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#macromondays #curves
The curve, also in mathematics called a curved line in theoretical and applied mathematics texts is the mathematical object similar or different to the axial straight plane lines, the curved line is not a straight line but may be a function, or the curved line may be part of a non straight plane (nonrectangular object), or part of a sphere or spherical object, or a curved plane, etc., and there too is different to straight lines that are part of straight planes but for some functions may be projected to a straight plane into straight planes.
A plane algebraic curve is the zero set of a polynomial in two indeterminates. More generally, an algebraic curve is the zero set of a finite set of polynomials, which satisfies the further condition of being an algebraic variety of dimension one. If the coefficients of the polynomials belong to a field k, the curve is said to be defined over k. In the common case of a real algebraic curve, where k is the field of real numbers, an algebraic curve is a finite union of topological curves. When complex zeros are considered, one has a complex algebraic curve, which, from the topological point of view, is not a curve, but a surface, and is often called a Riemann surface. Although not being curves in the common sense, algebraic curves defined over other fields have been widely studied. In particular, algebraic curves over a finite field are widely used in modern cryptography.
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forward march
in that glazed
daze of being
mostly elsewhere
not here crossing Main
in front of the Scientology
building where a dozen
pigeons write
cryptographic
messages
on the sidewalk,
but this small flock
of humanity seems sadly
dispirited by cold flurries,
noon, downtown
cafes wafting grease
when one of the forlorn
almost to the far curb
calls out in a voice
like broken glass:
somebody dropped
a wallet. A few heads
swivel, a few
check pockets
or purses but foray on
so broken glass stoops
picks up the wallet
and with a backward
glance ambles on.
--Miguel de O
If you photograph crypts, doesn't that make it 'cryptography'? Seen at Ross Errilly Friary, Headford, Co. Galway, one of the best preserved monastic sites in Ireland. More on the Friary here: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Errilly_Friary
The left statue collapsed from old age, and its back is still on the ground.
Inscription at the entrance to the Great Temple.
A stela at the southern end of the external terrace records one of Ramesse's diplomatic triumphs, his marriage to a daughter of the Hittite King Hattusilis III.
At the door of the temple there is a cryptographic inscription of the name of the pharaoh: Ser-Ma'at-Ra and in the middle of the legs of the great statues you can see small statues of relatives of Ramesses II:
Next to the colossus I (left side) are the representations of his main female Nefertari (in the left leg), his mother Mut-tuy (in the right leg) and the prince Amonhorjepeshef (in the center).
Next to the colossus II (left side) they are the princesses Bentata, Nebettauy and another that is thought to be Senefra.
Next to the colossus I (right side) are the representations of its main woman "Nefertari" (in the right leg), Princess Beketmut (in the left leg) and Prince Riamsese (in the center).
Next to the colossus II (right side) are the representations of Princess Nerytamun, the mother of Ramses, Mut-tuy and Queen Nefertari.
61-2669 Boeing C-135C Stratolifter United States Air Force
This one was also called Speckled Trout - Speckled Trout is the official name of a combined SAF/CSAF support mission and concurrent test mission. She was used by the Secretary and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force for executive transport requirements. Fully equipped with an array of communications equipment, data links and cryptographic sets, the aircraft served a secondary role as a testbed for proposed command and control systems and was also used to evaluate future transport aircraft design (by Wikipedia).
Built as C-135B in 1962, later WC-135B. Wfu and used as instructional airframe by 2006.
(slide scan from my collection - not taken by myself)
Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire
I’ve always wanted to visit Bletchley Park since I first came across the Enigma machine and code breaking many many years ago. Cryptographic is a fascinating science in its own right and there are countless programmes and documentaries on the subject. However, I’m mostly fascinated by the cracking of the Enigma code and Alan Turing, who most people might have heard of. However, while Turing is generally credited with the cracking of Enigma, there are others, equally talented and gifted, who played a major part in its decoding during the Second World War.
