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Portuguese

A Serra Gaúcha é um acidente geográfico no nordeste do estado do Rio Grande do Sul, no Brasil. Apresenta características socioculturais específicas, como acentuada influência alemã e também italiana, grande produção de uvas e vinho e desenvolvida indústria turística.

Geografia

Num estado predominantemente plano como é o Rio Grande do Sul, a Serra Gaúcha é o principal acidente geográfico, com altitudes moderadamente altas, de até cerca de 1 300 metros.

A região das Serras tem como principais e maiores cidades Caxias do Sul, Farroupilha, Gramado, Canela, Vacaria, Nova Petrópolis, Bento Gonçalves, Carlos Barbosa,Garibaldi, São Francisco de Paula, Antônio Prado, Nova Roma do Sul, Nova Prata, Veranópolis, Bom Jesus, Flores da Cunha, Nova Pádua, São Domingos do Sul, Nova Bassano, Paraí e Nova Araçá, Guaporé, Cotiporã, São Valentim do Sul, Dois Lajeados,Serafina Corrêa, dentre outras.

Os primeiros cerros, elevações de pouca altitude, com menos de 400 metros do nível do mar, começam a ser observados a nordeste de São Francisco de Assis (Rio Grande do Sul), região também influenciada pela colonização italiana, estendendo-se para leste, já com maiores elevações, em direção a Jaguari, norte de São Vicente do Sul, norte de São Pedro do Sul, Santa Maria, Agudo e, a partir daí, se estendendo por completo.

Clima

Por estar localizada numa zona temperada do Brasil, seu clima é oceânico, com invernos moderadamente frios, verões amenos e chuvas regularmente distribuídas ao longo do ano (representado pela classificação climática de Köppen-Geiger como "Cfb"). Durante o inverno, as temperaturas, com relativa frequência, ficam negativas e, eventualmente, podem ocorrer precipitações de neve, embora as nevadas com acumulações no solo sejam muito raras. Fortes geadas, contudo, são frequentes.

 

English

The Serra Gaúcha, The Gaucho Highlands, is the mountainous region in the northeastern portion of Rio Grande do Sul state in southern Brazil. This mountainous region is home to many Brazilians of German and Italian descent. Consequently, the cities in the Serra Gaúcha reflect German and Italian influences through their architecture, gastronomy and culture.

Several tourist routes run through the most picturesque cities of the Serra Gaúcha, particularly the Rota Romântica, following the tracks of German colonization; the Italian-flavored Caminhos da Colônia; the wine tasting Rota da Uva e o Vinho; and the Região das Hortênsias, landscaped with beautiful hydrangeas ("hortênsias" in Portuguese).

The hot springs in Nova Prata are also one of the regions tourist highlights. The most important cities among the 75 municipalities of the Serra Gaúcha are Caxias do Sul, Bento Gonçalves, Garibaldi, Farroupilha, Gramado, Canela, Veranópolis, Nova Prata, Nova Petrópolis and Carlos Barbosa.

History

The region was settled by European immigrants during the 19th century. Germans started arriving in 1824 and Italians in 1875. Germans settled in the lowlands, close to river springs, while Italians populated the highlands. As a result, the region has a unique blend of German and Italian cultures, reflected in the local architecture and cuisine.

Example of German influence in the Nova Petrópolis' architecture.

Several small towns resemble German villages from centuries ago, but on a backdrop of luscious subtropical rain forest and araucarias. Many Brazilians in the region still speak German, mainly the Riograndenser Hunsrückisch dialect.

In the towns colonized by Italian immigrants wine production is considered an important component of the local culture and vineyards can be seen everywhere. The city of Caxias do Sul celebrates the region's wine heritage during the Festa da Uva festival. Italian culture is still very strong in the community, and it's not rare to hear locals speaking the Northern-Italian Talian dialect.

 

Wikipedia

Viena es una ciudad austriaca en Europa Central situada a orillas del Danubio, en el valle de los Bosques de Viena, al pie de las primeras estribaciones de los Alpes. Es la capital de Austria y uno de sus nueve estados federados (Bundesland Wien). Así como la mayor ciudad y el centro cultural de Austria

Además es la segunda ciudad más poblada de Europa Central (tras Berlín) y la décima ciudad en población de la Unión Europea. Su población supera el 1 800 000 de habitantes (2017) y su área metropolitana cuenta con 2,4 millones, población similar a la que tenía la ciudad en 1914. El idioma oficial es el alemán austríaco estándar; se habla también el alemán vienés, un dialecto bávaro.

La ciudad tiene una larga historia, ya que es una de las más antiguas capitales de Europa, por lo que cuenta con un importante patrimonio artístico. Durante el siglo XIX fue una de las grandes capitales musicales del mundo y a principios del siglo XX meca de la filosofía y el debate político de Occidente, así como uno de los principales centros culturales mundiales.

Los romanos la llamaron Vindobona, nombre de origen celta que significa ciudad blanca.

Los primeros asentamientos humanos en la actual Viena son de origen celta (500 a. C.), posteriormente germánicos, y con la expansión del Imperio romano hacia el norte en el siglo I a. C., se adhiere a este en el año 13 a. C. El río Danubio, al igual que los Alpes, sirve entonces de límite natural entre bárbaros y romanos, y Vindobona sirve desde entonces y hasta la caída de Roma (año 476 d. C.) como punto de defensa del imperio. La ciudad nace como campamento del ejército romano, para controlar la Provincia de Panonia, en el que se asientan diferentes unidades, de entre las cuales destaca la Legio X Gemina, que permaneció en ella desde el que la zona fue ocupada por pueblos germanos en época de Graciano y de Teodosio I

Con las invasiones bárbaras es ocupada por ávaros y magiares. Carlomagno conquista la ciudad en el siglo IX y la bautiza con el nombre de Ostmark (la marca del este). Durante el alto medievo Viena es un importante aliado del papado y punto de abastecimiento de armas y víveres para la empresa de las Cruzadas. Fue capital de Hungría con Matías Corvino, y desde el siglo XV hasta las guerras napoleónicas capital del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico, al ser la residencia habitual de los Habsburgo.

En 1237 las murallas de Viena alcanzaron la extensión que conservarían hasta su desaparición en 1857.

Desde la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, hubo un interés creciente del Imperio otomano por Viena, dado que era la clave para conquistar los demás países de Europa; interés que se hace más notable durante el período del sultán Solimán el Magnífico. Pero sus esfuerzos fracasaron y los austríacos salieron victoriosos de los distintos sitios a los que sometieron a la ciudad, el primero en 1529, a pesar de que inicialmente los defensores de la ciudad solo recibieron el apoyo poco entusiasta de sus vecinos alemanes. El ejército turco estaba mal equipado para un asedio y su tarea fue obstaculizada por la nieve y las inundaciones. Solimán se retiró a finales de octubre y no pudo reanudar el asedio a su regreso en 1532, cuando encontró a los defensores apoyados por un gran ejército bajo el mando del hermano del emperador Carlos V, Fernando.

Entre el primero y el segundo sitio turco, las instalaciones defensivas fueron reforzadas y modernizadas constantemente. Esto trajo como consecuencia que se tuvieran que ampliar una y otra vez los espacios libres frente a los bastiones para utilizarlos como campo de tiro. En 1529 estos espacios abarcaban 90 m que, a partir de 1683, fueron ensanchados a 450 m. Hasta 1858 no se construyó ningún edificio en esta explanada.

El segundo sitio se produjo en 1683, en la llamada batalla de Viena, y marcó el comienzo del declive del Imperio otomano en Europa. Fue iniciado por el gran visir Kara Mustafá, que necesitaba desesperadamente un éxito militar para reforzar su posición inestable y trató de lograrlo en una campaña contra el emperador Leopoldo I. Los turcos avanzaron con fuerza abrumadora, sitiaron la ciudad el 16 de julio, pero su falta de artillería de asedio permitió a Leopoldo reunir un ejército adicional formado por tropas austriacas, alemanas y polacas, que derrotó al ejército turco en una batalla librada delante de los muros de la ciudad el 12 de septiembre, que también se conoce como Batalla de Kahlenberg.

Durante el siglo XVIII, los Habsburgo habían convertido a la ciudad en su capital desde 1556 y su importancia se vio acrecentada con la expansión por el valle del Danubio. Se convirtió en un núcleo principal del Barroco europeo gracias a la construcción de importantes obras arquitectónicas y creaciones musicales. En 1800, antes de las guerras napoleónicas, la ciudad contaba con 231 900 habitantes.

Desde el asedio de 1683, en que fueron destruidas numerosas ciudades pequeñas que existían en el exterior de la muralla, en el terreno ondulado situado frente a la ciudad se alzaron numerosos palacios con jardines. El punto de partida fueron los planos del palacio real de Schönbrunn, elaborados por Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. Hacia 1720 se contaban 200 residencias rurales. El príncipe Eugenio de Saboya había adquirido en 1693 la más bella parcela y una de las más grandes con los primeros ingresos que le habían llegado. Allí, tras cuarenta años de trabajo, levantó el Belvedere con sus espaciosos jardines.

Tras la derrota austriaca a manos de Napoleón Bonaparte en 1809 (batalla de Wagram), este último se hospeda en el palacio de Schönbrunn, en Viena. Durante esta estancia, Francia y Austria se alían, y Napoleón desposa a María Luisa, hija de los emperadores de Austria.

Metternich, canciller austriaco en esta época, cambia a Austria al bando anti-napoleónico tras la derrota francesa en Rusia. Después de la derrota definitiva de Napoleón, se celebra el Congreso de Viena, una conferencia internacional convocada con el objeto de restablecer las fronteras de Europa. La reunión se llevó a cabo del 1 de octubre de 1814 al 9 de junio de 1815, lo que le permite a Austria conservar gran parte de sus territorios a pesar de haber estado aliada con Napoleón, y a partir de entonces, Viena, por medio del canciller Metternich, se convertiría en el eje de la política de la Europa continental durante los siguientes treinta años.

Durante el siglo XIX, sobre todo en la segunda mitad, Viena inició un despegue demográfico, acompañado de reformas urbanísticas, que la convirtieron en una gran ciudad, multiplicando en un siglo su población por diez. En 1857, se derribaron las murallas por decreto de Francisco José I de Austria, abriéndose una nueva avenida, la Ringstraße, donde se construyeron importantes edificios, como la Ópera, la Universidad, el Ayuntamiento, el Parlamento, la Bolsa y los museos de historia del arte e historia natural. La derrota de Austria en la guerra austro-prusiana en 1866 y la posterior anexión de los Estados alemanes a Prusia convirtieron a la unificada Alemania en un peligro para Austria, por lo que esta última se tuvo que aliar con Hungría en lo que se conoce como la "política de compensación" o Ausgleichpolitik. Así pues, en 1867, tras el Compromiso con Hungría, Viena se convirtió en la capital del Imperio austrohúngaro y en un centro cultural, artístico, político, industrial y financiero de primer orden mundial. Con esta alianza, Austria prosigue sumando otras más, con lo que para fines del siglo XIX el imperio abarcaba los actuales países de Austria, Hungría, Eslovaquia, República Checa, la Galicia polaca, la Transilvania rumana, la Bucovina y la Rutenia ucranianas, Croacia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Eslovenia y el Trentino-Alto Adigio italiano.

Viena alcanza su máximo demográfico en 1916 con 2 239 000 habitantes, siendo la tercera ciudad más grande de Europa. Este es el período cultural más glorioso de la monarquía de los Habsburgo, con Francisco José I rigiendo el Imperio (período 1848-1916). También es la época de los suntuosos valses vieneses en la Opera Nacional de Viena, grandes carruajes paseando por la Ringstraße y la Kärntner Straße, así como de los típicos cafés vieneses.

De la época destacan intelectuales, como Sigmund Freud en el psicoanálisis y Otto Bauer en el campo del pensamiento político, principal exponente del austromarxismo, ideas que calarían fuerte en la sociedad vienesa, pues ya en 1895 el gobierno municipal estaría en manos del partido socialcristiano, precursor del actual partido ÖVP (democristiano) . Tampoco hay que olvidar en el plano artístico el movimiento modernista, la Secesión de Viena (Secession), con Gustav Klimt como principal exponente en la pintura, Coloman Moser en el grafismo y Joseph Maria Olbrich y Josef Hoffman en la arquitectura. Contrario a estos destacaría asimismo Adolf Loos con su racionalismo arquitectónico. Sin embargo, la Primera Guerra Mundial y la posterior derrota austrohúngara truncarían gran parte de ese esplendor.

Tras el asesinato del archiduque heredero Francisco Fernando y su esposa, Sofía Chotek, en Sarajevo, a manos del terrorista serbo-bosnio Gavrilo Princip, y ante la abrumadora evidencia de la participación de los servicios de inteligencia serbios en el complot, la monarquía dual declara la guerra a Serbia, a la que se le alían Alemania y Turquía y que, ante la oposición de Francia, Inglaterra y Rusia, deviene en la Primera Guerra Mundial. En octubre de 1918, derrotada Austria-Hungría y sus aliados, estalla la revolución en Viena que pide la disolución de la monarquía y la independencia austríaca; sería el fin de la monarquía de los Habsburgo que gobernaba el país desde 1278.

Viena se convirtió, tras el tratado de Saint-Germain, en la capital de la pequeña República de Austria, reducida a su tamaño actual, sufriendo un importante revés demográfico, económico y político. Pese a todo, en esta época continuó la actividad intelectual con el Círculo de Viena (der Wiener Kreis), considerado por muchos el grupo de intelectuales más influyentes del siglo XX en Europa, entre los que destacan Moritz Schlick y Ludwig Wittgenstein en la filosofía positivista lógica (Logischer Empirismus).

Durante el periodo democrático republicano, es decir, desde 1918 hasta la dictadura de Engelbert Dollfuss en 1934, el Partido Obrero Socialdemócrata (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei en alemán) obtuvo la mayoría absoluta en todas las elecciones celebradas para el gobierno local, por lo que la ciudad pasó a ser conocida como Viena roja. La política socialdemócrata de esos años se caracterizó por un extenso programa de viviendas sociales y por un marcado apoyo a la educación y la sanidad públicas, tal y como preconizaba la corriente austromarxista. La Viena roja finalizó en 1934 a consecuencia de la guerra civil austríaca y la victoria del Frente Patriótico. Su último alcalde fue Karl Seitz.

La importancia cultural vienesa se mantendría hasta 1938, año en el que el país fue invadido y, posteriormente, anexionado por la Alemania nazi. Dicha anexión, conocida como el Anschluss, estaba prohibida en los tratados de paz y fue la primera de las expansiones tendentes a unificar en un solo Estado a todos los germanohablantes, bajo un solo liderazgo ("ein Reich, ein Volk, ein Führer"). En la ciudad, que pasó a ser capital de la provincia de Ostmark, pronunció Hitler, el 14 de marzo de 1938, su primer gran discurso a los vieneses desde el balcón central del Palacio de Hofburg, discurso que es considerado uno de los más emotivos del dictador y de mayor aclamo por su masiva audiencia debido a la euforia que la anexión de Austria al Tercer Imperio Germano (Dritte Reich) causó en parte de la población. Para legitimar la invasión se celebró un referéndum el 10 de abril que resultó favorable al Anschluss con un 99,73 %, si bien carecía de las garantías democráticas.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Viena sufrió los indiscriminados bombardeos aéreos estadounidenses que destruyeron buena parte del patrimonio histórico (la catedral gótica de San Esteban, el Palacio de Hofburg, la ópera de Viena, los puentes del Danubio, entre otros), el cual fue reconstruido tras la contienda. En mayo de 1945 Viena fue tomada por el ejército soviético, quienes, junto con franceses, estadounidenses e ingleses, la ocuparían durante los diez años posteriores bajo un sistema de ocupación cuatripartita en la ciudad, similar al de Berlín.

Tras las gestiones de Leopold Figl y Julius Raab y la posterior firma del Acuerdo de Moscú, Austria recobra su independencia el 15 de mayo de 1955, y Viena vuelve a ser capital de la República de Austria. A partir de entonces y gracias a su compromiso de neutralidad, Austria se convirtió en sede de organismos internacionales como la OPEP, la ONUDI, IAEA, IIASA, entre otros, lo cual convierte a Viena en la tercera capital de la ONU, después de Nueva York y Ginebra, por lo que se puede ver hoy en día una gran comunidad internacional, en particular en el distrito 4 de Viena (Wieden) derivada de sus cuerpos diplomáticos. Desde 1995 es parte de la Unión Europea y de los países de Schengen. A partir de 2002 sacó de circulación el chelín austriaco y entró en vigor el euro como la moneda de curso legal en toda Austria.

La población de Viena, en el primer trimestre de 2015, era de 1 797 337 personas, de las que, aproximadamente, el 80 % son austríacos y el 20 % restante de otros países. La población vienesa ha aumentado desde 1988, sobre todo en los últimos años, como consecuencia de la inmigración. El área metropolitana, que se extiende por tierras de la Baja Austria, cuenta con una población de cerca de 2 500 000 habitantes.

En 2001, la Unesco declaró el «Centro histórico de Viena» como un lugar Patrimonio de la Humanidad, destacando en primer lugar que sus cualidades arquitectónicas y urbanas representan un testimonio sobresaliente de un continuo intercambio de valores a lo largo del II milenio. Además, su herencia arquitectónica y urbana ilustra muy bien tres períodos claves del desarrollo político y cultural de Europa: la Edad Media, el período barroco y el Gründerzeit. Finalmente, desde el siglo XVI Viena ha sido universalmente reconocida como la «capital musical de Europa». Gran parte de este legado se transmite en los monumentos de esta ciudad, que se encuentran a continuación ordenados alfabéticamente por sus denominaciones alemanas, ya que en Viena no son conocidos bajo sus nombres traducidos. La traducción al español está entre paréntesis.

Akademie der bildenden Künste (Academia de Bellas Artes)

Albertina, una de las más extensas colecciones de impresiones y dibujos

Burgtheater (teatro imperial de la corte)

Heuriger, tabernas típicas vienesas para degustar buenos vinos, carnes frías o embutidos de la región que se encuentran en los distritos vieneses de Döbling, Favoriten o Floridsdorf, en el estado de Burgenland o en el Weinviertel (parte de Baja Austria),

Hundertwasserhaus, que muestra la arquitectura vanguardista del arquitecto austriaco Friedensreich Hundertwasser

Kaffeehäuser, los cafés vieneses

Kahlenberg, un monte en el Wienerwald (Bosque de Viena), con el mirador más espectacular del río Danubio a su paso por Viena

Karlskirche (Iglesia de San Carlos Borromeo), obra maestra de la arquitectura barroca

Augustinerkirche (Iglesia de los Agustinos), iglesia gótica cuya cripta (Herzgruft) conserva los corazones de los Habsburgo

Kaisergruft (Cripta imperial), mausoleo de la familia Habsburgo

Kärntner Straße y Graben, las calles con las tiendas de moda de las marcas más prestigiadas y caras; también se encuentran agradables cafés, como el café del Hotel Sacher, origen de la Sachertorte

Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia del Arte), uno de los más ricos del mundo

Museum Liechtenstein (Museo Liechtenstein), abierto por la familia gobernante de dicho principado. Alberga importantes obras de Rembrandt, Rubens y Van Dyck

Museum für angewandte Kunst (Museo de Artes Aplicadas), es un instituto museo histórico y prestigioso situado en la famosa Ringstrasse

Museum für Völkerkunde (Museo de Etnología), que alberga el controvertido Penacho de Moctezuma, reclamado por el gobierno de México

Museumsquartier (Barrio museístico) con tres museos de arte moderno con lo mejor de la pintura de Gustav Klimt y Oskar Kokoschka

Naturhistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia Natural)

Palacio Belvedere, un palacio de estilo barroco

Palacio de Schönbrunn (literalmente, "Schönbrunn" en alemán significa "Bella fuente")

Palacio Imperial de Hofburg ("Hofburg" = "Palacio de la Corte")

Palacio Schwarzenberg, un palacio barroco, sede de la Casa de Schwarzenberg

Parlamento

Wurstelprater, un parque de atracciones con el "Riesenrad" (noria gigante)

Rathaus (Ayuntamiento)

Sezession (Secesión)

Spanische Hofreitschule (Escuela española de equitación)

Staatsoper (Ópera Estatal)

Stephanskirche (o Stephansdom) (Catedral de San Esteban de Viena) en el Stephansplatz (Plaza de San Esteban)

Votivkirche (Iglesia Votiva), que alberga el altar de la Virgen de Guadalupe más grande fuera de México.

 

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viena

  

Vienna (German: Wien) is the capital city of Austria.

It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is the largest city in Austria. It is also an administrative district (Bundesland) of its own.

Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona.[9] The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle ad weniam is mentioned.

In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights. It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).

In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.

During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.

In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.

During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.

At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.

After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.

Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)

After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).

After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.

Vienna has many things worth seeing. Here are a few of them.

St. Stephen's cathedral and St. Stephen's Square:

Today St. Stephen's square with the cathedral is the very center of Vienna.The Graben and the Kärntner Straße which lead away from the square are shopping streets with a lot of different shops. Opposite the cathedral you can find the Haas-House, a very modern building by architect Hans Hollein.

Ringstraße:

The Ringstraße runs around the first district and was built in the second half of the 19th century. The street follows the old city walls which were destroyed to create it Along the street you can find different important buildings like the Staatsoper (opera house), the parliament, the Burgtheater, the two museums of natural history and arts. Also the Wiener Postsparkasse which is an important building by the architect Otto Wagner is along the street.

Hofburg:

From the 13th century to 1918 this was the residence of the Habsburg rulers. Today it is the residence of the President of the Republic of Austria and you can also visit different museums like the Schatzkammer where you can see the different crowns of the Habsburg family and the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The National Library is also the Hofburg.

Schloss Schönbrunn:

Today's buildings were built by the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach an important architect in the baroque era in Austria. Another building of Fischer is the Karlskirche.

Schloss Belvedere:

Schloss Belvedere was built by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt another important Austrian baroque architect. It was built for Prinz Eugen of Savoy who fouyght successfully against the Ottoman Empire. Today the castle is used as museum (Austrian Gallery Belvedere).

 

simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Vienna

 

as cute as they are, these black-footed cats are known for their fierce temperaments

They are found in South Africa, and in the Afrikaan dialect they are called Miershooptier which means "anthill tiger".

 

Black-footed cats are poor climbers, preferring to make their nests in unoccupied burrows or hollowed out termite mounds and anthills.

Since black-footed cats are for the most part nocturnal,. I don't usually see much of these guys when I come to the zoo. Most of the time the only thing to see is a little patch of spotted fur inside a hollow log, where they are curled up asleep, so this was a pretty special moment! .Nothing like a bunch of kittens to stir things up!!

There are 3 more pictures in the comments. The last shot shows the mother Emma.

That's a regular sized cat carrier, so you can see how small these guys are, even full grown.

The grave of Marie-Luise Nikuta a Cologne Mundart-Singer [Local dialect singer]

 

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie-Luise_Nikuta

Small talk (in Venetian dialect) after the race.

Descendía yo del monte abanicándome la frente sudorosa con el sombrero de anchas alas, cuando acertó a pasar por mi lado una moza aldeana, encendida como las cerezas y de ademán brioso y rozagante.

-Buenos días nos dé Dios, señorito -rponunció con el dejo cantarín del dialecto, y posando en tierra una cestilla cubierta con un paño blanco que llevaba en la cabeza, púsose a lavar los pies y piernas en un regatillo que corría entre mimbrales.

Sentéme yo en un pedrusco inmediato y empecé por preguntarle si había algún encanto en las ruinas del castillo.

-¿Encanto? ¡Ya lo creo que lo hay, señorito! Y muchísimo oro fino enterrado también. Entre la piedra del Fuso, que mírele allí conforme está, y el monte Cávado hay dinero para siete reinados: tiempo ha de venir en que la pata de la cabra lo descubra.

-¿Y por qué los mozos de la aldea no se echan a cavar por ahí para ver de encontrarlo?

-El señorito parece que quiere hacer burla de la gente. ¿No oye que es un encanto? Y está mismamente escrito que ha de parecer como le digo. Además, con el dinero está junto tantísimo veneno, que más no puede ser. Una vez una mujer de la aldea, que llamaban señora Rosa, vio junto a aquellas piedras, acullá donde andan las cabras, dos cestas llenas de dineros y un castrón grande como un buey, muy puesto en el medio a mirar, a mirar; fue la mujer, agarra una de las cestas, y las onzas se volvieron ichavos, va agarra la otra, y la misma música, y el castrón siempre a se reír, a se reír; entonces soltó la mujer: arrenégote, que tú eres el trasno; y lo mismo fue decirlo, súpetamente desapareció todo y el monte estuvo a retemblar por un gran pedazo.

Había concluido la moza de lavarse sus extremidades inferiores y recogía la cesta para irse cuando yo me levanté y echamos a andar brazo con brazo sin suspender el platiqueo.

-Di -pregunté por oírla, ¿no hay en las ruinas ninguna princesa mora encantada?

-¡Ya lo creo que la había! A la gente que, pues, allí transitaba para los mercados, solía aparecérsele una señora, guapa como un sol de mediodía, con una tienda de cosas muy bonitas, tijeras, pendientes, anillos, peines, todo de oro y plata. Y la señora preguntaba con mucha cortesía -¿qué vos gusta de mi tienda?- y un suponer éstos contestaban que un verduguillo, aquéllos que unos pendientes, y la señora bonita, entonces, les cortaba un dedo o una oreja, o les afeitaba un lado de la cara... porque era menester decir: "Señora, me gusta usted y su tienda".

-Pues, si es por eso -interrumpí riéndome- mañana vengo yo a desencantar a esa señora bonita.

-¡Ay! señorito, como le es un encanto, no se aparece siempre. Una vez un mozo apostó en una fiada que había de romperlo: vino al monte porción de veces, de día y más de noche, y nunca jamás se le apareció cosa ninguna.

Habíamos llegado a la aldea y la moza entró en una casuca miserable, cuyas paredes cuarteadas estaban construidas con sillares del castillo.

 

Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Cartas Galicianas, El Globo, 1891.

 

MÚSICA: Christoph Willibald Gluck [1714-1787] - Dubbioso amante (Valentiniano)

youtu.be/LXTzWYc_c_k

   

"No. 66 (right): Two-storey, gable-independent solid building with plastered half-timbered gable, mansard gable roof, 18th century.

 

No. 68 (left): Two-story, gable-independent gable roof building, 1705.

 

Pegnitz (in dialect: Bengatz) is a town in the Upper Franconian district of Bayreuth in Bavaria. It is located about 60 kilometers northeast of Nuremberg and about 30 kilometers south of Bayreuth. The city belongs to the Nuremberg metropolitan region and the Upper Franconia-East planning region.

 

Pegnitz is located on the eastern edge of Franconian Switzerland, the northern part of the Franconian Alb. The Pegnitz rises in the city center and is fed by the Fichtenohe a few meters below its source. Directly to the west of the city rises the Schloßberg and a little northeast of the Spiser Berg.

 

The Bavarian Iron Road begins in the city and connects numerous industrial and cultural monuments over a length of around 120 km to the Danube near Regensburg.

 

Pegnitz emerged from two settlements. One was first mentioned as “Begenz” in the foundation deed of the Michelfeld monastery dated May 6, 1119. The form “Begniz” has been handed down from 1293 and the current name from 1329. Between 1347 and 1355, the Landgraves of Leuchtenberg re-founded the planned town of Pegnitz under the protection of a castle. In 1355 Emperor Charles IV granted it city rights. It only grew together with the other settlement, the Altenstadt, centuries later. In 1357, the Landgraves Ulrich and Johannes von Leuchtenberg sold the “city and fortress” (the Neustadt) to Charles IV, who “incorporated” the city into the Kingdom of Bohemia. The town of Pegnitz belonged to Bohemia until 1402, which is still remembered today by the name of Böheimstein Castle. From Wenceslaus , the son of Emperor Charles IV, to John III in 1402, the Hohenzollern burgrave of Nuremberg, pledged, Pegnitz remained in Hohenzollern possession over the centuries because the Bohemian crown was unable to redeem the pledge. From 1500 the city was in the Franconian Imperial District.

 

In 1542, Margrave Albrecht granted Alcibiades the right to brew, which was tied to an estate. This meant that all citizens with a property within the boundaries of today's city center were entitled to brew. In order to ensure sales of Pegnitz beers, brewing was not allowed in the old town or the surrounding area. Around 1900 there were still more than 100 authorized brewers. Since the beer could not be kept fresh for a long time in the summer and there were increasing complaints about beer that had gone sour, the magistrate issued a fixed order in 1728. From May to September, citizens with the right to brew were only allowed to offer their beer in their own house for one week in a certain order, which was called “flinderen”. Brewers who brewed in the brewery were exempt from this regulation. In 1843, 57 authorized brewers, none of whom were full-time brewers, were assigned to Flinder for 21 weeks.

 

The former mayor's office of the Principality of Bayreuth, which became Prussian in 1792, fell to France in the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. With the Principality of Bayreuth it was initially placed under French military administration and in 1810 it was handed over to the Kingdom of Bavaria in return for financial compensation. In 1818, the municipal edict in Bavaria introduced the magistrate constitution for Pegnitz, but the citizens of the Altenstadt were still not equal citizens of the city of Pegnitz. This only changed in 1876 in a comparison. Pegnitz was the district town of the Pegnitz district until it was dissolved in 1972 and Pegnitz became part of the Bayreuth district.

 

The Pegnitzhütte iron foundry was built in 1890.

 

Upper Franconia (German: Oberfranken) is a Regierungsbezirk (administrative [Regierungs] region [bezirk]) of the state of Bavaria, southern Germany. It forms part of the historically significant region of Franconia, the others being Middle Franconia and Lower Franconia, which are all now part of the German Federal State of Bayern (Bavaria).

 

With more than 200 independent breweries which brew approximately 1000 different types of beer, Upper Franconia has the world's highest brewery-density per capita. A special Franconian beer route (Fränkische Brauereistraße) runs through many popular breweries.

 

The administrative region borders on Thuringia (Thüringen) to the north, Lower Franconia (Unterfranken) to the west, Middle Franconia (Mittelfranken) to the south-west, and Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalz) to the south-east, Saxony (Sachsen) to the north-east and the Czech Republic to the east.

 

After the founding of the Kingdom of Bavaria the state was totally reorganized and, in 1808, divided into 15 administrative government regions (German: Regierungsbezirke (singular Regierungsbezirk)), in Bavaria called Kreise (singular: Kreis). They were created in the fashion of the French departements, quite even in size and population, and named after their main rivers.

 

In the following years, due to territorial changes (e. g. loss of Tyrol, addition of the Palatinate), the number of Kreise was reduced to 8. One of these was the Mainkreis (Main District). In 1837 king Ludwig I of Bavaria renamed the Kreise after historical territorial names and tribes of the area. This also involved some border changes or territorial swaps. Thus the name Mainkreis changed to Upper Franconia.

 

Next to the former episcopal residence city of Bamberg, the capital Bayreuth, the former residence city of Coburg and the classicist centre of Hof, as well as the towns of Lichtenfels, Kronach, Gößweinstein and Kulmbach, the Weißenstein Palace, Banz Abbey and the Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, the scenic attractions of the River Main and the low mountain ranges of the Fichtel Mountains with the town of Wunsiedel and the Franconian Forest belong among the region's major tourist attractions. There are also numerous spas like Bad Rodach, Bad Steben, Bad Staffelstein, Bad Berneck and Bad Alexandersbad." - info from Wikipedia.

 

Summer 2019 I did a solo cycling tour across Europe through 12 countries over the course of 3 months. I began my adventure in Edinburgh, Scotland and finished in Florence, Italy cycling 8,816 km. During my trip I took 47,000 photos.

 

Now on Instagram.

 

Become a patron to my photography on Patreon or donate.

Liverpool (/ˈlɪvərpuːl/) is a city in Merseyside, England. A borough from 1207 and a city from 1880, in 2014 the city local government district had a population of 470,537[2] and the Liverpool/Birkenhead metropolitan area had a population of 2,241,000.[2]

 

Liverpool is in the south west of the historic county of Lancashire in North West England, on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary. The town historically lay within the ancient Lancashire division of West Derby known as a "hundred".[5][6]

 

The urbanisation and expansion of the city were largely brought about by its advantageous location during the industrial revolution status that led to its growth as a major port, which included its participation in the Atlantic slave trade. Liverpool was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic, and many other Cunard and White Star ocean liners such as the RMS Lusitania, Queen Mary, and Olympic. Liverpool's status as a port city has contributed to its diverse population, which, historically, was drawn from a wide range of peoples, cultures, and religions, particularly those from Ireland. The city is also home to the oldest Black African community in the country and the oldest Chinese community in Europe.

 

Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians (from a long-standing jocular alteration of 'Liverpool' to 'Liverpuddle') and colloquially as "Scousers", a reference to "scouse", a form of stew. The word "Scouse" has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect.[7]

 

Tourism forms a significant part of the city's modern economy. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, in 2008.[8] Labelled the "World Capital City of Pop" by Guinness World Records, the popularity of The Beatles, and other groups from the Merseybeat era and later, contributes to Liverpool's status as a tourist destination.

 

Several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCOin 2004. The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile Cityincludes the Pier Head, Albert Dock, and William Brown Street.[9] Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton. Matches between the two are known as the Merseyside derby. The world-famous Grand National also takes places annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city.

  

Early history

King John's letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, but by the middle of the 16th century the population was still only around 500. The original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape: Bank Street (now Water Street), Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street (now High Street), Moor Street (now Tithebarn Street) and Whiteacre Street (now Old Hall Street).

 

In the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, including an eighteen-day siege in 1644. In 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. As trade from the West Indies surpassed that of Ireland and Europe, and as the River Dee silted up, Liverpool began to grow. The first commercial wet dock was built in Liverpool in 1715.[10][11]Substantial profits from the slave trade helped the town to prosper and rapidly grow, although several prominent local men, including William Rathbone, William Roscoe and Edward Rushton, were at the forefront of the abolitionist movement.

 

In the early 19th century Liverpool played a major role in the Antarctic sealing industry, in recognition of which Liverpool Beach in the South Shetland Islands is named after the city.[12]

 

By the start of the 19th century, a large volume of trade was passing through Liverpool, and the construction of major buildings reflected this wealth. In 1830, Liverpool and Manchesterbecame the first cities to have an intercity rail link, through the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The population continued to rise rapidly, especially during the 1840s when Irishmigrants began arriving by the hundreds of thousands as a result of the Great Famine. By 1851, approximately 25% of the city's population was Irish-born. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Liverpool was drawing immigrants from across Europe. This is evident from the diverse array of religious buildings located across the city, many of which are still in use today. The Deutsche Kirche Liverpool, Greek Orthodox Church of St Nicholas, Gustav Adolf Church and Princes Road Synagoguewere all established in the 1800s to serve Liverpool's growing German, Greek, Nordic and Jewish communities respectively. One of Liverpool's oldest surviving churches, St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church, served the Polish community in its final years as a place of worship.

 

Given the crucial place of both cotton and slavery in the city's economy, during the American Civil War Liverpool was, in the words of historian Sven Beckert, "the most pro-Confederate place in the world outside the Confederacy itself."

  

20th Century

  

Given the crucial place of both cotton and slavery in the city's economy, during the American Civil War Liverpool was, in the words of historian Sven Beckert, "the most pro-Confederate place in the world outside the Confederacy.

  

20th century

The Housing Act 1919 resulted in mass council housing building across Liverpool during the 1920s and 1930s. Thousands of families were rehoused from the inner-city to new suburban housing estates, based on the pretext that this would improve their standard of living, though this is largely subjective. A large number of private homes were also built during this era. The process continued after the Second World War, with many more new housing estates being built in suburban areas, while some of the older inner city areas were also redeveloped for new homes. The Great Depression of the early 1930s saw unemployment in the city peak at around 30%.

 

During the Second World War there were 80 air-raids on Merseyside, killing 2,500 people and causing damage to almost half the homes in the metropolitan area. Significant rebuilding followed the war, including massive housing estates and the Seaforth Dock, the largest dock project in Britain. Much of the immediate reconstruction of the city centre has been deeply unpopular, and was as flawed as much town planning renewal in the 1950s and 1960s – the portions of the city's heritage that survived German bombing could not withstand the efforts of urban renewal. Since 1952 Liverpool has been twinned with Cologne, Germany, a city which also experienced severe aerial bombing during the war.

 

Like most British cities and industrialised towns, Liverpool became home to a significant number of Commonwealth immigrants after World War II, mostly settling in older inner city areas such as Toxteth. However, a significant West Indian black community had existed in the city as long ago as the first two decades of the 20th century.

 

In the 1960s Liverpool was the centre of the "Merseybeat" sound which became synonymous with The Beatles and fellow Liverpudlian rock bands.

 

From the mid-1970s onwards Liverpool's docks and traditional manufacturing industries went into sharp decline. The advent of containerisation meant that the city's docks became largely obsolete. By the early 1980s unemployment rates in Liverpool were once again among the highest in the UK,[14] standing at 17% by January 1982 – although this was just over half of the level of unemployment that was affecting the city in an economic downturn 50 years previously.[15]

 

In recent years, Liverpool's economy has recovered and has experienced growth rates higher than the national average since the mid-nineties.

  

21st Century

  

To celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth IIin 2002, the conservation charity Plantlifeorganised a competition to choose county flowers; the sea-holly was Liverpool's final choice.

 

Capitalising on the popularity of 1960s rock groups, such as The Beatles, as well as the city's world-class art galleries, museums and landmarks, tourism has also become a significant factor in Liverpool's economy.

 

In 2004, property developer Grosvenor started the Paradise Project, a £920 m development centred on Paradise Street, which involved the most significant changes to Liverpool's city centre since the post-war reconstruction. Renamed 'Liverpool ONE', the centre opened in May 2008.

 

In 2007, the city celebrated the 800th anniversary of the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, for which a number of events were planned. Liverpool is a joint European Capital of Culture for 2008. The main celebrations, in September 2008, included La Princesse, a large mechanical spider which is 20 metres high and weighs 37 tonnes, and represents the "eight legs" of Liverpool: honour, history, music, the Mersey, the ports, governance, sunshine and culture. La Princesse roamed the streets of the city during the festivities, and concluded by entering the Queensway Tunnel.

 

Spearheaded by the multi-billion-poundLiverpool ONE development, regeneration has continued on an unprecedented scale through to the start of the early 2010s in Liverpool. Some of the most significant regeneration projects to have taken place in the city include new buildings in the Commercial District, the King's Dock area, the Mann Island area, the Lime Street Gateway, the Baltic Triangle area, the RopeWalks area and the Edge Lane Gateway. All projects could however soon be eclipsed by the Liverpool Waters scheme which if built will cost in the region of £5.5billion and be one of the largest megaprojects in the UK's history. Liverpool Waters is a mixed use development which will contain one of Europe's largest skyscraper clusters. The project received outline planning permission in 2012, despite fierce opposition from the likes of UNESCO who claim it will have a damaging effect on Liverpool's World Heritage status.

 

On 9 June 2014, Prime Minister David Cameronlaunched the International Festival for Businessin Liverpool, the world's largest business event in 2014,[16] and the largest in the UK since the Festival of Britain in 1951.[17]

  

Second city of Empire

 

For periods during the 19th century the wealth of Liverpool exceeded that of London itself,[18]and Liverpool's Custom House was the single largest contributor to the British Exchequer.[19]Liverpool's status can be judged from the fact that it was the only British city ever to have its own Whitehall office.[20]

The first United States consul anywhere in the world, James Maury, was appointed to Liverpool in 1790, and remained in office for 39 years.

 

As early as 1851 the city was described as "the New York of Europe"[21] and its buildings, constructed on a heroic, even megalomaniacal, scale stand witness to the supreme confidence and ambition of the city at the turn of the 20th century.[22][editorializing]

 

Liverpool was also the site of the UK's first provincial airport, operating from 1930, and was the first UK airport to be renamed after an individual – John Lennon.[23]

 

Elgar's Pomp and Circumstance March No.1, often seen as Britain's Imperial anthem, was dedicated by the composer to the Liverpool Orchestral Society and had its premiere in the city in October 1901.

