromise (Kulturkompromiss). The established culture comprises the Lucerne Culture and Congress Centre (KKL), the city theater (Luzerner Theater) and, in a broader sense, smaller establishments such as the Kleintheater, founded by comedian Emil Steinberger, a Lucerne native, or Stadtkeller, a music restaurant in the city's old town. KKL houses a concert hall as well as the Museum of Art Lucerne (Kunstmuseum Luzern).

 

Alternative culture took place mostly on the premises of a former tube factory, which became known as Boa. Other localities for alternative culture have since emerged in the same inner city area as Boa. Initially, Boa staged various plays, but concerts became more and more common; this new use of the building clashed with the development of apartment buildings on nearby lots of land. Due to possible noise pollution, Boa was closed and a replacement in a less heavily inhabited area is currently under construction. Critics claimed though that the new establishment would not meet the requirements for an alternative culture.

 

Südpol is a center for performing arts in Lucerne presenting music-, dance- and theatre-events. The house at the foot of Pilatus opened in November 2008.

 

Lucerne is home to the Luzerner Sinfonieorchester, a category A symphonic orchestra, and to the 21st Century Symphony Orchestra, and they both hold most of their performances in the Lucerne Culture and Congress Centre.

 

Lucerne is also home to Keramikkonzerte, a series of classical chamber music concerts held throughout each year, as well as Zaubersee, a festival dedicated to Russian classical music.

 

Events

 

Every year, towards the end of winter, Fasnacht (Carnival) breaks out in the streets, alleyways and squares of the old town. This is a glittering outdoor party, where chaos and merriness reign and nothing is as it normally is. Strange characters in fantastic masks and costumes make their way through the alleyways, while Guggenmusiken (carnival bands) blow their instruments in joyful cacophony and thousands of bizarrely clad people sing and dance away the winter. The Lucerner Fasnacht, based on religious, Catholic backgrounds, starts every year on the Thursday before Aschermittwoch (Ash Wednesday) with a big bang at 5am called Morgenwacht (Morning Watch). There are big parades in the afternoon on Schmotzige Donnerstag (literally: Lardy Thursday) and the following Monday, called Güdismontag (literally: Paunch Monday), which attract tens of thousands of people. Lucerne's Carnival ends with a crowning finish on Güdisdienstag (literally: Paunch Tuesday) evening with the Monstercorso, a tremendous parade of Guggenmusiken, lights and lanterns with even a larger audience. Rather recently a fourth Fasnacht day has been introduced on the Saturday between the others Fasnacht days, the Rüüdige Samstag while mainly several indoor balls take place. From dusk till dawn on the evenings of Schmotzige Donnerstag, Güdismontag, and after the Monstercorso many bands wander through the historical part of the city playing typical Fasnacht tunes. Until midnight, the historical part of the city usually is packed with people participating. A large part of the audience are also dressed up in costumes, even a majority in the evenings.

 

The city hosts various renowned festivals throughout the year. The Lucerne Festival for classical music takes place in the summer. Its orchestra, the Lucerne Festival Orchestra, is hand-picked from some of the finest instrumentalists in the world. In June yearly the pop music festival B-Sides takes place in Lucerne. It focuses on international acts in alternative music, indie rock, experimental rock and other cutting edge and left field artistic musical genres. In July, the Blue Balls Festival brings jazz, blues and punk music to the lake promenade and halls of the Culture and Convention Center. The Lucerne Blues Festival is another musical festival which usually takes place in November. Since spring 2004, Lucerne has hosted the Festival Rose d'Or for television entertainment. And in April, the well-established comics festival Fumetto attracts an international audience.

 

Being the cultural center of a rather rural region, Lucerne regularly holds different folklore festivals, such as Lucerne Cheese Festival, held annually. In 2004, Lucerne was the focus of Swiss Wrestling fans when it had hosted the Swiss Wrestling and Alpine festival (Eidgenössisches Schwing- und Älplerfest), which takes place every three years in a different location. A national music festival (Eidgenössiches Musikfest) attracted marching bands from all parts of Switzerland in 2006. In summer 2008, the yodelling festival (Eidgenössisches Jodlerfest) had a similar impact.

 

The 2021 Winter Universiade will be hosted by Lucerne.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Luzern (luzerndeutsch Lozärn [loˈtsæːrn], französisch Lucerne, italienisch Lucerna, rätoromanisch Lucerna) ist eine Stadt, Einwohnergemeinde sowie Hauptort des gleichnamigen Schweizer Kantons. Sie bildet zugleich den Wahlkreis Luzern-Stadt. Die Stadt hat 82'620 Einwohner (Dez. 2020), mit Agglomeration rund 223'000.

 

Luzern ist das gesellschaftliche und kulturelle Zentrum der Zentralschweiz. Im Bildungsbereich ist es unter anderem Sitz der Universität Luzern, der Pädagogischen Hochschule Luzern und der Hochschule Luzern. Anlässe mit überregionaler Ausstrahlung sind beispielsweise die Luzerner Fasnacht und das Lucerne Festival. Luzern ist ein bedeutendes Tourismusziel in der Schweiz, einerseits wegen seiner Lage am Vierwaldstättersee und der Nähe zu den Alpen und anderseits dank Sehenswürdigkeiten wie der Kapellbrücke und dem Verkehrshaus der Schweiz.