Two such people were Bill Tutte and Tommy Flowers and their stories are equally as impressive as Turing’s.
Here’s a link to a preview documentary from BBC Two’s Time Watch programme – Code-Breakers: Bletchley Park’s Lost Heroes
The day you encrypted your brain and forgot the password!
In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding information. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as plaintext, into an alternative form known as ciphertext. Ideally, only authorised parties can decipher a ciphertext back to plaintext and access the original information.
"Way back in the day" I wrote some encryption software - CompuServe was a big part of the internet when we still called it the "world wide web" and they refused to host the files as the USA considered encryption as a weapon.
How times have changed.
Uhura - Tribute To Nichelle Nichols (1932 - 2022) by Daniel Arrhakis (2022)
Nichelle Nichols, born Grace Dell Nichols in December 28 of 1932, was an American actress, singer, and dancer best known for her portrayal of Nyota Uhura in Star Trek series, a translator and communications officer who specializes in linguistics, cryptography, and philology.
Nichols' portrayal of Uhura was ground-breaking for African American actresses on American television.
From 1977 until 2015, Nichols volunteered her time to promote NASA's programs, and to recruit diverse astronauts, including women and ethnic minorities.
In 1982, Robert A. Heinlein dedicated his novel Friday to her. Asteroid 68410 Nichols is named in her honor.
She helped break ground on TV by showing a Black woman in a position of authority and who shared with co-star William Shatner one of the first interracial kisses on American prime-time television.
This is my tribute to a unique Woman and actress !
__________________________________________________
Work made with stock images and images of mine. Space background based in images from NASA/JPL-Caltech.
Reading between the lines... to try to understand what is meant by something that is not written explicitly or openly; the phrase derives from a simple form of cryptography, in which a hidden meaning was conveyed by secreting it between lines of text.
Literally.
For the black and white theme I thought I should shoot an object from a time when black and white was predominant.
These are the rotors from a three-rotor German Enigma cryptography machine owned by the United States National Cryptographic Museum and displayed at the National Security Administration booth at the RSA security conference in San Francisco, California.
Converted to black and white with the Ilford FP4 Plus preset in Digikam.
Strobist: Single 430EXII RT held just outside the frame above the rotors.
----------------------------
Please don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media
without my explicit permission.
© All rights reserved
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An example of the German Enigma cryptographic device at the Military Museums of Canada at Calgary, Alberta.
"The strength of the Pack is the Wolf, and the strength of the Wolf is the Pack"
After months of hard work, I finally completed my custom minifigures from the video game Destiny. These figures are based off of my personal Year 1 characters (Titan, Hunter, Warlock respectively), hence the outdated gear. Before I say anything else, I know a lot of you think Destiny was a shit game and I understand your reasoning, but I enjoyed playing the game. I made a lot of new friends, like my buddy Shane/DaLastPrime, by playing this game and made a lot of good memories, so I'd appreciate it if you didn't complain about how much of a let down Destiny was to you or how awful you think the game is. But hey, I'm not stopping you, however I just want the main focus to be these custom minifigures.
I'm not going to go into a ton of detail on this photo because I am planning on uploading 3 more individual shots of each figure, so I'll go into further detail on those pictures where you can see all of the details I'd talk about.
First off, I need to thank Sander. Back in July I commissioned him to make me a few items for these figures, knowing I'd be making them for the release of The Taken King. I commissioned him to make Achlyophage Symbiote, Helm of Saint-14, Obsidian Mind, Chest of the Exile, and the Kellhunter's Hood. I got the items back in September but I didn't have enough time to make all 3 characters by TTK, so I decided to just hold off and take my time. Sander did a spectacular job with the sculpts, and I really cannot thank him enough. Go check him out if you aren't familiar with his work, he's one of the best sculptors I know and is an awesome dude. Thanks again man!