 

During the Second World War, the critical strategic importance of Liverpool was recognised by both Hitler and Churchill, with the city suffering a blitz second only to London's,[24] and the pivotal Battle of the Atlantic being planned, fought and won from Liverpool.[25]

 

en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool

   

Kitsch in alle kleuren en ontzettend bijdetijdse snuisterijen

Kitsch in all colors and very current trinkets

 

www.oudeliefde.com/over-oude-liefde.html

Dragonfly or known as Pepatung or Catcibor (local dialect in Perak, Malaysia)

When I was a child, my grandmother told me this story:

 

Zeneise - Genovese – Genoese dialect

A vegetta de Ravecca

A l'arria e a sparisce. A vegne vista, in mumenti differenti, vixin a Ravecca, a Campu Pisan, ai giardinetti de plastica, propriu dunde 'na votta gh'ea u caruggiu de Maddre de Diu. A l'è 'na vegetta vestia da povia ma con dignitae, cui vestii di primmi du seculu passò e cun u mocciu de cavelli grixi. A s'avvixina a quelli ch'ì passan, a i agoeita, e in zeneise antigu, suttuvuxe, a ghe dumanda se, pe caxu, i san dunde a peu truvà u caruggiu d'ì Librae: là gh'ea a seu casetta, ma lè a nu l' attrova ciù. Primma che a persunna a segge in graddu de rispunde, a vegetta a sparisce intu ninte. C'à segge 'n fantasma? 'n illuxiun? O ciutostu a l'è a figua e a vuxe da Zena de 'na votta...

 

Italian – Italiano – Italian language

La leggenda della vecchietta di Ravecca

Appare e scompare. Viene vista, in momenti differenti, vicino a Ravecca, a Campo Pisano, ai giardini di plastica, proprio dove una volta c'era il vicolo di Madre di Dio. E' una vecchietta vestita da povera ma con dignità, con i vestiti dei primi anni del secolo scorso e con un moccio di cappelli grigi. Si avvicina ai passanti, li guarda di sottocchio ed in genovese antico, sottovoce, domanda loro se, per caso, sanno dove può trovare vico dei Librai: lì c'era la sua casetta, ma lei non riesce più a trovarla. Prima che il passante riesca a risponderle, la vecchietta sparisce nel nulla. Che sia un fantasma? Un illusione? O piuttosto è la figura e la voce di Genova di una volta...

 

Ingleise – Inglese – English

The legend of Ravecca’s old woman

She appears and she disappears. You may find her, at different times, near “Ravecca” street, near “Campo Pisano” square, near “Giardini di Plastica”, where once there was “Madre di Dio” alley. She is an old woman who wears one hundred years clothes. She has her grey hair put up over her head. She is poor but she still dresses with dignity. She approaches passers-by, she looks at them and, in ancient Genoese dialect, she asks them if, by chance, they know where she can find “Librai” alley: her little house was there, but she can no longer find it. Before the passers-by answer to her question, the old woman suddenly disappears. Is she a ghost? Or an illusion? Perhaps she is the figure and the voice of old Genoa...

 

(Explanation for people who don't know Genoa:

“Ravecca” and “Campo Pisano” still exist (thanks God!).

“Madre di Dio” (In English: “God's Mother”) alley and “Librai” (in English: “book-sellers”) alley unfortunately do not exist anymore.

“Giardini di Plastica” (in English: “plastic gardens”) is an horrible and ugly place built in recent times... so horrible that I never shoot it!)

 

This shot was taken in “Via di Porta Soprana”, Genoa, Italy, or perhaps in a dreamy, indefinite place…

 

Italien / Trentino - Mezzano

 

Mezzano (Međàn in local dialect) is a comune (municipality) in Trentino in the northern Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about 50 kilometres (31 mi) east of Trento. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 1,644 and an area of 48.9 square kilometres (18.9 sq mi).

 

Mezzano borders the following municipalities: Siror, Canal San Bovo, Cesiomaggiore, Imer, Feltre, Sovramonte and Transacqua.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

By leaving behind the valley junction of the Val Noana valley, an impressive gorge at the foot of the Feltrine peaks, you reach Mezzano.

 

Situated at 640 m a.s.l., this village with its approx. 1,600 inhabitants is characterised by its rural past. It features several impressive corners, which reflect the main characteristics of the typical Primiero architectural style.

 

As also numerous other localities of the valley, once upon a time Mezzano was characterised by mining and the immigration of many miners from the region of Schwaz in Austria. Nevertheless it has never lost its characteristics as agricultural centre. Part of the municipal territory are also the "Prati di San Giovanni", an alpine area with several farms, a popular destination particularly in summer. This is also where the San Giovanni church is located.

 

Traditions are very important in Mezzano: the ancient costumes and traditions of the valley are kept alive by the folk group "Gruppo Folkloristico di Mezzano". However, there are several new sport facilites, as the soccer and athletics centre, where famous sports clubs excercise and compete.

 

(trentino.com)

 

Mezzano (deutsch veraltet: Matzan im Taufers oder Mittersdorf; im lokalen Dialekt: Meδàn) ist eine norditalienische Gemeinde (comune) mit 1589 Einwohnern (Stand 31. Dezember 2019) im Trentino in der Region Trentino-Südtirol.

 

Die Gemeinde liegt etwa 60 Kilometer ostnordöstlich von Trient in der Talgemeinschaft Comunità di Primiero und grenzt unmittelbar an die Provinz Belluno (Venetien). Die Gemeinde liegt am Sturzbach (Torrente) Cismon.

 

Mezzano ist Mitglied der Vereinigung I borghi più belli d’Italia (Die schönsten Orte Italiens).

 

Verkehr

 

Durch die Gemeinde führt die Strada Statale 50 del Grappa e del Passo Rolle von Ponte nelle Alpi nach Predazzo.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Wenn man die Einmündung des Val Noana Tales, ein eindrucksvoller Landeinschnitt am Fuße der Feltrine Spitzen, hinter sich lässt, gelangt man nach Mezzano.

 

Auf 640 m gelegen, erkennt man in Mezzano noch dessen ländliche Vergangenheit. Die Ortschaft, die ca. 1.600 Einwohner zählt, weist zahlreiche eindrucksvolle Winkel auf, die geprägt sind von der typisch einfachen Architektur des Valle di Primiero Tales.

 

Wie zahlreiche andere Ortschaften des Tales, war auch Mezzano früher vom Bergbau und der Einwanderung zahlreicher Bergleute aus dem österreichischen Schwaz geprägt. Trotzdem hat es nie seine Eigenschaften als landwirtschaftliches Zentrum verloren. Zum Gemeindegebiet zählen auch die "Prati di San Giovanni", ein alpines Gebiet mit einigen Höfen, das in den Sommermonaten zu einem beliebten Ausflugsziel wird. Hier steht das Kirchlein San Giovanni.

 

Auch die Tradition wird in Mezzano groß geschrieben: Die alten Trachten und Bräuche des Tales werden von der ältesten Trachtengruppe des Trentino, dem "Gruppo Folkloristico di Mezzano", gepflegt und erhalten. Bemerkenswert sind auch das neue Fußball- und Athletikzentrum in Mezzano, wo namhafte Sportclubs, u.a. Fußballclubs der italienischen Serie A, trainieren und Sportmeisterschaften ausgetragen werden.

 

(trentino.com)

Enochian is an angelic language used by angels in Heaven. They communicate over angel radio using this language, though in more recent years, they began communicating in English predominately. The angels, the Knights of Hell, and the Men of Letters are also familiar with an archaic dialect of the angelic language called "Pre-Enochian" or "Old Enochian". Castiel used sigils from this Enochian dialect to bind Alastair in a devil's trap he made. The Knights of Hell like Abaddon used the old Enochian sigil associated with them as their crest, leaving it behind in areas where they strike. Belphegor reveals that very few demons like Lilith, Crowley, and Abaddon have been known to understand Enochian. Enochian sigils are powerful glyphs that can be used against angels and demons and protect an area from angelic and demonic interference. Throughout Season 5, Castiel uses one to conceal Sam, Dean, and Adam from every angel in creation by carving it into their ribs.

www.supernaturalwiki.com/Enochian

 

Enochian has also been used in reciting various spells that can be used against some of the most dangerous creatures in all creation. Lily Sunder became a practitioner of Enochian Magic after Ishim taught her all their secrets, using spells that burn off pieces of her soul in exchange for longevity and access to angelic powers until it's completely burned away. The Whore of Babylon uses what appears to be an Enochian spell to harm Castiel. Lucifer's Cage can be opened and closed with the rings of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse and an Enochian phrase. When angels are reverted to their "factory settings", they relay any information hidden in their minds encrypted in Enochian.

  

The Two of Swords shows a blindfolded woman, Pamela Smith has become an impetrant, she begins her initiation into Enochian magic, the artist is dressed in a white dress, holding two crossed swords. The blindfold tells us that Pamela is confused about her inner light and cannot clearly see either the problem or the solution. She may also be missing relevant information that would make her decision much clearer if she were to get it. The swords she holds are in perfect balance, suggesting that she is weighing her thoughts and addressing both sides of the situation to find the best resolution.

Behind the woman is a body of water dotted with rocky islets. Water represents emotions, and while the costume of swords is traditionally associated with the mind and intellect, its presence shows that Pamela must use both her head and her heart to weigh her options. The islands represent obstacles in his path and suggest that his decision is not as clear cut as it seems. It will have to consider the situation as a whole. The crescent moon to her right is a sign that Pamela should trust her intuition to make her choice. Pamela is also alone on the beach. His eyes are blindfolded, his arms are tied. Eight swords planted in the ground form a prison around her. However, the circle is not completely closed. So there is an exit that the blindfold prevents you from seeing. The Two of Swords indicates that you are faced with a difficult decision, but you do not know which option to take. Both possibilities may seem equally good – or equally bad – and you don't know which will lead you to the better result. You need to be able to weigh the pros and cons of each choice and then make a conscious judgment. Use both your head (your mind and intellect) and your heart (your feelings and intuition) to choose the path that is most in alignment with your Higher Self.

 

Pamela Smith represented in this card wears a blindfold, indicating that she cannot see the entirety of her circumstance. You may lack the information you need to make the right decisions. You may be missing something, such as the threats or potential risks, alternative solutions or critical pieces of information that would help guide you in a particular direction. Once you remove the blindfold and see the situation for what it really is, you will be in a much better position to find your best path forward. Research your options more, seek outside opinions and feedback and ask yourself what you might be missing.`` Alone, far from the city and its ramparts, this woman seems very isolated. The sky is gray, the landscape is bleak. There emerges from the Card a feeling of uncertainty and absence of hope. The Eight of Swords symbolizes the feeling of helplessness of the Consultant. Lost, disoriented, the Consultant does not know what to do to overcome the obstacles or challenges of his environment. The Consultant experiences the very unpleasant feeling of being “stuck”, trapped. However – and this is important to stress – the Eight of Swords is not a fatalistic card. On the Map, the young woman could free herself from her fabric ties and remove the blindfold covering her eyes. She could regain the comfort and safety of the city behind her. The blockage, the "prison" of these Swords planted in a circle therefore symbolize first of all a situation created by the Consultant himself. Quite logically, he or she could get rid of it and get by on his own. The blockage is notably due to limiting beliefs on the part of the Consultant. These limiting beliefs go on and on: “You are not capable of…”; “A man like that, caring about you!? Do not even think about it ! » ; "Returning to training at your age to change paths will never work..." These limiting thoughts end up defining our possibilities and therefore we are no longer able to do otherwise, innovate or find solutions. It also happens that the feeling of helplessness is generated by external circumstances. The Consultant “wakes up”, dissatisfied with his environment and his life and wonders how he or she could have come to this.The Eight of Swords reveals that you feel trapped and restricted by your circumstances. You believe your options are limited with no clear path out. You might be in an unfulfilling job, an abusive relationship, a significant amount of debt or a situation way out of alignment with your inner being. You are now trapped between a rock and a hard place, with no resolution available. However, take note that the woman in the card is not entirely imprisoned by the eight swords around her, and if she wanted to escape, she could. She merely needs to remove the blindfold and free herself from the self-imposed bindings that hold her back. When the Eight of Swords appears in a Tarot reading, it comes as a warning that your thoughts and beliefs are no longer serving you. You may be over-thinking things, creating negative patterns or limiting yourself by only considering the worst-case scenario. The more you think about the situation, the more you feel stuck and without any options. It is time to get out of your head and let go of those thoughts and beliefs holding you back. As you change your thoughts, you change your reality. Replace negative thoughts with positive ones, and you will start to create a more favourable situation for yourself. The Eight of Swords assures you there is a way out of your current predicament – you just need a new perspective. You already have the resources you need, but it is up to you to use those resources in a way that serves you. Others may be offering you help, or there may be an alternative solution you haven’t yet fully explored. Be open to finding the answer rather than getting stuck on the problem. The Eight of Swords is often associated with a victim mentality. You surrendered your power to an external entity, allowing yourself to become trapped and limited in some way. You may feel that it isn’t your fault – you have been placed here against your will. You may feel like the victim, waiting to be rescued, but is this energy serving you? If not, it is imperative you take back your power and personal accountability and open your eyes to the options in front of you. The fact is you do have choices, even if you do not like them. You are not powerless. At times, the Eight of Swords indicates that you are confused about whether you should stay or go, particularly if you are in a challenging situation. It is not as clear-cut as you would like, making the decision very difficult. You have one foot in, hoping things can work out, but your other foot is out the door, ready to leave. The trouble is that you worry either option could lead to negative consequences, and so you remain stuck where you are. Again, this card is asking you to get out of your head and drop down into your gut and your intuition so you can hear your inner guidance. Your thoughts are not serving you right now, but your intuition is. Trust yourself. In any case, it is necessary to "take back control" of the circumstances and to remember that in life, we always have a choice. The possibilities in front of you may not be ideal, easy or desired… but they exist! You have to be able to look them in the face, and choose the best… or the least bad.

 

www.biddytarot.com/tarot-card-meanings/minor-arcana/suit-...

 

www.biddytarot.com/tarot-card-meanings/minor-arcana/suit-...

 

In 1903 Waite succeeded Yeats as Grand Master of the Golden Dawn. His first act under his new status was a reform of the fundamental principles of the Order: he proclaimed the primacy of spiritual achievement (emphasis on esoteric knowledge and the search for Truth) over material fulfillment (which occultism in general, and magic in particular, presupposes). Seeing in this act of negating the very foundation of the Golden Dawn (namely the practice of the occult sciences) the outright annihilation of the Order, former Grand Master Yeats strongly opposed Waite.

Two camps were then formed: one bringing together the supporters of the reform and represented by William Alexander Ayton, (relatively fearful in terms of operability), Waite's right-hand man, and the other bringing together, alongside the former Grand Mr. Yeats, the curators. The feud lasted two years, after which the Yeats camp ended up going on to found its own order (La Stella Matutina, the "Morning Star")—a perfect transposition of the Golden Dawn before Waite's reform, seceding from what took then the name of Holy Order of the Golden Dawn ("Holy Order of the Golden Dawn"; the expression "holy order" illustrating more the new mystical tendencies instilled by Waite) and which continued to be shaken by internal strife until disbanded in 1915, following Waite's departure.

 

After this "schism of 1905", which was the real coup de grace for the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, certain initiates who had remained neutral in the struggle between Camp Yeats and Camp Ayton preferred to go and found, alone or in groups, their own brotherhood.

 

Arthur Edward Waite (1857-1942), wanted to be a true scholar in occultism. He wrote, among other things, "The Holy Kaballah" and "The Key to the Tarot", published in London in 1910. For Waite, symbolism is the key to the Tarot. In "The Key to the Tarot" he says, "True tarot is symbolic; it uses no other languages or other signs". One of the unique characteristics of the Arthur Edwart Waite tarot and one of the main reasons for its popularity is that all the cards, including those of the Minor Arcana, depict scenes complete with figures and symbols. The images of all Pamela Coman-Smith's cards lend themselves to an interpretation based on the conscious and unconscious reading of the scene, without the need to consult explanatory texts.

What is striking in the Tarot Rider-Waite, therefore, is above all the Minor Arcana, which are difficult to translate with the Tarot of Marseilles for most of those interested, but have suddenly become emblematic with the Tarot that Waite offers us. Therefore, these mysteries illustrated with scenes are easier to interpret.The Tarots of Wirth and Knapp Hall are to be considered to be Tarots based on "hermetic science". A science which will be strongly included in the broad fields of esoteric exploration to which the golden dawn will give access...The first decks that can be designated as decks born from the ideologies of the Golden Dawn and created according to their cosmogony is undoubtedly the Tarot Rider-Waite... It is the result of a long and meticulous research on esoteric symbols and their correspondence.

 

But the first member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn to have designed a Tarot is obviously doctor Gérard Encausse, Papus, who joined the members of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in 1895. The Papus tarot would have been designed around 1899... At the beginning, it was certainly reserved for a few insider circles only... It was seen for the first time in illustration in the works of Papus, among others in "Le Tarot des Bohémiens , absolute key to the occult sciences" (1889), but the book will only be really known and accessible to the general public from its 3rd edition published in 1926. Then will follow the work "The divinatory tarot. Key to card printing and fates" (1909), reissued in large circulation also the same year of 1926. From then on, the Tarot of Papus will gain much popularity and the public will seek to obtain it... The Tarot of Papus will be diffused little by little print from the 1930s.

 

While the tarots of Papus, Wirth and the Knapp Hall were appearing almost simultaneously, the renowned house of Grimaud, for its part, was preparing to publish the Tarot which would become the reference for the general public, it was this famous modified reproduction of the Conver, proposed by Paul Marteau. It will appear in 1930 and will become the most fashionable tarot... Despite the modifications made to this Tarot, it has no affiliation with occult groups and is intended to be a Tarot in the tradition of the Tarot de Marseille.

 

That said, the Tarot which will set the tone and which will be the reference for the members of the Golden Dawn is undoubtedly the Tarot developed by Rider and Waite.

 

There are already a hundred decks that derive directly from the tarot originally designed by Rider-Waite. Not to mention pirated copies, clones, etc... This tarot has long been a reference for budding occultists and kabbalists... It still is...

 

So, in fact, there are many tarots that were designed in the ideology of the Golden Dawn!!!

 

It will first be the Tarot of Aleister Crowley which, following the Rider-Waite, will stand out and bring modifications to the "esoteric" Tarot, always with reference to the Golden Dawn, to the Kabbalah, to ancient Egypt initiates, etc... With in addition, references to sexual magic...The members of the Golden Dawn mainly used the Tarot of Waite, but during the 1950s, 1960s, they put a lot of effort into creating a Tarot that could finally be directly linked to the precepts and esoteric teachings of the Golden Dawn... A Tarot which originally wanted to be, once again, a Tarot exclusively reserved for members of the Order. This is the famous "Tarot of the Golden Dawn", so the Tarot which wants to be "officially" attested by the order...

 

But beware !! This name known as "Tarot of the Golden Dawn" is confusing... Several Tarots are decked out with the label "of the Golden Dawn"...

 

In truth, of all these tarot cards there is only one that is truly recognized by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and as such, and that is the one developed by Israel Regardie and Robert Wang from esoteric works of Samuel Liddel Matthers.

 

Robert Wang will also create the "Jungian Tarot", very appreciated also by the followers of the Golden Dawn; and perhaps even more by those interested in "modern theosophy" and in the principles elaborated by Jung.

 

The "Jungian Tarot" is quite similar to the so-called "Golden Dawn" Tarot, but is intended more for "personal evolution" than for the initiatory journey of the Order, strictly speaking... In truth these two tarots are the results of extensive research in matters of esotericism, research that has been carried out by the study centers of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Its construction, on the basis of the four elements, the celestial phenomena, the Holy Kabbalah, and a highly evolved psychology, can apparently lead its followers into the inner recesses of psychic and intuitive awareness.

 

Above all, this tarot can be used as a basis for occult study, in order to learn to possess all the aspects of the traditional "center-wisdom", and "high-science" kabbalistic... (There are many Rosicrucian references , and also references to Freemasonry and alchemy).

 

Originally, the Golden Dawn Tarot was only reserved for members of the official Order. It began to be broadcast from 1975.

 

Despite the claim of these creators, it should still be known that the vast majority of members of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, will study the Tarot from the "Tarot B.O.T.A.", or the original Rider-Waite. What is striking in the Tarot Rider-Waite, therefore, is above all the Minor Arcana, which are difficult to translate with the Tarot of Marseilles for most of those interested, but have suddenly become emblematic with the Tarot that Waite offers us. Therefore, these mysteries illustrated with scenes are easier to interpret.

THE TAROT B.O.T.A.

 

It is actually a very special version of the Rider-Waite Tarot presented in a "black and white" version, and the members were invited to color their own tarots... The study of symbolism esoteric was first done using this Tarot Rider-Waite in its original version (in black and bench). Indeed, the Waite-Rider Tarot in its black and white version is the most used by Golden Dawn followers and should be considered the official Golden Dawn Tarot.

 

A nearly similar version is still used by members of the B.O.T.A. and followers of hermetic schools. (The initials B.O.T.A. mean "Builders of the Adytum", it is a traditional and fraternal association founded by Paul Foster Case, continued and extended by Ann Davies...

 

A popular theory is that author William Walker Atkinson co-wrote the legendary "Kybalion" tome with Paul Foster Case. This theory is often defended by members of the "Builders of the Adytum". B.O.T.A. offers courses and techniques based on the study of the mystical teachings of the Holy Qabalah and TAROT. In fact, this confusing story about the Tarot B.O.T.A. and writing the "Kybalion", seems to have started with a breakaway group from the B.O.T.A., "The Brotherhood of Hidden Light" (which emphasizes the "secret (or lost) knowledge of the sages of Atlantis") .

 

The members of the Golden Dawn like the members of the B.O.T.A., consider that the Rider-Waite tarot is the ultimate "reference"...

secretsdutarot.blogspot.com/2013/01/les-tarots-dits-de-la...

This dissertation seeks to define the importance of Waite’s interpretation of mediaeval and Renaissance esoterica regarding the contacting of daemons and its evolution into a body of astrological and terrestrial correspondences and intelligences that included a Biblical primordial language, or a lingua adamica. The intention and transmission of John Dee’s angel magic is linked to the philosophy outlined in his earlier works, most notably the Monas Hieroglyphica, and so this dissertation also provides a philosophical background to Dee’s angel magic. The aim of this dissertation is to establish Dee’s conversations with angels as a magic system that is a direct descendant of Solomonic and Ficinian magic with unique Kabbalistic elements. It is primarily by the Neoplatonic, Hermetic, Kabbalistic, and alchemical philosophy presented in the Monas Hieroglyphica that interest in Dee’s angel magic was transmitted through the Rosicrucian movement. Through Johann Valentin Andreae’s Chymische Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz anno 1459, the emphasis on a spiritual, inner alchemy became attached to Dee’s philosophy. Figures such as Elias Ashmole, Ebenezer Sibley, Francis Barret, and Frederick Hockley were crucial in the transmission of interest in Dee’s practical angel magic and Hermetic philosophy to the founders of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.

Enochian Angel Magic: From John Dee to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn www.academia.edu/921740/Enochian_Angel_Magic_From_John_De...

 

The rituals of the Golden Dawn utilized Dee’s angel magic, in addition to creative Kabbalistic elements, to form a singular practice that has influenced Western esoterica of the modern age. This study utilizes a careful analysis of primary sources including the original manuscripts of the Sloane archives, the most recent scholarly editions of Dee’s works, authoritative editions of original documents linked to Rosicrucianism, and Israel Regardie’s texts on Golden Dawn practices."In Whose hands the Sun is as a sword, and the Moon as a through- thrusting fire." An elegant equation, defining the parameters of the. creation. The god declares dominion over planetary forces (Sun-Moon) and elemental forces (fire-air). He also declares control over the two types of dualities: those in which one pole is projective and the other responsive (Sun-Moon) and over those in which two forces of similar polarity are balanced (fire-air). Within the area of creation, the positive pole is attributed to the element of swords, Air, and the anti-positive pole is attributed to the element of Fire. This is reflected in the precedence followed by the elements throughout the Tablets and Calls: Air first, then Water, Earth, and Fire. "Which measure your garments in the midst of my vestures..." The word translated here as "garments" is used uniformly to mean "creation" or "being" elsewhere in the Keys. Another word is used for

"garments" in the next sentence of this same Key. Another word is also used for "midst" further on in this Key. So the translation here is questionable. A magickal image given to define this phrase shows the scene through the god's eyes as he pulls endless threads of living light out of a lamen on his chest.

Enochian magic is a system of ceremonial magic based on the 16th-century writings of John Dee and Edward Kelley, who wrote that their information, including the revealed Enochian language, was delivered to them directly by various angels. Dee's journals contain the record of these workings, the Enochian script, and the tables of correspondences used in Enochian magic. Dee and Kelley believed their visions gave them access to secrets contained within Liber Logaeth, which Dee and Kelley referred to as the "Book of Enoch".In the early 1580s, John Dee had become discontented with his progress in learning the secrets of nature. Dee wrote: I have from my youth up, desired and prayed unto God for pure and sound wisdom and understanding of truths natural and artificial, so that God's wisdom, goodness, and power bestowed in the frame of the world might be brought in some bountiful measure under the talent of my capacity... So for many years and in many places, far and near, I have sought and studied many books in sundry languages, and have conferred with sundry men, and have laboured with my own reasonable discourse, to find some inkling, gleam, or beam of those radical truths. But after all my endeavours I could find no other way to attain such wisdom but by the Extraordinary Gift, and not by any vulgar school, doctrine, or human invention. Enochian magic involves the evocation and commanding of various spirits.He subsequently began to turn energetically towards the supernatural as a means to acquire knowledge. He sought to contact spirits through the use of a scryer or crystal-gazer, which he thought would act as an intermediary between himself and the angels. Dee's first attempts with several scryers were unsatisfactory, but in 1582 he met Edward Kelley (1555–1597/8), then calling himself Edward Talbot to disguise his conviction for "coining" or forgery, who impressed him greatly with his abilities.Dee took Kelley into his service and began to devote all his energies to his supernatural pursuits. These "spiritual conferences" or "actions" were conducted with intense Christian piety, always after periods of purification, prayer and fasting. Dee was convinced of the benefits they could bring to mankind. The character of Kelley is harder to assess: some conclude that he acted with cynicism, but delusion or self-deception cannot be ruled out. Kelley's "output" is remarkable for its volume, intricacy and vividness. Through Kelley, the angels laboriously dictated several books in this way, some in a previously unknown language which Dee called Angelical — now more commonly known as Enochian.The two pillars of modern Enochian magic, as outlined in Liber Chanokh, are the Elemental Tablets (including the "Tablet of Union") and the Keys of the 30 Aethyrs. The Enochian model of the universe is depicted by Dee as a square called "The Great Table" (made up of the 4 Elemental Tablets and incorporating the Tablet of Union), surrounded by 30 concentric circles representing the 30 Aethyrs or Aires. The Angelical Keys:

The essence of Enochian magic involves the recitation of one or more of nineteen Angelical Keys, which are also referred to as Calls. These keys are a series of rhetorical exhortations which function as evocations when read in the Enochian language. They are used to effect the "opening of 'gates' into various mystical realms." The first eighteen keys are used to 'open' the realms of the elements and sub-elements, which are mapped onto the quadrants and sub-quadrants of the Great Tablet.[clarification needed][citation needed]. The nineteenth key is used to 'open' the Thirty Aethyrs. The Aethyrs are conceived of as forming a map of the entire universe in the form of concentric rings which expand outward from the innermost to the outermost Aethyr. The Great Table: The angels of the four quarters are symbolized by the Elemental Tablets — four large magical word-square Tables (collectively called "The Great Table"). Most of the well-known Enochian angels are drawn from the Elemenal Tablets of the Great Table. Each of the four tablets (representing the Elements of Earth, Air, Fire and Water), is collectively "governed" by a hierarchy of spiritual entities which runs (as explained in Crowley's Liber Chanokh) as the Three Holy Names, the Great Elemental King, the Six Seniors (aka Elders) (these make a total of 24 Elders as seen in the Revelation of St. John), the Two Divine Names of the Calvary Cross, the Kerubim, and the Sixteen Lesser Angels. Each tablet is further divided into four sub-quadrants (sometimes referred to as 'sub-angles') where we find the names of various Archangels and Angels who govern the quarters of the world. In this way, the entire universe, visible and invisible, is depicted as teeming with living intelligences. Each of the Elemental tablets is also divided into four sections by a figure known as the Great Central Cross. The Great Central cross consists of the two central vertical columns of the Elemental Tablet (the Linea Patris and Linea Filii) and the central horizontal line (known as the Linea Spiritus Sancti). In addition to the four Elemental Tablets, a twenty-square cell known as the Tablet of Union (aka The Black Cross, representing Spirit) completes the representation of the five traditional elemental attributes used in magic - Earth, Air, Water, Fire and Spirit. The Tablet of Union is derived from within the Great Central Cross of the Great Table. The Thirty Æthyrs : The 30 Aethyrs are numbered from 30 (TEX, the lowest and consequently the closest to the Great Table) to 1 (LIL, the highest, representing the Supreme Attainment. Magicians working the Enochian system record their impressions and visions within each of the successive Enochian Aethyrs. Each of the 30 Aethyrs is populated by "Governors" (3 for each Aethyr, except TEX which has four, thus a total of 91 Governors). Each of the governors has a sigil which can be traced onto the Great Tablet of Earth.

The Holy Table: a table with a top engraved with a Hexagram, a surrounding border of Enochian letters, and in the middle a Twelvefold table (cell) engraved with individual Enochian letters. According to Duquette and Hyatt, the Holy Table "does not directly concern Elemental or Aethyrical workings. Angels found on the Holy Table are not called forth in these operations."

The Seven Planetary Talismans: The names on these talismans (which are engraved on tin and placed on the surface of the Holy Table) are those of the Goetia. According to Duquette and Hyatt, "this indicates (or at least implies) Dee's familiarity with the Lemegeton and his attempt, at least early in his workings, to incorporate it in the Enochian system."] As with the Holy Table, Spirits found on these talismans are not called forth in these operations. The Sigillum dei Aemeth, Holy Sevenfold Table, or 'Seal of God's Truth': The symbol derives from Liber Juratus (aka The Sworn Book of Honorius or Grimoire of Honorius, of which Dee owned a copy). Five versions of this complex diagram are made from bee's wax, and engraved with the various lineal figures, letters and numbers. The four smaller ones are placed under the feet of the Holy Table. The fifth and larger one (about nine inches in diameter) is covered with a red cloth, placed on the Holy Table, and is used to support the "Shew-Stone" or "Speculum" (crystal or other device used for scrying). Scrying is an essential element of the magical system. Dee and Kelly's technique was to gaze into a concave obsidian mirror. Crowley habitually held a large topaz mounted upon a wooden cross to his forehead. Other methods include gazing into crystals, ink, fire or even a blank TV screen.Little else became of Dee's work until late in the nineteenth century,[citation needed] when it was incorporated by a brotherhood of adepts in England. The rediscovery of Dee and Kelley's material by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in the 1880s led to Mathers developing the material into a comprehensive system of ceremonial magic. Magicians invoked the Enochian deities whose names were written on the tablets. They also traveled in their bodies of light into these subtle regions and recorded their psychic experiences. The two major branches of the system were then grafted on to the Adeptus Minor curriculum of the Golden Dawn.

 

According to Aleister Crowley, the magician starts with the 30th aethyr and works up to the first, exploring only so far as his level of initiation will permit. According to Chris Zalewski's 1994 book, the Golden Dawn also invented the game of Enochian chess, in which aspects of the Enochian Tablets were used for divination. They used four chessboards without symbols on them, just sets of colored squares, and each board is associated with one of the four elements of magic. Florence Farr founded the Sphere Group which also experimented with Enochian magic.Aleister Crowley's work with Enochian magick generally follows the Golden Dawn system. He is known primarily for his explorations of the 30 Aethyrs, published in "The Vision and the Voice". This work established the idea that Aethyr might represent a means of initiation, and set a standard for methodical exploration, which few have equaled. It also fixed Crowley's particular perspective on the process of transcendence in the minds of many students of the occult. Crowley envisioned the Aethyr as being related to the sephiroth of the tree of life in groups of three. He also mentions that each Aethyr "bends" into the next Aethyr above it, in a way, so that in progressing through the Aethyrs from the last to the first, one also withdraws one's being from the lower levels and already experienced (this is parallel to the technique he describes in the Liber Yod, in which the magician achieves union with the deity by gradually banishing all other levels and powers.Under this conception the Aethyrs ZAX, whose parts have names formed from the cross of union, is the highest of the three attributed to Chesed. Thus, it is the last Aethyr encountered before entering the Supernal Triad and achieving transcendence. Crowley envisioned this movement as crossing an "abyss" or space, during which the magician encounters an Enochian devil named Choronzon dwelling therein. Crowley's other contribution to Enochian magick was adapting the pyramid system of the GD for use with the sex magick of the O.T.O. In this technique, physical representations of the pyramids are made for an angel's name, but inverted to form the square "cups". These serve as talismans, which are charged using the end product of the sex magick operation.

 

Paul Foster Case (1884–1954), an occultist who began his magical career with the Alpha et Omega, was critical of the Enochian system. According to Case, the system of Dee and Kelley was partial from the start, an incomplete system derived from an earlier and complete Qabalistic system, and lacked sufficient protection methods. Case believed he had witnessed the physical breakdown of a number of practitioners of Enochian magic, due to the lack of protective methods. When Case founded his own magical order, the Builders of the Adytum (B.O.T.A.), he removed the Enochian system and substituted elemental tablets based on Qabalistic formulae communicated to him by Master R.The first Enochian Key or Call is a recapitulation of the steps by which the creator of the system brought it into being. The Key follows the same macrocosmic-to-microcosmic progression used in the example consecration ritual, but then supplements this with a response from the microcosm directed at the macrocosm. Note that the description of the downward current contains seven significant phrases, suggesting the planets and sun, the macrocosm, while the description of the response contains five significant phrases, suggesting the four elements and elemental spirit, the microcosm."...and trussed you together as the palms of my hands." The magickal image continues by showing the god gathering the fibers of light into a bundle or cable. The god concentrates the energies within the area of work in preparation for shaping."Whose seats I garnished with the fire of gathering, which beautified your garments with admiration." Having generated the positive or spiritual pole of the creation, the god now looks to the anti-positive or material pole. The "seats" are the squares of the tablets in their two-dimensional form. The god embodies a part of his will in the Tablets, defining the order and place to which the spiritual energies will be attracted and attached. When the energies are attached to the Tablets, the pattern of will embodied in the Tablets extends back along their path to the positive pole, conditioning all the perceptible expressions (the "garments") of the energies.. The usual assumption of later magicians (which is not universally accepted) is that the remaining Calls refer to the "Minor Angles" within the Tablets.

 

The Golden Dawn method of associating the Callings with the tablets and Lesser Angles has become the accepted "standard". Donald Tyson recently proposed an alternative method which has received some attention

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enochian_magic

 

SUMMARY OF PATH POSITIONS IN ACHAD'S TREE OF LIFE

Path Trump Connects with:

Aleph The Fool Malkuth Yesod

Beth The Magician Malkuth Hod

Gimel The Priestess Yesod Hod

Daleth The Empress Malkuth Netzach

Heh The Emperor Tiphereth Geburah

Vav The Hierophant Hod Netzach

Zain The Lovers Hod Tiphereth

Cheth The Chariot Yesod Netzach

Teth Strength Netzach Tiphereth

YodT he Hermit Hod Geburah

Kaph The Wheel of Fortune Kether Chokmah

Lamed Justice Netzach Chesed

Mem The Hanged Man Yesod Tiphereth

Nun Death Geburah Chesed

Samek Temperance Chesed Chokmah

AyinThe DevilTiphereth Binah

PehThe Tower Geburah Binah

Tzaddi The Star Binah Chokmah

Qoph The Moon Tiphereth Chesed

Resh The Sun Tiphereth Chokmah

Shin Judgement Kether Tiphereth

TauT he Universe Kether Binah

"To whom I made a law to govern the holy ones," The word translated as "holy ones" appears to derive from the same root as the enochian words for "fire", suggesting that the holy ones are those who possess the spiritual will. The god specifies the manner in which his creation will respond to the mages and adepts."Moreover, you lifted up your voices and sware obedience and faith..."The connection between the two poles having been made, and the conditions of their interaction being set, the angels of the creation voice their response to the god, swearing to continue to follow the god's will. "...to him that liveth and triumpheth," The spirits of the Tablets affirm the existence of their creator by saying that he lives, and affirm the success of the act of creation by saying that he triumphs. The echoing of the god's statements by the spirits of the tablets also suggests that the conditions the god laid on the creation as a whole

are reflected in miniature within the creation. It shall be shown that this is the case with the Tablets as we proceed.In the remainder of the Key, the magician using it calls upon the

spirits to respond to him fully and openly. The word translated here as "servant" might be better rendered as "minister" or "representative". The magician asserts that he has a right to demand a response from the spirits because his acts are in accord with the will of their creator.

www.sacred-texts.com/eso/enoch/1stkey.txt

 

Angelic chatter, but very little solid information. Additionally, the reader must deal with forays into apocalyptic religion, Elizabethan politics, Dee's and Kelly's personal issues, and the various irrelevant issues Dee insisted on inserting into the work. Chronologically, Dee and Kelly's work falls into three highly productive periods separated by months when nothing of particular value was received. The material received in each period generally stands on its own, and is only loosely related to that of the other periods. but the term is often applied to all work. First Period: The Heptarchia Mystica. Equipment: Ring, Lamen, and Holy Table The angels claimed that the ring they designed for Dee was the same one used by Solomon to control demons. The ring had a full band, to which was attached a rectangular plate. The letters PELE (coming from Latin for "he will do miracles") were inscribed in the four corners. In the center was a circle crossed by a horizontal line, with the letter "V" inscribed above and the letter "L" below. Two different lamens were given to Dee. The first bears a generic resemblance to various sigils of goetia being an assortment of free-form lines and oddly placed letters. The giving being indicated that it was to be made of gold and worn every time and place for the purpose of protection. given by an evil spirit. During the spring session of 1583, the angels indicated that a session had been scheduled in which detailed instructions would be given for the use of Heptarchic magick. If this session took place, it is not in the records that have survived; but some idea of the general technique can be gathered from the comments in other parts of the recording. The magician would be seated at the Holy Table, wearing the ring and lamen. table in front of him. He would hold an appropriate Heptarchic king's talisman in one hand, with a talisman of the names of the king's ministers placed beneath his feet. The magician would then invite the king with petition and prayer, followed by petitions to his prince, and invocations of the six chief ministers. They would appear in the stone of clairvoyance, whereupon the magician would instruct them to accomplish the task he desired.The Liber Loagaeth is the most mysterious part of Dee and Kelly's work. It is also known by different names like

book of Enoch and the Liber Mysteriorum Sextus et Sanctus. So far no one has seriously attempted to use it, or to understand its nature, beyond what is found in the diaries. According to the angels, "loagaeth" means "speech of God", this book is supposed to be, literally, the words by which God created all things. It is supposed to be the language in which the "true names" of all things are known, giving power over them. As described in the Liber Mysteriorum Quintis, the book was to consist of 48 "leaves", of which each contains a 49x49 grid. Infact, the book actually presented to Kelly is somewhat different. It contains 49 "invocations" in an unknown language, 95 square tables filled with letters and numbers, 2 similar tables not filled, and 4 drawn tables twice the width of the others. 2 "leaves" are recorded, but these are not included in the final book, and apparently serve as an introduction or prologue to the work. this term. There is no translation by which this could be judged in detail, but the text lacks the logical repetitions and word placements which are characteristic of the 48 Enochian invocations given in later years. There is no apparent grammar in the text. Donald Laycock remarks that the language is strongly alliterative and repetitively rhyming, while Robert Turner calls it "glossolalic". many "languages", all being spoken immediately. The purpose of the Loagaeth has been said to be the unleashing/introduction of a new age on earth, the last age before the end of all things. Instructions for use for this purpose were never given; the angels continually put it off, saying that only God could decide when the time has come. During the presentation of the two leaves of the Liber Mysteriorum Quintis, in the stone of clairvoyance an angel moved successively towards letters, and Kelly pronounced the names of the angelic character. Dee transcribed a version using the Roman alphabet, apparently with the intention of redoing it in angelic characters at a later date. of Kelly; this light was seen by both of them. Once the light entered Kelly's head, his consciousness was transformed so that he could understand the text as he read it. He was strongly commanded not to provide a translation, explaining that God would choose the time for it to be revealed. He provided the translation of a few of the words, but it was insufficient to capture the meaning of the text as a whole. When the light withdrew from Kelly's head, he immediately ceased to understand the text, and could no longer see it in the stone. On a few occasions, the light continued to work within him for a short time after the session ended, and at those times Dee noticed that Kelly said many wonderful (and unrecorded) things about the nature of the texts. But the moment the light went out, Kelly couldn't understand it anymore, nor remember what he had said during the previous moment. The record indicates that the 23rd line of the first leaf was a preface to the creation and distinction of the angels, and the 24th line a pleasant invitation to the good angels. Nothing else is recorded concerning the purpose of this book.