 

Geographie

 

Die Stadt Luzern liegt am nordwestlichen Ufer des Vierwaldstättersees beim Ausfluss der Reuss. Die Reuss teilt die Stadt in die Altstadt und Neustadt. Die Kapellbrücke mit dem Wasserturm und die Spreuerbrücke verbinden die Alt- und Neustadt. Zu Luzern gehört auch die Exklave Bürgenstock. Die Lage zwischen See und den Bergen Pilatus und Rigi ist besonders malerisch und begünstigte die Entwicklung Luzerns als Fremdenstadt und frühe Hochburg des Tourismus ab 1840.

 

Der höchste Punkt der Gemeinde ist der Gipfel des Bürgenstocks in der Exklave Bürgenstock mit einer Höhe von 1127,8 m ü. M. Der tiefste Punkt ist am Rotsee auf 419 m ü. M.

 

Die Fläche des Stadtgebiets beträgt 29,1 km², davon sind 44,2 % Siedlungsfläche, 30,2 % Landwirtschaftszonen und 23,7 % Wald. 2,0 % sind unproduktive Fläche.

 

Klima

 

Für die Normalperiode 1991–2020 beträgt die Jahresmitteltemperatur 10,1 °C, wobei im Januar mit 1,1 °C die kältesten und im Juli mit 19,5 °C die wärmsten Monatsmitteltemperaturen gemessen werden. Im Mittel sind hier rund 78 Frosttage und 15 Eistage zu erwarten. Sommertage gibt es im Jahresmittel rund 50, während normalerweise 9 Hitzetage zu verzeichnen sind. Die Messstation von MeteoSchweiz liegt auf einer Höhe von 454 m ü. M.

 

Der Höchstwert der Durchschnittssonnenscheindauer des Monats Januar wurde 2020 mit 98,5 Std. erreicht. Damit wurde der bisherige Rekord von 1999 (86,7 Std.) gebrochen.

 

Geschichte

 

Ortsname

 

Die frühesten bekannten Nennungen des Ortes sind ad monasterium Lucernense beziehungsweise ad Lucernense monasterium (9. Jahrhundert; Abschrift um 1200), monasterium Luciaria (840) und in quodam loco, qui Lucerna ex antiquitate est dictus (853; Abschrift des 11. Jahrhunderts). Die Bedeutung ist unklar. Vorgeschlagene Herleitungen von lateinisch lucerna «Leuchte» (vergleiche bis heute «Leuchtenstadt Luzern»), vom keltischen Gott Lugus und vom männlichen Personennamen Luz oder Luzius sind nicht haltbar. Eine mögliche Grundlage bleibt jedoch lateinisch lūcǐus «Hecht», verbunden mit dem eine Verbreitung ausdrückenden Suffix -ārǐa. Die Bedeutung des Namens Luzern wäre damit «Ort, wo sich Hechte in grossen Mengen aufhalten».

 

Frühzeit und Stadtgründung (um 750–1386)

 

Nach dem Zerfall des Römischen Reiches nahmen germanische Alemannen ab dem 7. Jahrhundert immer grösseren Besitz von dieser Gegend. Die alemannische Sprache ersetzte allmählich die lateinische. Um 710 entstand durch eine karolingische Gründung das Benediktinerkloster St. Leodegar (dort heute St. Leodegar im Hof), das Mitte des 9. Jahrhunderts unter die Herrschaft der elsässischen Abtei Murbach gelangte. Zu dieser Zeit bzw. um 750 nannte man das Gebiet Luciaria. Die Vogtei über das Kloster Murbach und damit auch über Luzern hatte seit 1135 das Adelsgeschlecht der Habsburger inne. Die Gründung der Stadt erfolgte wahrscheinlich durch die Brüder von Eschenbach, die Ende des 12. Jahrhunderts die Abtwürde von Murbach und Luzern gleichzeitig besassen. Das genaue Jahr der Stadtgründung ist unbekannt, es muss aber zwischen 1180 und 1200 liegen. Die Stadt gewann immer mehr an Bedeutung als Schlüsselstelle im wachsenden Gotthardverkehr und als Verwaltungszentrum. 1250 erreichte Luzern bereits die Grösse, die es bis ins 19. Jahrhundert beibehielt. Luzern war im 13. Jahrhundert durch Parteikämpfe zwischen Anhängern des Kaisers und des Papstes geprägt und schien bereits eine städtische Selbstverwaltung mit Rat und Bürgerversammlung besessen zu haben. 1291 erwarb der deutsche König Rudolf I. von Habsburg die Herrschaftsrechte des Klosters Murbach über Luzern, nachdem er schon die umliegenden Gebiete systematisch aufgekauft hatte.

 

Die Streitigkeiten um den deutschen Königsthron 1314–1325 führten auch zu Feindseligkeiten in den Ländern um den Vierwaldstättersee. Zur Stabilisierung der Verhältnisse ging Luzern 1332 einen Bund mit den benachbarten drei Waldstätten Uri, Schwyz und Unterwalden ein. Dieser Bund richtete sich nicht speziell gegen die Habsburger: Luzern behielt sich seine Verpflichtungen gegenüber der Herrschaft Österreich ausdrücklich vor.

 

Insbesondere ab der zweiten Hälfte des 14. Jahrhunderts begann Luzern erfolgreich, seinen Einfluss in den umliegenden ländlichen Gebieten zu verstärken und Herrschaftsrechte an sich zu binden. Diese expansive Territorialpolitik, welche auch von anderen eidgenössischen Städten wie Zürich vorangetrieben wurde, führte zwangsläufig zu Konflikten mit der Herrschaft Österreich und gipfelte 1386 in der Schlacht bei Sempach. Der Sieg der eidgenössischen Parteien erlaubte Luzern eine Konsolidierung des Herrschaftsgebiets, das in seiner Ausdehnung bereits ungefähr dem heutigen Kanton Luzern entsprach.