Just as a quick overview of each figure, the order goes (L->R):
-Titan: Defender Titan sporting a Thunderdevil-ish shader. All parts of the Titan, besides the helmet, were sculpted by me. He has a Dead Orbit Titan Mark on his right side which isn't visible from this angle, so I'll be sure to show you that in the individual photos. The Titan is armed with a painted Red Death pulse rifle from Brickinator99's shape ways store.
-Hunter: Gunslinger Hunter with the Queen's Web shader. The helmet, cloak, and torso were sculpted by Sander, the rest by me. One of the trickiest parts was the hood, which I ended up modifying a CapeMadness hood so it could fit around the helmet. I also wanted to shoutout Josiah (brickzalive) for giving me some tips on dry sculpting, mainly with the knife on the side of the Hunter's leg. The weapon is a custom made Fatebringer hand cannon made out of BrickArm's HC1, ABR, and various other parts. He also has a gold plated BrickArms MK.44 Hand Cannon (thanks Sean!) but it's not pictured, but will be included in the single photo.
-Ghost: Saw Jaymes's (TheLostMinifig) design for a Ghost a little while back, so I copped his design, so credit to him!
-Warlock: Voidwalker Warlock sporting the Cryptographic shader. The helmet was sculpted by Sander, the rest was sculpted/crafted by me. The Warlock had some pretty tricky elements to him, mainly being the collar and the robes. The robe/torso extension was made out of two combined cloth skirt pieces, then cut up and painted. I chose cloth because I wanted the legs to still be able to move around. The collar is a significant part of the Crota raid Warlock chest, so I knew I had to add it. It was sculpted out of thin layer of Procreate. The Warlock is armed with Brickinator99's Vex Mythoclast, which I painted. Hopefully I'll be modifying it a little more soon.
Please let me know what you all think! I'd really like to get some feedback considering it took me months to make all these figures!
Thanks guys!
Video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=lMzKYJJPPjU
If anyone has a Bungie account, I submitted the video for Movie of the Week, so vote for me here! You may have to scroll a little, but it's in there: www.bungie.net/en/Community?sort=1
Week 9, Wednesday
I’ve already told you that I have some old film in our fridge (see here), but what I didn’t tell you is that some of those rolls have pictures in them. Grown at the digital age I never clicked with an analog film, but there is one thing I’ve always liked about it – its physicality and worldly character. Image forms into a film with the aid of emulsion which contains light-sensitive chemicals. As such it is trace of physical reality and light that once run through the emulsion. Film rolls that are situated in our fridge contain these kind of traces from at least ten years back when me and Sari where younger and the life we now live didn’t yet exist. I didn’t develop these films because I wanted to preserve the images they contain for some unknown day in future, when we would develop them and find our past again. I think this kind of ‘time-capsule scenario’ represents perfectly the worldly character of the film. Film is a living artifact of our past same way as ceramic pottery or other everyday stuff is for example. I understand that hard disks are very much physical objects too, but I don’t experience same with them and their digitally coded files. A 30 megabytes jpg-representation of Mona Lisa doesn’t substitute the real thing (and yes, I’m aware of philosophical way around this assumption, but it doesn’t satisfy me). And one could easily picture software that would create same kind of situation with help of cryptography, but it doesn’t have same feeling. Digital photography forms a different experience and while I like it better because of many reasons, I still have this persistent feeling of nostalgia when I have those rolls in my hand. Being physical and worldly, they provide feelings of comfort which virtual and untouchable files can never do (though the next best thing is to print your pictures to real paper).
Year of the Alpha – 52 Weeks of Sony Alpha Photography: www.yearofthealpha.com
Cryptocristallin (2021), exposition La Terre en suspens au Centre d'art de Kamouraska, 2022.
[EN] francois-quevillon.com/w/?p=3316
[FR] francois-quevillon.com/w/?p=3320&lang=fr
acrylic on canvas, 2013, 70 x 100 cm
Interaction of stellar wind with diffuse nebulae.