Enochian Magic and the Apocalypse

There are 2 major threads of thought in Christian millennialism. One thread, called postmillennialism, is largely utopian in nature. He sees the millennium as the beginning of a period of progressive perfection of conditions on Earth; the basic principle is that the world must be perfected and the city of God built on earth before Christ returns, and only after Christ returns will the world end. Two decades after Dee, this form of millennialism was the driving force behind the religious groups shoeing the English colonization of America. Dee's own thought contains many post-millennial ideals in the search for Enochian magick, one of his goals was to gain means to bring earthly governments and societies to God's design, thereby bringing the return of Christ closer. quickly. The other thread, called premillennialism, is the more catastrophic variety. In this version, the typical scenario is the return of Christ, and then mankind's current "evil" societies will be destroyed in worldwide disasters, while the elect are preserved from evil. After the world is destroyed, Christ will join the faithful in a city built by God to rule over the earth for a thousand years. While there is a strong millennial flavor to the angel's statements, they are almost uniformly of the postmillennial variety. The angels divided the world into four ages. The first of these ages began with the creation and ended with the flood; the second ended with the appearance of Christ. The revelation of Liber Loagaeth ended the third age and triggered the final age, in which the world would be brought to perfection before Christ's return. . A particular passage makes this clear.

The Enochian Magical System of Golden Dawn

Regardie, Israel, The Golden Dawn, Llewellyn Publications, 1971, St Paul, MN. Reprinted at regular intervals. Contains detailed descriptions of the Enochian Magical System developed from GD. Zalewski, Pat. Golden Dawn Enochian Magic, Llewellyn Certainly there are influences of the Qabalah (the Sigillum Dei Aemeth, the communications of Uriel, Michael...) but this is not the originality and the strength of the system. Some practitioners of Enochian magic said that it was a Qabala (when I hear a Qabala I tend to write Kabbalah, like in the theater) that put into action the world of Atziluth, the highest of the four Qabalah classic. It's quite difficult to verify...even ! (See the introduction to the Necrono-micon at Belfond Editions).

 

But back to Enochian magick proper. The successors of the G.. D.. today reorganize its system and Schueler in his Enochian Magic) gives the material and the rituals "step by step" ("step by step"). Americans (and us too) like to practice if it is simple and impressive... The investigation by Enochian magic generally gives results, we cannot really say that they are controllable since they do not correspond to any standard of experiences already lived by the inventors of this practice.

 

Be that as it may, the Enochian, this language with its grammar and its syntax, this magical system and its original Theogony, remains a mystery that should not be taken for a simple variant of this or that traditional system already known. It is therefore useful when approaching it to master the fundamental elements which are used for its use without being subservient to the rituals of the pentagrams and hexagrams, to their signs, to the notions of Qabala of the G., D.., etc. This will make it possible to know what is original or what is borrowed in the Enochian, and what one can think of such or such contemporary development. A culture that will provide some points of reference in our consumer society where the practice of magic has much in common with video games or the daily television session.

 

In this, the most honorable goal (if it can be a question of honour) is the success of the experience known as the "Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel", i.e. contact with one's true will, devoid of intention, in other words his heart. But it also applies to solving the various problems of life. After all, a magic is white or black only according to the use that is made of it... Let's say that we are still far from the religious John Dee. In fact not, for if Dee's conscious aims and methods were very far from those of our contemporaries, would ultimately the adventures and misadventures of his life, the problem of his relationship with Kelly evidently culminating in the ritually ordered exchange what they did with their wives would not be indications that this practice was beginning to ferment the elements of their consciences into a quintessential non-conformist?

 

MATTHEW LEON.

 

This text constitutes the introduction to the "Book of the gathering of forces" Editions RAMUEL 1994

 

Today we can no longer answer, lacking the benchmarks of a conventional morality no longer existing in the heart of the modern magician. But what is left? On what do we base ourselves if our practice has not yet allowed us an unambiguous contact with our heart, if our magical training lets us wander in the imagination that we have shaped? Publications 1990, St Paul, MN.

 

Synesthesia (American English) or synaesthesia (British English) is a perceptual phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway. People who report a lifelong history of such experiences are known as synesthetes. Awareness of synesthetic perceptions varies from person to person. In one common form of synesthesia, known as grapheme–color synesthesia or color–graphemic synesthesia, letters or numbers are perceived as inherently colored.In spatial-sequence, or number form synesthesia, numbers, months of the year, or days of the week elicit precise locations in space (e.g., 1980 may be "farther away" than 1990), or may appear as a three-dimensional map (clockwise or counterclockwise). Synesthetic associations can occur in any combination and any number of senses or cognitive pathways. Little is known about how synesthesia develops. It has been suggested that synesthesia develops during childhood when children are intensively engaged with abstract concepts for the first time. This hypothesis—referred to as semantic vacuum hypothesis—could explain why the most common forms of synesthesia are grapheme-color, spatial sequence, and number form. These are usually the first abstract concepts that educational systems require children to learn. The earliest recorded case of synesthesia is attributed to the Oxford University academic and philosopher John Locke, who, in 1690, made a report about a blind man who said he experienced the color scarlet when he heard the sound of a trumpet. However, there is disagreement as to whether Locke described an actual instance of synesthesia or was using a metaphor. The first medical account came from German physician Georg Tobias Ludwig Sachs in 1812. The term is from the Ancient Greek σύν syn, 'together', and αἴσθησις aisthēsis, 'sensation'.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia

When Pamela Coleman Smith was attending the Pratt Institute of Art, she realized that she possessed a high degree of sound-color synesthesia, i.e., she was able to visualize colors and forms while listening to music and could transmit those visualizations into tangible works of art. Modern psychologists define synesthesia as a crossing-over of sensory input. Depending upon the type of synesthesia, individuals are able to hear colors, see music, smell words, etc. Many people, particularly artists, possess this phenomenon to some extent; however, Pamela possessed sound-color synesthesia to an exceptionally high degree. She was able to create sound paintings just by unconsciously drawing while listening to passages of music. She embodied the Symbolist ideal in this area. Many examples of her work in this area have survived, including three watercolors in the possession of the Stieglitz/Georgia O'Keeffe Archive. In July 1908, an article appeared in The Strand Magazine entitled "Pictures in Music." The article included six black and white images of her music paintings (see below) and provided a long quotation by her which described how her art was created. A pertinent excerpt from that article is as follows: Do you see pictures in music? When you hear a Beethoven symphony or a sonata by Schumann, do mystic human figures and landscapes float before your eyes ? It is by no means new or uncommon for a composer to have a distinct picture in his mind when he sets himself to create a work. Schumann saw children at play in an embowered wood, dancing merrily until, lo ! the sudden advent of a satyr sent them shrieking to their homes. Few, however, have been able to delineate their hallucinations born of music.

Mendelssohn, who was no mean draughtsman, was often asked to do so, but always refused. "It is like asking a sculptor to paint a portrait of his statue," he once said. " All art is one, just as the human body is one, but each of the members has its functions. It is the function of music to hear, not to see." Nevertheless, it is highly interesting to see music translated in the terms of a sister art, and this is what a clever artist, Miss Pamela Colman Smith, has done, in pictures which are published now for the first time in The Strand Magazine. Many of the compositions selected by the artist will instantly be recognized as conveying, in quite a surprising way, a vivid idea of the music as a whole. Every reader can ascertain for himself whether he possesses this peculiar psychic gift—this power of conjuring up music pictures. When you next hear a famous sonata, close your eyes and see what, if any, "pictures" pass before the eye of your brain. Under the magical influence of music the soul has glimpses of wondrous shapes, lit by the light that never was on sea or land. "You ask me how these pictures are evolved," said Miss Colman Smith. "They are not pictures of the music theme — pictures of the flying notes—not conscious illustrations of the name given to a piece of music, but just what I see when I hear music—thoughts loosened and set free by the spell of sound. "When I take a brush in hand and the music begins, it is like unlocking the door into a beautiful country. There, stretched far away, are plains and mountains and the billowy sea, and as the music forms a net of sound the people who dwell there enter the scene; tall, slow-moving, stately queens, with jewelled crowns and garments gay or sad, who walk on mountain - tops or stand beside the shore, watching the water - people. These water-folk are passionless, and sway or fall with little heed of time; they toss the spray and, bending down, dive headlong through the deep. "There are the dwellers, too, of the great plain, who sit and brood, made of stone and motionless; the trees, which slumber till some elf goes by with magic spear and wakes the green to life ; towers, white and tall, standing against the darkening sky— Those tall white towers that one sees afar, Topping the mountain crests like crowns of snow. Their silence hangs so heavy in the air That thoughts are stifled. "Then huddling crowds, who carry spears, hasten across the changing scene. Sunsets fade from rose to grey, and clouds scud across the sky. "For a long time the land I saw when hearing Beethoven was unpeopled; hills, plains, ruined towers, churches by the sea. After a time I saw far off a little company of spearmen ride away across the plain. But now the clanging sea is strong with the salt of the lashing spray and full of elemental life; the riders of the waves, the Queen of Tides, who carries in her hand the pearl-like moon, and bubbles gleaming on the inky wave. "Often when hearing Bach I hear bells ringing in the sky, rung by whirling cords held in the hands of maidens dressed in brown. There is a rare freshness in the air, like morning on a mountain-top, with opal-coloured mists that chase each other fast across the scene. "Chopin brings night ; gardens where mystery and dread lurk under every bush, but joy and passion throb within the air, and the cold moon bewitches all the scene. There is a garden that I often see, with moonlight glistening on the vine-leaves, and drooping roses with pale petals fluttering down, tall, misty trees and purple sky, and lovers wandering there. A drawing of that garden I have shown to several people and asked them if they could play the music that I heard when I drew it. They have all, without any hesitation, played the same. I do not know the name, but— well, I know the music of that place."

 

pcs2051.tripod.com/synesthesia.htm

  

beinecke.library.yale.edu/digitallibrary/asgo.html

Talkin Tarn Country Park Brampton Cumbria

 

Talkin Tarn is a glacial lake and country park near Brampton, Cumbria, England. The lake is a kettle hole lake, formed 10,000 years ago by mass glacial action.

 

The name is of Brittonic origin. The Brittonic dialect known as Cumbric was formerly spoken in the area. The first element, tal, means "brow" or "end" in Brittonic and modern Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. The second element is unclear. It may come from the Brittonic word which appears in Welsh and Old Cornish as can ("white") and Breton as kann ("bland, brilliant"). Talkin may be a hill-name meaning "white brow".

 

'Tarn' is derived from Old Norse 'tjǫrn' and then Middle English 'terne' meaning 'small mountain pool' or 'small lake'.

 

Talkin Tarn Country Park is owned and maintained by Carlisle City Council. It is home to the Boat House Tea Rooms, Brampton Sailing Club, and Talkin Tarn Amateur Rowing Club. The profits from the Tea Rooms and the pay and display car parking are reinvested in the up keep and improvement of the site.

 

Rowing is an activity at Talkin Tarn. The rowing club, Talkin Tarn Amateur Rowing Club, celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2009. Rowing races were first held on Talkin Tarn in the 1850s, and the Rowing Club was formed in 1859 by local townsfolk, several descendants of whom still live in the area. It is the oldest rowing club in the North of England, with the exception of Tyne Rowing Club, and is the 14th oldest non-university club in the country. Talkin Tarn Annual Regatta has grown considerably in recent years from a total entry of 20 in 1946 and 97 in 1988 to what it is today – very successful and one of the largest one-day regattas outside of London with total entries now in excess of 400.

 

On 9th November 1983 an Aerospatiale Gazelle Helicopter (reg G-SFTB) crashed into the tarn during a low level training flight from Carlisle Airport. The single occupant escaped the crash but the helicopter, once raised from the bottom, was damaged beyond repair.

 

Research on climate change carried out at Talkin Tarn was published in 2004.

 

Old buckles, stone axes, and urns have been found in the area.

 

More photos of Talkin Tarn here: www.flickr.com/photos/davidambridge/albums/72157633050144969

"St Bernadette asked the “Lady” at Lourdes her name. The “Lady” replied in the local dialect: “Que soy era Immaculada Counceptiou”, which means “I am the Immaculate Conception”. The Immaculate Conception is “Mary conceived without sin, by the merits of the Cross of Christ” (definition of the dogma promulgated in 1854). Bernadette went to see the Parish priest straight away to give him the name of the “Lady”. He then realized it was the Mother of God who was appearing in the Grotto. Later, Mgr Laurence, Bishop of Tarbes, authenticated this revelation."

 

This statue by Joseph-Hugues Fabisch of Our Lady, the Immaculate Conception, stands in the Grotto of Massabielle at Lourdes where she appeared to St Bernadette in 1858.

Munich (München) is the capital and most populous city of Bavaria, the second most populous German state. With a population of around 1.5 million, it is the third-largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, and thus the largest which does not constitute its own state, as well as the 11th-largest city in the European Union. The city's metropolitan region is home to 6 million people.

 

Straddling the banks of the River Isar (a tributary of the Danube) north of the Bavarian Alps, it is the seat of the Bavarian administrative region of Upper Bavaria, while being the most densely populated municipality in Germany (4,500 people per km²). Munich is the second-largest city in the Bavarian dialect area, after the Austrian capital of Vienna. Source: en.wikipedia.org

Talkin Tarn is a glacial lake and country park near Brampton, Cumbria, England. The lake is a kettle hole lake, formed 10,000 years ago by mass glacial action.

 

The name is of Brittonic origin. The Brittonic dialect known as Cumbric was formerly spoken in the area. The first element, tal, means "brow" or "end" in Brittonic and modern Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. The second element is unclear. It may come from the Brittonic word which appears in Welsh and Old Cornish as can ("white") and Breton as kann ("bland, brilliant"). Talkin may be a hill-name meaning "white brow".

 

'Tarn' is derived from Old Norse 'tjǫrn' and then Middle English 'terne' meaning 'small mountain pool' or 'small lake'.

 

Talkin Tarn Country Park is owned and maintained by Cumberland Council. It is home to the Boat House Tea Rooms, Brampton Sailing Club, and Talkin Tarn Amateur Rowing Club. The profits from the Tea Rooms and the pay and display car parking are reinvested in the up keep and improvement of the site.

 

Rowing is an activity at Talkin Tarn. The rowing club, Talkin Tarn Amateur Rowing Club, celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2009. Rowing races were first held on Talkin Tarn in the 1850s, and the Rowing Club was formed in 1859 by local townsfolk, several descendants of whom still live in the area. It is the oldest rowing club in the North of England, with the exception of Tyne Rowing Club, and is the 14th oldest non-university club in the country.

 

Talkin Tarn Annual Regatta has grown considerably in recent years from a total entry of 20 in 1946 and 97 in 1988 to what it is today – very successful and one of the largest one-day regattas outside of London with total entries now in excess of 400.

 

On 9th November 1983 an Aerospatiale Gazelle Helicopter (reg G-SFTB) crashed into the tarn during a low level training flight from Carlisle Airport. The single occupant escaped the crash but the helicopter, once raised from the bottom, was damaged beyond repair.

 

Research on climate change carried out at Talkin Tarn was published in 2004.

 

Old buckles, stone axes, and urns have been found in the area.

 

#talkin #talkintarn #talkintarncountrypark

 

More photos of Talkin Tarn here: www.flickr.com/photos/davidambridge/albums/72157633050144969

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedouin

  

The Bedouin ( /ˈbɛdʉ.ɪn/; from the Arabic badawī بَدَوِي, pl. badū بَدْو or badawiyyūn بَدَوِيُّون) are a part of a predominantly desert-dwelling Arabian genetic group traditionally divided into tribes or clans, known in Arabic as ʿašāʾir (عَشَائِر)..

   

Etymology

The term "Bedouin" derives from a plural form of the Arabic word badawī, as it is pronounced in colloquial dialects. The Arabic term badawī derives from the word bādiyah (بَادِية), which means semiarid desert (as opposed to ṣaḥrāʾ صَحْرَاء, which means very arid desert). The term "Bedouin" therefore means, "those in bādiyah" or "those in the desert".

  

History

Starting in the late nineteenth century, many Bedouin under British rule began to transit to a seminomadic life. In the 1950s and 1960s, large numbers of Bedouin throughout Midwest Asia started to leave the traditional, nomadic life to settle in the cities of Midwest Asia, especially as hot ranges have shrunk and populations have grown. For example, in Syria the Bedouin way of life effectively ended during a severe drought from 1958 to 1961, which forced many Bedouin to abandon herding for standard jobs. Similarly, governmental policies in Egypt and Israel, oil production in the Persian Gulf, as well as a desire for improved standards of living, effectively led most Bedouin to become settled citizens of various nations, rather than stateless nomadic herders. Governmental policies pressing the Bedouin have in some cases been executed in an attempt to provide service (schools, health-care, law enforcement and so on—see Chatty 1986 for examples), but in others have been based on the desire to seize land traditionally roved and controlled by the Bedouin. In recent years, the Bedouin have adopted the pastime of raising and breeding white doves.

   

Society

A widely quoted Bedouin saying is "I against my brother, my brothers and I against my cousins, then my cousins and I against strangers". This saying signifies a hierarchy of loyalties based on proximity of kinship that runs from the nuclear family through the lineage, the tribe, and even, in principle at least, to an entire genetic or linguistic group (which is perceived to have a kinship basis). Disputes are settled, interests are pursued, and justice and order are maintained by means of this frame, according to an ethic of self-help and collective responsibility (Andersen 14). The individual family unit (known as a tent or bayt) typically consisted of three or four adults (a married couple plus siblings or parents) and any number of children.

When resources were plentiful, several tents would travel together as a goum. These groups were sometimes linked by patriarchal lineage, but were just as likely linked by marriage (new wives were especially likely to have close male relatives join them), acquaintance or even no clearly defined relation but a simple shared membership in the tribe.

The next scale of interaction within groups was the ibn ʿamm (cousin, or literally "son of an uncle") or descent group, commonly of three to five generations. These were often linked to goums, but where a goum would generally consist of people all with the same herd type, descent groups were frequently split up over several economic activities, thus allowing a degree of 'risk management'; should one group of members of a descent group suffer economically, the other members of the descent group would be able to support them. Whilst the phrase "descent group" suggests purely a lineage-based arrangement, in reality these groups were fluid and adapted their genealogies to take in new members.

 

The largest scale of tribal interactions is the tribe as a whole, led by a Sheikh (Arabic: شيخ‎ šayḫ, literally, "elder"). The tribe often claims descent from one common ancestor—as mentioned above. This appears patrimonial but in reality new groups could have genealogies invented to tie them in to this ancestor. The tribal level is the level that mediated between the Bedouin and the outside governments and organizations.

Bedouin traditionally had strong honor codes, and traditional systems of justice dispensation in Bedouin society typically revolved around such codes. The bisha'a, or ordeal by fire, is a well-known Bedouin practice of lie detection. See also: Honor codes of the Bedouin, Bedouin systems of justice.

    

Bedouins in Israel

 

Prior to the 1948 Israeli Declaration of Independence, when the Negev became part of Israel, an estimated 65,000–90,000 Bedouins lived in the Negev. According to Encylopedia Judaica 15,000 Bedouin remained in the Negev after 1948, other sources put the number as low as 11,000.[3] An Israeli study in 1999 estimated a total Bedouin population in Israel of 170,000 for 1998, of which 110,000 in the Negev, 50,000 in the North and 10,000 in the "central region".[2] This figure may include Bedouins residing in Palestinian territories who do not hold Israeli citizenship; those who do are classified by Israel as Arab citizen of Israel. After 1948, some Negev Bedouins were displaced. The Jahalin tribe, for instance, lived in the Tel Arad region of the Negev prior to the 1950s. In the early 1950s, the Jahalin were among the tribes which, according to Emmanuel Marks, "moved or were removed by the military government."[4] They ended up in the so-called E1 area East of Jerusalem.

Successive Israeli administrations tried to urbanize Bedouins in the Negev. The fist Bedouin town, Tel as-Sabi or Tel Sheva, was founded in 1967. The largest, Rahat, had a population of 28,000 by 1998; by that time, about half of all Negev Bedouins lived in urban areas.[2] Approximately half of all Bedouins who are citizens of Israel live in so-called unrecognized villages.

   

The word "Fanous" (Fanos, Phanos and Fanoos in Egyptian dialects) is a term of Greek origin transliterated to "candle". It means 'light' or 'lantern'. It was historically used in its meaning of "the light of the world," and is a symbol of hope, as in "light in the darkness."

 

The traditional use of fanous as decorations associated with Ramadan is believed to have originated during the Fatimid Caliphate, primarily centered in Egypt, where tradition holds that the Caliph Al-Muizz Lideenillah was greeted by the Egyptian people holding lanterns to celebrate his arrival at Cairo during the holy month of Ramadan. Its use has now spread to almost all Muslim countries.

Source: Wikipedia

Frankreich / Provence / Côte d’Azur - Menton

 

Menton (French: [mɑ̃tɔ̃]; Occitan: Menton in classical norm or Mentan in Mistralian norm, pronounced [menˈta], locally [mɛ(n)ˈtã]; Italian: Mentone [menˈtoːne]; Ligurian: Menton or Mentun depending on the orthography) is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region on the French Riviera, close to the Italian border.

 

Menton has always been a frontier town. Since the end of the 14th century, it has been on the border between the County of Nice, held by the Duke of Savoy, and the Republic of Genoa. It was an exclave of the Principality of Monaco until the disputed French plebiscite of 1860 when it was added to France. It had been always a fashionable tourist centre with grand mansions and gardens. Its temperate Mediterranean climate is especially favourable to the citrus industry, with which it is strongly identified.

 

Etymology

 

Although the name's spelling and pronunciation in French are identical to those for the word that means "chin", there does not seem to be any link with this French word. According to the French geographer Ernest Nègre, the name Menton comes from the Roman name Mento. However, it is possible that the name of the city comes from Mons Ottonis (reconstituted) from the name of Otton II, the count of Ventimiglia from 1162-1200. In Mentonasc, the city's name is Mentan, and in Italian Mentone.

 

An inhabitant of Menton, un mentonnais or un mentonasque in French, would be o mentonasc in the local dialect.

 

History

 

The Menton area has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era, and is the site of the original "Grimaldi Man" find of early modern humans, as well as remains of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons. In Roman times, the Via Julia Augusta, a road connecting Placentia (now Piacenza) with Arelates (now Arles) passed through Menton, running along the Rue Longue in the old town.[6] The first major settlement occurred during the 11th century CE, when the count of Ventimiglia constructed the Château de Puypin (Podium Pinum) on the Pépin hill, north and west of the modern town centre. During the 13th century, the seigneury of Puypin fell to the Vento family of Genoa who built a new castle along the Roman road, now the site of the Vieux-Château cemetery, providing the core around which the current town grew. Menton was thus incorporated into the Republic of Genoa. The first mention of Menton dates from 21 July 1262, in the peace treaty between Charles of Anjou and Genoa. Its position on the border between the Angevin-ruled Provence and the Republic of Genoa, which at the time claimed Monaco as its western limit, made it a coveted location.

 

Acquired in 1346 by Charles Grimaldi, Lord of Monaco, Menton was ruled by the princes of Monaco until the French Revolution. Annexed during the Revolution, Menton remained part of France through the First Empire. It belonged to the district of Sanremo in the department of Alpes-Maritimes, which at the time included Monaco and Sanremo.

 

In 1814, Menton was included in a reconstituted principality of Monaco which, after Napoleon's Hundred Days in 1815, became a protectorate of the king of Sardinia. The princes of Monaco were obliged to do homage to the king for Menton, although not for Monaco itself.

 

In 1848, Menton, along with its neighbour Roquebrune, seceded from Monaco, due at least in part to a tax imposed on lemon exports. They proclaimed the Free Cities of Menton and Roquebrune during the 1848 revolutions related to the Italian Risorgimento. The Free Cities of Menton and Roquebrune hoped to be part of the Italian kingdom of Sardinia. Two years later placed themselves under the protection of the Italian kingdom of Sardinia where they were administered by the House of Savoy for ten years.

 

The Treaty of Turin concluded on 24 March 1860 between the Kingdom of Mauricio and Napoleon III's France called for the annexation of the County of Nice to France, subject to a plebiscite, as a reward for French assistance in Italy's war against Austria. The plebiscite, with universal adult male suffrage, was held on 15 and 16 April 1860, and resulted in an overwhelming vote in favour of annexation (833 for versus 54 against in Menton and Roquebrune),[ The County of Nice was thus annexed to France that June, and Napoleon III paid 4 million francs in compensation to the prince of Monaco, who renounced his rights in perpetuity on 2 February 1861. Nice-born Giuseppe Garibaldi, who promoted the union of the County of Nice to Italy, complained that the plebiscite was not done with "universal vote" and consequently Menton was requested by Italian irredentists.

 

The publication of Winter and Spring on the Shores of the Mediterranean (1861) by the English doctor James Henry Bennett had a profound effect on Menton, making it a destination for sufferers of tuberculosis. By the end of the 19th century, tourism was an important factor in Menton's growth. The town was popular with British and Russian aristocrats who built many of the hotels, villas, and palaces which still grace Menton today. Many of these hotels and palaces were pressed into service as hospitals during World War I to allow injured troops to recuperate in a pleasant climate.

 

Menton was the only sizable settlement captured by Italy during its invasion of France in June 1940. Following the armistice of 22 June 1940, two-thirds of the territory of the commune was annexed by Italy as terra irredenta. The annexation lasted until 8 September 1943.

 

Although officially returned to Vichy France, Menton was in fact occupied by Nazi Germany until its liberation by American and Canadian troops of the First Special Service Force on 8 September 1944.

 

Geography

 

Menton, nicknamed the Pearl of France, is located on the Mediterranean Sea at the Franco-Italian border, just across from the Ligurian town of Ventimiglia.[ Menton station has rail connections to Paris, Marseille, Cannes, Antibes, Nice and Ventimiglia. The smaller Menton-Garavan station is situated between Menton and Ventimiglia.

 

The fishing industry was devastated in the 1980s and 1990s due to a combination of overfishing and hypoxia in the bay. At the time, the devastation was erroneously attributed to the dubiously nicknamed "killer algae" Caulerpa taxifolia (a non-native Asian tropical green alga first discovered in the Mediterranean Sea adjacent to the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco in 1984) spread throughout the coastal sea floor. Later, sound scientific findings revealed that the seaweed was adept at absorbing pollutants and excess nutrients, actually aiding the recovery of native Posidonia sea grass and enhancing local fish populations and overall biodiversity.

 

Climate

 

Menton has a very mild subtropical microclimate with an average of 316 clear or mostly clear/mostly sunny days per year. Under the Köppen system, Menton features a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa). However, the milder winters (on average) and the warmer nights in summer (on average), compared to the rest of the French Mediterranean coastal area, provide Menton with a particular micro-climate, with significant warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb) influences and characteristics, like coastal Southern California. This is usually experienced along the coast between Nice and Menton, toward the Italian border town of Ventimiglia and as far as San Remo). It is favourable to groves of hardy clementines, mandarin oranges, satsuma orange, tangerines, oranges and lemons (SRA 625 is protected Citron de Menton variety), hence one of the town's symbols, the lemon. Winter frosts are extremely rare but may occasionally occur at ground level, and snow falls on average once every 10 years. Likewise, summer temperatures are relatively moderate with day temperatures of 28 °C to 32 °C, but rarely rising above 32 °C.

 

Menton is sheltered from the west winds by Mont-Agel, and the steep foothills of the Alps, to the north and the north-east, protect the town from freezing winter cold. The winters are therefore very mild and sunny; the thermometer rarely drops below 0°C, and the lowest average temperature is 11.3°C in January. Summers are hot at 25°C on average in July and August but tempered by the sea breeze.

 

Menton holds the French record for the highest average temperature in July with an average temperature of 24.8°C.

 

Townscape

 

Menton is known for its gardens, including the Jardin Serre de la Madone, the Jardin botanique exotique de Menton ('Le Val Rahmeh'), the Fontana Rosa, the Maria Serena garden, and the modernist gardens of Les Colombières.[18] Le Val Rahmeh was established in 1905 by Englishman Sir Percy Radcliffe, the first owner of the gardens, and named for his wife. Villa Fontana Rosa was built in 1922 by Blasco Ibáñez, a Spanish novelist and the gardens of the villa are now open to the public.

 

The baroque basilica of Saint-Michel-Archange, with its bell tower, was built in 1619 by the Genoese architect Lorenzo Lavagna.

 

The Bastion Museum, which features decoration by Jean Cocteau, is located in the Bastion of the port of Menton. The bastion, built overwater in 1636 as an advance defence for the port by the Princes of Monaco, is now located at the shoreline.

 

The wedding room at the Mairie (town hall) was painted in the 1950s by Cocteau, transforming it into a giant work of art.

 

Menton is home to at least half a dozen beaches.

 

Menton is notable for its Palissy majolica pottery depicting lemons.

 

The historic covered market was built in 1898 by local architect Adrien Rey. The market is open every day from 5 am until 1 pm in the summer; in the winter, it opens at 5:30 am. Over 30 kiosks both inside and around the market sell local and imported vegetables. The Belle Époque structure was one of buildings constructed by the architect in the region.

 

Next to the beach and the covered market is the Jean Cocteau Museum. It opened in 2011 and is close to the Bastion Museum.

 

Mirazur is a French haute cuisine restaurant with three Michelin Guide stars. The World's 50 Best Restaurants list ranks Mirazur as the best restaurant in the world.

 

Mentonasc language

 

The Mentonasc dialect is currently spoken by about 10% of the population in Menton, Roquebrune, and the surrounding villages.[citation needed] It is taught within the French educational system, as a variety of Niçard (i.e. Provençal and Occitan). However, in nineteenth-century linguistic descriptions, as well as in contemporary linguistic scholarship, Mentonasc is described as an intermediate between Niçard and the Intemelio dialect of Ligurian. Some scholars insist that Mentonasc is, at its base, a Ligurian dialect, with French influences coming only later.

 

Annual town events

 

The Fête du Citron (Lemon Festival) takes place every February. The event follows a given theme each decade; past themes include Viva España, Disney, Neverland, and India. The carnival lasts a few days, with different bands passing through Menton's streets on foot or on truck trailers. The Casino Gardens in the centre of town are decorated in the theme of the festival, using lemons and oranges to cover the exhibits, and huge temporary statues are built and covered with citrus fruit.

 

The Casino Gardens are also the location for Menton's Christmas Festival.

 

The Menton Classical Musical Festival is also held every year in the centre of the old town.

 

Also in Menton, celebrated on the first weekend of July, is the procession and celebration of Saint-Pierre (Sant Pie), the patron of fishermen. The procession begins in the Basilique Saint-Michel de Menton. Dancers, singers, and musicians in traditional costumes from La Capelina de Menton perform in the basilica. The crowds then head to a dock where boats are filled with people throwing flowers into the port. They then pay tribute to those who have lost their lives at sea. After the boats return, they start celebrating with the traditional fish soup.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Menton [mɑ̃ˈtõ] (italienisch Mentone [menˈtoː.ne]) ist eine französische Gemeinde, zugleich Stadt, mit 30.326 Einwohnern (Stand: 1. Januar 2022) im Département Alpes-Maritimes in der Region Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur.

 

Menton liegt an der Côte d’Azur (französischen Riviera), einem Teil der französischen Mittelmeerküste. Die Gemeinde liegt an der Grenze zu Italien gegenüber von Ventimiglia. Menton ist der erste französische Ort nach der italienischen Grenze und damit der erste bzw. östlichste französische Ort an der Côte d’Azur.

 

Der örtliche Dialekt heißt Mentonasque bzw. Mentonnais. Der Ortsname Menton wird auf Mentonasque [meⁿˈtaⁿ] ausgesprochen. In Menton wird der Ortsname Mentan geschrieben (auf Okzitanisch: Menton in der klassischen Norm bzw. Mentan in der Norm von Frédéric Mistral). Die Einwohner werden Mentonnais bzw. Mentonasques genannt.

 

Lage und Klima

 

Geschützt durch die Ausläufer der Seealpen im Hinterland zeichnet sich Menton durch ein besonders mildes Klima (Mittelmeerklima) aus.

 

Durch die geschützte Lage ist Menton im Winter der wärmste Ort an der französischen Côte d’Azur. Die angenehmsten Reisemonate sind der Mai und Mitte September bis Mitte Oktober. Die regenreichste Zeit sind die Monate Februar und März. Im Allgemeinen liegen die Temperaturen einige Grad über den Temperaturen in Deutschland. Die Monate Juni bis August können sehr heiß werden. Viele Veranstaltungen und Ausstellungen finden allerdings im August statt, dem Ferienmonat der Franzosen und Italiener. Die Winter sind mild, es gibt in Menton kaum Frost, Schnee fällt etwa alle zehn Jahre.

 

Geschichte

 

Zur römischen Zeit trug die Bucht von Menton den Namen Pacis Sinus („friedliche Bucht“); über eine Besiedlung aus dieser Zeit ist allerdings nichts bekannt.

 

Bis 1146 war die Stadt im Besitz der Grafen von Ventimiglia. Danach stand Menton unter der Herrschaft der Kommune von Genua bzw. des genuesischen Geschlechts Vento, bis es 1346 zusammen mit Roquebrune an die Grimaldi von Monaco kam.

 

Die monegassische Herrschaft währte bis 1848. Im gleichen Jahr erhoben sich die Stadt Menton und Roquebrune gegen die von Monaco verlangten Steuern und riefen eine unabhängige Republik aus. Daraufhin griff der französische Kaiser Napoleon III. ein und kaufte Menton dem monegassischen Fürstenhaus ab.

 

1861 stimmten die Bewohner von Menton für die Zugehörigkeit zu Frankreich. Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts setzte der Fremdenverkehr ein. Das Klima an der Côte d’Azur wurde damals von Ärzten als heilungsfördernd bei Tuberkulose empfohlen. Deshalb war diese Stadt im 19. Jahrhundert ein beliebtes Winterquartier für Briten und Russen. Unter anderem hielt sich hier die britische Königin Victoria in ihren Winterurlauben auf. Noch heute können die großen Hotels und Gärten bewundert werden, die damals für die Engländer errichtet wurden. Menton hat auch eine orthodoxe Kirche.

 

1872 wurde die Stadt über die Bahnstrecke Marseille–Ventimiglia an das Eisenbahnnetz angebunden. Menton war neben Modane der einzige internationale Grenzbahnhof nach Italien. Über den Ponte San Luigi/Pont Saint-Louis oder den ab 1879 bestehenden Grenzbahnhof Ventimiglia wanderten hier hunderttausende Italiener nach Frankreich ein. Ab 1946 war das ehemalige Hotel Garavan Palace ein Auffangzentrum für Immigranten, in dem alle Italiener einquartiert wurden, die bei ihrer Einreise keinen bestehenden Arbeitsvertrag vorweisen konnten. Hier warteten sie auf Anwerber. Komfort gab es keinen.

 

Im Ersten Weltkrieg hielten sich in Menton auch viele verwundete Soldaten zur Genesung auf. Am 28. Januar 1939 starb in Menton der irische Dichter William Butler Yeats. Im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde Menton mit der Kapitulation Frankreichs rasch von Italienern besetzt, 1943 nach der Kapitulation Italiens von den Deutschen, denen es 1944 unter schweren Kämpfen abgenommen wurde. Menton lag in Trümmern und es dauerte bis Mitte der 1960er Jahre, bis die Stadt wieder aufgebaut war. Seitdem entwickelt sich der Tourismus in Menton kräftig weiter. Mit der wachsenden Mobilität der wohlhabenden Bevölkerung Norditaliens gelangt Menton nach und nach wieder unter italienischen Einfluss. Seit dem Wegfall der Grenzkontrollen und der Einführung des Euro als Währung finden hier viele italienische Bürger eine neue Heimat.

 

1970 fand in Menton die erste europäische Umweltkonferenz statt, initiiert vom vietnamesischen, buddhistischen Mönch Thích Nhất Hạnh und dem Friedensaktivisten Alfred Hassler. Die Konferenz mündete in der Menton-Erklärung.

 

Wirtschaft

 

Die Wirtschaft Mentons ist von Tourismus- und Dienstleistungsangeboten geprägt. Viele Einwohner Mentons arbeiten im zwölf Kilometer entfernten Monaco und im 25 Kilometer entfernten Nizza. Das Baugewerbe ist seit dem Fortfall der innereuropäischen Grenzen fest in italienischer Hand.

 

Die klimatisch begünstigte Lage ließ im 19. Jahrhundert den Zitronenanbau zum wichtigsten Erwerbszweig werden. Heute ist die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung des immer noch traditionell betriebenen Anbaus gering. Die Zitrone, der seit 1934 die Fête du Citron („Zitronenfest“) gewidmet ist (Ende Februar bis Anfang März), ist das Symbol der Stadt. Mehr als 1000 Tonnen Zitrusfrüchte werden für die Zubereitung der Umzugswagen und die Dekoration des Parc Biovès benötigt. Die Zitrusfrüchte werden wegen der riesigen benötigten Menge heute größtenteils aus Spanien importiert. Ein beliebtes touristisches Souvenir ist die Zitronenmarmelade aus Menton.

 

In Grenznähe befindet sich das Drei-Sterne-Restaurant Mirazur, das 2019 vom Restaurant Magazine zum „weltbesten Restaurant“ gekürt wurde.

 

Kultur und Sport

 

Traditionen

 

Das jährliche Fête du Citron („Zitronenfest“) wird seit 1930 gefeiert.

 

Im August wird ein internationales Kammermusikfestival veranstaltet.

 

Einheimische Sprache

 

In Menton wird noch eine Art der provenzalischen Sprache gesprochen, die Mentonasque bzw. Mentonnais genannt wird und den Übergang zur ligurischen Sprache darstellt.

 

Sport

 

In Menton werden Segelsportwettbewerbe ausgetragen. Außerdem findet alljährlich im Juli oder August ein Kartrennen in der Nähe des neuen Hafens statt.

 

Menton ist der südliche Endpunkt des Fernwanderwegs GR 52, der auch als alternativer Abschluss des europäischen Fernwanderwegs E 2/GR 5 begangen wird.

 

Sehenswürdigkeiten

 

Die Altstadt mit ihren pastellfarbenen Häuserfassaden vermittelt ein stark italienisches Flair. Die Stadt besitzt zahlreiche Gärten und Parks, vor allem im Vorort Garavan mit zum Teil seltenen subtropischen Pflanzen, die im günstigen Mikroklima von Menton besonders gut gedeihen. Die Promenade du Soleil („Sonnenpromenade“), die Uferpromenade in Menton, mit schönem Strand ist weniger touristisch als z. B. jene Uferpromenaden in Nizza und Cannes.

 

Kirchen

 

Die barocke Basilika Saint-Michel von 1675. Vor der Kirche befindet sich ein Mosaik mit dem Wappen der Grimaldis, die die Stadt jahrhundertelang beherrschten.

 

Das Kapuzinerkloster L’Annonciade aus dem 18. Jahrhundert mit Ausblick über Menton.

 

Museen

 

Musée Jean Cocteau: Von Jean Cocteau selbst zu Lebzeiten entworfenes und mit eigenen Gemälden und Keramiken ausgestattetes Kunstmuseum in der ehemaligen Bastion direkt am Hafen

 

Rathaus (Hôtel de ville): von Jean Cocteau gestalteter Hochzeitssaal (Salle des Mariages)

Prähistorisches Museum (Musée de Préhistoire Régionale): enthält unter anderem den Schädel des sogenannten Grimaldi-Menschen, der in den Grotten östlich von Menton gefunden wurde.

 

Musée des Beaux-Arts de Menton, Musée des Beaux-Arts du Palais Carnolès: Gemäldegalerie mit italienischen, französischen und flämischen Malern des 14. bis 17. Jahrhunderts

 

Musée Jean Cocteau Collection Severin Wunderman: Die Sammlung Séverin Wunderman mit vielen Werken von Jean Cocteau im neuen Museum am östlichen Ende der Strandpromenade vor der alten Markthalle – seit November 2011

 

Gärten

 

Jardin du Palais Carnolès: älteste Gartenanlage der Stadt mit zahlreichen Zitrusbäumen und Skulpturen

 

Jardin de la Villa Marina Serena: Der Garten der 1880 von Charles Garnier entworfenen Villa enthält zahlreiche seltene subtropische Pflanzen.

 

Jardin Fontana Rosa: ehemals privater Garten des spanischen Schriftstellers Vicente Blasco Ibáñez mit illustrierten Keramiken zu Don Quijote von Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616), in den 1990er-Jahren in den Besitz der Stadt Menton übergegangen und seitdem ab und zu öffentlich zugänglich. Teile der Anlage Fontana Rosa sind vom Bahnhof Garavan sichtbar.