 

Von der Stadt zum Stadtstaat (1386–1520)

 

1415 erhielt Luzern von König Sigismund die Reichsfreiheit und war damit bis zum Westfälischen Frieden 1648 eine Reichsstadt. Luzern bildete ein kräftiges Glied im eidgenössischen Bund. Die Stadt baute ihre Territorialherrschaft aus, erhob Steuern und setzte beamtete Vögte ein. Die Zahl der Stadtbevölkerung von 3000 ging um etwa 40 Prozent zurück. Schuld daran waren die Pest (um 1350, in mehreren Wellen) und etliche Kriege (so genannte Ennetbirgische Feldzüge). Nachdem sich Hexenverfolgungen zunächst vorwiegend im frankophonen Sprachraum ausgebreitet hatten, tauchte der Begriff «Hexereye» 1419 in einem Zaubereiprozess gegen einen Mann in Luzern auf und damit erstmals im deutschsprachigen Raum.

 

Vorort der katholischen Schweiz (um 1520–1798)

 

Im wachsenden Staatenbund der Eidgenossenschaft gehörte Luzern zu den einflussreichen Stadtorten. Als die Reformation nach 1520 die Eidgenossenschaft spaltete, wurden die meisten Städte reformiert, Luzern aber blieb katholisch. Nach dem Sieg der Katholiken über die Reformierten in der Schlacht bei Kappel 1531 dominierten die katholischen Orte die Eidgenossenschaft. Trotz des militärischen Sieges im Ersten Villmergerkrieg 1656 verschoben sich die Gewichte zu Gunsten der reformierten Städte wie Zürich, Bern und Basel, die im Zweiten Villmergerkrieg 1712 die Katholiken besiegten. Die führende Stellung Luzerns in der Eidgenossenschaft war damit vorbei. Im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert wurden die Kriege und Seuchen immer seltener, die Bevölkerung nahm vor allem auf dem Land kräftig zu, während die Stadt innerhalb der Mauern kaum wuchs.

 

Jahrhundert der Revolutionen (1798–1914)

 

1798, neun Jahre nach Beginn der Französischen Revolution, marschierte die französische Armee in der Schweiz ein. Die Alte Eidgenossenschaft zerfiel und die Herrschaft der Patrizier wurde in eine Demokratie umgeformt, es entstand die Helvetische Republik, deren Hauptstadt Luzern für kurze Zeit war.

 

Die industrielle Revolution trat in Luzern erst spät ein. 1860 waren nur 1,7 Prozent der Bevölkerung in der Heim- oder Fabrikarbeit tätig, dies waren nur ein Viertel so viel wie in der übrigen Schweiz. Die Landwirtschaft mit einem hohen Anteil von 40 Prozent der Erwerbstätigen im Bauernstand prägte den Kanton. Dennoch zog die Stadt etliche Industrien an, die sich aber in den Gemeinden um Luzern ansiedeln. Von 1850 bis 1913 vervierfachte sich die Zahl der Bevölkerung und ihre Siedlungsfläche wuchs. Ab dem Jahre 1856 folgten die Bahnen, zuerst jene nach Olten und Basel, 1864 nach Zug und Zürich und 1897 in den Süden.

 

Von 1910 bis 1912 verkehrte in Luzern mit der Ville de Lucerne ein Luftschiff für Passagierrundflüge. Der Landeplatz mit der Halle und einem Gaskraftwerk befand sich im Tribschenmoos.

 

Entwicklungsakzente im 20. Jahrhundert (1914–2000)

 

Im 20. Jahrhundert gewannen die Vororte immer mehr an Bedeutung. Die Bevölkerungszahl im umliegenden Grossraum verdoppelte sich, während die städtische Bevölkerung nur langsam zunahm. 1981 folgte der Anschluss an die Autobahn A2.

 

Entwicklung im 21. Jahrhundert (ab 2001)

 

Am 17. Juni 2007 stimmten die Einwohner von Luzern und Littau für eine Gemeindefusion von Littau mit Luzern. In Luzern stimmten 9869 der Stimmberechtigten für die Fusion, 8875 dagegen (53 % zu 47 %, Stimmbeteiligung 46,2 %). Die Littauer stimmten mit 2824 gegen 2343 (55 % zu 45 %, Stimmbeteiligung 60,4 %) für die Fusion. Die Fusion wurde am 1. Januar 2010 vollzogen. Die «neue» Stadt heisst weiterhin Luzern und wird das alte Stadtwappen beibehalten. Die Einwohnerzahl beträgt nun rund 75'000 Personen.

 

Der Luzerner Stadtrat sah darin aber nur den ersten Schritt für weitere Fusionen. Im November 2011 entschieden sich Ebikon, Adligenswil und Kriens gegen eine Fusion. Im März 2012 lehnten die Stimmberechtigten von Emmen in einer Volksabstimmung die Aufnahme von Fusionsverhandlungen mit der Stadt Luzern ab.