A stellar wind is a flow of neutral or charged gas ejected from the upper atmosphere of a star. It is distinguished from the bipolar outflows characteristic of young stars by being less collimated, although stellar winds are not generally spherically symmetric.
Different types of stars have different types of stellar winds.
Jan Theuninck is a Belgian painter
www.boekgrrls.nl/BgDiversen/Onderwerpen/gedichten_over_sc...
www.forumeerstewereldoorlog.eu/wiki/index.php/Yperite-Jan...
www.graphiste-webdesigner.fr/blog/2013/04/la-peinture-bel...
The reconstructed Colossus Mark II at Bletchley Park - a working replica of the first programmable digital electronic computer.
Ten original Mk II models were built. Six were housed in H block at Bletchley Park, where they played a major role in intelligence operations supporting the D-Day landings and subsequent Normandy campaign. By the end of hostilities, 63 million characters of German messages had been decrypted with the aid of the Colossi.
"Reason, or the ratio of all we have already known, is not the same that it shall be when we know more."
– William Blake
"Bitcoin is getting there. But it’s not there yet. When it gets there, expect governments to panic and society to be reshaped into something where governments cannot rely on taxing income nor wealth for running their operations."
– Rick Falkvinge
I believe that robotic thinking helps precision of psychological thought, and will continue to help it until psychophysiology is so far advanced that an image is nothing other than a neural event, and object constancy is obviously just something that happens in the brain.
– Edwin Boring, 'Mind and Mechanism' (1946)
"If Wikileaks were a print publication, the injunction would be unthinkable. … What distinguishes this case is that the allegedly intolerable materials were published on the Internet instead of on paper. But that's a poor reason to abandon the principles that protect those who want to publish -- as well as those who want to read. Censorship is censorship, no matter the medium."
– Chicago Tribune Editorial, "Electronic censorship" (February 26, 2008).
The spoiled offspring of European aristocrats,[2] Anastasia Cisarovna was first involved in student radicalism, dabbled in extremist fringe groups, and finally graduated to international terrorism. She is believed to have been trained as a spy and saboteur at an exclusive facility run by a former Warsaw Pact intelligence agency. Officially the head of Cobra intelligence operations, the Baroness is a world-class expert in cryptography, psychological warfare, and bio-chemical skin-irritants. She also has old ties and loyalties to Destro and is the only one who knows his secret identity. The Baroness has had extensive plastic surgery after suffering severe burns during a Cobra night-attack operation. She is full of contradictions: cynical yet romantic, calculating but naive, blunt and prone to beating around the bush. She is a qualified expert with an M-16, AK-47, RPG7, and Uzi. She is also a qualified H.I.S.S. tank operator and proficient in operating helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft of varying type.
I'm a bit bummed that they didn't give her jet black hair and a middle part.
Lászlóy is Hungarian. He is a mathematician. He has a hilarious humor but very difficult to understand because he speaks with double, triple,... sense. He says his jokes are for laughs in another dimension. He works in cryptography and tries to find a system to hide everything, including his presence. He is never here and looks at the world from his parallel world. He is very happy.
Lászlóy és hongarès. És un matemàtic. Té un humor divertidíssim però molt difícil d'entendre perquè parla amb doble, triple,... sentit. Diu que els seus acudits són per riure en una altra dimensió. Treballa en criptografia i intenta trobar un sistema per amagar-ho tot, inclosa la seva presència. No és mai aquí i mira el món des del seu món paral·lel. És molt feliç.
The more I observe our abundant Nephila clavatas in the bushes, the more I become convinced that there is more to them than at first meets the eye.
Now, after what seems an age of contemplation and cogitation, I realize they are trying to tell us something important.
Are there any cryptographers out there among the Arachtober community? Please help me to decipher this, as the message may be shredded at midnight on October 31st!
October 30th:
I finally realised that each line is a single word.