 

Jardin Botanique Val Rameh in Garavan: botanischer Garten mit einer Sammlung subtropischer Pflanzen

 

Serre de la Madone: der restaurierte Garten des englischen Gartenplaners Sir Lawrence Johnston (1871–1958)

 

Le Jardin des Colombières: restaurierter Privatgarten, Hauptwerk des Gartenkünstlers Ferdinand Bac (1859–1952)

 

Denkmäler

 

Statue Ulysse von Anna Chromy

 

(Wikipedia)

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Photograph taken at an altitude of Fifty four metres at 12:41pm on a Springtime afternoon on Wednesday 15th June 2022, off Hythe Avenue and Chessington Avenue in Bexleyheath, Kent.

  

Here we see an adult female Carrion crow (Corvus corone) standing in a passing rain shower in a garden off Hythe Avenue and Chessington Avenue in Bexleyheath, Kent.

AN IN DEPTH LOOK AT CORVUS CORONE

  

LEGEND AND MYTHOLOGY

By Paul Williams

  

Crows appear in the Bible where Noah uses one to search for dry land and to check on the recession of the flood. Crows supposedly saved the prophet, Elijah, from famine and are an Inuit deity. Legend has it that England and its monarchy will end when there are no more crows in the Tower of London. And some believe that the crows went to the Tower attracted by the regular corpses following executions with written accounts of their presence at the executions of Anne Boleyn and Jane Gray.

  

In Welsh mythology, unfortunately Crows are seen as symbolic of evilness and black magic thanks to many references to witches transforming into crows or ravens and escaping. Indian legend tells of Kakabhusandi, a crow who sits on the branches of a wish-fulfilling tree called Kalpataru and a crow in Ramayana where Lord Rama blessed the crow with the power to foresee future events and communicate with the souls.

  

In Native American first nation legend the crow is sometimes considered to be something of a trickster, though they are also viewed positively by some tribes as messengers between this world and the next where they carry messages from the living to those deceased, and even carry healing medicines between both worlds.

  

There is a belief that crows can foresee the future. The Klamath tribe in Oregon believe that when we die, we fly up to heaven as a crow. The Crow can also signify wisdom to some tribes who believe crows had the power to talk and were therefore considered to be one of the wisest of birds. Tribes with Crow Clans include the Chippewa (whose Crow Clan and its totem are called Aandeg), the Hopi (whose Crow Clan is called Angwusngyam or Ungwish-wungwa), the Menominee, the Caddo, the Tlingit, and the Pueblo tribes of New Mexico.

  

The crow features in the Nanissáanah (Ghost dance), popularized by Jerome Crow Dog, a Brulé Lakota sub-chief and warrior born at Horse Stealing Creek in Montana Territory in 1833, the crow symbolizing wisdom and the past, when the crow had become a guide and acted as a pathfinder during hunting. The Ghost dance movement was originally created in 1870 by Wodziwob, or Gray Hair, a prophet and medicine man of the Paiute tribe in an area that became known as Nevada.

  

Ghost dancers wore crow and eagle feathers in their clothes and hair, and the fact that the Crow could talk placed it as one of the sages of the animal kingdom. The five-day dances seeking trance, prophecy and exhortations would eventually play a major part in the pathway towards the white man's broken treaties, the infamous battle at Wounded knee and the surrender of Matȟó Wanáȟtaka (Kicking Bear), after officials began to fear the ghost dancers and rituals which seemed to occur prior to battle.

  

Historically the Vikings are the group who made so many references to the crow, and Ragnarr Loðbrók and his sons used this species in his banner as well as appearances in many flags and coats of arms. Also, it had some kind of association with Odin, one of their main deities. Norse legend tells us that Odin is accompanied by two crows.

  

Hugin, who symbolizes thought, and Munin, who represents a memory. These two crows were sent out each dawn to fly the entire world, returning at breakfast where they informed the Lord of the Nordic gods of everything that went on in their kingdoms. Odin was also referred to as Rafnagud (raven-god).

  

The raven appears in almost every skaldic poem describing warfare. Coins dating back to 940's minted by Olaf Cuaran depict the Viking war standard, the Raven and Viking war banners (Gonfalon) depicted the bird also.

  

In Scandinavian legends, crows are a representative of the Goddess of Death, known as Valkyrie (from old Norse 'Valkyrja'), one of the group of maidens who served the Norse deity Odin, visiting battlefields and sending him the souls of the slain worthy of a place in Valhalla. Odin ( also called Wodan, Woden, or Wotan), preferred that heroes be killed in battle and that the most valiant of souls be taken to Valhöll, the hall of slain warriors.

  

It is the crow that provides the Valkyries with important information on who should go. In Hindu ceremonies that are associated to ancestors, the crow has an important place in Vedic rituals. They are seen as messengers of death in Indian culture too.

  

In Germanic legend, Crows are seen as psychonomes, meaning the act of guiding spirits to their final destination, and that the feathers of a crow could cure a victim who had been cursed. And yet, a lone black crow could symbolize impending death, whilst a group symbolizes a lucky omen! Vikings also saw good omens in the crow and would leave offerings of meat as a token.

  

The crow also has sacred and prophetic meaning within the Celtic civilization, where it stood for flesh ripped off due to combat and Morrighan, the warrior goddess, often appears in Celtic mythology as a raven or crow, or else is found to be in the company of the birds. Crow is sacred to Lugdnum, the Celtic god of creation who gave his name to the city of Lug

  

In Greek mythology according to Appolodorus, Apollo is supposedly responsible for the black feathers of the crow, turning them forever black from their pristine white original plumage as a punishment after they brought news that Κορωνις (Coronis) a princess of the Thessalian kingdom of Phlegyantis, Apollo's pregnant lover had left him to marry a mortal, Ischys.

  

In one legend, Apollo burned the crows feathers and then burned Coronis to death, in another Coronis herself was turned into a black crow, and another that she was slain by the arrows of Αρτεμις (Artemis - twin to Apollo). Koronis was later set amongst the stars as the constellation Corvus ("the Crow").

  

Her name means "Curved One" from the Greek word korônis or "Crow" from the word korônê.A similar Muslim legend allegedly tells of Muhammad, founder of Islam and the last prophet sent by God to Earth, who's secret location was given away by a white crow to his seekers, as he hid in caves. The crow shouted 'Ghar Ghar' (Cave, cave) and thus as punishment, Muhammad turned the crow black and cursed it for eternity to utter only one phrase, 'Ghar, ghar). Native Indian legend where the once rainbow-coloured crows became forever black after shedding their colourful plumage over the other animals of the world.

  

In China the Crow is represented in art as a three legged bird on a solar disk, being a creature that helps the sun in its journey. In Japan there are myths of Crow Tengu who were priests who became vain, and turned into this spirit to serve as messengers until they learn the lesson of humility as well as a great Crow who takes part in Shinto creation stories.

  

In animal spirit guides there are general perceptions of what sightings of numbers of crows actually mean:

  

1 Crow Meaning: To carry a message from your near one who died recently.

 

2 Crows Meaning: Two crows sitting near your home signifies some good news is on your way.

 

3 Crows Meaning: An upcoming wedding in your family.

 

4 Crows Meaning: Symbolizes wealth and prosperity.

 

5 Crows Meaning: Diseases or pain.

 

6 Crows Meaning: A theft in your house!

 

7 Crows Meaning: Denotes travel or moving from your house.

 

8 Crows Meaning: Sorrowful events

  

Crows are generally seen as the symbolism when alive for doom bringing, misfortune and bad omens, and yet a dead crow symbolises potentially bringing good news and positive change to those who see it.

 

This wonderful bird certainly gets a mixed bag of contradictory mythology and legend over the centuries and in modern days is often seen as a bit of a nuisance, attacking and killing the babies of other birds such as Starlings, Pigeons and House Sparrows as well as plucking the eyes out of lambs in the field, being loud and noisy and violently attacking poor victims in a 'crow court'....

  

There is even a classic horror film called 'THE CROW' released in 1994 by Miramax Films, directed by Alex Proyas and starring Brandon Lee in his final film appearance as Eric Draven, who is revived by a Crow tapping on his gravestone a year after he and his fiancée are murdered in Detroit by a street gang. The crow becomes his guide as he sets out to avenge the murders.

  

The only son of martial arts expert Bruce Lee, Brandon lee suffered fatal injuries on the set of the film when the crew failed to remove the primer from a cartridge that hit Lee in the abdomen with the same force as a normal bullet. Lee died that day, March 31st 1993 aged 28.

  

The symbolism of the Crow resurrecting the dead star and accompanying him on his quest for revenge was powerful, and in some part based on the history of the carrion crow itself and the original film grossed more than $94 Million dollars with three subsequent sequels following.

  

TAKING A CLOSER LOOK

  

So, let's move away from legend, mythology and stories passed down from our parents and grandparents and look at these amazing birds in isolation.

  

Carrion crow are passerines in the family Corvidae a group of Oscine passerine birds including Crows, Ravens, Rooks, Jackdaws, Jays, Magpies, Treepies, Choughs and Nutcrackers. Technically they are classed as Corvids, and the largest of passerine birds. Carrion crows are medium to large in size with rictal bristles and a single moult per year (most passerines moult twice).

  

Carrion crow was one of the many species originally described by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (Carl Von Linne after his ennoblement) in his 1758 and 1759 editions of 'SYSTEMA NATURAE', and it still bears its original name of Corvus corone, derived from the Latin of Corvus, meaning Raven and the Greek κορώνη (korōnē), meaning crow.

  

Carrion crow are of the Animalia kingdom Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Family: Corvidae Genus: Corvus and Species: Corvus corone

  

Corvus corone can reach 45-47cm in length with a 93-104cm wingspan and weigh between 370-650g. They are protected under The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 in the United Kingdom with a Green UK conservation status which means they are of least concern with more than 1,000,000 territories.

 

Breeding occurs in April with fledging of the chicks taking around twenty nine days following an incubation period of around twenty days with 3 to 4 eggs being the average norm. They are abundant in the UK apart from Northwest Scotland and Ireland where the Hooded crow (Corvus cornix) was considered the same species until 2002. They have a lifespan of around four years, whilst Crow species can live to the age of Twenty years old, and the oldest known American crow in the wild was almost Thirty years old.

  

The oldest documented captive crow died at age Fifty nine. They are smaller and have a shorter lifespan than the Raven, which again is used as a symbol in history to live life to the full and not waste a moment!

  

They are often mistaken for the Rook (Corvus frugilegus), a similar bird, though in the UK, the Rook is actually technically smaller than the Carrion crow averaging 44-46cm in length, 81-99cm wingspan and weighing up to 340g. Rooks have white beaks compared to the black beaks of Carrion crow, a more steeply raked ratio from head to beak, and longer straighter beaks as well as a different plumage pattern.

  

There are documented cases in the UK of singular and grouped Rooks attacking and killing Carrion crows in their territory. Rooks nest in colonies unlike Carrion crows. Carrion crows have only a few natural enemies including powerful raptors such as the northern goshawk, the peregrine falcon, the Eurasian eagle-owl and the golden eagle which will all readily hunt them.

  

Regarded as one of the most intelligent birds, indeed creatures on the planet, studies suggest that Corvids cognitive abilities can rival that of primates such as chimpanzees and gorillas and even provide clues to understanding human intelligence.

  

Crows have relatively large brains for their body size, compared to other animals. Their encephalization quotient (EQ) a ratio of brain to body size, adjusted for size because there isn’t a linear relationship is 4.1.

  

That is remarkably close to chimps at 4.2 whilst humans are 8.1. Corvids also have a very high neuronal density, the number of neurons per gram of brain, factoring in the number of cortical neurons, neuron packing density, intraneuronal distance and axonal conduction velocity shows that Corvids score high on this measure as well, with humans scoring the highest.

  

A corvid's pallium is packed with more neurons than a great ape's. Corvids have demonstrated the ability to use a combination of mental tools such as imagination, and anticipation of future events.

  

They can craft tools from twigs and branches to hook grubs from deep recesses, they can solve puzzles and intricate methods of gaining access to food set by humans,and have even bent pieces of wire into hooks to obtain food. They have been proven to have a higher cognitive ability level than seven year old humans.

  

Communications wise, their repertoire of wraw-wraw's is not fully understood, but the intensity, rhythm, and duration of caws seems to form the basis of a possible language. They also remember the faces of humans who have hindered or hurt them and pass that information on to their offspring.

  

Aesop's fable of 'The Crow and the Pitcher, tells of a thirsty crow which drops stones into a water pitcher to raise the water level and enable it to take a drink. Scientists have conducted tests to see whether crows really are this intelligent. They placed floating treats in a deep tube and observed the crows indeed dropping dense objects carefully selected into the water until the treat floated within reach. They had the intelligence to pick up, weigh and discount objects that would float in the water, they also did not select ones that were too large for the container.

  

Pet crows develop a unique call for their owners, in effect actually naming them. They also know to sunbathe for a dose of vitamin D, regularly settling on wooden garden fences, opening their mouths and wings and raising their heads to the sun. In groups they warn of danger and communicate vocally.

  

They store a cache of food for later if in abundance and are clever enough to move it if they feel it has been discovered. They leave markers for their cache. They have even learned to place walnuts and similar hard food items under car tyres at traffic lights as a means of cracking them!

  

Crows regularly gather around a dead fellow corvid, almost like a funeral, and it is thought they somehow learn from each death. They can even remember human faces for decades. Crows group together to attack larger predators and even steal their food, and they have different dialects in different areas, with the ability to mimic the dialect of the alpha males when they enter their territory!

  

They have a twenty year life span, the oldest on record reaching the age of Fifty nine. Crows can leave gifts for those who feed them such as buttons or bright shiny objects as a thank you, and they even kiss and make up after an argument, having mated for life.

  

In mythology they are associated with good and bad luck, being the bringers of omens and even witchcraft and are generally reviled for their attacks on baby birds and small mammals. They have an attack method of stunning smaller birds before consuming them, tearing violently at smaller, less aggressive birds, which is simply down to the fact that they are so highly intelligent, and also the top of the food chain.

  

Their diet includes over a thousand different items: Dead animals (as their name suggests), invertebrates, grain, as well as stealing eggs and chicks from other birds' nests, worms, insects, fruit, seeds, kitchen scraps. They are highly adaptable when food sources grow scarce. I absolutely love them, they are magnificent, bold, beautiful and incredibly interesting to watch and though at times it is hard to witness attacks made by them, I cannot help but adore them for so many other and more important reasons.

  

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAIR IN MY GARDEN

 

Known mostly for my landscape work, Covid-19 changed everything for me photographically speaking thanks to a series of lock downs which naturally impeded my ability to travel. I began to spend more time on my own land, photographing the wildlife, and suddenly those wildlife photographs began to sell worldwide in magazines and books.

 

Crows have been in the area for a while, but rarely had strayed into my garden, leaving the Magpies to own the territory. Things changed around mid May 2021 when a beautiful female Carrion crow appeared and began to take some of the food that I put down for the other birds. Within a few days she began to appear regularly, on occasions stocking up on food, whilst other times placing pieces in the birdbath to soften them. She would stand on the birdbath and eat and drink and come back over the course of the day to eat the softened food. Naturally I named her Sheryl (Crow).

  

Shortly afterwards she brought along her mate, a tall and handsome fella, much larger than her who was also very vocal if he felt she was getting a little too close to me. I named him Russell (Crow). By now I had moved from a seated position from the patio as an observer, to laying on a mat just five feet from the birdbath with my Nikon so that I could photograph the pair as they landed, scavenged and fed.

  

Sheryl was now confident enough to let me be very close, and she even tolerated and recognized the clicking of the camera. At first, I used silent mode to reduce the noise, but this only allowed two shooting frame rates of single frame or continuous low frame which meant I was missing shots. I reverted back to normal continuous high frames, and she soon got used to the whirring of the mechanisms as the mirror slapped back and forth.

  

Russell would bark orders at her from the safety of the fence or the rear of the garden, whilst she rarely made a sound. That was until one day when in the sweltering heat she kept opening her beak and sunning on the grass, panting slightly in the heat.

  

I placed the circular water sprayer nearby and had it rotating so that the birdbath and grass was bathed in gentle water droplets and she soon came back, landed and seemed to really like the cooling effect on offer. She then climbed onto the birdbath and opened her wings slightly and made some gentle purring, cooing noises....

  

I swear she was expressing happiness, joy even....

  

On another blisteringly hot day when the sprayer was on, she came down, walked towards it and opened her wings up running into the water spray. Not once, but many times.

  

A further revelation into the unseen sides to these beautiful birds came with the male and female on the rear garden fence. They sat together, locked beaks like a kiss and then the male took his time gently preening her head feathers and the back of her neck as she made tiny happy sounds.

  

They stayed together like that for several minutes, showing a gentle, softer side to their nature and demonstrating the deep bond between them. Into July and the pair started to bring their three youngsters to my garden, the nippers learning to use the birdbath for bathing and dipping food, the parents attentive as ever. Two of the youngsters headed off once large enough and strong enough.

  

I was privileged to be in close attendance as the last juvenile was brought down by the pair, taught to take food and then on a night in July, to soar and fly with its mother in the evening sky as the light faded. She would swoop and twirl, and at regular intervals just touch the juvenile in flight with her wing tip feathers, as if to reassure it that she was close in attendance.

  

What an amazing experience to view. A few days later, the juvenile, though now gaining independence and more than capable of tackling food scraps in the garden, was still on occasions demand feeding from its mother who was now teaching him to take chicken breast, hotdogs or digestive biscuits and bury them in the garden beds for later delectation.

  

The juvenile also liked to gather up peanuts (monkey nuts) and bury them in the grass. On one occasion I witnessed a pair of rumbunctious Pica Pica (Magpies), chasing the young crow on rooftops, leaping at him no matter how hard he tried to get away. He defended himself well and survived the attacks, much to my relief.

  

Into August and the last youngster remained with the adults, though now was very independent even though he still spent time with his parents on rooftops, and shared food gathering duties with his mum. Hotdog sausages were their favourite choice, followed by fish fingers and digestive biscuits which the adult male would gather up three at a time.

  

In October 2021, the three Crows were still kings of the area, but my time observing them was pretty much over as I will only put food out now for the birds in the winter months. The two adults are still here in December and now taking the food that I put out to help all birds survive in the winter months. They also have a pair of Magpies to compete with now.

  

Late February 2022 and Cheryl and Russell and their youngster are still with me, still dominant in the area and still taking raw chicken, hotdogs, biscuits and fat balls that I put out for them. Today I saw them mating for the first time this year in the tree and the cycle continues.

  

By October late 2022 the pair had successfully reared a new baby who we nicknamed Baboo, and the other youngster flew the coup. The three now recognised our car returning from weekends away, and were enjoying sausages, hotdogs, raw chicken, fish and especially cheese, but life was hard as they aged with daily morning and evening tussles in the air with invaders and intruders hoping to take their land.

  

Russell picked up an injury during one fight and hobbled about for a few weeks before fully recovering, though a slight limp remained longterm, but Sheryl was visibly ageing and struggled at times to gain height from a vertical ground take off. I placed a garden chair near the house and she would often jump onto the top and then onto the fence and then the roof in stages.

 

Baboo became the dominant garden watcher, swooping in to take advantage of the food I put out, though he now faced competition from a gaggle of five or so resident Magpies, Black headed gulls and Herring Gulls which seemed to have adopted the area, and brave enough to snatch food from under his nose and eat on the grass in his presence. The three crows still held on to our garden and the territory and were dominant still into December 2022. They loved cheese, hotdogs, raw chicken, fish fingers and digestive biscuits and also mixed nuts, crusty bread and cakes and fat from steak or gammon plus fish skin from salmon or haddock.

  

Corvus Corone.... magnificently misunderstood by some!

  

Paul Williams June 4th 2021 (Updated on December 2nd 2022)

  

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Aurigeno (in Ticino dialect Aurìgen, in local dialect Aurigan) is a hamlet of 384 inhabitants in the Swiss municipality of Maggia, in Canton Ticino (Vallemaggia district).

In the Middle Ages it formed a community with Lodano and Moghegno. The village is located on the right side of the valley floor and lacks sunshine in winter; this induced the inhabitants to move during the bad season to the hamlet of Ronchini, on the opposite bank, or to Dunzio (on a promontory), practicing a kind of transhumance. The parish church of S. Bartolomeo, built around 1761 by expanding a 12th-13th-century oratory, contains valuable frescoes by local painter Giovanni Antonio Vanoni (1866), who also decorated houses and chapels. The chapel of St. Anthony (15th-16th cent.), with frescoes from 1508, is of undoubted historical and artistic interest. The parish of Aurigeno broke away from Maggia before the 16th century, along with Lodano and Moghegno, which later became autonomous in the 17th century. The demographic upswing in recent decades is due to the proximity of the urban agglomeration of Locarno; many secondary residences have also sprung up.

It is a unique and charming village, characterized by traditional old stone houses of owners who have decided not to abandon the village or of vacationers who adore peace and solitude.

 

Viena es una ciudad austriaca en Europa Central situada a orillas del Danubio, en el valle de los Bosques de Viena, al pie de las primeras estribaciones de los Alpes. Es la capital de Austria y uno de sus nueve estados federados (Bundesland Wien). Así como la mayor ciudad y el centro cultural de Austria

Además es la segunda ciudad más poblada de Europa Central (tras Berlín) y la décima ciudad en población de la Unión Europea. Su población supera el 1 800 000 de habitantes (2017) y su área metropolitana cuenta con 2,4 millones, población similar a la que tenía la ciudad en 1914. El idioma oficial es el alemán austríaco estándar; se habla también el alemán vienés, un dialecto bávaro.

La ciudad tiene una larga historia, ya que es una de las más antiguas capitales de Europa, por lo que cuenta con un importante patrimonio artístico. Durante el siglo XIX fue una de las grandes capitales musicales del mundo y a principios del siglo XX meca de la filosofía y el debate político de Occidente, así como uno de los principales centros culturales mundiales.

Los romanos la llamaron Vindobona, nombre de origen celta que significa ciudad blanca.

Los primeros asentamientos humanos en la actual Viena son de origen celta (500 a. C.), posteriormente germánicos, y con la expansión del Imperio romano hacia el norte en el siglo I a. C., se adhiere a este en el año 13 a. C. El río Danubio, al igual que los Alpes, sirve entonces de límite natural entre bárbaros y romanos, y Vindobona sirve desde entonces y hasta la caída de Roma (año 476 d. C.) como punto de defensa del imperio. La ciudad nace como campamento del ejército romano, para controlar la Provincia de Panonia, en el que se asientan diferentes unidades, de entre las cuales destaca la Legio X Gemina, que permaneció en ella desde el que la zona fue ocupada por pueblos germanos en época de Graciano y de Teodosio I

Con las invasiones bárbaras es ocupada por ávaros y magiares. Carlomagno conquista la ciudad en el siglo IX y la bautiza con el nombre de Ostmark (la marca del este). Durante el alto medievo Viena es un importante aliado del papado y punto de abastecimiento de armas y víveres para la empresa de las Cruzadas. Fue capital de Hungría con Matías Corvino, y desde el siglo XV hasta las guerras napoleónicas capital del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico, al ser la residencia habitual de los Habsburgo.

En 1237 las murallas de Viena alcanzaron la extensión que conservarían hasta su desaparición en 1857.

Desde la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, hubo un interés creciente del Imperio otomano por Viena, dado que era la clave para conquistar los demás países de Europa; interés que se hace más notable durante el período del sultán Solimán el Magnífico. Pero sus esfuerzos fracasaron y los austríacos salieron victoriosos de los distintos sitios a los que sometieron a la ciudad, el primero en 1529, a pesar de que inicialmente los defensores de la ciudad solo recibieron el apoyo poco entusiasta de sus vecinos alemanes. El ejército turco estaba mal equipado para un asedio y su tarea fue obstaculizada por la nieve y las inundaciones. Solimán se retiró a finales de octubre y no pudo reanudar el asedio a su regreso en 1532, cuando encontró a los defensores apoyados por un gran ejército bajo el mando del hermano del emperador Carlos V, Fernando.

Entre el primero y el segundo sitio turco, las instalaciones defensivas fueron reforzadas y modernizadas constantemente. Esto trajo como consecuencia que se tuvieran que ampliar una y otra vez los espacios libres frente a los bastiones para utilizarlos como campo de tiro. En 1529 estos espacios abarcaban 90 m que, a partir de 1683, fueron ensanchados a 450 m. Hasta 1858 no se construyó ningún edificio en esta explanada.

El segundo sitio se produjo en 1683, en la llamada batalla de Viena, y marcó el comienzo del declive del Imperio otomano en Europa. Fue iniciado por el gran visir Kara Mustafá, que necesitaba desesperadamente un éxito militar para reforzar su posición inestable y trató de lograrlo en una campaña contra el emperador Leopoldo I. Los turcos avanzaron con fuerza abrumadora, sitiaron la ciudad el 16 de julio, pero su falta de artillería de asedio permitió a Leopoldo reunir un ejército adicional formado por tropas austriacas, alemanas y polacas, que derrotó al ejército turco en una batalla librada delante de los muros de la ciudad el 12 de septiembre, que también se conoce como Batalla de Kahlenberg.

Durante el siglo XVIII, los Habsburgo habían convertido a la ciudad en su capital desde 1556 y su importancia se vio acrecentada con la expansión por el valle del Danubio. Se convirtió en un núcleo principal del Barroco europeo gracias a la construcción de importantes obras arquitectónicas y creaciones musicales. En 1800, antes de las guerras napoleónicas, la ciudad contaba con 231 900 habitantes.

Desde el asedio de 1683, en que fueron destruidas numerosas ciudades pequeñas que existían en el exterior de la muralla, en el terreno ondulado situado frente a la ciudad se alzaron numerosos palacios con jardines. El punto de partida fueron los planos del palacio real de Schönbrunn, elaborados por Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. Hacia 1720 se contaban 200 residencias rurales. El príncipe Eugenio de Saboya había adquirido en 1693 la más bella parcela y una de las más grandes con los primeros ingresos que le habían llegado. Allí, tras cuarenta años de trabajo, levantó el Belvedere con sus espaciosos jardines.

Tras la derrota austriaca a manos de Napoleón Bonaparte en 1809 (batalla de Wagram), este último se hospeda en el palacio de Schönbrunn, en Viena. Durante esta estancia, Francia y Austria se alían, y Napoleón desposa a María Luisa, hija de los emperadores de Austria.

Metternich, canciller austriaco en esta época, cambia a Austria al bando anti-napoleónico tras la derrota francesa en Rusia. Después de la derrota definitiva de Napoleón, se celebra el Congreso de Viena, una conferencia internacional convocada con el objeto de restablecer las fronteras de Europa. La reunión se llevó a cabo del 1 de octubre de 1814 al 9 de junio de 1815, lo que le permite a Austria conservar gran parte de sus territorios a pesar de haber estado aliada con Napoleón, y a partir de entonces, Viena, por medio del canciller Metternich, se convertiría en el eje de la política de la Europa continental durante los siguientes treinta años.

Durante el siglo XIX, sobre todo en la segunda mitad, Viena inició un despegue demográfico, acompañado de reformas urbanísticas, que la convirtieron en una gran ciudad, multiplicando en un siglo su población por diez. En 1857, se derribaron las murallas por decreto de Francisco José I de Austria, abriéndose una nueva avenida, la Ringstraße, donde se construyeron importantes edificios, como la Ópera, la Universidad, el Ayuntamiento, el Parlamento, la Bolsa y los museos de historia del arte e historia natural. La derrota de Austria en la guerra austro-prusiana en 1866 y la posterior anexión de los Estados alemanes a Prusia convirtieron a la unificada Alemania en un peligro para Austria, por lo que esta última se tuvo que aliar con Hungría en lo que se conoce como la "política de compensación" o Ausgleichpolitik. Así pues, en 1867, tras el Compromiso con Hungría, Viena se convirtió en la capital del Imperio austrohúngaro y en un centro cultural, artístico, político, industrial y financiero de primer orden mundial. Con esta alianza, Austria prosigue sumando otras más, con lo que para fines del siglo XIX el imperio abarcaba los actuales países de Austria, Hungría, Eslovaquia, República Checa, la Galicia polaca, la Transilvania rumana, la Bucovina y la Rutenia ucranianas, Croacia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Eslovenia y el Trentino-Alto Adigio italiano.

Viena alcanza su máximo demográfico en 1916 con 2 239 000 habitantes, siendo la tercera ciudad más grande de Europa. Este es el período cultural más glorioso de la monarquía de los Habsburgo, con Francisco José I rigiendo el Imperio (período 1848-1916). También es la época de los suntuosos valses vieneses en la Opera Nacional de Viena, grandes carruajes paseando por la Ringstraße y la Kärntner Straße, así como de los típicos cafés vieneses.

De la época destacan intelectuales, como Sigmund Freud en el psicoanálisis y Otto Bauer en el campo del pensamiento político, principal exponente del austromarxismo, ideas que calarían fuerte en la sociedad vienesa, pues ya en 1895 el gobierno municipal estaría en manos del partido socialcristiano, precursor del actual partido ÖVP (democristiano) . Tampoco hay que olvidar en el plano artístico el movimiento modernista, la Secesión de Viena (Secession), con Gustav Klimt como principal exponente en la pintura, Coloman Moser en el grafismo y Joseph Maria Olbrich y Josef Hoffman en la arquitectura. Contrario a estos destacaría asimismo Adolf Loos con su racionalismo arquitectónico. Sin embargo, la Primera Guerra Mundial y la posterior derrota austrohúngara truncarían gran parte de ese esplendor.

Tras el asesinato del archiduque heredero Francisco Fernando y su esposa, Sofía Chotek, en Sarajevo, a manos del terrorista serbo-bosnio Gavrilo Princip, y ante la abrumadora evidencia de la participación de los servicios de inteligencia serbios en el complot, la monarquía dual declara la guerra a Serbia, a la que se le alían Alemania y Turquía y que, ante la oposición de Francia, Inglaterra y Rusia, deviene en la Primera Guerra Mundial. En octubre de 1918, derrotada Austria-Hungría y sus aliados, estalla la revolución en Viena que pide la disolución de la monarquía y la independencia austríaca; sería el fin de la monarquía de los Habsburgo que gobernaba el país desde 1278.

Viena se convirtió, tras el tratado de Saint-Germain, en la capital de la pequeña República de Austria, reducida a su tamaño actual, sufriendo un importante revés demográfico, económico y político. Pese a todo, en esta época continuó la actividad intelectual con el Círculo de Viena (der Wiener Kreis), considerado por muchos el grupo de intelectuales más influyentes del siglo XX en Europa, entre los que destacan Moritz Schlick y Ludwig Wittgenstein en la filosofía positivista lógica (Logischer Empirismus).

Durante el periodo democrático republicano, es decir, desde 1918 hasta la dictadura de Engelbert Dollfuss en 1934, el Partido Obrero Socialdemócrata (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei en alemán) obtuvo la mayoría absoluta en todas las elecciones celebradas para el gobierno local, por lo que la ciudad pasó a ser conocida como Viena roja. La política socialdemócrata de esos años se caracterizó por un extenso programa de viviendas sociales y por un marcado apoyo a la educación y la sanidad públicas, tal y como preconizaba la corriente austromarxista. La Viena roja finalizó en 1934 a consecuencia de la guerra civil austríaca y la victoria del Frente Patriótico. Su último alcalde fue Karl Seitz.

La importancia cultural vienesa se mantendría hasta 1938, año en el que el país fue invadido y, posteriormente, anexionado por la Alemania nazi. Dicha anexión, conocida como el Anschluss, estaba prohibida en los tratados de paz y fue la primera de las expansiones tendentes a unificar en un solo Estado a todos los germanohablantes, bajo un solo liderazgo ("ein Reich, ein Volk, ein Führer"). En la ciudad, que pasó a ser capital de la provincia de Ostmark, pronunció Hitler, el 14 de marzo de 1938, su primer gran discurso a los vieneses desde el balcón central del Palacio de Hofburg, discurso que es considerado uno de los más emotivos del dictador y de mayor aclamo por su masiva audiencia debido a la euforia que la anexión de Austria al Tercer Imperio Germano (Dritte Reich) causó en parte de la población. Para legitimar la invasión se celebró un referéndum el 10 de abril que resultó favorable al Anschluss con un 99,73 %, si bien carecía de las garantías democráticas.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Viena sufrió los indiscriminados bombardeos aéreos estadounidenses que destruyeron buena parte del patrimonio histórico (la catedral gótica de San Esteban, el Palacio de Hofburg, la ópera de Viena, los puentes del Danubio, entre otros), el cual fue reconstruido tras la contienda. En mayo de 1945 Viena fue tomada por el ejército soviético, quienes, junto con franceses, estadounidenses e ingleses, la ocuparían durante los diez años posteriores bajo un sistema de ocupación cuatripartita en la ciudad, similar al de Berlín.

Tras las gestiones de Leopold Figl y Julius Raab y la posterior firma del Acuerdo de Moscú, Austria recobra su independencia el 15 de mayo de 1955, y Viena vuelve a ser capital de la República de Austria. A partir de entonces y gracias a su compromiso de neutralidad, Austria se convirtió en sede de organismos internacionales como la OPEP, la ONUDI, IAEA, IIASA, entre otros, lo cual convierte a Viena en la tercera capital de la ONU, después de Nueva York y Ginebra, por lo que se puede ver hoy en día una gran comunidad internacional, en particular en el distrito 4 de Viena (Wieden) derivada de sus cuerpos diplomáticos. Desde 1995 es parte de la Unión Europea y de los países de Schengen. A partir de 2002 sacó de circulación el chelín austriaco y entró en vigor el euro como la moneda de curso legal en toda Austria.

La población de Viena, en el primer trimestre de 2015, era de 1 797 337 personas, de las que, aproximadamente, el 80 % son austríacos y el 20 % restante de otros países. La población vienesa ha aumentado desde 1988, sobre todo en los últimos años, como consecuencia de la inmigración. El área metropolitana, que se extiende por tierras de la Baja Austria, cuenta con una población de cerca de 2 500 000 habitantes.

En 2001, la Unesco declaró el «Centro histórico de Viena» como un lugar Patrimonio de la Humanidad, destacando en primer lugar que sus cualidades arquitectónicas y urbanas representan un testimonio sobresaliente de un continuo intercambio de valores a lo largo del II milenio. Además, su herencia arquitectónica y urbana ilustra muy bien tres períodos claves del desarrollo político y cultural de Europa: la Edad Media, el período barroco y el Gründerzeit. Finalmente, desde el siglo XVI Viena ha sido universalmente reconocida como la «capital musical de Europa». Gran parte de este legado se transmite en los monumentos de esta ciudad, que se encuentran a continuación ordenados alfabéticamente por sus denominaciones alemanas, ya que en Viena no son conocidos bajo sus nombres traducidos. La traducción al español está entre paréntesis.

Akademie der bildenden Künste (Academia de Bellas Artes)

Albertina, una de las más extensas colecciones de impresiones y dibujos

Burgtheater (teatro imperial de la corte)

Heuriger, tabernas típicas vienesas para degustar buenos vinos, carnes frías o embutidos de la región que se encuentran en los distritos vieneses de Döbling, Favoriten o Floridsdorf, en el estado de Burgenland o en el Weinviertel (parte de Baja Austria),

Hundertwasserhaus, que muestra la arquitectura vanguardista del arquitecto austriaco Friedensreich Hundertwasser

Kaffeehäuser, los cafés vieneses

Kahlenberg, un monte en el Wienerwald (Bosque de Viena), con el mirador más espectacular del río Danubio a su paso por Viena

Karlskirche (Iglesia de San Carlos Borromeo), obra maestra de la arquitectura barroca

Augustinerkirche (Iglesia de los Agustinos), iglesia gótica cuya cripta (Herzgruft) conserva los corazones de los Habsburgo

Kaisergruft (Cripta imperial), mausoleo de la familia Habsburgo

Kärntner Straße y Graben, las calles con las tiendas de moda de las marcas más prestigiadas y caras; también se encuentran agradables cafés, como el café del Hotel Sacher, origen de la Sachertorte

Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia del Arte), uno de los más ricos del mundo

Museum Liechtenstein (Museo Liechtenstein), abierto por la familia gobernante de dicho principado. Alberga importantes obras de Rembrandt, Rubens y Van Dyck

Museum für angewandte Kunst (Museo de Artes Aplicadas), es un instituto museo histórico y prestigioso situado en la famosa Ringstrasse

Museum für Völkerkunde (Museo de Etnología), que alberga el controvertido Penacho de Moctezuma, reclamado por el gobierno de México

Museumsquartier (Barrio museístico) con tres museos de arte moderno con lo mejor de la pintura de Gustav Klimt y Oskar Kokoschka

Naturhistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia Natural)

Palacio Belvedere, un palacio de estilo barroco

Palacio de Schönbrunn (literalmente, "Schönbrunn" en alemán significa "Bella fuente")

Palacio Imperial de Hofburg ("Hofburg" = "Palacio de la Corte")

Palacio Schwarzenberg, un palacio barroco, sede de la Casa de Schwarzenberg

Parlamento

Wurstelprater, un parque de atracciones con el "Riesenrad" (noria gigante)

Rathaus (Ayuntamiento)

Sezession (Secesión)

Spanische Hofreitschule (Escuela española de equitación)

Staatsoper (Ópera Estatal)

Stephanskirche (o Stephansdom) (Catedral de San Esteban de Viena) en el Stephansplatz (Plaza de San Esteban)

Votivkirche (Iglesia Votiva), que alberga el altar de la Virgen de Guadalupe más grande fuera de México.

 

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viena

  

Vienna (German: Wien) is the capital city of Austria.

It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is the largest city in Austria. It is also an administrative district (Bundesland) of its own.

Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona.[9] The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle ad weniam is mentioned.

In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights. It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).

In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.

During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.

In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.

During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.

At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.

After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.

Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)

After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).

After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.

Vienna has many things worth seeing. Here are a few of them.

St. Stephen's cathedral and St. Stephen's Square:

Today St. Stephen's square with the cathedral is the very center of Vienna.The Graben and the Kärntner Straße which lead away from the square are shopping streets with a lot of different shops. Opposite the cathedral you can find the Haas-House, a very modern building by architect Hans Hollein.

Ringstraße:

The Ringstraße runs around the first district and was built in the second half of the 19th century. The street follows the old city walls which were destroyed to create it Along the street you can find different important buildings like the Staatsoper (opera house), the parliament, the Burgtheater, the two museums of natural history and arts. Also the Wiener Postsparkasse which is an important building by the architect Otto Wagner is along the street.

Hofburg:

From the 13th century to 1918 this was the residence of the Habsburg rulers. Today it is the residence of the President of the Republic of Austria and you can also visit different museums like the Schatzkammer where you can see the different crowns of the Habsburg family and the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The National Library is also the Hofburg.

Schloss Schönbrunn:

Today's buildings were built by the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach an important architect in the baroque era in Austria. Another building of Fischer is the Karlskirche.

Schloss Belvedere:

Schloss Belvedere was built by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt another important Austrian baroque architect. It was built for Prinz Eugen of Savoy who fouyght successfully against the Ottoman Empire. Today the castle is used as museum (Austrian Gallery Belvedere).

 

simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Vienna

  

Sunset, also called sundown in some American English dialects, is the instant when the trailing edge of the sun's disk disappears below the horizon in the west. It should not be confused with dusk, which is the point at which darkness falls, some time after the beginning of twilight when the sun itself sets.

 

The sunset is often more brightly colored than the sunrise,[citation needed] with the shades of red and orange being more vibrant. The atmosphere responds in a number of ways to exposure to the sun. In particular, there tends to be more dust in the lower atmosphere at the end of the day than at the beginning. During the day, the sun heats the surface of the Earth, lowering the relative humidity and increasing wind speed and turbulence, which serves to lift dust into the air. However, differences between sunrise and sunset may in some cases depend more on the particular geographical features of the location from which they are viewed. For example, on a west-facing coastline, sunset occurs over water while sunrise occurs over land.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset

In het plaatselijke dialect Delluf. Het gaat niet goed met ons stadje, het brokkelt af.

Dragonfly or known as Pepatung or Catcibor (local dialect in Perak, Malaysia)

Talkin Tarn is a glacial lake and country park near Brampton, Cumbria, England. The lake is a kettle hole lake, formed 10,000 years ago by mass glacial action.