 

Kultur

 

Als Veranstaltungsort von Konzerten, insbesondere der klassischen Musik, spielt das KKL eine schweizweit bedeutende Rolle. Residenzorchester des KKL ist das Luzerner Sinfonieorchester. Luzern hat drei grössere Theater, es sind dies das Luzerner Theater, das Kleintheater Luzern und der Theaterpavillon. Das Luzerner Theater verfügt neben dem Hauptgebäude über einen zweiten Aufführungsort, das «UG» in der Winkelriedstrasse.

 

Für die Alternativkultur wird insbesondere das Neubad genutzt, welches aus einer Zwischennutzung des ehemaligen Hallenbads Luzerns entstanden ist. Seit 1981 existiert im ehemaligen Gefängnis Sedel das Musikzentrum Sedel, welches Veranstaltungen in den Bereichen Punk und Rock anbietet. Ein eher adoleszentes Publikum spricht das Treibhaus Luzern an. Mit dem Konzerthaus Schüür steht eine weitere Konzertbühne zur Verfügung. In der Jazzkantine Luzern spielen vorwiegend Studenten der lokalen Musikhochschule vor Publikum. Daneben finden im Musik-Restaurant Stadtkeller Konzerte vorwiegend von Schweizer Grössen statt. Die Stadt verfügt über 13 Kinosäle in fünf Kinos. Die Kornschütte befindet sich im Rathaus Luzern. Dort steht sechsmal im Jahr ein Raum für Ausstellungen aus dem Luzerner Kulturleben zur Verfügung. Häufig finden Kunstausstellungen statt.

 

Veranstaltungen

 

Die Luzerner Fasnacht dauert vom Schmutzigen Donnerstag bis Güdisdienstag. Sie ist der grösste jährlich stattfindende Anlass der Zentralschweiz.

Das Stadtfest Luzern ist ein im Frühsommer stattfindendes Fest in der Stadt. Von 2009 bis 2018 fand es unter dem Namen Luzerner Fest statt, zuvor gab es die beiden Feste Luzerner Altstadtfest und Luzerner Seenachtsfest.

Fumetto: Jährlich im Frühling stattfindendes Comic-Festival.

Lucerne Blues Festival: Eines der weltweit wichtigsten Bluesfestivals, seit 1995 in und von Luzernern ausgetragen und mit diversesten Preisen ausgezeichnet (2006 zum Beispiel mit dem «Keeping The Blues Alive»-Award, der erstmals in der Geschichte ausserhalb der Vereinigten Staaten ausgehändigt wird).

Lucerne Festival (früher Musikfestwochen): Eines der bedeutendsten europäischen Festivals für klassische und neue Musik, bekannt durch Gastkonzerte der weltbesten Sinfonieorchester im KKL.

Blue Balls Festival: Von 1992 bis 2019 fand dieses Musikfestivals mit ca. 100'000 Besuchern während neun Tagen im Juli statt. Angeboten wurden Open-Air-Konzerte ums Luzerner Seebecken sowie Konzerte im Kultur- und Kongresszentrum und im Hotel Schweizerhof Luzern. Das Festival umfasste die Sparten Blues, Jazz, Soul, Rock- und Pop sowie Singer-Songwriter.

Funk am See: Ein Gratis-Open-Air, das alle zwei Jahre, jeweils zu geraden Jahreszahlen, auf der Lido-Wiese vor dem Verkehrshaus in Luzern stattfindet. Neben Rock- und Pop-Acts sind auch immer Hip-Hop-Acts vor Ort.

Ruderwelt Luzern: Internationale Ruderregatta, die jährlich im Rahmen des Ruder-Weltcups ausgetragen wird und jeweils Anfang Juli auf dem Rotsee stattfindet.

Spitzenleichtathletik Luzern: Jährliches, internationales Leichtathletikmeeting.

Luzerner Stadtlauf: Alljährlicher Lauf-Event durch die Neu- und Altstadt.

Lucerne Marathon: Drittgrösster Marathon der Schweiz

LUGA (Luzerner Gewerbeausstellung): Messe auf der Luzerner Allmend

PinkPanorama: Filmfestival Luzern

Das grösste Festival der Fernsehunterhaltung Rose d’Or fand von 2004 bis 2012 jährlich in Luzern statt. Bei diesem in Montreux gegründeten Festival werden die besten internationalen Fernsehformate mit der «Goldenen Rose» ausgezeichnet. Seit 2014 findet die Preisverleihung in Berlin statt.

 

Spezialitäten

 

Aus Luzern kommen viele kulinarische Spezialitäten, wie zum Beispiel der Birnenweggen, Luzerner Lebkuchen, Luzerner Chügelipastete (Fleischpastete, auch Fritschipastete genannt). Lokale Pâtissiers kreieren neue Spezialitäten wie Lozärner Rägetröpfli (Schokoladen-Praline) oder die Lozärner Chatzestreckerli.

 

Historisches

 

Kapellbrücke mit Wasserturm

 

Da die Stadt durch die Reuss geteilt wird, besitzt sie mehrere Brücken, welche die Altstadt mit der Neustadt verbinden. Die bekannteste davon ist die Kapellbrücke von 1365. Sie ist die älteste noch erhaltene und mit 202 Metern die zweitlängste gedeckte Holzbrücke Europas. Im Jahre 1993 zerstörte ein Feuer einen Grossteil der Brücke. Da diese in den 1960er-Jahren umfassend renoviert und jedes einzelne hölzerne Bauteil registriert worden war, konnte sie nach dem Brand originalgetreu wieder aufgebaut werden. Von den dreieckigen Originalgemälden aus dem frühen 17. Jahrhundert, die auf ihrer ganzen Länge im Giebel der Brücke angebracht waren, wurden beim Brand jedoch 81 von 111 unrettbar zerstört. In der Mitte der Brücke befindet sich das Wahrzeichen von Luzern, der Wasserturm mit einem achteckigen Grundriss. Brücke wie Turm bildeten einen Teil der Stadtbefestigung. Deshalb sind auf der Seite des Wasserturms die Holzgeländer höher.