Their message reads simply:
"See you next October".
good afternoon, ma'am. would you like to subscribe to some magazines to help me with college?
young lady, this is a cemetary! I am deceased!
oh, I'm sorry! but, well, you are speaking to me, aren't you.
after being woken from the dead! thank you very much.
sorry again. but since you're up, how about buying a subscription? we have many interesting periodicals. like Better Crypts and Gardens, for example.
my, you are persistent aren't you? oh, very well.
shall we say one year?
make it eternal. now that I'm up.
awesome.
Master Lock, Escher/Droste style. I'd hate to try to pick this one...
Created from this image of a combination padlock of mine that I'd shot earlier today (see that photo for details on the setup).
©2008 David C. Pearson, M.D.
Who’s running the circus, who’s running this freak show? Who’s running the asylum, who’s running this ghetto? Transhumanist clowns run this gong show, that’s who! 666 the killer clown posse. Cryptography: something hidden, something secret. Trojan horse: encrypted chip-based digital currency. The Ceasar shift of the Rubic's Cube hash, symmetric encryption algorithms to the hash algorithms of the hash values and sequences of hex digits, which spell out the values of the bytes within the letter frequencies of the 666 plaintext. Monoalphabetic substitution of the braincipher of the brainchip, the 666 microchip, known as the Beastchip. Buy, sell, bow to the AI clown show. Tragically hip, take the Mark, take the chip.
Economic melt down, social break down, a reengineering of the status quo. Everything goes electronic, including you. How else will you be depopulated and enslaved?
Extropianism: a brain upload, a gradual replacement of neurons, until your original brain exists no more—artificial intelligence emulating the brain, taking control of your body. Or how about they scan and map your brain, copying and storing it in a computer? Your brain may not survive the process…but why would they need your biological brain anyways?
Become superhuman, a divine being—god of your own domain. You certainly will not die, you will be like God. Eat the apple and gain artificial intelligence. 666 the number of a man, sit down and break bread with him, fellowship with him, have communion with him. Drink of his cup, be baptized with his baptism. Be endued with power from AI.
In contrast:
John 6:54 “Whoever eats my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal life, and I will raise them up at the last day.”
Matthew 26:26-28 “While they were eating, Jesus took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and gave it to his disciples, saying, ‘Take and eat; this is my body.’ Then he took a cup, and when he had given thanks, he gave it to them, saying, ‘Drink from it, all of you. This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins.’”
John 6:48-51 “I am the bread of life. Your ancestors ate the manna in the wilderness, yet they died. But here is the bread that comes down from heaven, which anyone may eat and not die. I am the living bread that came down from heaven. Whoever eats this bread will live forever. This bread is my flesh, which I will give for the life of the world.”
Revelation 3:20 “Behold, I stand at the door and knock. If anyone hears my voice and opens the door, I will come in and dine with him, and he with me.”
Do you understand the encryption?
Yes I got a wide angle again. Feels good :)
After a continuous 5 hours library-study on this intricate cryptography topic, I decided to give myself a break and headed towards a near by beach at my college. I have started PhD in Computer Science starting this fall. Back to the student life again.
This place is called 'Campus Point' as many students love to take a break here between classes.
Fly to this location using FlickrFly (Requires Google Earth)
INFO:
3xp HDR through CPL filter.
First post taken by my new 'budget lens' 17-50mm f/2.8 XR Di II. This comparison shows it is nicely competing with an 'L' series! ;-)
If you are hunting some lens for the near future I'd suggest to check out this interactive MTF comparisons . It will at least totally convince you that why we should not dare to use widest aperture available and/or maximum zoom available, if we want a good quality picture.
Explored! :)
The National Security Agency (NSA) is a cryptologic intelligence agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the collection and analysis of foreign communications and foreign signals intelligence, as well as protecting U.S. government communications and information systems, which involves information security and cryptanalysis/cryptography.
On April 25, 2013, the NSA obtained a court order requiring Verizon's Business Network Services to provide information on all calls in its system to the NSA "on an ongoing daily basis", as reported by The Guardian on June 6, 2013.