 

The name is of Brittonic origin. The Brittonic dialect known as Cumbric was formerly spoken in the area. The first element, tal, means "brow" or "end" in Brittonic and modern Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. The second element is unclear. It may come from the Brittonic word which appears in Welsh and Old Cornish as can ("white") and Breton as kann ("bland, brilliant"). Talkin may be a hill-name meaning "white brow".

 

'Tarn' is derived from Old Norse 'tjǫrn' and then Middle English 'terne' meaning 'small mountain pool' or 'small lake'.

 

Talkin Tarn Country Park is owned and maintained by Carlisle City Council. It is home to the Boat House Tea Rooms, Brampton Sailing Club, and Talkin Tarn Amateur Rowing Club. The profits from the Tea Rooms and the pay and display car parking are reinvested in the up keep and improvement of the site.

 

Rowing is an activity at Talkin Tarn. The rowing club, Talkin Tarn Amateur Rowing Club, celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2009. Rowing races were first held on Talkin Tarn in the 1850s, and the Rowing Club was formed in 1859 by local townsfolk, several descendants of whom still live in the area. It is the oldest rowing club in the North of England, with the exception of Tyne Rowing Club, and is the 14th oldest non-university club in the country. Talkin Tarn Annual Regatta has grown considerably in recent years from a total entry of 20 in 1946 and 97 in 1988 to what it is today – very successful and one of the largest one-day regattas outside of London with total entries now in excess of 400.

 

On 9th November 1983 an Aerospatiale Gazelle Helicopter (reg G-SFTB) crashed into the tarn during a low level training flight from Carlisle Airport. The single occupant escaped the crash but the helicopter, once raised from the bottom, was damaged beyond repair.

 

Research on climate change carried out at Talkin Tarn was published in 2004.

 

Old buckles, stone axes, and urns have been found in the area.

 

More photos of Talkin Tarn here: www.flickr.com/photos/davidambridge/albums/72157633050144969

Viena es una ciudad austriaca en Europa Central situada a orillas del Danubio, en el valle de los Bosques de Viena, al pie de las primeras estribaciones de los Alpes. Es la capital de Austria y uno de sus nueve estados federados (Bundesland Wien). Así como la mayor ciudad y el centro cultural de Austria

Además es la segunda ciudad más poblada de Europa Central (tras Berlín) y la décima ciudad en población de la Unión Europea. Su población supera el 1 800 000 de habitantes (2017) y su área metropolitana cuenta con 2,4 millones, población similar a la que tenía la ciudad en 1914. El idioma oficial es el alemán austríaco estándar; se habla también el alemán vienés, un dialecto bávaro.

La ciudad tiene una larga historia, ya que es una de las más antiguas capitales de Europa, por lo que cuenta con un importante patrimonio artístico. Durante el siglo XIX fue una de las grandes capitales musicales del mundo y a principios del siglo XX meca de la filosofía y el debate político de Occidente, así como uno de los principales centros culturales mundiales.

Los romanos la llamaron Vindobona, nombre de origen celta que significa ciudad blanca.

Los primeros asentamientos humanos en la actual Viena son de origen celta (500 a. C.), posteriormente germánicos, y con la expansión del Imperio romano hacia el norte en el siglo I a. C., se adhiere a este en el año 13 a. C. El río Danubio, al igual que los Alpes, sirve entonces de límite natural entre bárbaros y romanos, y Vindobona sirve desde entonces y hasta la caída de Roma (año 476 d. C.) como punto de defensa del imperio. La ciudad nace como campamento del ejército romano, para controlar la Provincia de Panonia, en el que se asientan diferentes unidades, de entre las cuales destaca la Legio X Gemina, que permaneció en ella desde el que la zona fue ocupada por pueblos germanos en época de Graciano y de Teodosio I

Con las invasiones bárbaras es ocupada por ávaros y magiares. Carlomagno conquista la ciudad en el siglo IX y la bautiza con el nombre de Ostmark (la marca del este). Durante el alto medievo Viena es un importante aliado del papado y punto de abastecimiento de armas y víveres para la empresa de las Cruzadas. Fue capital de Hungría con Matías Corvino, y desde el siglo XV hasta las guerras napoleónicas capital del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico, al ser la residencia habitual de los Habsburgo.

En 1237 las murallas de Viena alcanzaron la extensión que conservarían hasta su desaparición en 1857.

Desde la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, hubo un interés creciente del Imperio otomano por Viena, dado que era la clave para conquistar los demás países de Europa; interés que se hace más notable durante el período del sultán Solimán el Magnífico. Pero sus esfuerzos fracasaron y los austríacos salieron victoriosos de los distintos sitios a los que sometieron a la ciudad, el primero en 1529, a pesar de que inicialmente los defensores de la ciudad solo recibieron el apoyo poco entusiasta de sus vecinos alemanes. El ejército turco estaba mal equipado para un asedio y su tarea fue obstaculizada por la nieve y las inundaciones. Solimán se retiró a finales de octubre y no pudo reanudar el asedio a su regreso en 1532, cuando encontró a los defensores apoyados por un gran ejército bajo el mando del hermano del emperador Carlos V, Fernando.

Entre el primero y el segundo sitio turco, las instalaciones defensivas fueron reforzadas y modernizadas constantemente. Esto trajo como consecuencia que se tuvieran que ampliar una y otra vez los espacios libres frente a los bastiones para utilizarlos como campo de tiro. En 1529 estos espacios abarcaban 90 m que, a partir de 1683, fueron ensanchados a 450 m. Hasta 1858 no se construyó ningún edificio en esta explanada.

El segundo sitio se produjo en 1683, en la llamada batalla de Viena, y marcó el comienzo del declive del Imperio otomano en Europa. Fue iniciado por el gran visir Kara Mustafá, que necesitaba desesperadamente un éxito militar para reforzar su posición inestable y trató de lograrlo en una campaña contra el emperador Leopoldo I. Los turcos avanzaron con fuerza abrumadora, sitiaron la ciudad el 16 de julio, pero su falta de artillería de asedio permitió a Leopoldo reunir un ejército adicional formado por tropas austriacas, alemanas y polacas, que derrotó al ejército turco en una batalla librada delante de los muros de la ciudad el 12 de septiembre, que también se conoce como Batalla de Kahlenberg.

Durante el siglo XVIII, los Habsburgo habían convertido a la ciudad en su capital desde 1556 y su importancia se vio acrecentada con la expansión por el valle del Danubio. Se convirtió en un núcleo principal del Barroco europeo gracias a la construcción de importantes obras arquitectónicas y creaciones musicales. En 1800, antes de las guerras napoleónicas, la ciudad contaba con 231 900 habitantes.

Desde el asedio de 1683, en que fueron destruidas numerosas ciudades pequeñas que existían en el exterior de la muralla, en el terreno ondulado situado frente a la ciudad se alzaron numerosos palacios con jardines. El punto de partida fueron los planos del palacio real de Schönbrunn, elaborados por Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. Hacia 1720 se contaban 200 residencias rurales. El príncipe Eugenio de Saboya había adquirido en 1693 la más bella parcela y una de las más grandes con los primeros ingresos que le habían llegado. Allí, tras cuarenta años de trabajo, levantó el Belvedere con sus espaciosos jardines.

Tras la derrota austriaca a manos de Napoleón Bonaparte en 1809 (batalla de Wagram), este último se hospeda en el palacio de Schönbrunn, en Viena. Durante esta estancia, Francia y Austria se alían, y Napoleón desposa a María Luisa, hija de los emperadores de Austria.

Metternich, canciller austriaco en esta época, cambia a Austria al bando anti-napoleónico tras la derrota francesa en Rusia. Después de la derrota definitiva de Napoleón, se celebra el Congreso de Viena, una conferencia internacional convocada con el objeto de restablecer las fronteras de Europa. La reunión se llevó a cabo del 1 de octubre de 1814 al 9 de junio de 1815, lo que le permite a Austria conservar gran parte de sus territorios a pesar de haber estado aliada con Napoleón, y a partir de entonces, Viena, por medio del canciller Metternich, se convertiría en el eje de la política de la Europa continental durante los siguientes treinta años.

Durante el siglo XIX, sobre todo en la segunda mitad, Viena inició un despegue demográfico, acompañado de reformas urbanísticas, que la convirtieron en una gran ciudad, multiplicando en un siglo su población por diez. En 1857, se derribaron las murallas por decreto de Francisco José I de Austria, abriéndose una nueva avenida, la Ringstraße, donde se construyeron importantes edificios, como la Ópera, la Universidad, el Ayuntamiento, el Parlamento, la Bolsa y los museos de historia del arte e historia natural. La derrota de Austria en la guerra austro-prusiana en 1866 y la posterior anexión de los Estados alemanes a Prusia convirtieron a la unificada Alemania en un peligro para Austria, por lo que esta última se tuvo que aliar con Hungría en lo que se conoce como la "política de compensación" o Ausgleichpolitik. Así pues, en 1867, tras el Compromiso con Hungría, Viena se convirtió en la capital del Imperio austrohúngaro y en un centro cultural, artístico, político, industrial y financiero de primer orden mundial. Con esta alianza, Austria prosigue sumando otras más, con lo que para fines del siglo XIX el imperio abarcaba los actuales países de Austria, Hungría, Eslovaquia, República Checa, la Galicia polaca, la Transilvania rumana, la Bucovina y la Rutenia ucranianas, Croacia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Eslovenia y el Trentino-Alto Adigio italiano.

Viena alcanza su máximo demográfico en 1916 con 2 239 000 habitantes, siendo la tercera ciudad más grande de Europa. Este es el período cultural más glorioso de la monarquía de los Habsburgo, con Francisco José I rigiendo el Imperio (período 1848-1916). También es la época de los suntuosos valses vieneses en la Opera Nacional de Viena, grandes carruajes paseando por la Ringstraße y la Kärntner Straße, así como de los típicos cafés vieneses.

De la época destacan intelectuales, como Sigmund Freud en el psicoanálisis y Otto Bauer en el campo del pensamiento político, principal exponente del austromarxismo, ideas que calarían fuerte en la sociedad vienesa, pues ya en 1895 el gobierno municipal estaría en manos del partido socialcristiano, precursor del actual partido ÖVP (democristiano) . Tampoco hay que olvidar en el plano artístico el movimiento modernista, la Secesión de Viena (Secession), con Gustav Klimt como principal exponente en la pintura, Coloman Moser en el grafismo y Joseph Maria Olbrich y Josef Hoffman en la arquitectura. Contrario a estos destacaría asimismo Adolf Loos con su racionalismo arquitectónico. Sin embargo, la Primera Guerra Mundial y la posterior derrota austrohúngara truncarían gran parte de ese esplendor.

Tras el asesinato del archiduque heredero Francisco Fernando y su esposa, Sofía Chotek, en Sarajevo, a manos del terrorista serbo-bosnio Gavrilo Princip, y ante la abrumadora evidencia de la participación de los servicios de inteligencia serbios en el complot, la monarquía dual declara la guerra a Serbia, a la que se le alían Alemania y Turquía y que, ante la oposición de Francia, Inglaterra y Rusia, deviene en la Primera Guerra Mundial. En octubre de 1918, derrotada Austria-Hungría y sus aliados, estalla la revolución en Viena que pide la disolución de la monarquía y la independencia austríaca; sería el fin de la monarquía de los Habsburgo que gobernaba el país desde 1278.

Viena se convirtió, tras el tratado de Saint-Germain, en la capital de la pequeña República de Austria, reducida a su tamaño actual, sufriendo un importante revés demográfico, económico y político. Pese a todo, en esta época continuó la actividad intelectual con el Círculo de Viena (der Wiener Kreis), considerado por muchos el grupo de intelectuales más influyentes del siglo XX en Europa, entre los que destacan Moritz Schlick y Ludwig Wittgenstein en la filosofía positivista lógica (Logischer Empirismus).

Durante el periodo democrático republicano, es decir, desde 1918 hasta la dictadura de Engelbert Dollfuss en 1934, el Partido Obrero Socialdemócrata (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei en alemán) obtuvo la mayoría absoluta en todas las elecciones celebradas para el gobierno local, por lo que la ciudad pasó a ser conocida como Viena roja. La política socialdemócrata de esos años se caracterizó por un extenso programa de viviendas sociales y por un marcado apoyo a la educación y la sanidad públicas, tal y como preconizaba la corriente austromarxista. La Viena roja finalizó en 1934 a consecuencia de la guerra civil austríaca y la victoria del Frente Patriótico. Su último alcalde fue Karl Seitz.

La importancia cultural vienesa se mantendría hasta 1938, año en el que el país fue invadido y, posteriormente, anexionado por la Alemania nazi. Dicha anexión, conocida como el Anschluss, estaba prohibida en los tratados de paz y fue la primera de las expansiones tendentes a unificar en un solo Estado a todos los germanohablantes, bajo un solo liderazgo ("ein Reich, ein Volk, ein Führer"). En la ciudad, que pasó a ser capital de la provincia de Ostmark, pronunció Hitler, el 14 de marzo de 1938, su primer gran discurso a los vieneses desde el balcón central del Palacio de Hofburg, discurso que es considerado uno de los más emotivos del dictador y de mayor aclamo por su masiva audiencia debido a la euforia que la anexión de Austria al Tercer Imperio Germano (Dritte Reich) causó en parte de la población. Para legitimar la invasión se celebró un referéndum el 10 de abril que resultó favorable al Anschluss con un 99,73 %, si bien carecía de las garantías democráticas.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Viena sufrió los indiscriminados bombardeos aéreos estadounidenses que destruyeron buena parte del patrimonio histórico (la catedral gótica de San Esteban, el Palacio de Hofburg, la ópera de Viena, los puentes del Danubio, entre otros), el cual fue reconstruido tras la contienda. En mayo de 1945 Viena fue tomada por el ejército soviético, quienes, junto con franceses, estadounidenses e ingleses, la ocuparían durante los diez años posteriores bajo un sistema de ocupación cuatripartita en la ciudad, similar al de Berlín.

Tras las gestiones de Leopold Figl y Julius Raab y la posterior firma del Acuerdo de Moscú, Austria recobra su independencia el 15 de mayo de 1955, y Viena vuelve a ser capital de la República de Austria. A partir de entonces y gracias a su compromiso de neutralidad, Austria se convirtió en sede de organismos internacionales como la OPEP, la ONUDI, IAEA, IIASA, entre otros, lo cual convierte a Viena en la tercera capital de la ONU, después de Nueva York y Ginebra, por lo que se puede ver hoy en día una gran comunidad internacional, en particular en el distrito 4 de Viena (Wieden) derivada de sus cuerpos diplomáticos. Desde 1995 es parte de la Unión Europea y de los países de Schengen. A partir de 2002 sacó de circulación el chelín austriaco y entró en vigor el euro como la moneda de curso legal en toda Austria.

La población de Viena, en el primer trimestre de 2015, era de 1 797 337 personas, de las que, aproximadamente, el 80 % son austríacos y el 20 % restante de otros países. La población vienesa ha aumentado desde 1988, sobre todo en los últimos años, como consecuencia de la inmigración. El área metropolitana, que se extiende por tierras de la Baja Austria, cuenta con una población de cerca de 2 500 000 habitantes.

En 2001, la Unesco declaró el «Centro histórico de Viena» como un lugar Patrimonio de la Humanidad, destacando en primer lugar que sus cualidades arquitectónicas y urbanas representan un testimonio sobresaliente de un continuo intercambio de valores a lo largo del II milenio. Además, su herencia arquitectónica y urbana ilustra muy bien tres períodos claves del desarrollo político y cultural de Europa: la Edad Media, el período barroco y el Gründerzeit. Finalmente, desde el siglo XVI Viena ha sido universalmente reconocida como la «capital musical de Europa». Gran parte de este legado se transmite en los monumentos de esta ciudad, que se encuentran a continuación ordenados alfabéticamente por sus denominaciones alemanas, ya que en Viena no son conocidos bajo sus nombres traducidos. La traducción al español está entre paréntesis.

Akademie der bildenden Künste (Academia de Bellas Artes)

Albertina, una de las más extensas colecciones de impresiones y dibujos

Burgtheater (teatro imperial de la corte)

Heuriger, tabernas típicas vienesas para degustar buenos vinos, carnes frías o embutidos de la región que se encuentran en los distritos vieneses de Döbling, Favoriten o Floridsdorf, en el estado de Burgenland o en el Weinviertel (parte de Baja Austria),

Hundertwasserhaus, que muestra la arquitectura vanguardista del arquitecto austriaco Friedensreich Hundertwasser

Kaffeehäuser, los cafés vieneses

Kahlenberg, un monte en el Wienerwald (Bosque de Viena), con el mirador más espectacular del río Danubio a su paso por Viena

Karlskirche (Iglesia de San Carlos Borromeo), obra maestra de la arquitectura barroca

Augustinerkirche (Iglesia de los Agustinos), iglesia gótica cuya cripta (Herzgruft) conserva los corazones de los Habsburgo

Kaisergruft (Cripta imperial), mausoleo de la familia Habsburgo

Kärntner Straße y Graben, las calles con las tiendas de moda de las marcas más prestigiadas y caras; también se encuentran agradables cafés, como el café del Hotel Sacher, origen de la Sachertorte

Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia del Arte), uno de los más ricos del mundo

Museum Liechtenstein (Museo Liechtenstein), abierto por la familia gobernante de dicho principado. Alberga importantes obras de Rembrandt, Rubens y Van Dyck

Museum für angewandte Kunst (Museo de Artes Aplicadas), es un instituto museo histórico y prestigioso situado en la famosa Ringstrasse

Museum für Völkerkunde (Museo de Etnología), que alberga el controvertido Penacho de Moctezuma, reclamado por el gobierno de México

Museumsquartier (Barrio museístico) con tres museos de arte moderno con lo mejor de la pintura de Gustav Klimt y Oskar Kokoschka

Naturhistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia Natural)

Palacio Belvedere, un palacio de estilo barroco

Palacio de Schönbrunn (literalmente, "Schönbrunn" en alemán significa "Bella fuente")

Palacio Imperial de Hofburg ("Hofburg" = "Palacio de la Corte")

Palacio Schwarzenberg, un palacio barroco, sede de la Casa de Schwarzenberg

Parlamento

Wurstelprater, un parque de atracciones con el "Riesenrad" (noria gigante)

Rathaus (Ayuntamiento)

Sezession (Secesión)

Spanische Hofreitschule (Escuela española de equitación)

Staatsoper (Ópera Estatal)

Stephanskirche (o Stephansdom) (Catedral de San Esteban de Viena) en el Stephansplatz (Plaza de San Esteban)

Votivkirche (Iglesia Votiva), que alberga el altar de la Virgen de Guadalupe más grande fuera de México.

 

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viena

  

Vienna (German: Wien) is the capital city of Austria.

It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is the largest city in Austria. It is also an administrative district (Bundesland) of its own.

Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona.[9] The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle ad weniam is mentioned.

In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights. It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).

In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.

During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.

In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.

During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.

At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.

After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.

Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)

After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).

After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.

Vienna has many things worth seeing. Here are a few of them.

St. Stephen's cathedral and St. Stephen's Square:

Today St. Stephen's square with the cathedral is the very center of Vienna.The Graben and the Kärntner Straße which lead away from the square are shopping streets with a lot of different shops. Opposite the cathedral you can find the Haas-House, a very modern building by architect Hans Hollein.

Ringstraße:

The Ringstraße runs around the first district and was built in the second half of the 19th century. The street follows the old city walls which were destroyed to create it Along the street you can find different important buildings like the Staatsoper (opera house), the parliament, the Burgtheater, the two museums of natural history and arts. Also the Wiener Postsparkasse which is an important building by the architect Otto Wagner is along the street.

Hofburg:

From the 13th century to 1918 this was the residence of the Habsburg rulers. Today it is the residence of the President of the Republic of Austria and you can also visit different museums like the Schatzkammer where you can see the different crowns of the Habsburg family and the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The National Library is also the Hofburg.

Schloss Schönbrunn:

Today's buildings were built by the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach an important architect in the baroque era in Austria. Another building of Fischer is the Karlskirche.

Schloss Belvedere:

Schloss Belvedere was built by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt another important Austrian baroque architect. It was built for Prinz Eugen of Savoy who fouyght successfully against the Ottoman Empire. Today the castle is used as museum (Austrian Gallery Belvedere).

 

simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Vienna

 

Pana-Panahon, in the tagalog dialect refers to the changing fortunes of time. There's a time for everything. Life with its vicious and unruly pathetic cycle, needs to be dealt with. While time is unpredictable at times -- sometimes decision making is the humans' most valuable tool. Like whether its a good time to ride a Gondola or not -- in this weather.

 

Grand Canal

Venice, Italy

It wasn't that different to home, we quickly picked up the local dialect

Viena es una ciudad austriaca en Europa Central situada a orillas del Danubio, en el valle de los Bosques de Viena, al pie de las primeras estribaciones de los Alpes. Es la capital de Austria y uno de sus nueve estados federados (Bundesland Wien). Así como la mayor ciudad y el centro cultural de Austria

Además es la segunda ciudad más poblada de Europa Central (tras Berlín) y la décima ciudad en población de la Unión Europea. Su población supera el 1 800 000 de habitantes (2017) y su área metropolitana cuenta con 2,4 millones, población similar a la que tenía la ciudad en 1914. El idioma oficial es el alemán austríaco estándar; se habla también el alemán vienés, un dialecto bávaro.

La ciudad tiene una larga historia, ya que es una de las más antiguas capitales de Europa, por lo que cuenta con un importante patrimonio artístico. Durante el siglo XIX fue una de las grandes capitales musicales del mundo y a principios del siglo XX meca de la filosofía y el debate político de Occidente, así como uno de los principales centros culturales mundiales.

Los romanos la llamaron Vindobona, nombre de origen celta que significa ciudad blanca.

Los primeros asentamientos humanos en la actual Viena son de origen celta (500 a. C.), posteriormente germánicos, y con la expansión del Imperio romano hacia el norte en el siglo I a. C., se adhiere a este en el año 13 a. C. El río Danubio, al igual que los Alpes, sirve entonces de límite natural entre bárbaros y romanos, y Vindobona sirve desde entonces y hasta la caída de Roma (año 476 d. C.) como punto de defensa del imperio. La ciudad nace como campamento del ejército romano, para controlar la Provincia de Panonia, en el que se asientan diferentes unidades, de entre las cuales destaca la Legio X Gemina, que permaneció en ella desde el que la zona fue ocupada por pueblos germanos en época de Graciano y de Teodosio I

Con las invasiones bárbaras es ocupada por ávaros y magiares. Carlomagno conquista la ciudad en el siglo IX y la bautiza con el nombre de Ostmark (la marca del este). Durante el alto medievo Viena es un importante aliado del papado y punto de abastecimiento de armas y víveres para la empresa de las Cruzadas. Fue capital de Hungría con Matías Corvino, y desde el siglo XV hasta las guerras napoleónicas capital del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico, al ser la residencia habitual de los Habsburgo.

En 1237 las murallas de Viena alcanzaron la extensión que conservarían hasta su desaparición en 1857.

Desde la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, hubo un interés creciente del Imperio otomano por Viena, dado que era la clave para conquistar los demás países de Europa; interés que se hace más notable durante el período del sultán Solimán el Magnífico. Pero sus esfuerzos fracasaron y los austríacos salieron victoriosos de los distintos sitios a los que sometieron a la ciudad, el primero en 1529, a pesar de que inicialmente los defensores de la ciudad solo recibieron el apoyo poco entusiasta de sus vecinos alemanes. El ejército turco estaba mal equipado para un asedio y su tarea fue obstaculizada por la nieve y las inundaciones. Solimán se retiró a finales de octubre y no pudo reanudar el asedio a su regreso en 1532, cuando encontró a los defensores apoyados por un gran ejército bajo el mando del hermano del emperador Carlos V, Fernando.

Entre el primero y el segundo sitio turco, las instalaciones defensivas fueron reforzadas y modernizadas constantemente. Esto trajo como consecuencia que se tuvieran que ampliar una y otra vez los espacios libres frente a los bastiones para utilizarlos como campo de tiro. En 1529 estos espacios abarcaban 90 m que, a partir de 1683, fueron ensanchados a 450 m. Hasta 1858 no se construyó ningún edificio en esta explanada.

El segundo sitio se produjo en 1683, en la llamada batalla de Viena, y marcó el comienzo del declive del Imperio otomano en Europa. Fue iniciado por el gran visir Kara Mustafá, que necesitaba desesperadamente un éxito militar para reforzar su posición inestable y trató de lograrlo en una campaña contra el emperador Leopoldo I. Los turcos avanzaron con fuerza abrumadora, sitiaron la ciudad el 16 de julio, pero su falta de artillería de asedio permitió a Leopoldo reunir un ejército adicional formado por tropas austriacas, alemanas y polacas, que derrotó al ejército turco en una batalla librada delante de los muros de la ciudad el 12 de septiembre, que también se conoce como Batalla de Kahlenberg.

Durante el siglo XVIII, los Habsburgo habían convertido a la ciudad en su capital desde 1556 y su importancia se vio acrecentada con la expansión por el valle del Danubio. Se convirtió en un núcleo principal del Barroco europeo gracias a la construcción de importantes obras arquitectónicas y creaciones musicales. En 1800, antes de las guerras napoleónicas, la ciudad contaba con 231 900 habitantes.

Desde el asedio de 1683, en que fueron destruidas numerosas ciudades pequeñas que existían en el exterior de la muralla, en el terreno ondulado situado frente a la ciudad se alzaron numerosos palacios con jardines. El punto de partida fueron los planos del palacio real de Schönbrunn, elaborados por Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. Hacia 1720 se contaban 200 residencias rurales. El príncipe Eugenio de Saboya había adquirido en 1693 la más bella parcela y una de las más grandes con los primeros ingresos que le habían llegado. Allí, tras cuarenta años de trabajo, levantó el Belvedere con sus espaciosos jardines.

Tras la derrota austriaca a manos de Napoleón Bonaparte en 1809 (batalla de Wagram), este último se hospeda en el palacio de Schönbrunn, en Viena. Durante esta estancia, Francia y Austria se alían, y Napoleón desposa a María Luisa, hija de los emperadores de Austria.

Metternich, canciller austriaco en esta época, cambia a Austria al bando anti-napoleónico tras la derrota francesa en Rusia. Después de la derrota definitiva de Napoleón, se celebra el Congreso de Viena, una conferencia internacional convocada con el objeto de restablecer las fronteras de Europa. La reunión se llevó a cabo del 1 de octubre de 1814 al 9 de junio de 1815, lo que le permite a Austria conservar gran parte de sus territorios a pesar de haber estado aliada con Napoleón, y a partir de entonces, Viena, por medio del canciller Metternich, se convertiría en el eje de la política de la Europa continental durante los siguientes treinta años.

Durante el siglo XIX, sobre todo en la segunda mitad, Viena inició un despegue demográfico, acompañado de reformas urbanísticas, que la convirtieron en una gran ciudad, multiplicando en un siglo su población por diez. En 1857, se derribaron las murallas por decreto de Francisco José I de Austria, abriéndose una nueva avenida, la Ringstraße, donde se construyeron importantes edificios, como la Ópera, la Universidad, el Ayuntamiento, el Parlamento, la Bolsa y los museos de historia del arte e historia natural. La derrota de Austria en la guerra austro-prusiana en 1866 y la posterior anexión de los Estados alemanes a Prusia convirtieron a la unificada Alemania en un peligro para Austria, por lo que esta última se tuvo que aliar con Hungría en lo que se conoce como la "política de compensación" o Ausgleichpolitik. Así pues, en 1867, tras el Compromiso con Hungría, Viena se convirtió en la capital del Imperio austrohúngaro y en un centro cultural, artístico, político, industrial y financiero de primer orden mundial. Con esta alianza, Austria prosigue sumando otras más, con lo que para fines del siglo XIX el imperio abarcaba los actuales países de Austria, Hungría, Eslovaquia, República Checa, la Galicia polaca, la Transilvania rumana, la Bucovina y la Rutenia ucranianas, Croacia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Eslovenia y el Trentino-Alto Adigio italiano.

Viena alcanza su máximo demográfico en 1916 con 2 239 000 habitantes, siendo la tercera ciudad más grande de Europa. Este es el período cultural más glorioso de la monarquía de los Habsburgo, con Francisco José I rigiendo el Imperio (período 1848-1916). También es la época de los suntuosos valses vieneses en la Opera Nacional de Viena, grandes carruajes paseando por la Ringstraße y la Kärntner Straße, así como de los típicos cafés vieneses.

De la época destacan intelectuales, como Sigmund Freud en el psicoanálisis y Otto Bauer en el campo del pensamiento político, principal exponente del austromarxismo, ideas que calarían fuerte en la sociedad vienesa, pues ya en 1895 el gobierno municipal estaría en manos del partido socialcristiano, precursor del actual partido ÖVP (democristiano) . Tampoco hay que olvidar en el plano artístico el movimiento modernista, la Secesión de Viena (Secession), con Gustav Klimt como principal exponente en la pintura, Coloman Moser en el grafismo y Joseph Maria Olbrich y Josef Hoffman en la arquitectura. Contrario a estos destacaría asimismo Adolf Loos con su racionalismo arquitectónico. Sin embargo, la Primera Guerra Mundial y la posterior derrota austrohúngara truncarían gran parte de ese esplendor.

Tras el asesinato del archiduque heredero Francisco Fernando y su esposa, Sofía Chotek, en Sarajevo, a manos del terrorista serbo-bosnio Gavrilo Princip, y ante la abrumadora evidencia de la participación de los servicios de inteligencia serbios en el complot, la monarquía dual declara la guerra a Serbia, a la que se le alían Alemania y Turquía y que, ante la oposición de Francia, Inglaterra y Rusia, deviene en la Primera Guerra Mundial. En octubre de 1918, derrotada Austria-Hungría y sus aliados, estalla la revolución en Viena que pide la disolución de la monarquía y la independencia austríaca; sería el fin de la monarquía de los Habsburgo que gobernaba el país desde 1278.

Viena se convirtió, tras el tratado de Saint-Germain, en la capital de la pequeña República de Austria, reducida a su tamaño actual, sufriendo un importante revés demográfico, económico y político. Pese a todo, en esta época continuó la actividad intelectual con el Círculo de Viena (der Wiener Kreis), considerado por muchos el grupo de intelectuales más influyentes del siglo XX en Europa, entre los que destacan Moritz Schlick y Ludwig Wittgenstein en la filosofía positivista lógica (Logischer Empirismus).

Durante el periodo democrático republicano, es decir, desde 1918 hasta la dictadura de Engelbert Dollfuss en 1934, el Partido Obrero Socialdemócrata (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei en alemán) obtuvo la mayoría absoluta en todas las elecciones celebradas para el gobierno local, por lo que la ciudad pasó a ser conocida como Viena roja. La política socialdemócrata de esos años se caracterizó por un extenso programa de viviendas sociales y por un marcado apoyo a la educación y la sanidad públicas, tal y como preconizaba la corriente austromarxista. La Viena roja finalizó en 1934 a consecuencia de la guerra civil austríaca y la victoria del Frente Patriótico. Su último alcalde fue Karl Seitz.

La importancia cultural vienesa se mantendría hasta 1938, año en el que el país fue invadido y, posteriormente, anexionado por la Alemania nazi. Dicha anexión, conocida como el Anschluss, estaba prohibida en los tratados de paz y fue la primera de las expansiones tendentes a unificar en un solo Estado a todos los germanohablantes, bajo un solo liderazgo ("ein Reich, ein Volk, ein Führer"). En la ciudad, que pasó a ser capital de la provincia de Ostmark, pronunció Hitler, el 14 de marzo de 1938, su primer gran discurso a los vieneses desde el balcón central del Palacio de Hofburg, discurso que es considerado uno de los más emotivos del dictador y de mayor aclamo por su masiva audiencia debido a la euforia que la anexión de Austria al Tercer Imperio Germano (Dritte Reich) causó en parte de la población. Para legitimar la invasión se celebró un referéndum el 10 de abril que resultó favorable al Anschluss con un 99,73 %, si bien carecía de las garantías democráticas.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Viena sufrió los indiscriminados bombardeos aéreos estadounidenses que destruyeron buena parte del patrimonio histórico (la catedral gótica de San Esteban, el Palacio de Hofburg, la ópera de Viena, los puentes del Danubio, entre otros), el cual fue reconstruido tras la contienda. En mayo de 1945 Viena fue tomada por el ejército soviético, quienes, junto con franceses, estadounidenses e ingleses, la ocuparían durante los diez años posteriores bajo un sistema de ocupación cuatripartita en la ciudad, similar al de Berlín.

Tras las gestiones de Leopold Figl y Julius Raab y la posterior firma del Acuerdo de Moscú, Austria recobra su independencia el 15 de mayo de 1955, y Viena vuelve a ser capital de la República de Austria. A partir de entonces y gracias a su compromiso de neutralidad, Austria se convirtió en sede de organismos internacionales como la OPEP, la ONUDI, IAEA, IIASA, entre otros, lo cual convierte a Viena en la tercera capital de la ONU, después de Nueva York y Ginebra, por lo que se puede ver hoy en día una gran comunidad internacional, en particular en el distrito 4 de Viena (Wieden) derivada de sus cuerpos diplomáticos. Desde 1995 es parte de la Unión Europea y de los países de Schengen. A partir de 2002 sacó de circulación el chelín austriaco y entró en vigor el euro como la moneda de curso legal en toda Austria.

La población de Viena, en el primer trimestre de 2015, era de 1 797 337 personas, de las que, aproximadamente, el 80 % son austríacos y el 20 % restante de otros países. La población vienesa ha aumentado desde 1988, sobre todo en los últimos años, como consecuencia de la inmigración. El área metropolitana, que se extiende por tierras de la Baja Austria, cuenta con una población de cerca de 2 500 000 habitantes.

En 2001, la Unesco declaró el «Centro histórico de Viena» como un lugar Patrimonio de la Humanidad, destacando en primer lugar que sus cualidades arquitectónicas y urbanas representan un testimonio sobresaliente de un continuo intercambio de valores a lo largo del II milenio. Además, su herencia arquitectónica y urbana ilustra muy bien tres períodos claves del desarrollo político y cultural de Europa: la Edad Media, el período barroco y el Gründerzeit. Finalmente, desde el siglo XVI Viena ha sido universalmente reconocida como la «capital musical de Europa». Gran parte de este legado se transmite en los monumentos de esta ciudad, que se encuentran a continuación ordenados alfabéticamente por sus denominaciones alemanas, ya que en Viena no son conocidos bajo sus nombres traducidos. La traducción al español está entre paréntesis.

Akademie der bildenden Künste (Academia de Bellas Artes)

Albertina, una de las más extensas colecciones de impresiones y dibujos

Burgtheater (teatro imperial de la corte)

Heuriger, tabernas típicas vienesas para degustar buenos vinos, carnes frías o embutidos de la región que se encuentran en los distritos vieneses de Döbling, Favoriten o Floridsdorf, en el estado de Burgenland o en el Weinviertel (parte de Baja Austria),

Hundertwasserhaus, que muestra la arquitectura vanguardista del arquitecto austriaco Friedensreich Hundertwasser

Kaffeehäuser, los cafés vieneses

Kahlenberg, un monte en el Wienerwald (Bosque de Viena), con el mirador más espectacular del río Danubio a su paso por Viena

Karlskirche (Iglesia de San Carlos Borromeo), obra maestra de la arquitectura barroca

Augustinerkirche (Iglesia de los Agustinos), iglesia gótica cuya cripta (Herzgruft) conserva los corazones de los Habsburgo

Kaisergruft (Cripta imperial), mausoleo de la familia Habsburgo

Kärntner Straße y Graben, las calles con las tiendas de moda de las marcas más prestigiadas y caras; también se encuentran agradables cafés, como el café del Hotel Sacher, origen de la Sachertorte

Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia del Arte), uno de los más ricos del mundo

Museum Liechtenstein (Museo Liechtenstein), abierto por la familia gobernante de dicho principado. Alberga importantes obras de Rembrandt, Rubens y Van Dyck

Museum für angewandte Kunst (Museo de Artes Aplicadas), es un instituto museo histórico y prestigioso situado en la famosa Ringstrasse

Museum für Völkerkunde (Museo de Etnología), que alberga el controvertido Penacho de Moctezuma, reclamado por el gobierno de México

Museumsquartier (Barrio museístico) con tres museos de arte moderno con lo mejor de la pintura de Gustav Klimt y Oskar Kokoschka

Naturhistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia Natural)

Palacio Belvedere, un palacio de estilo barroco

Palacio de Schönbrunn (literalmente, "Schönbrunn" en alemán significa "Bella fuente")

Palacio Imperial de Hofburg ("Hofburg" = "Palacio de la Corte")

Palacio Schwarzenberg, un palacio barroco, sede de la Casa de Schwarzenberg

Parlamento

Wurstelprater, un parque de atracciones con el "Riesenrad" (noria gigante)

Rathaus (Ayuntamiento)

Sezession (Secesión)

Spanische Hofreitschule (Escuela española de equitación)

Staatsoper (Ópera Estatal)

Stephanskirche (o Stephansdom) (Catedral de San Esteban de Viena) en el Stephansplatz (Plaza de San Esteban)

Votivkirche (Iglesia Votiva), que alberga el altar de la Virgen de Guadalupe más grande fuera de México.

 

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viena

  

Vienna (German: Wien) is the capital city of Austria.

It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is the largest city in Austria. It is also an administrative district (Bundesland) of its own.

Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona.[9] The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle ad weniam is mentioned.

In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights. It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).

In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.

During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.

In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.

During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.

At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.

After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.

Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)

After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).

After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.

Vienna has many things worth seeing. Here are a few of them.

St. Stephen's cathedral and St. Stephen's Square:

Today St. Stephen's square with the cathedral is the very center of Vienna.The Graben and the Kärntner Straße which lead away from the square are shopping streets with a lot of different shops. Opposite the cathedral you can find the Haas-House, a very modern building by architect Hans Hollein.

Ringstraße:

The Ringstraße runs around the first district and was built in the second half of the 19th century. The street follows the old city walls which were destroyed to create it Along the street you can find different important buildings like the Staatsoper (opera house), the parliament, the Burgtheater, the two museums of natural history and arts. Also the Wiener Postsparkasse which is an important building by the architect Otto Wagner is along the street.

Hofburg:

From the 13th century to 1918 this was the residence of the Habsburg rulers. Today it is the residence of the President of the Republic of Austria and you can also visit different museums like the Schatzkammer where you can see the different crowns of the Habsburg family and the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The National Library is also the Hofburg.

Schloss Schönbrunn:

Today's buildings were built by the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach an important architect in the baroque era in Austria. Another building of Fischer is the Karlskirche.

Schloss Belvedere:

Schloss Belvedere was built by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt another important Austrian baroque architect. It was built for Prinz Eugen of Savoy who fouyght successfully against the Ottoman Empire. Today the castle is used as museum (Austrian Gallery Belvedere).

 

simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Vienna

 

Officially, "King George of Poděbrady Square" in Czech, "Náměstí Krále Jiřího z Poděbrad".

 

"Cheb (German Eger, in the Sudeten German dialect of Cheb Egha; obsoletely also Heb) is a town in the district of the same name in the Karlovy Vary Region, 40 km southwest of Karlovy Vary and 5 km from the border with Germany on the Ohři River, from which it is derived from the German name of the city. The first historically preserved mention of Cheb, the central city of the entire former Chebsko, dates from 1061. Until the end of World War II, the majority of the population was German, and Cheb was an important part of the Sudetenland. After the end of the war, the German residents were displaced and the town became largely depopulated. Approximately 32 thousand inhabitants live here, which makes Cheb the second largest city in the region after Karlovy Vary. There are seven primary schools, two secondary schools, one practical school, two grammar schools and the Faculty of Economics of the University of West Bohemia in Cheb. The main industries here are engineering, textiles, metalworking, construction, woodworking and food. The neighboring municipalities of the seat are Okrouhlá, Třebeň, Pomezí nad Ohří, Nebanice, Tuřany, Odrava, Lipová, Libá, Františkovy Lázně, Waldsassen and Schirnding.

 

Bohemia (Latin Bohemia, German Böhmen, Polish Czechy) is a region in the west of the Czech Republic. Previously, as a kingdom, they were the center of the Czech Crown. The root of the word Czech probably corresponds to the meaning of man. The Latin equivalent of Bohemia, originally Boiohaemum (literally "land of Battles"), which over time also influenced the names in other languages, is derived from the Celtic tribe of the Boios, who lived in this area from the 4th to the 1st century BC Bohemia on it borders Germany in the west, Austria in the south, Moravia in the east and Poland in the north. Geographically, they are bounded from the north, west and south by a chain of mountains, the highest of which are the Krkonoše Mountains, in which the highest mountain of Bohemia, Sněžka, is also located. The most important rivers are the Elbe and the Vltava, with the fertile Polabean Plain extending around the Elbe. The capital and largest city of Bohemia is Prague, other important cities include, for example, Pilsen, Karlovy Vary, Kladno, Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, Hradec Králové, Pardubice and České Budějovice, Jihlava also lies partly on the historical territory of Bohemia." - info from Wikipedia.