 

Altstadt

Rathaus (erbaut 1602–1604, Spätrenaissance)

Spreuerbrücke

Museggmauer und Museggtürme (erbaut 1350–1403 als nördlicher Befestigungswall)

Ritter’scher Palast, Renaissancepalais mit dreistöckigem Arkadeninnenhof, erbaut ab 1556 für den Luzerner Schultheiss Lux Ritter, von 1577 bis 1773 Sitz des Luzerner Jesuitenkollegiums, seit 1804 Hauptgebäude der Kantonsregierung. Im zweiten Obergeschoss des Arkadenhofes hängen sieben grossformatige Ölgemälde mit einem kunstvollen Totentanzzyklus. Er wurde in den Jahren 1610 bis 1615 von dem Luzerner Maler Jakob von Wyl (auch von Wil) geschaffen. Das heute als achtes Bild («Beinhauskonzert» im Hochformat) hinzugefügte Tafelgemälde gehörte wahrscheinlich zu einem verloren gegangenen Totentanz aus dem benachbarten Franziskanerkloster.

Löwendenkmal nach Bertel Thorvaldsen (1819)

Nadelwehr (1860)

Das Château Gütsch, ein 1888 im Stil des Historismus fertiggestelltes Hotel, gilt als eines der Wahrzeichen der Stadt. Eine bereits für 2012 geplante Generalrenovierung verzögerte sich mehrfach.

Fünf Raddampfer der SGV, die weltweit grösste aktive Dampferflotte auf einem See

Die Matthäuskirche ist ein bedeutender Zeuge der Neugotik.

Die Jesuitenkirche ist die älteste grosse Barockkirche der Schweiz.

Der Stiftsbezirk im Hof.

Die Hofkirche St. Leodegar im Hof ist der bedeutendste Kirchenbau der Renaissance der Schweiz.

Am Schweizerhofquai und dem Nationalquai entstanden in der Belle Époque der Kursaal (heute Grand Casino) und die Nobelhotels Schweizerhof, National und Palace Luzern.

Die Peterskapelle mit Innenausstattung im Nazarener Stil

Das Gotthardgebäude ist der repräsentativste Neurenaissancebau im Kanton Luzern.

Das Bourbaki-Panorama ist eines der wenigen erhaltenen Grosspanoramen.

Das Anderallmend-Haus als eines der baulichen Wahrzeichen der Stadt Luzern.

Das Kloster St. Anna auf dem Gerlisberg

Die Franziskanerkirche

Schloss Steinhof (erbaut 1759–1777 von Jakob Anton Thüring von Sonnenberg). Das barocke Schlossgebäude ist einer der bedeutendsten Profanbauten Luzerns.

 

Museen

 

Verkehrshaus der Schweiz: grösstes und meistbesuchtes Museum der Schweiz mit einer grossen Sammlung von Lokomotiven, Automobilen, Schiffen und Flugzeugen. Das Verkehrshaus beherbergt unter anderem das einzige IMAX-Kino und das einzige Grossplanetarium der Schweiz. Zudem befindet sich in ihm die Livemap Switzerland, eine 200 m² grosse begehbare Luftbildkarte.

Bourbaki-Panorama: eigens erbautes Panoramagebäude mit dem 112 × 10 m grossen Rundbild von Edouard Castres (1881)

Sammlung Rosengart: Werke von Pablo Picasso, Paul Klee und der Klassische Moderne, ehemals Picasso Museum

Richard-Wagner-Museum Tribschen, Räume Wagners und Sammlung klassischer Musikinstrumente. Das Landhaus an idyllischer Lage des Vierwaldstättersees führt immer wieder Musik- und Poesieabende durch.

Hans Erni Museum: Das Museum des bekannten Luzerner Malers Hans Erni im Verkehrshaus der Schweiz.

Kunstmuseum Luzern

Alpineum Luzern: 3D-Alpen-Panorama/-Diorama

Gletschergarten: Luzern während der Eiszeit vor 20'000 Jahren und im subtropischen Klima vor 20 Millionen Jahren, direkt neben dem Löwendenkmal

Historisches Museum: Im Depot kann die Geschichte lebendig und hautnah erlebt werden.

Naturmuseum Luzern: Die vielen Sonderausstellungen zeigen die Flora und Fauna der Zentralschweiz.

 

Sehenswürdigkeiten der Umgebung

 

Der Pilatus: Der ehemalige Pilatussee auf dem Hausberg von Luzern soll gemäss einer Sage die letzte Ruhestätte des Pontius Pilatus sein und die Besteigung war daher im Mittelalter strengstens verboten. Heute ist der Berg touristisch von beiden Seiten erschlossen: von der Alpnacher Seite mit der steilsten Zahnradbahn der Welt und auf der Luzerner Seite mit einer Panorama-Gondelbahn und einer Luftseilbahn.

Die Rigi: Sie wird die «Königin der Berge» genannt und besitzt die erste Bergbahn Europas.