...decodificando fotones sobrepuestos.
*
"Channelizing Qbits"
***** Part of the Infotropía Project *****
An Air Force Lockheed Martin F-22 "Raptor" assigned to the 3rd Wing flies over Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska, Feb. 27, 2018. The Lockheed Martin F-22 "Raptor" is the U.S. Air Force’s premium fifth-generation fighter asset.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Lockheed Martin F-22 "Raptor" is a fifth-generation, single-seat, twin-engine, all-weather stealth tactical fighter aircraft developed for the United States Air Force (USAF). The result of the USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program, the aircraft was designed primarily as an air superiority fighter, but also has ground attack, electronic warfare, and signal intelligence capabilities. The prime contractor, Lockheed Martin, built most of the F-22's airframe and weapons systems and conducted final assembly, while Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration, and training systems.
The aircraft was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 before it formally entered service in December 2005 as the F-22A. Despite its protracted development and various operational issues, USAF officials consider the F-22 a critical component of the service's tactical air power. Its combination of stealth, aerodynamic performance, and situational awareness enable unprecedented air combat capabilities.
Service officials had originally planned to buy a total of 750 ATFs. In 2009, the program was cut to 187 operational production aircraft due to high costs, a lack of clear air-to-air missions due to delays in Russian and Chinese fighter programs, a ban on exports, and development of the more versatile F-35. The last F-22 was delivered in 2012.
Development
Origins
In 1981, the U.S. Air Force identified a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) to replace the F-15 "Eagle" and F-16 "Fighting Falcon". Code named "Senior Sky", this air-superiority fighter program was influenced by emerging worldwide threats, including new developments in Soviet air defense systems and the proliferation of the Su-27 "Flanker"- and MiG-29 "Fulcrum"-class of fighter aircraft. It would take advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon, including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight control systems, more powerful propulsion systems, and most importantly, stealth technology. In 1983, the ATF concept development team became the System Program Office (SPO) and managed the program at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. The demonstration and validation (Dem/Val) request for proposals (RFP) was issued in September 1985, with requirements placing strong emphasis on stealth and supercruise. Of the seven bidding companies, Lockheed and Northrop were selected on 31 October 1986. Lockheed teamed with Boeing and General Dynamics while Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas, and the two contractor teams undertook a 50-month Dem/Val phase, culminating in the flight test of two technology demonstrator prototypes, the YF-22 and the YF-23, respectively.
Dem/Val was focused on risk reduction and technology development plans over specific aircraft designs. Contractors made extensive use of analytical and empirical methods, including computational fluid dynamics, wind-tunnel testing, and radar cross-section calculations and pole testing; the Lockheed team would conduct nearly 18,000 hours of wind-tunnel testing. Avionics development was marked by extensive testing and prototyping and supported by ground and flying laboratories. During Dem/Val, the SPO used the results of performance and cost trade studies conducted by contractor teams to adjust ATF requirements and delete ones that were significant weight and cost drivers while having marginal value. The short takeoff and landing (STOL) requirement was relaxed in order to delete thrust-reversers, saving substantial weight. As avionics was a major cost driver, side-looking radars were deleted, and the dedicated infra-red search and track (IRST) system was downgraded from multi-color to single color and then deleted as well. However, space and cooling provisions were retained to allow for future addition of these components. The ejection seat requirement was downgraded from a fresh design to the existing McDonnell Douglas ACES II. Despite efforts by the contractor teams to rein in weight, the takeoff gross weight estimate was increased from 50,000 lb (22,700 kg) to 60,000 lb (27,200 kg), resulting in engine thrust requirement increasing from 30,000 lbf (133 kN) to 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class.