 

Summer 2019 I did a solo cycling tour across Europe through 12 countries over the course of 3 months. I began my adventure in Edinburgh, Scotland and finished in Florence, Italy cycling 8,816 km. During my trip I took 47,000 photos.

 

Now on Instagram.

 

Become a patron to my photography on Patreon or donate.

These prints depict dances known in Neapolitan dialect as the sfessania. Such dances are characterized by violent and sometimes obscene physical contortions and gesticulations. Each plate features a pair of figures pulled from the repertoire of popular entertainers, their balletic interactions running a comic gamut from mock grace to blatant crudity. Lively little scenes fill out the backgrounds of some of the dances, offering engaging glimpses of fairground activity in Callot’s time.

La plaza de San Esteban (en alemán: Stephansplatz) es la plaza situada en el centro geográfico de la ciudad de Viena, la capital estatal de Austria.

Fue nombrada así por su más prominente edificio: la catedral de San Esteban (Stephansdom).

Anteriormente al siglo XX, una fila de edificios separaba esta plaza de la plaza "Stock-im-Eisen", pero después de su destrucción el nombre de plaza de San Esteban es usado de manera indiferente en las dos áreas colindanes.

En las calles aledañas, se encuentran los lugares más concurridos para realizar las compras.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephansplatz

 

The Stephansplatz is a square at the geographical centre of Vienna. It is named after its most prominent building, the Stephansdom, Vienna's cathedral and one of the tallest churches in the world. Before the 20th century, a row of houses separated Stephansplatz from Stock-im-Eisen-Platz, but since their destruction, the name Stephansplatz started to be used for the wider area covering both. To the west and south, respectively, run the exclusive shopping streets Graben (literally "ditch") and Kärntner Straße ("Kärnten" is the German for Carinthia). Opposite the Stephansdom is the Haas-Haus, a piece of striking modern architecture by Hans Hollein. Although public opinion was originally skeptical about the combination of the mediaeval cathedral and the glass and steel building, it is now considered an example of how old and new architecture can mix harmoniously .

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephansplatz,_Vienna

 

Viena es una ciudad austriaca en Europa Central situada a orillas del Danubio, en el valle de los Bosques de Viena, al pie de las primeras estribaciones de los Alpes. Es la capital de Austria y uno de sus nueve estados federados (Bundesland Wien). Así como la mayor ciudad y el centro cultural de Austria

Además es la segunda ciudad más poblada de Europa Central (tras Berlín) y la décima ciudad en población de la Unión Europea. Su población supera el 1 800 000 de habitantes (2017) y su área metropolitana cuenta con 2,4 millones, población similar a la que tenía la ciudad en 1914. El idioma oficial es el alemán austríaco estándar; se habla también el alemán vienés, un dialecto bávaro.

La ciudad tiene una larga historia, ya que es una de las más antiguas capitales de Europa, por lo que cuenta con un importante patrimonio artístico. Durante el siglo XIX fue una de las grandes capitales musicales del mundo y a principios del siglo XX meca de la filosofía y el debate político de Occidente, así como uno de los principales centros culturales mundiales.

Los romanos la llamaron Vindobona, nombre de origen celta que significa ciudad blanca.

Los primeros asentamientos humanos en la actual Viena son de origen celta (ca. 500 a. C.), posteriormente germánicos, y con la expansión del Imperio romano hacia el norte en el siglo I a. C., se adhiere a este en el año 13 a. C. El río Danubio, al igual que los Alpes, sirve entonces de límite natural entre bárbaros y romanos, y Vindobona sirve desde entonces y hasta la caída de Roma (año 476 d. C.) como punto de defensa del imperio. La ciudad nace como campamento del ejército romano, para controlar la Provincia de Panonia, en el que se asientan diferentes unidades, de entre las cuales destaca la Legio X Gemina, que permaneció en ella desde el que la zona fue ocupada por pueblos germanos en época de Graciano y de Teodosio I

Con las invasiones bárbaras es ocupada por ávaros y magiares. Carlomagno conquista la ciudad en el siglo IX y la bautiza con el nombre de Ostmark (la marca del este). Durante el alto medievo Viena es un importante aliado del papado y punto de abastecimiento de armas y víveres para la empresa de las Cruzadas. Fue capital de Hungría con Matías Corvino, y desde el siglo XV hasta las guerras napoleónicas capital del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico, al ser la residencia habitual de los Habsburgo.

En 1237 las murallas de Viena alcanzaron la extensión que conservarían hasta su desaparición en 1857.

Desde la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, hubo un interés creciente del Imperio otomano por Viena, dado que era la clave para conquistar los demás países de Europa; interés que se hace más notable durante el período del sultán Solimán el Magnífico. Pero sus esfuerzos fracasaron y los austríacos salieron victoriosos de los distintos sitios a los que sometieron a la ciudad, el primero en 1529, a pesar de que inicialmente los defensores de la ciudad solo recibieron el apoyo poco entusiasta de sus vecinos alemanes. El ejército turco estaba mal equipado para un asedio y su tarea fue obstaculizada por la nieve y las inundaciones. Solimán se retiró a finales de octubre y no pudo reanudar el asedio a su regreso en 1532, cuando encontró a los defensores apoyados por un gran ejército bajo el mando del hermano del emperador Carlos V, Fernando.

Entre el primero y el segundo sitio turco, las instalaciones defensivas fueron reforzadas y modernizadas constantemente. Esto trajo como consecuencia que se tuvieran que ampliar una y otra vez los espacios libres frente a los bastiones para utilizarlos como campo de tiro. En 1529 estos espacios abarcaban 90 m que, a partir de 1683, fueron ensanchados a 450 m. Hasta 1858 no se construyó ningún edificio en esta explanada.

El segundo sitio se produjo en 1683, en la llamada batalla de Viena, y marcó el comienzo del declive del Imperio otomano en Europa. Fue iniciado por el gran visir Kara Mustafá, que necesitaba desesperadamente un éxito militar para reforzar su posición inestable y trató de lograrlo en una campaña contra el emperador Leopoldo I. Los turcos avanzaron con fuerza abrumadora, sitiaron la ciudad el 16 de julio, pero su falta de artillería de asedio permitió a Leopoldo reunir un ejército adicional formado por tropas austriacas, alemanas y polacas, que derrotó al ejército turco en una batalla librada delante de los muros de la ciudad el 12 de septiembre, que también se conoce como Batalla de Kahlenberg.

Durante el siglo XVIII, los Habsburgo habían convertido a la ciudad en su capital desde 1556 y su importancia se vio acrecentada con la expansión por el valle del Danubio. Se convirtió en un núcleo principal del Barroco europeo gracias a la construcción de importantes obras arquitectónicas y creaciones musicales. En 1800, antes de las guerras napoleónicas, la ciudad contaba con 231 900 habitantes.

Desde el asedio de 1683, en que fueron destruidas numerosas ciudades pequeñas que existían en el exterior de la muralla, en el terreno ondulado situado frente a la ciudad se alzaron numerosos palacios con jardines. El punto de partida fueron los planos del palacio real de Schönbrunn, elaborados por Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. Hacia 1720 se contaban 200 residencias rurales. El príncipe Eugenio de Saboya había adquirido en 1693 la más bella parcela y una de las más grandes con los primeros ingresos que le habían llegado. Allí, tras cuarenta años de trabajo, levantó el Belvedere con sus espaciosos jardines.

Tras la derrota austriaca a manos de Napoleón Bonaparte en 1809 (batalla de Wagram), este último se hospeda en el palacio de Schönbrunn, en Viena. Durante esta estancia, Francia y Austria se alían, y Napoleón desposa a María Luisa, hija de los emperadores de Austria.

Metternich, canciller austriaco en esta época, cambia a Austria al bando anti-napoleónico tras la derrota francesa en Rusia. Después de la derrota definitiva de Napoleón, se celebra el Congreso de Viena, una conferencia internacional convocada con el objeto de restablecer las fronteras de Europa. La reunión se llevó a cabo del 1 de octubre de 1814 al 9 de junio de 1815, lo que le permite a Austria conservar gran parte de sus territorios a pesar de haber estado aliada con Napoleón, y a partir de entonces, Viena, por medio del canciller Metternich, se convertiría en el eje de la política de la Europa continental durante los siguientes treinta años.

Durante el siglo XIX, sobre todo en la segunda mitad, Viena inició un despegue demográfico, acompañado de reformas urbanísticas, que la convirtieron en una gran ciudad, multiplicando en un siglo su población por diez. En 1857, se derribaron las murallas por decreto de Francisco José I de Austria, abriéndose una nueva avenida, la Ringstraße, donde se construyeron importantes edificios, como la Ópera, la Universidad, el Ayuntamiento, el Parlamento, la Bolsa y los museos de historia del arte e historia natural. La derrota de Austria en la guerra austro-prusiana en 1866 y la posterior anexión de los Estados alemanes a Prusia convirtieron a la unificada Alemania en un peligro para Austria, por lo que esta última se tuvo que aliar con Hungría en lo que se conoce como la "política de compensación" o Ausgleichpolitik. Así pues, en 1867, tras el Compromiso con Hungría, Viena se convirtió en la capital del Imperio austrohúngaro y en un centro cultural, artístico, político, industrial y financiero de primer orden mundial. Con esta alianza, Austria prosigue sumando otras más, con lo que para fines del siglo XIX el imperio abarcaba los actuales países de Austria, Hungría, Eslovaquia, República Checa, la Galicia polaca, la Transilvania rumana, la Bucovina y la Rutenia ucranianas, Croacia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Eslovenia y el Trentino-Alto Adigio italiano.

Viena alcanza su máximo demográfico en 1916 con 2 239 000 habitantes, siendo la tercera ciudad más grande de Europa. Este es el período cultural más glorioso de la monarquía de los Habsburgo, con Francisco José I rigiendo el Imperio (período 1848-1916). También es la época de los suntuosos valses vieneses en la Opera Nacional de Viena, grandes carruajes paseando por la Ringstraße y la Kärntner Straße, así como de los típicos cafés vieneses.

De la época destacan intelectuales, como Sigmund Freud en el psicoanálisis y Otto Bauer en el campo del pensamiento político, principal exponente del austromarxismo, ideas que calarían fuerte en la sociedad vienesa, pues ya en 1895 el gobierno municipal estaría en manos del partido socialcristiano, precursor del actual partido ÖVP (democristiano) . Tampoco hay que olvidar en el plano artístico el movimiento modernista, la Secesión de Viena (Secession), con Gustav Klimt como principal exponente en la pintura, Coloman Moser en el grafismo y Joseph Maria Olbrich y Josef Hoffman en la arquitectura. Contrario a estos destacaría asimismo Adolf Loos con su racionalismo arquitectónico. Sin embargo, la Primera Guerra Mundial y la posterior derrota austrohúngara truncarían gran parte de ese esplendor.

Tras el asesinato del archiduque heredero Francisco Fernando y su esposa, Sofía Chotek, en Sarajevo, a manos del terrorista serbo-bosnio Gavrilo Princip, y ante la abrumadora evidencia de la participación de los servicios de inteligencia serbios en el complot, la monarquía dual declara la guerra a Serbia, a la que se le alían Alemania y Turquía y que, ante la oposición de Francia, Inglaterra y Rusia, deviene en la Primera Guerra Mundial. En octubre de 1918, derrotada Austria-Hungría y sus aliados, estalla la revolución en Viena que pide la disolución de la monarquía y la independencia austríaca; sería el fin de la monarquía de los Habsburgo que gobernaba el país desde 1278.

Viena se convirtió, tras el tratado de Saint-Germain, en la capital de la pequeña República de Austria, reducida a su tamaño actual, sufriendo un importante revés demográfico, económico y político. Pese a todo, en esta época continuó la actividad intelectual con el Círculo de Viena (der Wiener Kreis), considerado por muchos el grupo de intelectuales más influyentes del siglo XX en Europa, entre los que destacan Moritz Schlick y Ludwig Wittgenstein en la filosofía positivista lógica (Logischer Empirismus).

Durante el periodo democrático republicano, es decir, desde 1918 hasta la dictadura de Engelbert Dollfuss en 1934, el Partido Obrero Socialdemócrata (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei en alemán) obtuvo la mayoría absoluta en todas las elecciones celebradas para el gobierno local, por lo que la ciudad pasó a ser conocida como Viena roja. La política socialdemócrata de esos años se caracterizó por un extenso programa de viviendas sociales y por un marcado apoyo a la educación y la sanidad públicas, tal y como preconizaba la corriente austromarxista. La Viena roja finalizó en 1934 a consecuencia de la guerra civil austríaca y la victoria del Frente Patriótico. Su último alcalde fue Karl Seitz.

La importancia cultural vienesa se mantendría hasta 1938, año en el que el país fue invadido y, posteriormente, anexionado por la Alemania nazi. Dicha anexión, conocida como el Anschluss, estaba prohibida en los tratados de paz y fue la primera de las expansiones tendentes a unificar en un solo Estado a todos los germanohablantes, bajo un solo liderazgo ("ein Reich, ein Volk, ein Führer"). En la ciudad, que pasó a ser capital de la provincia de Ostmark, pronunció Hitler, el 14 de marzo de 1938, su primer gran discurso a los vieneses desde el balcón central del Palacio de Hofburg, discurso que es considerado uno de los más emotivos del dictador y de mayor aclamo por su masiva audiencia debido a la euforia que la anexión de Austria al Tercer Imperio Germano (Dritte Reich) causó en parte de la población. Para legitimar la invasión se celebró un referéndum el 10 de abril que resultó favorable al Anschluss con un 99,73 %, si bien carecía de las garantías democráticas.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Viena sufrió los indiscriminados bombardeos aéreos estadounidenses que destruyeron buena parte del patrimonio histórico (la catedral gótica de San Esteban, el Palacio de Hofburg, la ópera de Viena, los puentes del Danubio, entre otros), el cual fue reconstruido tras la contienda. En mayo de 1945 Viena fue tomada por el ejército soviético, quienes, junto con franceses, estadounidenses e ingleses, la ocuparían durante los diez años posteriores bajo un sistema de ocupación cuatripartita en la ciudad, similar al de Berlín.

Tras las gestiones de Leopold Figl y Julius Raab y la posterior firma del Acuerdo de Moscú, Austria recobra su independencia el 15 de mayo de 1955, y Viena vuelve a ser capital de la República de Austria. A partir de entonces y gracias a su compromiso de neutralidad, Austria se convirtió en sede de organismos internacionales como la OPEP, la ONUDI, IAEA, IIASA, entre otros, lo cual convierte a Viena en la tercera capital de la ONU, después de Nueva York y Ginebra, por lo que se puede ver hoy en día una gran comunidad internacional, en particular en el distrito 4 de Viena (Wieden) derivada de sus cuerpos diplomáticos. Desde 1995 es parte de la Unión Europea y de los países de Schengen. A partir de 2002 sacó de circulación el chelín austriaco y entró en vigor el euro como la moneda de curso legal en toda Austria.

La población de Viena, en el primer trimestre de 2015, era de 1 797 337 personas, de las que, aproximadamente, el 80 % son austríacos y el 20 % restante de otros países. La población vienesa ha aumentado desde 1988, sobre todo en los últimos años, como consecuencia de la inmigración. El área metropolitana, que se extiende por tierras de la Baja Austria, cuenta con una población de cerca de 2 500 000 habitantes.

En 2001, la Unesco declaró el «Centro histórico de Viena» como un lugar Patrimonio de la Humanidad, destacando en primer lugar que sus cualidades arquitectónicas y urbanas representan un testimonio sobresaliente de un continuo intercambio de valores a lo largo del II milenio. Además, su herencia arquitectónica y urbana ilustra muy bien tres períodos claves del desarrollo político y cultural de Europa: la Edad Media, el período barroco y el Gründerzeit. Finalmente, desde el siglo XVI Viena ha sido universalmente reconocida como la «capital musical de Europa». Gran parte de este legado se transmite en los monumentos de esta ciudad, que se encuentran a continuación ordenados alfabéticamente por sus denominaciones alemanas, ya que en Viena no son conocidos bajo sus nombres traducidos. La traducción al español está entre paréntesis.

Akademie der bildenden Künste (Academia de Bellas Artes)

Albertina, una de las más extensas colecciones de impresiones y dibujos

Burgtheater (teatro imperial de la corte)

Heuriger, tabernas típicas vienesas para degustar buenos vinos, carnes frías o embutidos de la región que se encuentran en los distritos vieneses de Döbling, Favoriten o Floridsdorf, en el estado de Burgenland o en el Weinviertel (parte de Baja Austria),

Hundertwasserhaus, que muestra la arquitectura vanguardista del arquitecto austriaco Friedensreich Hundertwasser

Kaffeehäuser, los cafés vieneses

Kahlenberg, un monte en el Wienerwald (Bosque de Viena), con el mirador más espectacular del río Danubio a su paso por Viena

Karlskirche (Iglesia de San Carlos Borromeo), obra maestra de la arquitectura barroca

Augustinerkirche (Iglesia de los Agustinos), iglesia gótica cuya cripta (Herzgruft) conserva los corazones de los Habsburgo

Kaisergruft (Cripta imperial), mausoleo de la familia Habsburgo

Kärntner Straße y Graben, las calles con las tiendas de moda de las marcas más prestigiadas y caras; también se encuentran agradables cafés, como el café del Hotel Sacher, origen de la Sachertorte

Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia del Arte), uno de los más ricos del mundo

Museum Liechtenstein (Museo Liechtenstein), abierto por la familia gobernante de dicho principado. Alberga importantes obras de Rembrandt, Rubens y Van Dyck

Museum für angewandte Kunst (Museo de Artes Aplicadas), es un instituto museo histórico y prestigioso situado en la famosa Ringstrasse

Museum für Völkerkunde (Museo de Etnología), que alberga el controvertido Penacho de Moctezuma, reclamado por el gobierno de México

Museumsquartier (Barrio museístico) con tres museos de arte moderno con lo mejor de la pintura de Gustav Klimt y Oskar Kokoschka

Naturhistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia Natural)

Palacio Belvedere, un palacio de estilo barroco

Palacio de Schönbrunn (literalmente, "Schönbrunn" en alemán significa "Bella fuente")

Palacio Imperial de Hofburg ("Hofburg" = "Palacio de la Corte")

Palacio Schwarzenberg, un palacio barroco, sede de la Casa de Schwarzenberg

Parlamento

Wurstelprater, un parque de atracciones con el "Riesenrad" (noria gigante)

Rathaus (Ayuntamiento)

Sezession (Secesión)

Spanische Hofreitschule (Escuela española de equitación)

Staatsoper (Ópera Estatal)

Stephanskirche (o Stephansdom) (Catedral de San Esteban de Viena) en el Stephansplatz (Plaza de San Esteban)

Votivkirche (Iglesia Votiva), que alberga el altar de la Virgen de Guadalupe más grande fuera de México.

 

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viena

  

Vienna (German: Wien) is the capital city of Austria.

It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is the largest city in Austria. It is also an administrative district (Bundesland) of its own.

Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona.[9] The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle ad weniam is mentioned.

In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights. It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).

In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.

During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.

In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.

During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.

At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.

After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.

Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)

After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).

After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.

Vienna has many things worth seeing. Here are a few of them.

St. Stephen's cathedral and St. Stephen's Square:

Today St. Stephen's square with the cathedral is the very center of Vienna.The Graben and the Kärntner Straße which lead away from the square are shopping streets with a lot of different shops. Opposite the cathedral you can find the Haas-House, a very modern building by architect Hans Hollein.

Ringstraße:

The Ringstraße runs around the first district and was built in the second half of the 19th century. The street follows the old city walls which were destroyed to create it Along the street you can find different important buildings like the Staatsoper (opera house), the parliament, the Burgtheater, the two museums of natural history and arts. Also the Wiener Postsparkasse which is an important building by the architect Otto Wagner is along the street.

Hofburg:

From the 13th century to 1918 this was the residence of the Habsburg rulers. Today it is the residence of the President of the Republic of Austria and you can also visit different museums like the Schatzkammer where you can see the different crowns of the Habsburg family and the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The National Library is also the Hofburg.

Schloss Schönbrunn:

Today's buildings were built by the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach an important architect in the baroque era in Austria. Another building of Fischer is the Karlskirche.

Schloss Belvedere:

Schloss Belvedere was built by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt another important Austrian baroque architect. It was built for Prinz Eugen of Savoy who fouyght successfully against the Ottoman Empire. Today the castle is used as museum (Austrian Gallery Belvedere).

 

simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Vienna

 

www.bency.co.uk/

 

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Talkin Tarn is a glacial lake and country park near Brampton, Cumbria, England. The lake is a kettle hole lake, formed 10,000 years ago by mass glacial action.

 

The name is of Brittonic origin. The Brittonic dialect known as Cumbric was formerly spoken in the area. The first element, tal, means "brow" or "end" in Brittonic and modern Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. The second element is unclear. It may come from the Brittonic word which appears in Welsh and Old Cornish as can ("white") and Breton as kann ("bland, brilliant"). Talkin may be a hill-name meaning "white brow".

 

'Tarn' is derived from Old Norse 'tjǫrn' and then Middle English 'terne' meaning 'small mountain pool' or 'small lake'.

 

Talkin Tarn Country Park is owned and maintained by Carlisle City Council. It is home to the Boat House Tea Rooms, Brampton Sailing Club, and Talkin Tarn Amateur Rowing Club. The profits from the Tea Rooms and the pay and display car parking are reinvested in the up keep and improvement of the site.

 

Rowing is an activity at Talkin Tarn. The rowing club, Talkin Tarn Amateur Rowing Club, celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2009. Rowing races were first held on Talkin Tarn in the 1850s, and the Rowing Club was formed in 1859 by local townsfolk, several descendants of whom still live in the area. It is the oldest rowing club in the North of England, with the exception of Tyne Rowing Club, and is the 14th oldest non-university club in the country. Talkin Tarn Annual Regatta has grown considerably in recent years from a total entry of 20 in 1946 and 97 in 1988 to what it is today – very successful and one of the largest one-day regattas outside of London with total entries now in excess of 400.

 

On 9th November 1983 an Aerospatiale Gazelle Helicopter (reg G-SFTB) crashed into the tarn during a low level training flight from Carlisle Airport. The single occupant escaped the crash but the helicopter, once raised from the bottom, was damaged beyond repair.

 

Research on climate change carried out at Talkin Tarn was published in 2004.

 

Old buckles, stone axes, and urns have been found in the area.

 

#talkin #talkintarn #talkintarncountrypark

 

More photos of Talkin Tarn here: www.flickr.com/photos/davidambridge/albums/72157633050144969

Talkin Tarn is a glacial lake and country park near Brampton, Cumbria, England. The lake is a kettle hole lake, formed 10,000 years ago by mass glacial action.

 

The name is of Brittonic origin. The Brittonic dialect known as Cumbric was formerly spoken in the area. The first element, tal, means "brow" or "end" in Brittonic and modern Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. The second element is unclear. It may come from the Brittonic word which appears in Welsh and Old Cornish as can ("white") and Breton as kann ("bland, brilliant"). Talkin may be a hill-name meaning "white brow".

 

'Tarn' is derived from Old Norse 'tjǫrn' and then Middle English 'terne' meaning 'small mountain pool' or 'small lake'.

 

Talkin Tarn Country Park is owned and maintained by Carlisle City Council. It is home to the Boat House Tea Rooms, Brampton Sailing Club, and Talkin Tarn Amateur Rowing Club. The profits from the Tea Rooms and the pay and display car parking are reinvested in the up keep and improvement of the site.

 

Rowing is an activity at Talkin Tarn. The rowing club, Talkin Tarn Amateur Rowing Club, celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2009. Rowing races were first held on Talkin Tarn in the 1850s, and the Rowing Club was formed in 1859 by local townsfolk, several descendants of whom still live in the area. It is the oldest rowing club in the North of England, with the exception of Tyne Rowing Club, and is the 14th oldest non-university club in the country. Talkin Tarn Annual Regatta has grown considerably in recent years from a total entry of 20 in 1946 and 97 in 1988 to what it is today – very successful and one of the largest one-day regattas outside of London with total entries now in excess of 400.

 

On 9th November 1983 an Aerospatiale Gazelle Helicopter (reg G-SFTB) crashed into the tarn during a low level training flight from Carlisle Airport. The single occupant escaped the crash but the helicopter, once raised from the bottom, was damaged beyond repair.

 

Research on climate change carried out at Talkin Tarn was published in 2004.

 

Old buckles, stone axes, and urns have been found in the area.

 

More photos of Talkin Tarn here: www.flickr.com/photos/davidambridge/albums/72157633050144969

Uttarakhand ,(Hindi Uttarakha), formerly known as Uttaranchal, is a state in the northern part of India. It is often referred to as the Devbhumi (literally: "Land of the Gods") due to many Hindu temples and pilgrimage centres found throughout the state. Uttarakhand is known for its natural beauty of the Himalayas, the Bhabhar and the Terai. On 9 November 2000, this 27th state of the Republic of India was created from the Himalayan and adjoining northwestern districts of Uttar Pradesh. It borders Tibet Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China on the north; the Mahakali Zone of the Far-Western Region, Nepal on the east; and the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh to the south and Himachal Pradesh to the west and north-west as well as Haryana to its south-western corner. The state is divided into two divisions, Garhwal and Kumaon, with a total of 13 districts. The interim capital of Uttarakhand is Dehradun, the largest city in the region, which is a railhead. The High Court of the state is in Nainital.

 

Archaeological evidence support the existence of humans in the region since prehistoric times. The region formed a part of the Kuru and the Panchal kingdoms (mahajanpads) during the Vedic age of ancient India. Among the first major dynasties of Kumaon were the Kunindas in the 2nd century BCE who practised an early form of Shaivism. Ashokan edicts at Kalsi show the early presence of Buddhism in this region. During the medieval period the region was consolidated under the Kumaon Kingdom and Garhwal Kingdom. In 1816 most of modern Uttarakhand was ceded to the British as part of the Treaty of Sugauli. Although the erstwhile hill kingdoms of Garhwal and Kumaon were traditional rivals, the proximity of different neighbouring ethnic groups and the inseparable and complementary nature of their geography, economy, culture, language, and traditions created strong bonds between the two regions which further strengthened during the Uttarakhand movement for statehood in the 1990s.

 

The natives of the state are generally called Uttarakhandi or more specifically either Garhwali or Kumaoni depending on their place of origin. According to the 2011 Census of India, Uttarakhand has a population of 10,116,752, making it the 19th most populous state in India. A large portion of the population consists of Rajputs and Brahmins. About 83% of the population follow Hinduism. Islam is the second largest majority religion in the state, followed by the Minority Sikhism & Micro-Minority Christianity, Buddhism, and Jainism. Garhwali and Kumaoni along with other hilly dialects and sub-dialects are the main regional languages, whereas Hindi is the most widely spoken language. Uttarakhand is the only state in India with Sanskrit as one of its official languages.

In my dialect "LupSup" OR ''Sure get to see birds'' these days in Panti Bird Sanctuary, Kota Tinggi, Malaysia. All you need to know is the exact location. xlolx

Viena es una ciudad austriaca en Europa Central situada a orillas del Danubio, en el valle de los Bosques de Viena, al pie de las primeras estribaciones de los Alpes. Es la capital de Austria y uno de sus nueve estados federados (Bundesland Wien). Así como la mayor ciudad y el centro cultural de Austria

Además es la segunda ciudad más poblada de Europa Central (tras Berlín) y la décima ciudad en población de la Unión Europea. Su población supera el 1 800 000 de habitantes (2017) y su área metropolitana cuenta con 2,4 millones, población similar a la que tenía la ciudad en 1914. El idioma oficial es el alemán austríaco estándar; se habla también el alemán vienés, un dialecto bávaro.

La ciudad tiene una larga historia, ya que es una de las más antiguas capitales de Europa, por lo que cuenta con un importante patrimonio artístico. Durante el siglo XIX fue una de las grandes capitales musicales del mundo y a principios del siglo XX meca de la filosofía y el debate político de Occidente, así como uno de los principales centros culturales mundiales.

Los romanos la llamaron Vindobona, nombre de origen celta que significa ciudad blanca.

Los primeros asentamientos humanos en la actual Viena son de origen celta (500 a. C.), posteriormente germánicos, y con la expansión del Imperio romano hacia el norte en el siglo I a. C., se adhiere a este en el año 13 a. C. El río Danubio, al igual que los Alpes, sirve entonces de límite natural entre bárbaros y romanos, y Vindobona sirve desde entonces y hasta la caída de Roma (año 476 d. C.) como punto de defensa del imperio. La ciudad nace como campamento del ejército romano, para controlar la Provincia de Panonia, en el que se asientan diferentes unidades, de entre las cuales destaca la Legio X Gemina, que permaneció en ella desde el que la zona fue ocupada por pueblos germanos en época de Graciano y de Teodosio I

Con las invasiones bárbaras es ocupada por ávaros y magiares. Carlomagno conquista la ciudad en el siglo IX y la bautiza con el nombre de Ostmark (la marca del este). Durante el alto medievo Viena es un importante aliado del papado y punto de abastecimiento de armas y víveres para la empresa de las Cruzadas. Fue capital de Hungría con Matías Corvino, y desde el siglo XV hasta las guerras napoleónicas capital del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico, al ser la residencia habitual de los Habsburgo.

En 1237 las murallas de Viena alcanzaron la extensión que conservarían hasta su desaparición en 1857.

Desde la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, hubo un interés creciente del Imperio otomano por Viena, dado que era la clave para conquistar los demás países de Europa; interés que se hace más notable durante el período del sultán Solimán el Magnífico. Pero sus esfuerzos fracasaron y los austríacos salieron victoriosos de los distintos sitios a los que sometieron a la ciudad, el primero en 1529, a pesar de que inicialmente los defensores de la ciudad solo recibieron el apoyo poco entusiasta de sus vecinos alemanes. El ejército turco estaba mal equipado para un asedio y su tarea fue obstaculizada por la nieve y las inundaciones. Solimán se retiró a finales de octubre y no pudo reanudar el asedio a su regreso en 1532, cuando encontró a los defensores apoyados por un gran ejército bajo el mando del hermano del emperador Carlos V, Fernando.

Entre el primero y el segundo sitio turco, las instalaciones defensivas fueron reforzadas y modernizadas constantemente. Esto trajo como consecuencia que se tuvieran que ampliar una y otra vez los espacios libres frente a los bastiones para utilizarlos como campo de tiro. En 1529 estos espacios abarcaban 90 m que, a partir de 1683, fueron ensanchados a 450 m. Hasta 1858 no se construyó ningún edificio en esta explanada.

El segundo sitio se produjo en 1683, en la llamada batalla de Viena, y marcó el comienzo del declive del Imperio otomano en Europa. Fue iniciado por el gran visir Kara Mustafá, que necesitaba desesperadamente un éxito militar para reforzar su posición inestable y trató de lograrlo en una campaña contra el emperador Leopoldo I. Los turcos avanzaron con fuerza abrumadora, sitiaron la ciudad el 16 de julio, pero su falta de artillería de asedio permitió a Leopoldo reunir un ejército adicional formado por tropas austriacas, alemanas y polacas, que derrotó al ejército turco en una batalla librada delante de los muros de la ciudad el 12 de septiembre, que también se conoce como Batalla de Kahlenberg.

Durante el siglo XVIII, los Habsburgo habían convertido a la ciudad en su capital desde 1556 y su importancia se vio acrecentada con la expansión por el valle del Danubio. Se convirtió en un núcleo principal del Barroco europeo gracias a la construcción de importantes obras arquitectónicas y creaciones musicales. En 1800, antes de las guerras napoleónicas, la ciudad contaba con 231 900 habitantes.

Desde el asedio de 1683, en que fueron destruidas numerosas ciudades pequeñas que existían en el exterior de la muralla, en el terreno ondulado situado frente a la ciudad se alzaron numerosos palacios con jardines. El punto de partida fueron los planos del palacio real de Schönbrunn, elaborados por Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. Hacia 1720 se contaban 200 residencias rurales. El príncipe Eugenio de Saboya había adquirido en 1693 la más bella parcela y una de las más grandes con los primeros ingresos que le habían llegado. Allí, tras cuarenta años de trabajo, levantó el Belvedere con sus espaciosos jardines.

Tras la derrota austriaca a manos de Napoleón Bonaparte en 1809 (batalla de Wagram), este último se hospeda en el palacio de Schönbrunn, en Viena. Durante esta estancia, Francia y Austria se alían, y Napoleón desposa a María Luisa, hija de los emperadores de Austria.

Metternich, canciller austriaco en esta época, cambia a Austria al bando anti-napoleónico tras la derrota francesa en Rusia. Después de la derrota definitiva de Napoleón, se celebra el Congreso de Viena, una conferencia internacional convocada con el objeto de restablecer las fronteras de Europa. La reunión se llevó a cabo del 1 de octubre de 1814 al 9 de junio de 1815, lo que le permite a Austria conservar gran parte de sus territorios a pesar de haber estado aliada con Napoleón, y a partir de entonces, Viena, por medio del canciller Metternich, se convertiría en el eje de la política de la Europa continental durante los siguientes treinta años.

Durante el siglo XIX, sobre todo en la segunda mitad, Viena inició un despegue demográfico, acompañado de reformas urbanísticas, que la convirtieron en una gran ciudad, multiplicando en un siglo su población por diez. En 1857, se derribaron las murallas por decreto de Francisco José I de Austria, abriéndose una nueva avenida, la Ringstraße, donde se construyeron importantes edificios, como la Ópera, la Universidad, el Ayuntamiento, el Parlamento, la Bolsa y los museos de historia del arte e historia natural. La derrota de Austria en la guerra austro-prusiana en 1866 y la posterior anexión de los Estados alemanes a Prusia convirtieron a la unificada Alemania en un peligro para Austria, por lo que esta última se tuvo que aliar con Hungría en lo que se conoce como la "política de compensación" o Ausgleichpolitik. Así pues, en 1867, tras el Compromiso con Hungría, Viena se convirtió en la capital del Imperio austrohúngaro y en un centro cultural, artístico, político, industrial y financiero de primer orden mundial. Con esta alianza, Austria prosigue sumando otras más, con lo que para fines del siglo XIX el imperio abarcaba los actuales países de Austria, Hungría, Eslovaquia, República Checa, la Galicia polaca, la Transilvania rumana, la Bucovina y la Rutenia ucranianas, Croacia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Eslovenia y el Trentino-Alto Adigio italiano.

Viena alcanza su máximo demográfico en 1916 con 2 239 000 habitantes, siendo la tercera ciudad más grande de Europa. Este es el período cultural más glorioso de la monarquía de los Habsburgo, con Francisco José I rigiendo el Imperio (período 1848-1916). También es la época de los suntuosos valses vieneses en la Opera Nacional de Viena, grandes carruajes paseando por la Ringstraße y la Kärntner Straße, así como de los típicos cafés vieneses.

De la época destacan intelectuales, como Sigmund Freud en el psicoanálisis y Otto Bauer en el campo del pensamiento político, principal exponente del austromarxismo, ideas que calarían fuerte en la sociedad vienesa, pues ya en 1895 el gobierno municipal estaría en manos del partido socialcristiano, precursor del actual partido ÖVP (democristiano) . Tampoco hay que olvidar en el plano artístico el movimiento modernista, la Secesión de Viena (Secession), con Gustav Klimt como principal exponente en la pintura, Coloman Moser en el grafismo y Joseph Maria Olbrich y Josef Hoffman en la arquitectura. Contrario a estos destacaría asimismo Adolf Loos con su racionalismo arquitectónico. Sin embargo, la Primera Guerra Mundial y la posterior derrota austrohúngara truncarían gran parte de ese esplendor.

Tras el asesinato del archiduque heredero Francisco Fernando y su esposa, Sofía Chotek, en Sarajevo, a manos del terrorista serbo-bosnio Gavrilo Princip, y ante la abrumadora evidencia de la participación de los servicios de inteligencia serbios en el complot, la monarquía dual declara la guerra a Serbia, a la que se le alían Alemania y Turquía y que, ante la oposición de Francia, Inglaterra y Rusia, deviene en la Primera Guerra Mundial. En octubre de 1918, derrotada Austria-Hungría y sus aliados, estalla la revolución en Viena que pide la disolución de la monarquía y la independencia austríaca; sería el fin de la monarquía de los Habsburgo que gobernaba el país desde 1278.

Viena se convirtió, tras el tratado de Saint-Germain, en la capital de la pequeña República de Austria, reducida a su tamaño actual, sufriendo un importante revés demográfico, económico y político. Pese a todo, en esta época continuó la actividad intelectual con el Círculo de Viena (der Wiener Kreis), considerado por muchos el grupo de intelectuales más influyentes del siglo XX en Europa, entre los que destacan Moritz Schlick y Ludwig Wittgenstein en la filosofía positivista lógica (Logischer Empirismus).

Durante el periodo democrático republicano, es decir, desde 1918 hasta la dictadura de Engelbert Dollfuss en 1934, el Partido Obrero Socialdemócrata (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei en alemán) obtuvo la mayoría absoluta en todas las elecciones celebradas para el gobierno local, por lo que la ciudad pasó a ser conocida como Viena roja. La política socialdemócrata de esos años se caracterizó por un extenso programa de viviendas sociales y por un marcado apoyo a la educación y la sanidad públicas, tal y como preconizaba la corriente austromarxista. La Viena roja finalizó en 1934 a consecuencia de la guerra civil austríaca y la victoria del Frente Patriótico. Su último alcalde fue Karl Seitz.

La importancia cultural vienesa se mantendría hasta 1938, año en el que el país fue invadido y, posteriormente, anexionado por la Alemania nazi. Dicha anexión, conocida como el Anschluss, estaba prohibida en los tratados de paz y fue la primera de las expansiones tendentes a unificar en un solo Estado a todos los germanohablantes, bajo un solo liderazgo ("ein Reich, ein Volk, ein Führer"). En la ciudad, que pasó a ser capital de la provincia de Ostmark, pronunció Hitler, el 14 de marzo de 1938, su primer gran discurso a los vieneses desde el balcón central del Palacio de Hofburg, discurso que es considerado uno de los más emotivos del dictador y de mayor aclamo por su masiva audiencia debido a la euforia que la anexión de Austria al Tercer Imperio Germano (Dritte Reich) causó en parte de la población. Para legitimar la invasión se celebró un referéndum el 10 de abril que resultó favorable al Anschluss con un 99,73 %, si bien carecía de las garantías democráticas.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Viena sufrió los indiscriminados bombardeos aéreos estadounidenses que destruyeron buena parte del patrimonio histórico (la catedral gótica de San Esteban, el Palacio de Hofburg, la ópera de Viena, los puentes del Danubio, entre otros), el cual fue reconstruido tras la contienda. En mayo de 1945 Viena fue tomada por el ejército soviético, quienes, junto con franceses, estadounidenses e ingleses, la ocuparían durante los diez años posteriores bajo un sistema de ocupación cuatripartita en la ciudad, similar al de Berlín.

Tras las gestiones de Leopold Figl y Julius Raab y la posterior firma del Acuerdo de Moscú, Austria recobra su independencia el 15 de mayo de 1955, y Viena vuelve a ser capital de la República de Austria. A partir de entonces y gracias a su compromiso de neutralidad, Austria se convirtió en sede de organismos internacionales como la OPEP, la ONUDI, IAEA, IIASA, entre otros, lo cual convierte a Viena en la tercera capital de la ONU, después de Nueva York y Ginebra, por lo que se puede ver hoy en día una gran comunidad internacional, en particular en el distrito 4 de Viena (Wieden) derivada de sus cuerpos diplomáticos. Desde 1995 es parte de la Unión Europea y de los países de Schengen. A partir de 2002 sacó de circulación el chelín austriaco y entró en vigor el euro como la moneda de curso legal en toda Austria.

La población de Viena, en el primer trimestre de 2015, era de 1 797 337 personas, de las que, aproximadamente, el 80 % son austríacos y el 20 % restante de otros países. La población vienesa ha aumentado desde 1988, sobre todo en los últimos años, como consecuencia de la inmigración. El área metropolitana, que se extiende por tierras de la Baja Austria, cuenta con una población de cerca de 2 500 000 habitantes.