Der Vierwaldstättersee hat mit fünf Raddampfern (Uri, Stadt Luzern, Unterwalden, Gallia und Schiller) die grösste Dampfschiffflotte der Schweiz.

 

(Wikipedia)

Dialect of Hakata

Modena ; Mòdna in Modenese dialect) is a city and comune (municipality) on the south side of the Po Valley, in the Province of Modena in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. An ancient town, it is the seat of an archbishop, but is now best known as "the capital of engines", since the factories of the famous Italian sports car makers Ferrari, De Tomaso, Lamborghini, Pagani and Maserati are, or were, located here and all, except Lamborghini, have headquarters in the city or nearby. Lamborghini is headquartered not far away in Sant'Agata Bolognese, in the adjacent Province of Bologna. One of Ferrari's cars, the 360 Modena, was named after the town itself. Also, one of the colors for Ferraris is Modena yellow. The University of Modena, founded in 1175 and expanded by Francesco II d'Este in 1686, has traditional strengths in economics, medicine and law and is the second oldest Atheneum in Italy, sixth in the whole world[citation needed]. Italian officers are trained at the Italian Military Academy, located in Modena, and partly housed in the Baroque Ducal Palace. The Biblioteca Estense houses historical volumes and 3,000 manuscripts. Modena is well known in culinary circles for its production of balsamic vinegar. Famous Modenesi include Mary of Modena, the Queen consort of England and Scotland; operatic tenor Luciano Pavarotti (1935–2007) and soprano Mirella Freni, born in Modena itself; Enzo Ferrari (1898–1988) eponymous founder of the Ferrari motor company; the Catholic Priest and Senior Exorcist of Vatican Gabriele Amorth; and the rock singer Vasco Rossi who was born in Zocca, one of the 47 comuni in the Province of Modena

---- ( ---- ---- ) ----

 

---- ( ---- ---- ) ----

  

the slideshow

  

Qi Bo's photos on Fluidr

  

Qi Bo's photos on Flickriver

  

Qi Bo's photos on FlickeFlu

  

……………………………………………………………………………….

  

From 19 to 21 August 2016 in the Sicilian town of Ali, there was the so-called "Great Feast" ("Festa Ranni" in Sicilian dialect) in honor of their patron Saint Agatha.

 

The feast, which lasts three days, it is called "Feast Ranni" (Great Feast) to emphasize the exceptional nature of the event, since it falls only once every ten years. Preparations officially begin early as a month before and are involved both the "ciliary" (ie families entrusted from time to time, which shall prepare at their own expense at the solemn celebration for Her Patron Saint), both the "Deputation of St. Agatha" collaborating with the parish priest, plays a role during the organizational phase.

 

The passage of the Holy Relics of the Martyr Agatha in the village of Ali (Messina) in their return to Catania, on the morning of August 17 of the year 1126, it was for this Sicilian center an extraordinary and grandiose event, that led to the building of the great Mother Church , which took place in the sixteenth century; then the celebration of the annual festival but especially the so-called "Great Feast", which recalls the three-day feasts taking place in the city of Catania.

  

We don't known the origins of this ancient feast, whose complex ritual was entrusted, almost to the present day only to the oral tradition; Father Seraphim of Ali (junior) speaks in 1754, in his book "Of story of Ali and his territory".

Long and laborious preparations are assigned to two groups each formed by twelve families belonging to two different districts of the country, they receive instructions to draw up each other's "Ciliium of Bread" and the other the "Cilium of Girls". These families are appointed by the Deputation of St. Agatha (Advisory body that exercises within the Church Mother, economic and organizational functions) and by the parish priest.

The names of the families of "ciliary", as they are called, are made known by the parish priest, after the morning Mass of the 5 February of the current year.

  

Traditionally the families of "Ciliium of Girls" traveling in neighboring countries (Fiumedinisi, Itala and Ali Terme) with the sound of the accordion and tambourine, to communicate the imminent date of the festivities and take offerings and gold jewelry in part borrowed, in part donated, to adorn the "Cilium of Girls".

Liturgical events are intertwined with the traditional folk feast. The Feast attracts many faithful and many emigrants who, for the occasion, return to their native village of Ali. The last day of celebration the two Ciliums and the float of St. Agatha are carried in procession through the city.

 

Postscript: This report is dedicated to the German family of Jewish origin, consisting of father, mother and two children, on a boat they decided to take his own life to escape their Nazi persecutors, by binding them all together, and weighted with stones, they threw themselves off the waters of Mazzaro (Taormina); they were later fished out by now without life, by local fishermen: in the "graveyard of foreigners" of Taormina, now for ever and ever close together, they rest in peace.

  

---------------------------------------

 

Dal 19 al 21 Agosto 2016 nel paese Siciliano di Alì (Messina) si è svolta una caratteristica festa, della quale propongo un report fotografico.

 

La Festa , durata infatti tre giorni, è denominata "Festa Ranni" (Festa Grande) per porre in risalto l'eccezionalità del fenomeno e la grandiosità dell’evento, poiché essa ricade una sola volta ogni dieci anni. I preparativi iniziano ufficialmente già un mese prima e vedono coinvolti sia i “ciliari” (cioè le famiglie incaricate di volta in volta e scelte a rotazione, che provvedono a preparare a proprie spese la festa solenne per la Santa Patrona, con l’allestimento dei due “cilii” ovvero le due “vare” anche intese come “cerei”), sia la “Deputazione di S. Agata” che collaborando con il Parroco, svolge un ruolo durante la fase organizzativa.