En 2001, la Unesco declaró el «Centro histórico de Viena» como un lugar Patrimonio de la Humanidad, destacando en primer lugar que sus cualidades arquitectónicas y urbanas representan un testimonio sobresaliente de un continuo intercambio de valores a lo largo del II milenio. Además, su herencia arquitectónica y urbana ilustra muy bien tres períodos claves del desarrollo político y cultural de Europa: la Edad Media, el período barroco y el Gründerzeit. Finalmente, desde el siglo XVI Viena ha sido universalmente reconocida como la «capital musical de Europa». Gran parte de este legado se transmite en los monumentos de esta ciudad, que se encuentran a continuación ordenados alfabéticamente por sus denominaciones alemanas, ya que en Viena no son conocidos bajo sus nombres traducidos. La traducción al español está entre paréntesis.

Akademie der bildenden Künste (Academia de Bellas Artes)

Albertina, una de las más extensas colecciones de impresiones y dibujos

Burgtheater (teatro imperial de la corte)

Heuriger, tabernas típicas vienesas para degustar buenos vinos, carnes frías o embutidos de la región que se encuentran en los distritos vieneses de Döbling, Favoriten o Floridsdorf, en el estado de Burgenland o en el Weinviertel (parte de Baja Austria),

Hundertwasserhaus, que muestra la arquitectura vanguardista del arquitecto austriaco Friedensreich Hundertwasser

Kaffeehäuser, los cafés vieneses

Kahlenberg, un monte en el Wienerwald (Bosque de Viena), con el mirador más espectacular del río Danubio a su paso por Viena

Karlskirche (Iglesia de San Carlos Borromeo), obra maestra de la arquitectura barroca

Augustinerkirche (Iglesia de los Agustinos), iglesia gótica cuya cripta (Herzgruft) conserva los corazones de los Habsburgo

Kaisergruft (Cripta imperial), mausoleo de la familia Habsburgo

Kärntner Straße y Graben, las calles con las tiendas de moda de las marcas más prestigiadas y caras; también se encuentran agradables cafés, como el café del Hotel Sacher, origen de la Sachertorte

Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia del Arte), uno de los más ricos del mundo

Museum Liechtenstein (Museo Liechtenstein), abierto por la familia gobernante de dicho principado. Alberga importantes obras de Rembrandt, Rubens y Van Dyck

Museum für angewandte Kunst (Museo de Artes Aplicadas), es un instituto museo histórico y prestigioso situado en la famosa Ringstrasse

Museum für Völkerkunde (Museo de Etnología), que alberga el controvertido Penacho de Moctezuma, reclamado por el gobierno de México

Museumsquartier (Barrio museístico) con tres museos de arte moderno con lo mejor de la pintura de Gustav Klimt y Oskar Kokoschka

Naturhistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia Natural)

Palacio Belvedere, un palacio de estilo barroco

Palacio de Schönbrunn (literalmente, "Schönbrunn" en alemán significa "Bella fuente")

Palacio Imperial de Hofburg ("Hofburg" = "Palacio de la Corte")

Palacio Schwarzenberg, un palacio barroco, sede de la Casa de Schwarzenberg

Parlamento

Wurstelprater, un parque de atracciones con el "Riesenrad" (noria gigante)

Rathaus (Ayuntamiento)

Sezession (Secesión)

Spanische Hofreitschule (Escuela española de equitación)

Staatsoper (Ópera Estatal)

Stephanskirche (o Stephansdom) (Catedral de San Esteban de Viena) en el Stephansplatz (Plaza de San Esteban)

Votivkirche (Iglesia Votiva), que alberga el altar de la Virgen de Guadalupe más grande fuera de México.

 

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viena

  

Vienna (German: Wien) is the capital city of Austria.

It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is the largest city in Austria. It is also an administrative district (Bundesland) of its own.

Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona.[9] The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle ad weniam is mentioned.

In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights. It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).

In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.

During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.

In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.

During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.

At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.

After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.

Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)

After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).

After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.

Vienna has many things worth seeing. Here are a few of them.

St. Stephen's cathedral and St. Stephen's Square:

Today St. Stephen's square with the cathedral is the very center of Vienna.The Graben and the Kärntner Straße which lead away from the square are shopping streets with a lot of different shops. Opposite the cathedral you can find the Haas-House, a very modern building by architect Hans Hollein.

Ringstraße:

The Ringstraße runs around the first district and was built in the second half of the 19th century. The street follows the old city walls which were destroyed to create it Along the street you can find different important buildings like the Staatsoper (opera house), the parliament, the Burgtheater, the two museums of natural history and arts. Also the Wiener Postsparkasse which is an important building by the architect Otto Wagner is along the street.

Hofburg:

From the 13th century to 1918 this was the residence of the Habsburg rulers. Today it is the residence of the President of the Republic of Austria and you can also visit different museums like the Schatzkammer where you can see the different crowns of the Habsburg family and the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The National Library is also the Hofburg.

Schloss Schönbrunn:

Today's buildings were built by the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach an important architect in the baroque era in Austria. Another building of Fischer is the Karlskirche.

Schloss Belvedere:

Schloss Belvedere was built by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt another important Austrian baroque architect. It was built for Prinz Eugen of Savoy who fouyght successfully against the Ottoman Empire. Today the castle is used as museum (Austrian Gallery Belvedere).

 

simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Vienna

 

"The Devil's Bridge (dialect: Tüfelsbrugg) is a historic road bridge constructed as an arch bridge that crosses the Sihl in the Egg district of Einsiedeln in the Swiss canton of Schwyz. It connects Einsiedeln with the Etzelpass and is part of the Way of St. James, which is also called the Swabian Way between Constance and Einsiedeln.

 

The first bridge was built by Abbot Gero von Frohburg in 1117. In 1517 the first stone bridge was built. In the 17th century this was replaced by a roofed new building, which was reinforced by Brother Jakob Natter in 1794 and at the same time supplemented with a chapel niche created by Johann Baptist Babel for St. Nepomuk.

 

Restorations were made in 1833 and 1908. In 1984 the Devil's Bridge was taken over by the Einsiedeln district.

 

From 1987 to 1992 it was restored again and placed under the protection of the Swiss Confederation and the Canton of Schwyz." - info from Wikipedia.

 

During the summer of 2018 I went on my first ever cycling tour. On my own I cycled from Strasbourg, France to Geneva, Switzerland passing through the major cities of Switzerland. In total I cycled 1,185 km over the course of 16 days and took more than 8,000 photos.

 

Now on Instagram.

 

Become a patron to my photography on Patreon.

Viena es una ciudad austriaca en Europa Central situada a orillas del Danubio, en el valle de los Bosques de Viena, al pie de las primeras estribaciones de los Alpes. Es la capital de Austria y uno de sus nueve estados federados (Bundesland Wien). Así como la mayor ciudad y el centro cultural de Austria

Además es la segunda ciudad más poblada de Europa Central (tras Berlín) y la décima ciudad en población de la Unión Europea. Su población supera el 1 800 000 de habitantes (2017) y su área metropolitana cuenta con 2,4 millones, población similar a la que tenía la ciudad en 1914. El idioma oficial es el alemán austríaco estándar; se habla también el alemán vienés, un dialecto bávaro.

La ciudad tiene una larga historia, ya que es una de las más antiguas capitales de Europa, por lo que cuenta con un importante patrimonio artístico. Durante el siglo XIX fue una de las grandes capitales musicales del mundo y a principios del siglo XX meca de la filosofía y el debate político de Occidente, así como uno de los principales centros culturales mundiales.

Los romanos la llamaron Vindobona, nombre de origen celta que significa ciudad blanca.

Los primeros asentamientos humanos en la actual Viena son de origen celta (500 a. C.), posteriormente germánicos, y con la expansión del Imperio romano hacia el norte en el siglo I a. C., se adhiere a este en el año 13 a. C. El río Danubio, al igual que los Alpes, sirve entonces de límite natural entre bárbaros y romanos, y Vindobona sirve desde entonces y hasta la caída de Roma (año 476 d. C.) como punto de defensa del imperio. La ciudad nace como campamento del ejército romano, para controlar la Provincia de Panonia, en el que se asientan diferentes unidades, de entre las cuales destaca la Legio X Gemina, que permaneció en ella desde el que la zona fue ocupada por pueblos germanos en época de Graciano y de Teodosio I

Con las invasiones bárbaras es ocupada por ávaros y magiares. Carlomagno conquista la ciudad en el siglo IX y la bautiza con el nombre de Ostmark (la marca del este). Durante el alto medievo Viena es un importante aliado del papado y punto de abastecimiento de armas y víveres para la empresa de las Cruzadas. Fue capital de Hungría con Matías Corvino, y desde el siglo XV hasta las guerras napoleónicas capital del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico, al ser la residencia habitual de los Habsburgo.

En 1237 las murallas de Viena alcanzaron la extensión que conservarían hasta su desaparición en 1857.

Desde la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, hubo un interés creciente del Imperio otomano por Viena, dado que era la clave para conquistar los demás países de Europa; interés que se hace más notable durante el período del sultán Solimán el Magnífico. Pero sus esfuerzos fracasaron y los austríacos salieron victoriosos de los distintos sitios a los que sometieron a la ciudad, el primero en 1529, a pesar de que inicialmente los defensores de la ciudad solo recibieron el apoyo poco entusiasta de sus vecinos alemanes. El ejército turco estaba mal equipado para un asedio y su tarea fue obstaculizada por la nieve y las inundaciones. Solimán se retiró a finales de octubre y no pudo reanudar el asedio a su regreso en 1532, cuando encontró a los defensores apoyados por un gran ejército bajo el mando del hermano del emperador Carlos V, Fernando.

Entre el primero y el segundo sitio turco, las instalaciones defensivas fueron reforzadas y modernizadas constantemente. Esto trajo como consecuencia que se tuvieran que ampliar una y otra vez los espacios libres frente a los bastiones para utilizarlos como campo de tiro. En 1529 estos espacios abarcaban 90 m que, a partir de 1683, fueron ensanchados a 450 m. Hasta 1858 no se construyó ningún edificio en esta explanada.

El segundo sitio se produjo en 1683, en la llamada batalla de Viena, y marcó el comienzo del declive del Imperio otomano en Europa. Fue iniciado por el gran visir Kara Mustafá, que necesitaba desesperadamente un éxito militar para reforzar su posición inestable y trató de lograrlo en una campaña contra el emperador Leopoldo I. Los turcos avanzaron con fuerza abrumadora, sitiaron la ciudad el 16 de julio, pero su falta de artillería de asedio permitió a Leopoldo reunir un ejército adicional formado por tropas austriacas, alemanas y polacas, que derrotó al ejército turco en una batalla librada delante de los muros de la ciudad el 12 de septiembre, que también se conoce como Batalla de Kahlenberg.

Durante el siglo XVIII, los Habsburgo habían convertido a la ciudad en su capital desde 1556 y su importancia se vio acrecentada con la expansión por el valle del Danubio. Se convirtió en un núcleo principal del Barroco europeo gracias a la construcción de importantes obras arquitectónicas y creaciones musicales. En 1800, antes de las guerras napoleónicas, la ciudad contaba con 231 900 habitantes.

Desde el asedio de 1683, en que fueron destruidas numerosas ciudades pequeñas que existían en el exterior de la muralla, en el terreno ondulado situado frente a la ciudad se alzaron numerosos palacios con jardines. El punto de partida fueron los planos del palacio real de Schönbrunn, elaborados por Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. Hacia 1720 se contaban 200 residencias rurales. El príncipe Eugenio de Saboya había adquirido en 1693 la más bella parcela y una de las más grandes con los primeros ingresos que le habían llegado. Allí, tras cuarenta años de trabajo, levantó el Belvedere con sus espaciosos jardines.

Tras la derrota austriaca a manos de Napoleón Bonaparte en 1809 (batalla de Wagram), este último se hospeda en el palacio de Schönbrunn, en Viena. Durante esta estancia, Francia y Austria se alían, y Napoleón desposa a María Luisa, hija de los emperadores de Austria.

Metternich, canciller austriaco en esta época, cambia a Austria al bando anti-napoleónico tras la derrota francesa en Rusia. Después de la derrota definitiva de Napoleón, se celebra el Congreso de Viena, una conferencia internacional convocada con el objeto de restablecer las fronteras de Europa. La reunión se llevó a cabo del 1 de octubre de 1814 al 9 de junio de 1815, lo que le permite a Austria conservar gran parte de sus territorios a pesar de haber estado aliada con Napoleón, y a partir de entonces, Viena, por medio del canciller Metternich, se convertiría en el eje de la política de la Europa continental durante los siguientes treinta años.

Durante el siglo XIX, sobre todo en la segunda mitad, Viena inició un despegue demográfico, acompañado de reformas urbanísticas, que la convirtieron en una gran ciudad, multiplicando en un siglo su población por diez. En 1857, se derribaron las murallas por decreto de Francisco José I de Austria, abriéndose una nueva avenida, la Ringstraße, donde se construyeron importantes edificios, como la Ópera, la Universidad, el Ayuntamiento, el Parlamento, la Bolsa y los museos de historia del arte e historia natural. La derrota de Austria en la guerra austro-prusiana en 1866 y la posterior anexión de los Estados alemanes a Prusia convirtieron a la unificada Alemania en un peligro para Austria, por lo que esta última se tuvo que aliar con Hungría en lo que se conoce como la "política de compensación" o Ausgleichpolitik. Así pues, en 1867, tras el Compromiso con Hungría, Viena se convirtió en la capital del Imperio austrohúngaro y en un centro cultural, artístico, político, industrial y financiero de primer orden mundial. Con esta alianza, Austria prosigue sumando otras más, con lo que para fines del siglo XIX el imperio abarcaba los actuales países de Austria, Hungría, Eslovaquia, República Checa, la Galicia polaca, la Transilvania rumana, la Bucovina y la Rutenia ucranianas, Croacia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Eslovenia y el Trentino-Alto Adigio italiano.

Viena alcanza su máximo demográfico en 1916 con 2 239 000 habitantes, siendo la tercera ciudad más grande de Europa. Este es el período cultural más glorioso de la monarquía de los Habsburgo, con Francisco José I rigiendo el Imperio (período 1848-1916). También es la época de los suntuosos valses vieneses en la Opera Nacional de Viena, grandes carruajes paseando por la Ringstraße y la Kärntner Straße, así como de los típicos cafés vieneses.

De la época destacan intelectuales, como Sigmund Freud en el psicoanálisis y Otto Bauer en el campo del pensamiento político, principal exponente del austromarxismo, ideas que calarían fuerte en la sociedad vienesa, pues ya en 1895 el gobierno municipal estaría en manos del partido socialcristiano, precursor del actual partido ÖVP (democristiano) . Tampoco hay que olvidar en el plano artístico el movimiento modernista, la Secesión de Viena (Secession), con Gustav Klimt como principal exponente en la pintura, Coloman Moser en el grafismo y Joseph Maria Olbrich y Josef Hoffman en la arquitectura. Contrario a estos destacaría asimismo Adolf Loos con su racionalismo arquitectónico. Sin embargo, la Primera Guerra Mundial y la posterior derrota austrohúngara truncarían gran parte de ese esplendor.

Tras el asesinato del archiduque heredero Francisco Fernando y su esposa, Sofía Chotek, en Sarajevo, a manos del terrorista serbo-bosnio Gavrilo Princip, y ante la abrumadora evidencia de la participación de los servicios de inteligencia serbios en el complot, la monarquía dual declara la guerra a Serbia, a la que se le alían Alemania y Turquía y que, ante la oposición de Francia, Inglaterra y Rusia, deviene en la Primera Guerra Mundial. En octubre de 1918, derrotada Austria-Hungría y sus aliados, estalla la revolución en Viena que pide la disolución de la monarquía y la independencia austríaca; sería el fin de la monarquía de los Habsburgo que gobernaba el país desde 1278.

Viena se convirtió, tras el tratado de Saint-Germain, en la capital de la pequeña República de Austria, reducida a su tamaño actual, sufriendo un importante revés demográfico, económico y político. Pese a todo, en esta época continuó la actividad intelectual con el Círculo de Viena (der Wiener Kreis), considerado por muchos el grupo de intelectuales más influyentes del siglo XX en Europa, entre los que destacan Moritz Schlick y Ludwig Wittgenstein en la filosofía positivista lógica (Logischer Empirismus).

Durante el periodo democrático republicano, es decir, desde 1918 hasta la dictadura de Engelbert Dollfuss en 1934, el Partido Obrero Socialdemócrata (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei en alemán) obtuvo la mayoría absoluta en todas las elecciones celebradas para el gobierno local, por lo que la ciudad pasó a ser conocida como Viena roja. La política socialdemócrata de esos años se caracterizó por un extenso programa de viviendas sociales y por un marcado apoyo a la educación y la sanidad públicas, tal y como preconizaba la corriente austromarxista. La Viena roja finalizó en 1934 a consecuencia de la guerra civil austríaca y la victoria del Frente Patriótico. Su último alcalde fue Karl Seitz.

La importancia cultural vienesa se mantendría hasta 1938, año en el que el país fue invadido y, posteriormente, anexionado por la Alemania nazi. Dicha anexión, conocida como el Anschluss, estaba prohibida en los tratados de paz y fue la primera de las expansiones tendentes a unificar en un solo Estado a todos los germanohablantes, bajo un solo liderazgo ("ein Reich, ein Volk, ein Führer"). En la ciudad, que pasó a ser capital de la provincia de Ostmark, pronunció Hitler, el 14 de marzo de 1938, su primer gran discurso a los vieneses desde el balcón central del Palacio de Hofburg, discurso que es considerado uno de los más emotivos del dictador y de mayor aclamo por su masiva audiencia debido a la euforia que la anexión de Austria al Tercer Imperio Germano (Dritte Reich) causó en parte de la población. Para legitimar la invasión se celebró un referéndum el 10 de abril que resultó favorable al Anschluss con un 99,73 %, si bien carecía de las garantías democráticas.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Viena sufrió los indiscriminados bombardeos aéreos estadounidenses que destruyeron buena parte del patrimonio histórico (la catedral gótica de San Esteban, el Palacio de Hofburg, la ópera de Viena, los puentes del Danubio, entre otros), el cual fue reconstruido tras la contienda. En mayo de 1945 Viena fue tomada por el ejército soviético, quienes, junto con franceses, estadounidenses e ingleses, la ocuparían durante los diez años posteriores bajo un sistema de ocupación cuatripartita en la ciudad, similar al de Berlín.

Tras las gestiones de Leopold Figl y Julius Raab y la posterior firma del Acuerdo de Moscú, Austria recobra su independencia el 15 de mayo de 1955, y Viena vuelve a ser capital de la República de Austria. A partir de entonces y gracias a su compromiso de neutralidad, Austria se convirtió en sede de organismos internacionales como la OPEP, la ONUDI, IAEA, IIASA, entre otros, lo cual convierte a Viena en la tercera capital de la ONU, después de Nueva York y Ginebra, por lo que se puede ver hoy en día una gran comunidad internacional, en particular en el distrito 4 de Viena (Wieden) derivada de sus cuerpos diplomáticos. Desde 1995 es parte de la Unión Europea y de los países de Schengen. A partir de 2002 sacó de circulación el chelín austriaco y entró en vigor el euro como la moneda de curso legal en toda Austria.

La población de Viena, en el primer trimestre de 2015, era de 1 797 337 personas, de las que, aproximadamente, el 80 % son austríacos y el 20 % restante de otros países. La población vienesa ha aumentado desde 1988, sobre todo en los últimos años, como consecuencia de la inmigración. El área metropolitana, que se extiende por tierras de la Baja Austria, cuenta con una población de cerca de 2 500 000 habitantes.

En 2001, la Unesco declaró el «Centro histórico de Viena» como un lugar Patrimonio de la Humanidad, destacando en primer lugar que sus cualidades arquitectónicas y urbanas representan un testimonio sobresaliente de un continuo intercambio de valores a lo largo del II milenio. Además, su herencia arquitectónica y urbana ilustra muy bien tres períodos claves del desarrollo político y cultural de Europa: la Edad Media, el período barroco y el Gründerzeit. Finalmente, desde el siglo XVI Viena ha sido universalmente reconocida como la «capital musical de Europa». Gran parte de este legado se transmite en los monumentos de esta ciudad, que se encuentran a continuación ordenados alfabéticamente por sus denominaciones alemanas, ya que en Viena no son conocidos bajo sus nombres traducidos. La traducción al español está entre paréntesis.

Akademie der bildenden Künste (Academia de Bellas Artes)

Albertina, una de las más extensas colecciones de impresiones y dibujos

Burgtheater (teatro imperial de la corte)

Heuriger, tabernas típicas vienesas para degustar buenos vinos, carnes frías o embutidos de la región que se encuentran en los distritos vieneses de Döbling, Favoriten o Floridsdorf, en el estado de Burgenland o en el Weinviertel (parte de Baja Austria),

Hundertwasserhaus, que muestra la arquitectura vanguardista del arquitecto austriaco Friedensreich Hundertwasser

Kaffeehäuser, los cafés vieneses

Kahlenberg, un monte en el Wienerwald (Bosque de Viena), con el mirador más espectacular del río Danubio a su paso por Viena

Karlskirche (Iglesia de San Carlos Borromeo), obra maestra de la arquitectura barroca

Augustinerkirche (Iglesia de los Agustinos), iglesia gótica cuya cripta (Herzgruft) conserva los corazones de los Habsburgo

Kaisergruft (Cripta imperial), mausoleo de la familia Habsburgo

Kärntner Straße y Graben, las calles con las tiendas de moda de las marcas más prestigiadas y caras; también se encuentran agradables cafés, como el café del Hotel Sacher, origen de la Sachertorte

Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia del Arte), uno de los más ricos del mundo

Museum Liechtenstein (Museo Liechtenstein), abierto por la familia gobernante de dicho principado. Alberga importantes obras de Rembrandt, Rubens y Van Dyck

Museum für angewandte Kunst (Museo de Artes Aplicadas), es un instituto museo histórico y prestigioso situado en la famosa Ringstrasse

Museum für Völkerkunde (Museo de Etnología), que alberga el controvertido Penacho de Moctezuma, reclamado por el gobierno de México

Museumsquartier (Barrio museístico) con tres museos de arte moderno con lo mejor de la pintura de Gustav Klimt y Oskar Kokoschka

Naturhistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia Natural)

Palacio Belvedere, un palacio de estilo barroco

Palacio de Schönbrunn (literalmente, "Schönbrunn" en alemán significa "Bella fuente")

Palacio Imperial de Hofburg ("Hofburg" = "Palacio de la Corte")

Palacio Schwarzenberg, un palacio barroco, sede de la Casa de Schwarzenberg

Parlamento

Wurstelprater, un parque de atracciones con el "Riesenrad" (noria gigante)

Rathaus (Ayuntamiento)

Sezession (Secesión)

Spanische Hofreitschule (Escuela española de equitación)

Staatsoper (Ópera Estatal)

Stephanskirche (o Stephansdom) (Catedral de San Esteban de Viena) en el Stephansplatz (Plaza de San Esteban)

Votivkirche (Iglesia Votiva), que alberga el altar de la Virgen de Guadalupe más grande fuera de México.

 

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viena

  

Vienna (German: Wien) is the capital city of Austria.

It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is the largest city in Austria. It is also an administrative district (Bundesland) of its own.

Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona.[9] The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle ad weniam is mentioned.

In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights. It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).

In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.

During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.

In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.

During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.

At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.

After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.

Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)

After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).

After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.

Vienna has many things worth seeing. Here are a few of them.

St. Stephen's cathedral and St. Stephen's Square:

Today St. Stephen's square with the cathedral is the very center of Vienna.The Graben and the Kärntner Straße which lead away from the square are shopping streets with a lot of different shops. Opposite the cathedral you can find the Haas-House, a very modern building by architect Hans Hollein.

Ringstraße:

The Ringstraße runs around the first district and was built in the second half of the 19th century. The street follows the old city walls which were destroyed to create it Along the street you can find different important buildings like the Staatsoper (opera house), the parliament, the Burgtheater, the two museums of natural history and arts. Also the Wiener Postsparkasse which is an important building by the architect Otto Wagner is along the street.

Hofburg:

From the 13th century to 1918 this was the residence of the Habsburg rulers. Today it is the residence of the President of the Republic of Austria and you can also visit different museums like the Schatzkammer where you can see the different crowns of the Habsburg family and the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The National Library is also the Hofburg.

Schloss Schönbrunn:

Today's buildings were built by the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach an important architect in the baroque era in Austria. Another building of Fischer is the Karlskirche.

Schloss Belvedere:

Schloss Belvedere was built by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt another important Austrian baroque architect. It was built for Prinz Eugen of Savoy who fouyght successfully against the Ottoman Empire. Today the castle is used as museum (Austrian Gallery Belvedere).

 

simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Vienna

 

Intha fishermen of the Inle Lake - Shan State - Myanmar

 

The Intha are members of a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group living around Inle Lake. They speak an archaic dialect of Burmese, and are believed to have come from the Dawei area. They often live on Inle Lake, and support themselves through the tending of vegetable farms on floating gardens. Also, the Intha are known for their leg-rowing techniques, and are traditionally Buddhists.

The people of Inle Lake (called Intha), some 70,000 of them, live in four cities bordering the lake, in numerous small villages along the lake's shores, and on the lake itself. The entire lake area is in Nyaung Shwe township. The population consists predominantly of Intha, with a mix of other Shan, Taungyo, Pa-O (Taungthu), Danu, Kayah, Danaw and Bamar ethnicities. Most are devout Buddhists, and live in simple houses of wood and woven bamboo on stilts; they are largely self-sufficient farmers.

Most transportation on the lake is traditionally by small boats, or by somewhat larger boats fitted with outboard motors. Local fishermen are known for practicing a distinctive rowing style which involves standing at the stern on one leg and wrapping the other leg around the oar. This unique style evolved for the reason that the lake is covered by reeds and floating plants making it difficult to see above them while sitting. Standing provides the rower with a view beyond the reeds. However, the leg rowing style is only practiced by the men. Women row in the customary style, using the oar with their hands, sitting cross legged at the stern.

 

A MUST View On Black

Faeröer - Føroyar - Færøerne - Faroe islands

 

De Faeröer [ˈfɛːrøər]? (Faeröers: Føroyar; Deens: Færøerne) zijn een eilandengroep, gelegen in de noordelijke Atlantische Oceaan in de driehoek Schotland-Noorwegen-IJsland. De archipel vormt een autonoom gebied binnen het Koninkrijk Denemarken. De naam Faeröer komt waarschijnlijk van 'schapeneilanden' (Deens: får betekent schaap; øer eilanden). Er wonen 49.709 (2013) mensen, van wie veel in de hoofdstad Tórshavn. De plaatselijke Noord-Germaanse dialecten, verwant aan het IJslands, zijn gestandaardiseerd in het Faeröers.

Geschiedenis

De Faeröer zijn vanaf de 9e eeuw n.Chr. voornamelijk vanuit Noorwegen bevolkt. In de 11e eeuw kwamen de eilanden onder het gezag van de Noorse koning. Toen Noorwegen zelf een gebiedsdeel van Denemarken werd, kwamen de Faeröer ook onder de Deense kroon. Ook toen Noorwegen Zweeds en later zelfstandig werd, bleven de Faeröer Deens. In 1948 kregen de eilanden verregaand zelfbestuur. De Faeröer behoren niet tot de Europese Unie.

Op sommige zeekaarten uit de 16e en 17e eeuw is ten zuiden van IJsland een groot eiland te zien dat Frisland genoemd werd. Aangenomen wordt dat daarmee de Faeröer bedoeld werden.

Politiek

De Faeröer zijn een constitutioneel koninkrijk. Het staatshoofd is de Deense Koningin Margaretha II. De minister-president van het land is Kaj Leo Johannesen.

Economie

De economie van de Faeröer is voornamelijk afhankelijk van de visserij (onder meer wijting, kabeljauw, schelvis, koolvis) en intensieve zeeviskwekerij (voornamelijk zalm en forel). De bestuurlijke verantwoordelijkheid voor deze economische activiteiten valt onder het zelfbestuur van de eilandengroep, zoals met het Deense Koninkrijk wettelijk is overeengekomen. De Faeröer onderhouden bilaterale betrekkingen met de Europese Unie en met andere landen, waaronder de buurlanden Noorwegen en IJsland.

Naast de visserij, die verreweg het grootste deel van de export voor zijn rekening neemt, zijn er op de archipel ook duizenden schapen, die in de bergen grazen. Ze voorzien in 60% van de vleesproductie en zijn daarbij ook nog wolleveranciers. Kleine en gevarieerde industriële activiteiten worden ontwikkeld. Het toerisme neemt een bescheiden plaats in en ook de dienstverlening, vooral voor de visserij en de oliewinning, groeit. De vissers van de Faeröer zijn berucht om het bijeendrijven en slachten van scholen grienden, kleinere walvisachtigen, voor hun vlees en blubber, hetgeen voor de buitenwereld een controversiële bezigheid is. Deze jacht op grienden (in het Faeröers grindadrápið: de griendjacht, grindadráp: een griendjacht) wordt gezien als een volksfeest. De griendjacht is niet commercieel. De vangsten worden onder de bevolking verdeeld. Daarnaast bestaat er nog een kleine vogelvangst voor economische doeleinden, een melkveeproductie die de plaatselijke behoeften geheel dekt, en een bescheiden aardappelteelt.

De opbrengst van de nog steeds bescheiden winning van olie binnen de 200 zeemijl vanaf de zeekust, is sinds enkele jaren een interne Faeröerse aangelegenheid. Denemarken en de Faeröer zijn overeengekomen dat de opbrengsten in de Faeröerse bodem, zee en lucht eigendom zijn van het Faeröerse volk en niet per definitie van de Denen.

Geografie[

De Faeröereilanden hebben tezamen een totale kustlijn van 1117 km. Het hoogste punt is de Slættaratindur op het eiland Eysturoy, met 882 m.

De zeventien bewoonde eilanden van de Faeröer zijn:

•Streymoy

•Eysturoy

•Vágar

•Mykines

•Suðuroy

•Stóra Dímun

•Skúvoy

•Sandoy

•Hestur

•Koltur

•Nólsoy

•Borðoy

•Kalsoy

•Kunoy

•Viðoy

•Svínoy

•Fugloy

Het achttiende, onbewoonde eiland is Lítla Dímun.

De hoofdstad Tórshavn, met 19.282 inwoners (2005), ligt op het grootste eiland, Streymoy. Dit eiland is met een brug verbonden met het op een na grootste eiland, Eysturoy. Een andere wat grotere plaats is Klaksvík met 4664 inwoners (2005), op Borðoy.

Vanaf Borðoy loopt een dam naar zowel Viðoy als Kunoy. Deze drie eilanden vormen samen met Kalsoy, Svínoy en Fugloy de Noordereilanden.

Op Vágar ligt het enige vliegveld van de Faeröer, de Luchthaven Vágar. Vroeger moesten luchtreizigers die naar Tórshavn wilden, een overtocht per veerboot maken, maar sinds in 2002 de Vágartunnel werd voltooid is er een rechtstreekse wegverbinding.

Het meest westelijke eiland Mykines is beroemd om zijn populatie papegaaiduikers. De hele archipel heeft overigens een rijk vogelleven: de steile, rotsachtige kust maakt de nesten onbereikbaar voor vijanden.

De Faeröer bestaan uit 34 gemeenten

 

Legong is a form of Balinese dance. It is a refined dance form characterized by intricate finger movements, complicated footwork, and expressive gestures and facial expressions.

 

An extremely basic definition of legong is a dance traditionally performed by pre-pubescent girls in the palaces of feudal Bali.

 

One translation is that the word is made up of two words. Lega meaning happy and Ing wong meaning person – put them together and you get: “something that makes people happy”. Another one is oleg meaning dance and gong meaning gamelan, the music that accompanies the dance.

 

Legong probably originated in the 19th century as royal entertainment. Today the most common legong dance is Legong Keraton, so named by the Sultanate of Keraton Surakarta when the music and dance composer and genius I Wayan Lotring from Kuta was invited to perform in the 1920s with his Gamelan Pelegongan group in the keraton (palace) in Surakarta.

 

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Bali is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nusa Ceningan. It is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital of Denpasar is located at the southern part of the island.

 

With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesia's Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census, 83.5% of Bali's population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13.4% Muslim, Christianity at 2.5%, and Buddhism 0.5%.

 

Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in numbers since the 1980s. It is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali.

 

Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species. In this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean. There is a wide range of dive sites with high quality reefs, all with their own specific attractions. Many sites can have strong currents and swell, so diving without a knowledgeable guide is inadvisable. Most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit, 2013 APEC and Miss World 2013.

 

HISTORY

ANCIENT

Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Oceania. Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the island's west.

 

In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora and Ganapatya. Each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead.

 

Inscriptions from 896 and 911 don't mention a king, until 914, when Sri Kesarivarma is mentioned. They also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindok's great granddaughter, Mahendradatta (Gunapriyadharmapatni), married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa (Dharmodayanavarmadeva) around 989, giving birth to Airlangga around 1001. This marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Princess Sakalendukirana appeared in 1098. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150. Jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204.

 

Balinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture, beginning around the 1st century AD. The name Bali dwipa ("Bali island") has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD and mentioning "Walidwipa". It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation. Some religious and cultural traditions still practised today can be traced to this period.

 

The Hindu Majapahit Empire (1293–1520 AD) on eastern Java founded a Balinese colony in 1343. The uncle of Hayam Wuruk is mentioned in the charters of 1384-86. A mass Javanese emigration occurred in the next century.

 

PORTUGUESE CONTACTS

The first known European contact with Bali is thought to have been made in 1512, when a Portuguese expedition led by Antonio Abreu and Francisco Serrão sighted its northern shores. It was the first expedition of a series of bi-annual fleets to the Moluccas, that throughout the 16th century usually traveled along the coasts of the Sunda Islands. Bali was also mapped in 1512, in the chart of Francisco Rodrigues, aboard the expedition. In 1585, a ship foundered off the Bukit Peninsula and left a few Portuguese in the service of Dewa Agung.

 

DUTCH EAST INDIA

In 1597 the Dutch explorer Cornelis de Houtman arrived at Bali, and the Dutch East India Company was established in 1602. The Dutch government expanded its control across the Indonesian archipelago during the second half of the 19th century (see Dutch East Indies). Dutch political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast, when the Dutch pitted various competing Balinese realms against each other. In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms in the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control.

 

In June 1860 the famous Welsh naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, travelled to Bali from Singapore, landing at Buleleng on the northcoast of the island. Wallace's trip to Bali was instrumental in helping him devise his Wallace Line theory. The Wallace Line is a faunal boundary that runs through the strait between Bali and Lombok. It has been found to be a boundary between species of Asiatic origin in the east and a mixture of Australian and Asian species to the west. In his travel memoir The Malay Archipelago, Wallace wrote of his experience in Bali:

 

I was both astonished and delighted; for as my visit to Java was some years later, I had never beheld so beautiful and well-cultivated a district out of Europe. A slightly undulating plain extends from the seacoast about ten or twelve miles inland, where it is bounded by a fine range of wooded and cultivated hills. Houses and villages, marked out by dense clumps of coconut palms, tamarind and other fruit trees, are dotted about in every direction; while between them extend luxurious rice-grounds, watered by an elaborate system of irrigation that would be the pride of the best cultivated parts of Europe.

 

The Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 and were met by the thousands of members of the royal family and their followers who fought against the superior Dutch force in a suicidal puputan defensive assault rather than face the humiliation of surrender. Despite Dutch demands for surrender, an estimated 200 Balinese marched to their death against the invaders. In the Dutch intervention in Bali, a similar massacre occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung.

 

AFTERWARD THE DUTCH GOVERNORS

exercised administrative control over the island, but local control over religion and culture generally remained intact. Dutch rule over Bali came later and was never as well established as in other parts of Indonesia such as Java and Maluku.

 

n the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin McPhee all spent time here. Their accounts of the island and its peoples created a western image of Bali as "an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature." Western tourists began to visit the island.

 

Imperial Japan occupied Bali during World War II. It was not originally a target in their Netherlands East Indies Campaign, but as the airfields on Borneo were inoperative due to heavy rains, the Imperial Japanese Army decided to occupy Bali, which did not suffer from comparable weather. The island had no regular Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) troops. There was only a Native Auxiliary Corps Prajoda (Korps Prajoda) consisting of about 600 native soldiers and several Dutch KNIL officers under command of KNIL Lieutenant Colonel W.P. Roodenburg. On 19 February 1942 the Japanese forces landed near the town of Senoer [Senur]. The island was quickly captured.

 

During the Japanese occupation, a Balinese military officer, Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'. The harshness of war requisitions made Japanese rule more resented than Dutch rule. Following Japan's Pacific surrender in August 1945, the Dutch returned to Indonesia, including Bali, to reinstate their pre-war colonial administration. This was resisted by the Balinese rebels, who now used recovered Japanese weapons. On 20 November 1946, the Battle of Marga was fought in Tabanan in central Bali. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai, by then 29 years old, finally rallied his forces in east Bali at Marga Rana, where they made a suicide attack on the heavily armed Dutch. The Balinese battalion was entirely wiped out, breaking the last thread of Balinese military resistance.

 

INDIPENDENCE FROM THE DUTCH

In 1946, the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed State of East Indonesia, a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia, which was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta. Bali was included in the "Republic of the United States of Indonesia" when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949.

 

CONTEMPORARY

The 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc and forced many displaced Balinese to be transmigrated to other parts of Indonesia. Mirroring the widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system, and those rejecting this system. Politically, the opposition was represented by supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programs. An attempted coup in Jakarta was put down by forces led by General Suharto.

 

The army became the dominant power as it instigated a violent anti-communist purge, in which the army blamed the PKI for the coup. Most estimates suggest that at least 500,000 people were killed across Indonesia, with an estimated 80,000 killed in Bali, equivalent to 5% of the island's population. With no Islamic forces involved as in Java and Sumatra, upper-caste PNI landlords led the extermination of PKI members.

 

As a result of the 1965/66 upheavals, Suharto was able to manoeuvre Sukarno out of the presidency. His "New Order" government reestablished relations with western countries. The pre-War Bali as "paradise" was revived in a modern form. The resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for the country. A bombing in 2002 by militant Islamists in the tourist area of Kuta killed 202 people, mostly foreigners. This attack, and another in 2005, severely reduced tourism, producing much economic hardship to the island.

 

GEOGRAPHY

The island of Bali lies 3.2 km east of Java, and is approximately 8 degrees south of the equator. Bali and Java are separated by the Bali Strait. East to west, the island is approximately 153 km wide and spans approximately 112 km north to south; administratively it covers 5,780 km2, or 5,577 km2 without Nusa Penida District, its population density is roughly 750 people/km2.

 

Bali's central mountains include several peaks over 3,000 metres in elevation. The highest is Mount Agung (3,031 m), known as the "mother mountain" which is an active volcano rated as one of the world's most likely sites for a massive eruption within the next 100 years. Mountains range from centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak. Bali's volcanic nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges provide the high rainfall that supports the highly productive agriculture sector. South of the mountains is a broad, steadily descending area where most of Bali's large rice crop is grown. The northern side of the mountains slopes more steeply to the sea and is the main coffee producing area of the island, along with rice, vegetables and cattle. The longest river, Ayung River, flows approximately 75 km.

 

The island is surrounded by coral reefs. Beaches in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand. Bali has no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small sampan boats. Black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are being developed for tourism, but apart from the seaside temple of Tanah Lot, they are not yet used for significant tourism.

 

The largest city is the provincial capital, Denpasar, near the southern coast. Its population is around 491,500 (2002). Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital, Singaraja, which is located on the north coast and is home to around 100,000 people. Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta, which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area, and Ubud, situated at the north of Denpasar, is the island's cultural centre.

 

Three small islands lie to the immediate south east and all are administratively part of the Klungkung regency of Bali: Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan. These islands are separated from Bali by the Badung Strait.

 

To the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan ecozone and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia. The transition is known as the Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes. When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok Island and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated.

 

CLIMATE

Being just 8 degrees south of the equator, Bali has a fairly even climate year round.

 

Day time temperatures at low elevations vary between 20-33⁰ C although it can be much cooler than that in the mountains. The west monsoon is in place from approximately October to April and this can bring significant rain, particularly from December to March. Outside of the monsoon period, humidity is relatively low and any rain unlikely in lowland areas.