 

Il passaggio delle Sacre Reliquie della Martire catanese dal paese di Ali (Messina) nel rientro loro verso Catania, la mattina del 17 agosto dell’anno 1126 , fu per questo centro Siciliano un evento straordinario e grandioso, che portarono alla edificazione della grande Chiesa Madre, avvenuta nel XVI secolo, quindi alla celebrazione della festa annuale ma soprattutto della così detta “Festa Ranni”, che ricorda i tre giorni di festa che avvengono nella città di Catania.

  

Oscure sono le origini e le antiche modalità di svolgimento di questa festa, il cui complesso rituale è stato affidato, fin quasi ai nostri giorni esclusivamente alla tradizione orale, Padre Serafino d’Alì (junior) ne parla nel 1754, nel suo libro “Della storia di Alì e suo territoro”.

Lunghi e laboriosi sono i preparativi affidati a due gruppi formati ciascuno da dodici famiglie appartenenti a due diversi quartieri del paese, che ricevono l’incarico di allestire l'uno il "Cilio del Pane" e l'altro il "Cilio delle Ragazze". Queste famiglie vengono nominate dalla Deputazione di S. Agata (Organo consultivo che esercita all’interno della Chiesa Madre, funzioni economico-organizzative) e dal Parroco, e la loro scelta segue una rotazione tale che nel corso degli anni nessun nucleo familiare, e di conseguenza nessun quartiere, ne rimane escluso.

 

I nomi dei "Ciliari", così vengono denominati, vengono resi noti dal Parroco, al termine della messa mattutina del 5 Febbraio dell’anno prestabilito per la Festa.

 

Come già detto sopra, ogni gruppo provvede autonomamente ad allestire l'uno il "Cilio del Pane" l'altro il "Cilio delle Ragazze".

  

Per tradizione le 12 famiglie di “ciliari delle ragazze”, anche loro sempre accompagnate da un nutrito gruppo (soprattutto giovani), si recano nei paesi vicini (Fiumedinisi, Itala e Alì Terme) a suon di fisarmonica e tamburello, per comunicare l’imminente data dei festeggiamenti e per raccogliere offerte e monili d’oro in parte in prestito, in parte ceduti, per adornare il “cilio delle ragazze”.

Le manifestazioni liturgiche si intrecciano con quelle folkloristiche; la festa richiama numerosi fedeli e parecchi emigrati che, per l’occasione, fanno ritorno al paese natio di Alì. L’ultimo giorno di festa i due cilii ed il fercolo di S. Agata vengono portati in processione lungo le vie cittadine.

Post scriptum: questo report lo dedico alla famiglia tedesca di origine ebrea, composta da padre, madre e da due bambini, che su di una barca decise di togliersi la vita per sfuggire ai loro persecutori nazisti, essi legandosi tutti tra di loro, ed appesantiti con pietre, si gettarono al largo delle acque di Mazzarò (Taormina); essi vennero poi ripescati, oramai senza vita, dai pescatori locali: nel “cimitero degli stranieri” di Taormina riposano le loro spoglie mortali.

  

Website :

www.dunkerque-tourisme.fr

  

english

 

Is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the Belgian border. The population of the city (commune) at the 1999 census was 70,850 inhabitants (71,300 inhabitants as per February 2004 estimates). The population of the metropolitan area was 265,974 inhabitants as per the 1999 census.

The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish "dun(e)" (dune) and "kerke" (church – related to the Scots English "kirk"). Until the middle of the 20th century the city was situated in the French Flemish area; today the local Flemish dialect, a variety of the Dutch language, can still be found but has been largely replaced by French.

Middle Ages

Dunkirk was first mentioned in 1067 as Dunkirk (Dutch: “Church of the Dune” or "Dune Church").

The area was much disputed between Spain, the Netherlands, England and France.

At the beginning of the Eighty Years' War, Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, from 1577. Spanish forces under the Duke of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious Dunkirkers.

The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when the city was conquered by the French in 1646 but Spanish forces recaptured the city in 1652.

In 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured by Franco-English forces. It was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco-English alliance against Spain.

It came under French rule when Charles II of England sold it to France for £320,000 on 17 October 1662.

During the reign of Louis XIV, a large number of commerce raiders once again made their base at Dunkirk. Jean Bart was the most famous. The Man in the Iron Mask was arrested at Dunkirk.

The 18th century Swedish privateers and pirates Lars Gathenhielm and his wife and partner Ingela Hammar, are known to have sold their ill-gotten gains in Dunkirk.

The 1763 "Treaty of Paris" between France and Great Britain included a clause restricting French rights to fortify Dunkirk, to allay British fears of it being used as an invasion base.

 

French

 

est une commune française de 68 292 habitants (2008), sous-préfecture du département du Nord et de la région Nord-Pas-de-Calais. La ville est baignée par la mer du Nord et plusieurs canaux. Ses habitants sont appelés les Dunkerquois et les Dunkerquoises.

La ville et ses alentours ont appartenu au comté de Flandre et ils relèvent de la zone linguistique flamande. L'histoire de la « cité de Jean Bart» est liée à la mer : à l'origine, Dunkerque était un village de pêcheurs construit à l'extrémité ouest d'une île longue et étroite « à la frisonne » comprenant l'abbaye des Dunes de Coxyde (d'où le nom : en ouest-flamand duun-kerke = église des dunes) et allant jusqu'à Oostduinkerke qui était à l'époque au bord d'une anse de l'Yser. Des siècles plus tard, la ville abrita des corsaires dont le célèbre Jean Bart, héros de la bataille du Texel. De par sa position sur la mer du Nord, Dunkerque a souvent suscité les convoitises, elle fut le théâtre de nombreuses opérations militaires. Demeurée aux mains des alliés durant la Première Guerre mondiale, elle fut sévèrement bombardée par les Allemands conscient du rôle primordial du port. Au cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale elle fut le théâtre de l'opération Dynamo. Sortie anéantie de cette guerre, la ville doit son salut à l'installation dans son port de l'usine sidérurgique Usinor qui accéléra sa reconstruction et son développement.

De nos jours, Dunkerque est le cœur d'une agglomération de 200 000 habitants. C'est la première plate-forme énergétique du Nord-Pas-de-Calais et l'un des pôles économiques de la région notamment grâce à son port, le troisième de France : trafic minéralier et pétrolier, porte-conteneurs, production d'acier.

Elle est aussi connue pour son carnaval, festivités s'étalant sur une période comprise entre janvier et mars, où les habitants se réunissent dans les rues aux rythmes de la fanfare guidée par le « tambour-major ».

  

Português

 

Dunquerque (em francês Dunkerque; em neerlandês, Duinkerke; em flamengo ocidental Duynkercke)) é uma cidade portuária no norte de França, no departamento do Nord, região de Nord-Pas-de-Calais, situada a 10 km da fronteira com a Bélgica. Tem cerca de 70.000 habitantes. Está ligada por ferry-boat a Ramsgate e Dover, em Inglaterra.

Dunquerque é o terceiro maior porto francês, depois de Le Havre e Marselha. É também uma cidade industrial, dependente do aço, indústria alimentar, refinação de petróleo, estaleiros navais e indústria química.

Historicamente, a cidade e seus arredores pertenceram ao Condado de Flandres e fazem parte da zona linguística flamenga.

Em Dunquerque fala-se um dialeto muito particular - dunkerquois - com palavras tomadas de empréstimo à linguagem dos marinheiros e ao flamengo ocidental .

O nome de Dunquerque provém do neerlandês Duinkerk, que significa « igreja nas dunas».

Segundo a tradição, a cidade foi fortificada pelo filho de Pepino de Landen, o terrível Allowyn, um franco convertido por Santo Elói. Assim, Dunquerque foi a única cidade da costa, até Saint-Omer, a ser preservada contra os ataques e pilhagens dos normandos. Hoje em dia, Allowyn "reaparece" todos os anos como Reuze (reuze em flamengo significa "gigante"), para presidir a saída do tradicional bando dos pescadores, durante o carnaval de Dunkerque.

Em 960, Balduíno III, dito Balduíno o Jovem, quarto conde de Flandres, faz construir as primeiras muralhas da cidade.

Em 1383 a Dunkerque flamenga é pilhada pelos ingleses e depois, pelos franceses.

A partir do século XVI, Dunquerque passou a ser posessão - juntamente com o território dos Países Baixos espanhóis - dos Habsburgos espanhóis. Em 1520, Carlos V, 31° conde de Flandres, é recebido triunfalmente na cidade.

Dunquerque foi disputada em diferentes ocasiões pelas coroas de Inglaterra, Países Baixos e França. Durante a Guerra de Flandres (1568-1648) e no reinado de Luís XIV, serviu como base de operações de corsários, sendo Jan Bart o mais famoso deles - conhecido por atacar os barcos holandeses.

A cidade foi tomada pelos ingleses sob Filipe II da Espanha, conde de Flandres, e retomada pelos franceses em 1558. Pelo Tratado de Cateau-Cambraisis os franceses a cedem à Espanha em 1559.

Sitiada por Turenne, em 25 de maio de 1658, após a batalha das Dunas, a cidade se rende aos franceses, em 25 de junho. Na mesma noite, Luís XIV a entrega a Oliver Cromwell, segundo o acordado por Inglaterra e França pelo Tratado de Paris do ano anterior.

Dunquerque será definitivamente incorporada ao reino da França em 1662, depois que Carlos II da Inglaterra vende a cidade à França, por 5.000.000 libras - embora o pagamento nunca tenha sido completado.

A construção dos sistemas defensivos da cidade ficou a cargo do engenheiro militar Vauban, que também desenvolve o seu porto. Mais tarde, em 1713, pelo Tratado de Utrecht, a França será obrigada a inundar o porto e a arrasar as fortificações, o que entretanto não foi executado senão em parte, e Luís XV voltou a fortificá-la.

Em 1793, o duque de York tenta inutilmente tomar a cidade. Após a batalha de Hondschoote, a cidade é renomeada Duna Livre.

Durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial, Dunquerque é duramente bombardeada por diversas vezes. A Igreja de Santo Elói (construída em meados do século XV) é parcialmente destruída.

Mas a cidade sofreria especialmente durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, tendo sido palco da célebre Batalha de Dunquerque, em 1940. Uma pausa na intensidade dos combates permitiu inesperadamente a evacuação de um grande número de soldados franceses e britânicos para Inglaterra. Mais de 300.000 homens foram evacuados apesar do bombardeamento constante ("o milagre de Dunquerque", nas palavras de Winston Churchill). A evacuação britânica de Dunquerque recebeu o nome de código Operação Dínamo