 

ECOLOGY

Bali lies just to the west of the Wallace Line, and thus has a fauna that is Asian in character, with very little Australasian influence, and has more in common with Java than with Lombok. An exception is the yellow-crested cockatoo, a member of a primarily Australasian family. There are around 280 species of birds, including the critically endangered Bali myna, which is endemic. Others Include barn swallow, black-naped oriole, black racket-tailed treepie, crested serpent-eagle, crested treeswift, dollarbird, Java sparrow, lesser adjutant, long-tailed shrike, milky stork, Pacific swallow, red-rumped swallow, sacred kingfisher, sea eagle, woodswallow, savanna nightjar, stork-billed kingfisher, yellow-vented bulbul and great egret.

 

Until the early 20th century, Bali was home to several large mammals: the wild banteng, leopard and the endemic Bali tiger. The banteng still occurs in its domestic form, whereas leopards are found only in neighbouring Java, and the Bali tiger is extinct. The last definite record of a tiger on Bali dates from 1937, when one was shot, though the subspecies may have survived until the 1940s or 1950s. The relatively small size of the island, conflict with humans, poaching and habitat reduction drove the Bali tiger to extinction. This was the smallest and rarest of all tiger subspecies and was never caught on film or displayed in zoos, whereas few skins or bones remain in museums around the world. Today, the largest mammals are the Javan rusa deer and the wild boar. A second, smaller species of deer, the Indian muntjac, also occurs. Saltwater crocodiles were once present on the island, but became locally extinct sometime during the last century.

 

Squirrels are quite commonly encountered, less often is the Asian palm civet, which is also kept in coffee farms to produce Kopi Luwak. Bats are well represented, perhaps the most famous place to encounter them remaining the Goa Lawah (Temple of the Bats) where they are worshipped by the locals and also constitute a tourist attraction. They also occur in other cave temples, for instance at Gangga Beach. Two species of monkey occur. The crab-eating macaque, known locally as "kera", is quite common around human settlements and temples, where it becomes accustomed to being fed by humans, particularly in any of the three "monkey forest" temples, such as the popular one in the Ubud area. They are also quite often kept as pets by locals. The second monkey, endemic to Java and some surrounding islands such as Bali, is far rarer and more elusive is the Javan langur, locally known as "lutung". They occur in few places apart from the Bali Barat National Park. They are born an orange colour, though by their first year they would have already changed to a more blackish colouration. In Java however, there is more of a tendency for this species to retain its juvenile orange colour into adulthood, and so you can see a mixture of black and orange monkeys together as a family. Other rarer mammals include the leopard cat, Sunda pangolin and black giant squirrel.

 

Snakes include the king cobra and reticulated python. The water monitor can grow to at least 1.5 m in length and 50 kg and can move quickly.

 

The rich coral reefs around the coast, particularly around popular diving spots such as Tulamben, Amed, Menjangan or neighbouring Nusa Penida, host a wide range of marine life, for instance hawksbill turtle, giant sunfish, giant manta ray, giant moray eel, bumphead parrotfish, hammerhead shark, reef shark, barracuda, and sea snakes. Dolphins are commonly encountered on the north coast near Singaraja and Lovina.

 

A team of scientists conducted a survey from 29 April 2011 to 11 May 2011 at 33 sea sites around Bali. They discovered 952 species of reef fish of which 8 were new discoveries at Pemuteran, Gilimanuk, Nusa Dua, Tulamben and Candidasa, and 393 coral species, including two new ones at Padangbai and between Padangbai and Amed. The average coverage level of healthy coral was 36% (better than in Raja Ampat and Halmahera by 29% or in Fakfak and Kaimana by 25%) with the highest coverage found in Gili Selang and Gili Mimpang in Candidasa, Karangasem regency.

 

Many plants have been introduced by humans within the last centuries, particularly since the 20th century, making it sometimes hard to distinguish what plants are really native.[citation needed] Among the larger trees the most common are: banyan trees, jackfruit, coconuts, bamboo species, acacia trees and also endless rows of coconuts and banana species. Numerous flowers can be seen: hibiscus, frangipani, bougainvillea, poinsettia, oleander, jasmine, water lily, lotus, roses, begonias, orchids and hydrangeas exist. On higher grounds that receive more moisture, for instance around Kintamani, certain species of fern trees, mushrooms and even pine trees thrive well. Rice comes in many varieties. Other plants with agricultural value include: salak, mangosteen, corn, kintamani orange, coffee and water spinach.

 

ENVIRONMENT

Some of the worst erosion has occurred in Lebih Beach, where up to 7 metres of land is lost every year. Decades ago, this beach was used for holy pilgrimages with more than 10,000 people, but they have now moved to Masceti Beach.

 

From ranked third in previous review, in 2010 Bali got score 99.65 of Indonesia's environmental quality index and the highest of all the 33 provinces. The score measured 3 water quality parameters: the level of total suspended solids (TSS), dissolved oxygen (DO) and chemical oxygen demand (COD).

 

Because of over-exploitation by the tourist industry which covers a massive land area, 200 out of 400 rivers on the island have dried up and based on research, the southern part of Bali would face a water shortage up to 2,500 litres of clean water per second by 2015. To ease the shortage, the central government plans to build a water catchment and processing facility at Petanu River in Gianyar. The 300 litres capacity of water per second will be channelled to Denpasar, Badung and Gianyar in 2013.

 

ECONOMY

Three decades ago, the Balinese economy was largely agriculture-based in terms of both output and employment. Tourism is now the largest single industry in terms of income, and as a result, Bali is one of Indonesia's wealthiest regions. In 2003, around 80% of Bali's economy was tourism related. By end of June 2011, non-performing loan of all banks in Bali were 2.23%, lower than the average of Indonesian banking industry non-performing loan (about 5%). The economy, however, suffered significantly as a result of the terrorist bombings 2002 and 2005. The tourism industry has since recovered from these events.

 

AGRICULTURE

Although tourism produces the GDP's largest output, agriculture is still the island's biggest employer; most notably rice cultivation. Crops grown in smaller amounts include fruit, vegetables, Coffea arabica and other cash and subsistence crops. Fishing also provides a significant number of jobs. Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce a vast array of handicrafts, including batik and ikat cloth and clothing, wooden carvings, stone carvings, painted art and silverware. Notably, individual villages typically adopt a single product, such as wind chimes or wooden furniture.

 

The Arabica coffee production region is the highland region of Kintamani near Mount Batur. Generally, Balinese coffee is processed using the wet method. This results in a sweet, soft coffee with good consistency. Typical flavours include lemon and other citrus notes. Many coffee farmers in Kintamani are members of a traditional farming system called Subak Abian, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of "Tri Hita Karana". According to this philosophy, the three causes of happiness are good relations with God, other people and the environment. The Subak Abian system is ideally suited to the production of fair trade and organic coffee production. Arabica coffee from Kintamani is the first product in Indonesia to request a Geographical Indication.

 

TOURISM

The tourism industry is primarily focused in the south, while significant in the other parts of the island as well. The main tourist locations are the town of Kuta (with its beach), and its outer suburbs of Legian and Seminyak (which were once independent townships), the east coast town of Sanur (once the only tourist hub), in the center of the island Ubud, to the south of the Ngurah Rai International Airport, Jimbaran, and the newer development of Nusa Dua and Pecatu.

 

The American government lifted its travel warnings in 2008. The Australian government issued an advice on Friday, 4 May 2012. The overall level of the advice was lowered to 'Exercise a high degree of caution'. The Swedish government issued a new warning on Sunday, 10 June 2012 because of one more tourist who was killed by methanol poisoning. Australia last issued an advice on Monday, 5 January 2015 due to new terrorist threats.

 

An offshoot of tourism is the growing real estate industry. Bali real estate has been rapidly developing in the main tourist areas of Kuta, Legian, Seminyak and Oberoi. Most recently, high-end 5 star projects are under development on the Bukit peninsula, on the south side of the island. Million dollar villas are being developed along the cliff sides of south Bali, commanding panoramic ocean views. Foreign and domestic (many Jakarta individuals and companies are fairly active) investment into other areas of the island also continues to grow. Land prices, despite the worldwide economic crisis, have remained stable.

 

In the last half of 2008, Indonesia's currency had dropped approximately 30% against the US dollar, providing many overseas visitors value for their currencies. Visitor arrivals for 2009 were forecast to drop 8% (which would be higher than 2007 levels), due to the worldwide economic crisis which has also affected the global tourist industry, but not due to any travel warnings.

 

Bali's tourism economy survived the terrorist bombings of 2002 and 2005, and the tourism industry has in fact slowly recovered and surpassed its pre-terrorist bombing levels; the longterm trend has been a steady increase of visitor arrivals. In 2010, Bali received 2.57 million foreign tourists, which surpassed the target of 2.0–2.3 million tourists. The average occupancy of starred hotels achieved 65%, so the island is still able to accommodate tourists for some years without any addition of new rooms/hotels, although at the peak season some of them are fully booked.

 

Bali received the Best Island award from Travel and Leisure in 2010. The island of Bali won because of its attractive surroundings (both mountain and coastal areas), diverse tourist attractions, excellent international and local restaurants, and the friendliness of the local people. According to BBC Travel released in 2011, Bali is one of the World's Best Islands, ranking second after Santorini, Greece.

 

In August 2010, the film Eat Pray Love was released in theatres. The movie was based on Elizabeth Gilbert's best-selling memoir Eat, Pray, Love. It took place at Ubud and Padang-Padang Beach at Bali. The 2006 book, which spent 57 weeks at the No. 1 spot on the New York Times paperback nonfiction best-seller list, had already fuelled a boom in Eat, Pray, Love-related tourism in Ubud, the hill town and cultural and tourist center that was the focus of Gilbert's quest for balance through traditional spirituality and healing that leads to love.

 

In January 2016, after music icon David Bowie died, it was revealed that in his will, Bowie asked for his ashes to be scattered in Bali, conforming to Buddhist rituals. He had visited and performed in a number of Southest Asian cities early in his career, including Bangkok and Singapore.

 

Since 2011, China has displaced Japan as the second-largest supplier of tourists to Bali, while Australia still tops the list. Chinese tourists increased by 17% from last year due to the impact of ACFTA and new direct flights to Bali. In January 2012, Chinese tourists year on year (yoy) increased by 222.18% compared to January 2011, while Japanese tourists declined by 23.54% yoy.

 

Bali reported that it has 2.88 million foreign tourists and 5 million domestic tourists in 2012, marginally surpassing the expectations of 2.8 million foreign tourists. Forecasts for 2013 are at 3.1 million.

 

Based on Bank Indonesia survey in May 2013, 34.39 percent of tourists are upper-middle class with spending between $1,286 to $5,592 and dominated by Australia, France, China, Germany and the US with some China tourists move from low spending before to higher spending currently. While 30.26 percent are middle class with spending between $662 to $1,285.

 

SEX TOURISM

In the twentieth century the incidence of tourism specifically for sex was regularly observed in the era of mass tourism in Indonesia In Bali, prostitution is conducted by both men and women. Bali in particular is notorious for its 'Kuta Cowboys', local gigolos targeting foreign female tourists.

 

Tens of thousands of single women throng the beaches of Bali in Indonesia every year. For decades, young Balinese men have taken advantage of the louche and laid-back atmosphere to find love and lucre from female tourists—Japanese, European and Australian for the most part—who by all accounts seem perfectly happy with the arrangement.

 

By 2013, Indonesia was reportedly the number one destination for Australian child sex tourists, mostly starting in Bali but also travelling to other parts of the country. The problem in Bali was highlighted by Luh Ketut Suryani, head of Psychiatry at Udayana University, as early as 2003. Surayani warned that a low level of awareness of paedophilia in Bali had made it the target of international paedophile organisations. On 19 February 2013, government officials announced measures to combat paedophilia in Bali.

 

TRANSPORTATION

The Ngurah Rai International Airport is located near Jimbaran, on the isthmus at the southernmost part of the island. Lt.Col. Wisnu Airfield is found in north-west Bali.

 

A coastal road circles the island, and three major two-lane arteries cross the central mountains at passes reaching to 1,750m in height (at Penelokan). The Ngurah Rai Bypass is a four-lane expressway that partly encircles Denpasar. Bali has no railway lines.

 

In December 2010 the Government of Indonesia invited investors to build a new Tanah Ampo Cruise Terminal at Karangasem, Bali with a projected worth of $30 million. On 17 July 2011 the first cruise ship (Sun Princess) anchored about 400 meters away from the wharf of Tanah Ampo harbour. The current pier is only 154 meters but will eventually be extended to 300–350 meters to accommodate international cruise ships. The harbour here is safer than the existing facility at Benoa and has a scenic backdrop of east Bali mountains and green rice fields. The tender for improvement was subject to delays, and as of July 2013 the situation remained unclear with cruise line operators complaining and even refusing to use the existing facility at Tanah Ampo.

 

A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed by two ministers, Bali's Governor and Indonesian Train Company to build 565 kilometres of railway along the coast around the island. As of July 2015, no details of this proposed railways have been released.

 

On 16 March 2011 (Tanjung) Benoa port received the "Best Port Welcome 2010" award from London's "Dream World Cruise Destination" magazine. Government plans to expand the role of Benoa port as export-import port to boost Bali's trade and industry sector. The Tourism and Creative Economy Ministry has confirmed that 306 cruise liners are heading for Indonesia in 2013 – an increase of 43 percent compared to the previous year.

 

In May 2011, an integrated Areal Traffic Control System (ATCS) was implemented to reduce traffic jams at four crossing points: Ngurah Rai statue, Dewa Ruci Kuta crossing, Jimbaran crossing and Sanur crossing. ATCS is an integrated system connecting all traffic lights, CCTVs and other traffic signals with a monitoring office at the police headquarters. It has successfully been implemented in other ASEAN countries and will be implemented at other crossings in Bali.

 

On 21 December 2011 construction started on the Nusa Dua-Benoa-Ngurah Rai International Airport toll road which will also provide a special lane for motorcycles. This has been done by seven state-owned enterprises led by PT Jasa Marga with 60% of shares. PT Jasa Marga Bali Tol will construct the 9.91 kilometres toll road (totally 12.7 kilometres with access road). The construction is estimated to cost Rp.2.49 trillion ($273.9 million). The project goes through 2 kilometres of mangrove forest and through 2.3 kilometres of beach, both within 5.4 hectares area. The elevated toll road is built over the mangrove forest on 18,000 concrete pillars which occupied 2 hectares of mangroves forest. It compensated by new planting of 300,000 mangrove trees along the road. On 21 December 2011 the Dewa Ruci 450 meters underpass has also started on the busy Dewa Ruci junction near Bali Kuta Galeria with an estimated cost of Rp136 billion ($14.9 million) from the state budget. On 23 September 2013, the Bali Mandara Toll Road is opened and the Dewa Ruci Junction (Simpang Siur) underpass is opened before. Both are ease the heavy traffic congestion.

 

To solve chronic traffic problems, the province will also build a toll road connecting Serangan with Tohpati, a toll road connecting Kuta, Denpasar and Tohpati and a flyover connecting Kuta and Ngurah Rai Airport.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

The population of Bali was 3,890,757 as of the 2010 Census; the latest estimate (for January 2014) is 4,225,384. There are an estimated 30,000 expatriates living in Bali.

 

ETHNIC ORIGINS

A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al. found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, and 2% of likely Melanesian origin. The study does not correlate the DNA samples to the Balinese caste system.

 

CASTE SYSTEM

Bali has a caste system based on the Indian Hindu model, with four castes:

 

- Sudra (Shudra) – peasants constituting close to 93% of Bali's population.

- Wesia (Vaishyas) – the caste of merchants and administrative officials

- Ksatrias (Kshatriyas) – the kingly and warrior caste

- Brahmana (Bramhin) – holy men and priests

 

RELIGION

Unlike most of Muslim-majority Indonesia, about 83.5% of Bali's population adheres to Balinese Hinduism, formed as a combination of existing local beliefs and Hindu influences from mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. Minority religions include Islam (13.3%), Christianity (1.7%), and Buddhism (0.5%). These figures do not include immigrants from other parts of Indonesia.

 

Balinese Hinduism is an amalgam in which gods and demigods are worshipped together with Buddhist heroes, the spirits of ancestors, indigenous agricultural deities and sacred places. Religion as it is practised in Bali is a composite belief system that embraces not only theology, philosophy, and mythology, but ancestor worship, animism and magic. It pervades nearly every aspect of traditional life. Caste is observed, though less strictly than in India. With an estimated 20,000 puras (temples) and shrines, Bali is known as the "Island of a Thousand Puras", or "Island of the Gods". This is refer to Mahabarata story that behind Bali became island of god or "pulau dewata" in Indonesian language.

 

Balinese Hinduism has roots in Indian Hinduism and Buddhism, and adopted the animistic traditions of the indigenous people. This influence strengthened the belief that the gods and goddesses are present in all things. Every element of nature, therefore, possesses its own power, which reflects the power of the gods. A rock, tree, dagger, or woven cloth is a potential home for spirits whose energy can be directed for good or evil. Balinese Hinduism is deeply interwoven with art and ritual. Ritualizing states of self-control are a notable feature of religious expression among the people, who for this reason have become famous for their graceful and decorous behaviour.

 

Apart from the majority of Balinese Hindus, there also exist Chinese immigrants whose traditions have melded with that of the locals. As a result, these Sino-Balinese not only embrace their original religion, which is a mixture of Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism and Confucianism, but also find a way to harmonise it with the local traditions. Hence, it is not uncommon to find local Sino-Balinese during the local temple's odalan. Moreover, Balinese Hindu priests are invited to perform rites alongside a Chinese priest in the event of the death of a Sino-Balinese. Nevertheless, the Sino-Balinese claim to embrace Buddhism for administrative purposes, such as their Identity Cards.

 

LANGUAGE

Balinese and Indonesian are the most widely spoken languages in Bali, and the vast majority of Balinese people are bilingual or trilingual. The most common spoken language around the tourist areas is Indonesian, as many people in the tourist sector are not solely Balinese, but migrants from Java, Lombok, Sumatra, and other parts of Indonesia. There are several indigenous Balinese languages, but most Balinese can also use the most widely spoken option: modern common Balinese. The usage of different Balinese languages was traditionally determined by the Balinese caste system and by clan membership, but this tradition is diminishing. Kawi and Sanskrit are also commonly used by some Hindu priests in Bali, for Hinduism literature was mostly written in Sanskrit.

 

English and Chinese are the next most common languages (and the primary foreign languages) of many Balinese, owing to the requirements of the tourism industry, as well as the English-speaking community and huge Chinese-Indonesian population. Other foreign languages, such as Japanese, Korean, French, Russian or German are often used in multilingual signs for foreign tourists.

 

CULTURE

Bali is renowned for its diverse and sophisticated art forms, such as painting, sculpture, woodcarving, handcrafts, and performing arts. Balinese cuisine is also distinctive. Balinese percussion orchestra music, known as gamelan, is highly developed and varied. Balinese performing arts often portray stories from Hindu epics such as the Ramayana but with heavy Balinese influence. Famous Balinese dances include pendet, legong, baris, topeng, barong, gong keybar, and kecak (the monkey dance). Bali boasts one of the most diverse and innovative performing arts cultures in the world, with paid performances at thousands of temple festivals, private ceremonies, or public shows.

 

The Hindu New Year, Nyepi, is celebrated in the spring by a day of silence. On this day everyone stays at home and tourists are encouraged to remain in their hotels. On the day before New Year, large and colourful sculptures of ogoh-ogoh monsters are paraded and finally burned in the evening to drive away evil spirits. Other festivals throughout the year are specified by the Balinese pawukon calendrical system.

 

Celebrations are held for many occasions such as a tooth-filing (coming-of-age ritual), cremation or odalan (temple festival). One of the most important concepts that Balinese ceremonies have in common is that of désa kala patra, which refers to how ritual performances must be appropriate in both the specific and general social context. Many of the ceremonial art forms such as wayang kulit and topeng are highly improvisatory, providing flexibility for the performer to adapt the performance to the current situation. Many celebrations call for a loud, boisterous atmosphere with lots of activity and the resulting aesthetic, ramé, is distinctively Balinese. Often two or more gamelan ensembles will be performing well within earshot, and sometimes compete with each other to be heard. Likewise, the audience members talk amongst themselves, get up and walk around, or even cheer on the performance, which adds to the many layers of activity and the liveliness typical of ramé.

 

Kaja and kelod are the Balinese equivalents of North and South, which refer to ones orientation between the island's largest mountain Gunung Agung (kaja), and the sea (kelod). In addition to spatial orientation, kaja and kelod have the connotation of good and evil; gods and ancestors are believed to live on the mountain whereas demons live in the sea. Buildings such as temples and residential homes are spatially oriented by having the most sacred spaces closest to the mountain and the unclean places nearest to the sea.

 

Most temples have an inner courtyard and an outer courtyard which are arranged with the inner courtyard furthest kaja. These spaces serve as performance venues since most Balinese rituals are accompanied by any combination of music, dance and drama. The performances that take place in the inner courtyard are classified as wali, the most sacred rituals which are offerings exclusively for the gods, while the outer courtyard is where bebali ceremonies are held, which are intended for gods and people. Lastly, performances meant solely for the entertainment of humans take place outside the walls of the temple and are called bali-balihan. This three-tiered system of classification was standardised in 1971 by a committee of Balinese officials and artists to better protect the sanctity of the oldest and most sacred Balinese rituals from being performed for a paying audience.

 

Tourism, Bali's chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers. The impact of tourism is controversial since before it became integrated into the economy, the Balinese performing arts did not exist as a capitalist venture, and were not performed for entertainment outside of their respective ritual context. Since the 1930s sacred rituals such as the barong dance have been performed both in their original contexts, as well as exclusively for paying tourists. This has led to new versions of many of these performances which have developed according to the preferences of foreign audiences; some villages have a barong mask specifically for non-ritual performances as well as an older mask which is only used for sacred performances.

 

Balinese society continues to revolve around each family's ancestral village, to which the cycle of life and religion is closely tied. Coercive aspects of traditional society, such as customary law sanctions imposed by traditional authorities such as village councils (including "kasepekang", or shunning) have risen in importance as a consequence of the democratisation and decentralisation of Indonesia since 1998.

 

WIKIPEDIA

These prints depict dances known in Neapolitan dialect as the sfessania. Such dances are characterized by violent and sometimes obscene physical contortions and gesticulations. Each plate features a pair of figures pulled from the repertoire of popular entertainers, their balletic interactions running a comic gamut from mock grace to blatant crudity. Lively little scenes fill out the backgrounds of some of the dances, offering engaging glimpses of fairground activity in Callot’s time.

Viena es una ciudad austriaca en Europa Central situada a orillas del Danubio, en el valle de los Bosques de Viena, al pie de las primeras estribaciones de los Alpes. Es la capital de Austria y uno de sus nueve estados federados (Bundesland Wien). Así como la mayor ciudad y el centro cultural de Austria

Además es la segunda ciudad más poblada de Europa Central (tras Berlín) y la décima ciudad en población de la Unión Europea. Su población supera el 1 800 000 de habitantes (2017) y su área metropolitana cuenta con 2,4 millones, población similar a la que tenía la ciudad en 1914. El idioma oficial es el alemán austríaco estándar; se habla también el alemán vienés, un dialecto bávaro.

La ciudad tiene una larga historia, ya que es una de las más antiguas capitales de Europa, por lo que cuenta con un importante patrimonio artístico. Durante el siglo XIX fue una de las grandes capitales musicales del mundo y a principios del siglo XX meca de la filosofía y el debate político de Occidente, así como uno de los principales centros culturales mundiales.

Los romanos la llamaron Vindobona, nombre de origen celta que significa ciudad blanca.

Los primeros asentamientos humanos en la actual Viena son de origen celta (500 a. C.), posteriormente germánicos, y con la expansión del Imperio romano hacia el norte en el siglo I a. C., se adhiere a este en el año 13 a. C. El río Danubio, al igual que los Alpes, sirve entonces de límite natural entre bárbaros y romanos, y Vindobona sirve desde entonces y hasta la caída de Roma (año 476 d. C.) como punto de defensa del imperio. La ciudad nace como campamento del ejército romano, para controlar la Provincia de Panonia, en el que se asientan diferentes unidades, de entre las cuales destaca la Legio X Gemina, que permaneció en ella desde el que la zona fue ocupada por pueblos germanos en época de Graciano y de Teodosio I

Con las invasiones bárbaras es ocupada por ávaros y magiares. Carlomagno conquista la ciudad en el siglo IX y la bautiza con el nombre de Ostmark (la marca del este). Durante el alto medievo Viena es un importante aliado del papado y punto de abastecimiento de armas y víveres para la empresa de las Cruzadas. Fue capital de Hungría con Matías Corvino, y desde el siglo XV hasta las guerras napoleónicas capital del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico, al ser la residencia habitual de los Habsburgo.

En 1237 las murallas de Viena alcanzaron la extensión que conservarían hasta su desaparición en 1857.

Desde la caída de Constantinopla en 1453, hubo un interés creciente del Imperio otomano por Viena, dado que era la clave para conquistar los demás países de Europa; interés que se hace más notable durante el período del sultán Solimán el Magnífico. Pero sus esfuerzos fracasaron y los austríacos salieron victoriosos de los distintos sitios a los que sometieron a la ciudad, el primero en 1529, a pesar de que inicialmente los defensores de la ciudad solo recibieron el apoyo poco entusiasta de sus vecinos alemanes. El ejército turco estaba mal equipado para un asedio y su tarea fue obstaculizada por la nieve y las inundaciones. Solimán se retiró a finales de octubre y no pudo reanudar el asedio a su regreso en 1532, cuando encontró a los defensores apoyados por un gran ejército bajo el mando del hermano del emperador Carlos V, Fernando.

Entre el primero y el segundo sitio turco, las instalaciones defensivas fueron reforzadas y modernizadas constantemente. Esto trajo como consecuencia que se tuvieran que ampliar una y otra vez los espacios libres frente a los bastiones para utilizarlos como campo de tiro. En 1529 estos espacios abarcaban 90 m que, a partir de 1683, fueron ensanchados a 450 m. Hasta 1858 no se construyó ningún edificio en esta explanada.

El segundo sitio se produjo en 1683, en la llamada batalla de Viena, y marcó el comienzo del declive del Imperio otomano en Europa. Fue iniciado por el gran visir Kara Mustafá, que necesitaba desesperadamente un éxito militar para reforzar su posición inestable y trató de lograrlo en una campaña contra el emperador Leopoldo I. Los turcos avanzaron con fuerza abrumadora, sitiaron la ciudad el 16 de julio, pero su falta de artillería de asedio permitió a Leopoldo reunir un ejército adicional formado por tropas austriacas, alemanas y polacas, que derrotó al ejército turco en una batalla librada delante de los muros de la ciudad el 12 de septiembre, que también se conoce como Batalla de Kahlenberg.

Durante el siglo XVIII, los Habsburgo habían convertido a la ciudad en su capital desde 1556 y su importancia se vio acrecentada con la expansión por el valle del Danubio. Se convirtió en un núcleo principal del Barroco europeo gracias a la construcción de importantes obras arquitectónicas y creaciones musicales. En 1800, antes de las guerras napoleónicas, la ciudad contaba con 231 900 habitantes.

Desde el asedio de 1683, en que fueron destruidas numerosas ciudades pequeñas que existían en el exterior de la muralla, en el terreno ondulado situado frente a la ciudad se alzaron numerosos palacios con jardines. El punto de partida fueron los planos del palacio real de Schönbrunn, elaborados por Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. Hacia 1720 se contaban 200 residencias rurales. El príncipe Eugenio de Saboya había adquirido en 1693 la más bella parcela y una de las más grandes con los primeros ingresos que le habían llegado. Allí, tras cuarenta años de trabajo, levantó el Belvedere con sus espaciosos jardines.

Tras la derrota austriaca a manos de Napoleón Bonaparte en 1809 (batalla de Wagram), este último se hospeda en el palacio de Schönbrunn, en Viena. Durante esta estancia, Francia y Austria se alían, y Napoleón desposa a María Luisa, hija de los emperadores de Austria.

Metternich, canciller austriaco en esta época, cambia a Austria al bando anti-napoleónico tras la derrota francesa en Rusia. Después de la derrota definitiva de Napoleón, se celebra el Congreso de Viena, una conferencia internacional convocada con el objeto de restablecer las fronteras de Europa. La reunión se llevó a cabo del 1 de octubre de 1814 al 9 de junio de 1815, lo que le permite a Austria conservar gran parte de sus territorios a pesar de haber estado aliada con Napoleón, y a partir de entonces, Viena, por medio del canciller Metternich, se convertiría en el eje de la política de la Europa continental durante los siguientes treinta años.

Durante el siglo XIX, sobre todo en la segunda mitad, Viena inició un despegue demográfico, acompañado de reformas urbanísticas, que la convirtieron en una gran ciudad, multiplicando en un siglo su población por diez. En 1857, se derribaron las murallas por decreto de Francisco José I de Austria, abriéndose una nueva avenida, la Ringstraße, donde se construyeron importantes edificios, como la Ópera, la Universidad, el Ayuntamiento, el Parlamento, la Bolsa y los museos de historia del arte e historia natural. La derrota de Austria en la guerra austro-prusiana en 1866 y la posterior anexión de los Estados alemanes a Prusia convirtieron a la unificada Alemania en un peligro para Austria, por lo que esta última se tuvo que aliar con Hungría en lo que se conoce como la "política de compensación" o Ausgleichpolitik. Así pues, en 1867, tras el Compromiso con Hungría, Viena se convirtió en la capital del Imperio austrohúngaro y en un centro cultural, artístico, político, industrial y financiero de primer orden mundial. Con esta alianza, Austria prosigue sumando otras más, con lo que para fines del siglo XIX el imperio abarcaba los actuales países de Austria, Hungría, Eslovaquia, República Checa, la Galicia polaca, la Transilvania rumana, la Bucovina y la Rutenia ucranianas, Croacia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Eslovenia y el Trentino-Alto Adigio italiano.

Viena alcanza su máximo demográfico en 1916 con 2 239 000 habitantes, siendo la tercera ciudad más grande de Europa. Este es el período cultural más glorioso de la monarquía de los Habsburgo, con Francisco José I rigiendo el Imperio (período 1848-1916). También es la época de los suntuosos valses vieneses en la Opera Nacional de Viena, grandes carruajes paseando por la Ringstraße y la Kärntner Straße, así como de los típicos cafés vieneses.

De la época destacan intelectuales, como Sigmund Freud en el psicoanálisis y Otto Bauer en el campo del pensamiento político, principal exponente del austromarxismo, ideas que calarían fuerte en la sociedad vienesa, pues ya en 1895 el gobierno municipal estaría en manos del partido socialcristiano, precursor del actual partido ÖVP (democristiano) . Tampoco hay que olvidar en el plano artístico el movimiento modernista, la Secesión de Viena (Secession), con Gustav Klimt como principal exponente en la pintura, Coloman Moser en el grafismo y Joseph Maria Olbrich y Josef Hoffman en la arquitectura. Contrario a estos destacaría asimismo Adolf Loos con su racionalismo arquitectónico. Sin embargo, la Primera Guerra Mundial y la posterior derrota austrohúngara truncarían gran parte de ese esplendor.

Tras el asesinato del archiduque heredero Francisco Fernando y su esposa, Sofía Chotek, en Sarajevo, a manos del terrorista serbo-bosnio Gavrilo Princip, y ante la abrumadora evidencia de la participación de los servicios de inteligencia serbios en el complot, la monarquía dual declara la guerra a Serbia, a la que se le alían Alemania y Turquía y que, ante la oposición de Francia, Inglaterra y Rusia, deviene en la Primera Guerra Mundial. En octubre de 1918, derrotada Austria-Hungría y sus aliados, estalla la revolución en Viena que pide la disolución de la monarquía y la independencia austríaca; sería el fin de la monarquía de los Habsburgo que gobernaba el país desde 1278.

Viena se convirtió, tras el tratado de Saint-Germain, en la capital de la pequeña República de Austria, reducida a su tamaño actual, sufriendo un importante revés demográfico, económico y político. Pese a todo, en esta época continuó la actividad intelectual con el Círculo de Viena (der Wiener Kreis), considerado por muchos el grupo de intelectuales más influyentes del siglo XX en Europa, entre los que destacan Moritz Schlick y Ludwig Wittgenstein en la filosofía positivista lógica (Logischer Empirismus).

Durante el periodo democrático republicano, es decir, desde 1918 hasta la dictadura de Engelbert Dollfuss en 1934, el Partido Obrero Socialdemócrata (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei en alemán) obtuvo la mayoría absoluta en todas las elecciones celebradas para el gobierno local, por lo que la ciudad pasó a ser conocida como Viena roja. La política socialdemócrata de esos años se caracterizó por un extenso programa de viviendas sociales y por un marcado apoyo a la educación y la sanidad públicas, tal y como preconizaba la corriente austromarxista. La Viena roja finalizó en 1934 a consecuencia de la guerra civil austríaca y la victoria del Frente Patriótico. Su último alcalde fue Karl Seitz.

La importancia cultural vienesa se mantendría hasta 1938, año en el que el país fue invadido y, posteriormente, anexionado por la Alemania nazi. Dicha anexión, conocida como el Anschluss, estaba prohibida en los tratados de paz y fue la primera de las expansiones tendentes a unificar en un solo Estado a todos los germanohablantes, bajo un solo liderazgo ("ein Reich, ein Volk, ein Führer"). En la ciudad, que pasó a ser capital de la provincia de Ostmark, pronunció Hitler, el 14 de marzo de 1938, su primer gran discurso a los vieneses desde el balcón central del Palacio de Hofburg, discurso que es considerado uno de los más emotivos del dictador y de mayor aclamo por su masiva audiencia debido a la euforia que la anexión de Austria al Tercer Imperio Germano (Dritte Reich) causó en parte de la población. Para legitimar la invasión se celebró un referéndum el 10 de abril que resultó favorable al Anschluss con un 99,73 %, si bien carecía de las garantías democráticas.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Viena sufrió los indiscriminados bombardeos aéreos estadounidenses que destruyeron buena parte del patrimonio histórico (la catedral gótica de San Esteban, el Palacio de Hofburg, la ópera de Viena, los puentes del Danubio, entre otros), el cual fue reconstruido tras la contienda. En mayo de 1945 Viena fue tomada por el ejército soviético, quienes, junto con franceses, estadounidenses e ingleses, la ocuparían durante los diez años posteriores bajo un sistema de ocupación cuatripartita en la ciudad, similar al de Berlín.

Tras las gestiones de Leopold Figl y Julius Raab y la posterior firma del Acuerdo de Moscú, Austria recobra su independencia el 15 de mayo de 1955, y Viena vuelve a ser capital de la República de Austria. A partir de entonces y gracias a su compromiso de neutralidad, Austria se convirtió en sede de organismos internacionales como la OPEP, la ONUDI, IAEA, IIASA, entre otros, lo cual convierte a Viena en la tercera capital de la ONU, después de Nueva York y Ginebra, por lo que se puede ver hoy en día una gran comunidad internacional, en particular en el distrito 4 de Viena (Wieden) derivada de sus cuerpos diplomáticos. Desde 1995 es parte de la Unión Europea y de los países de Schengen. A partir de 2002 sacó de circulación el chelín austriaco y entró en vigor el euro como la moneda de curso legal en toda Austria.

La población de Viena, en el primer trimestre de 2015, era de 1 797 337 personas, de las que, aproximadamente, el 80 % son austríacos y el 20 % restante de otros países. La población vienesa ha aumentado desde 1988, sobre todo en los últimos años, como consecuencia de la inmigración. El área metropolitana, que se extiende por tierras de la Baja Austria, cuenta con una población de cerca de 2 500 000 habitantes.

En 2001, la Unesco declaró el «Centro histórico de Viena» como un lugar Patrimonio de la Humanidad, destacando en primer lugar que sus cualidades arquitectónicas y urbanas representan un testimonio sobresaliente de un continuo intercambio de valores a lo largo del II milenio. Además, su herencia arquitectónica y urbana ilustra muy bien tres períodos claves del desarrollo político y cultural de Europa: la Edad Media, el período barroco y el Gründerzeit. Finalmente, desde el siglo XVI Viena ha sido universalmente reconocida como la «capital musical de Europa». Gran parte de este legado se transmite en los monumentos de esta ciudad, que se encuentran a continuación ordenados alfabéticamente por sus denominaciones alemanas, ya que en Viena no son conocidos bajo sus nombres traducidos. La traducción al español está entre paréntesis.

Akademie der bildenden Künste (Academia de Bellas Artes)

Albertina, una de las más extensas colecciones de impresiones y dibujos

Burgtheater (teatro imperial de la corte)

Heuriger, tabernas típicas vienesas para degustar buenos vinos, carnes frías o embutidos de la región que se encuentran en los distritos vieneses de Döbling, Favoriten o Floridsdorf, en el estado de Burgenland o en el Weinviertel (parte de Baja Austria),

Hundertwasserhaus, que muestra la arquitectura vanguardista del arquitecto austriaco Friedensreich Hundertwasser

Kaffeehäuser, los cafés vieneses

Kahlenberg, un monte en el Wienerwald (Bosque de Viena), con el mirador más espectacular del río Danubio a su paso por Viena

Karlskirche (Iglesia de San Carlos Borromeo), obra maestra de la arquitectura barroca

Augustinerkirche (Iglesia de los Agustinos), iglesia gótica cuya cripta (Herzgruft) conserva los corazones de los Habsburgo

Kaisergruft (Cripta imperial), mausoleo de la familia Habsburgo

Kärntner Straße y Graben, las calles con las tiendas de moda de las marcas más prestigiadas y caras; también se encuentran agradables cafés, como el café del Hotel Sacher, origen de la Sachertorte

Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia del Arte), uno de los más ricos del mundo

Museum Liechtenstein (Museo Liechtenstein), abierto por la familia gobernante de dicho principado. Alberga importantes obras de Rembrandt, Rubens y Van Dyck

Museum für angewandte Kunst (Museo de Artes Aplicadas), es un instituto museo histórico y prestigioso situado en la famosa Ringstrasse

Museum für Völkerkunde (Museo de Etnología), que alberga el controvertido Penacho de Moctezuma, reclamado por el gobierno de México

Museumsquartier (Barrio museístico) con tres museos de arte moderno con lo mejor de la pintura de Gustav Klimt y Oskar Kokoschka

Naturhistorisches Museum (Museo de Historia Natural)

Palacio Belvedere, un palacio de estilo barroco

Palacio de Schönbrunn (literalmente, "Schönbrunn" en alemán significa "Bella fuente")

Palacio Imperial de Hofburg ("Hofburg" = "Palacio de la Corte")

Palacio Schwarzenberg, un palacio barroco, sede de la Casa de Schwarzenberg

Parlamento

Wurstelprater, un parque de atracciones con el "Riesenrad" (noria gigante)

Rathaus (Ayuntamiento)

Sezession (Secesión)

Spanische Hofreitschule (Escuela española de equitación)

Staatsoper (Ópera Estatal)

Stephanskirche (o Stephansdom) (Catedral de San Esteban de Viena) en el Stephansplatz (Plaza de San Esteban)

Votivkirche (Iglesia Votiva), que alberga el altar de la Virgen de Guadalupe más grande fuera de México.

 

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viena

  

Vienna (German: Wien) is the capital city of Austria.

It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is the largest city in Austria. It is also an administrative district (Bundesland) of its own.

Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona.[9] The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle ad weniam is mentioned.

In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights. It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).

In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.

During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.

In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.

During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.

At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.

After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.

Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)

After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).

After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.

Vienna has many things worth seeing. Here are a few of them.

St. Stephen's cathedral and St. Stephen's Square:

Today St. Stephen's square with the cathedral is the very center of Vienna.The Graben and the Kärntner Straße which lead away from the square are shopping streets with a lot of different shops. Opposite the cathedral you can find the Haas-House, a very modern building by architect Hans Hollein.

Ringstraße:

The Ringstraße runs around the first district and was built in the second half of the 19th century. The street follows the old city walls which were destroyed to create it Along the street you can find different important buildings like the Staatsoper (opera house), the parliament, the Burgtheater, the two museums of natural history and arts. Also the Wiener Postsparkasse which is an important building by the architect Otto Wagner is along the street.

Hofburg:

From the 13th century to 1918 this was the residence of the Habsburg rulers. Today it is the residence of the President of the Republic of Austria and you can also visit different museums like the Schatzkammer where you can see the different crowns of the Habsburg family and the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The National Library is also the Hofburg.

Schloss Schönbrunn:

Today's buildings were built by the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach an important architect in the baroque era in Austria. Another building of Fischer is the Karlskirche.

Schloss Belvedere:

Schloss Belvedere was built by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt another important Austrian baroque architect. It was built for Prinz Eugen of Savoy who fouyght successfully against the Ottoman Empire. Today the castle is used as museum (Austrian Gallery Belvedere).

 

simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Vienna