Each team produced two prototype air vehicles for Dem/Val, one for each of the two engine options. The YF-22 had its maiden flight on 29 September 1990 and in flight tests achieved up to Mach 1.58 in supercruise. After the Dem/Val flight test of the prototypes, on 23 April 1991, Secretary of the USAF Donald Rice announced the Lockheed team as the winner of the ATF competition. The YF-23 design was considered stealthier and faster, while the YF-22, with its thrust vectoring nozzles, was more maneuverable as well as less expensive and risky. The aviation press speculated that the Lockheed team's design was also more adaptable to the U.S. Navy's Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), but by 1992, the Navy had abandoned NATF.
Production and procurement
As the program moved to full-scale development, or the Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD) stage, the production version had notable differences from the YF-22, despite having a broadly similar shape. The swept-back angle of the leading edge was decreased from 48° to 42°, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and decreased in area by 20%. To improve pilot visibility, the canopy was moved forward 7 inches (18 cm), and the engine intakes moved rearward 14 inches (36 cm). The shapes of the wing and stabilator trailing edges were refined to improve aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics. Increasing weight during development caused slight reductions in range and maneuver performance.
Prime contractor Lockheed Martin Aeronautics manufactured the majority of the airframe and performed final assembly at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Marietta, Georgia; program partner Boeing Defense, Space & Security provided additional airframe components as well as avionics integration and training systems. The first F-22, an EMD aircraft with tail number 4001, was unveiled at Marietta, Georgia, on 9 April 1997, and first flew on 7 September 1997. Production, with the first lot awarded in September 2000, supported over 1,000 subcontractors and suppliers from 46 states and up to 95,000 jobs, and spanned 15 years at a peak rate of roughly two airplanes per month. In 2006, the F-22 development team won the Collier Trophy, American aviation's most prestigious award. Due to the aircraft's advanced nature, contractors have been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft.
The USAF originally envisioned ordering 750 ATFs at a total program cost of $44.3 billion and procurement cost of $26.2 billion in fiscal year (FY) 1985 dollars, with production beginning in 1994. The 1990 Major Aircraft Review led by Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced this to 648 aircraft beginning in 1996. By 1997, funding instability had further cut the total to 339, which was again reduced to 277 by 2003. In 2004, the Department of Defense (DoD) further reduced this to 183 operational aircraft, despite the USAF's preference for 381. A multi-year procurement plan was implemented in 2006 to save $15 billion, with total program cost projected to be $62 billion for 183 F-22s distributed to seven combat squadrons. In 2008, Congress passed a defense spending bill that raised the total orders for production aircraft to 187.
The first two F-22s built were EMD aircraft in the Block 1.0 configuration for initial flight testing, while the third was a Block 2.0 aircraft built to represent the internal structure of production airframes and enabled it to test full flight loads. Six more EMD aircraft were built in the Block 10 configuration for development and upgrade testing, with the last two considered essentially production quality jets. Production for operational squadrons consisted of 37 Block 20 training aircraft and 149 Block 30/35 combat aircraft; one of the Block 35 aircraft is dedicated to flight sciences at Edwards Air Force Base.
The numerous new technologies in the F-22 resulted in substantial cost overruns and delays. Many capabilities were deferred to post-service upgrades, reducing the initial cost but increasing total program cost. As production wound down in 2011, the total program cost is estimated to be about $67.3 billion, with $32.4 billion spent on Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (RDT&E) and $34.9 billion on procurement and military construction (MILCON) in then year dollars. The incremental cost for an additional F-22 was estimated at about $138 million in 2009.
Ban on exports
The F-22 cannot be exported under US federal law to protect its stealth technology and other high-tech features. Customers for U.S. fighters are acquiring earlier designs such as the F-15 "Eagle" and F-16 "Fighting Falcon" or the newer F-35 "Lightning II", which contains technology from the F-22 but was designed to be cheaper, more flexible, and available for export. In September 2006, Congress upheld the ban on foreign F-22 sales. Despite the ban, the 2010 defense authorization bill included provisions requiring the DoD to prepare a report on the costs and feasibility for an F-22 export variant, and another report on the effect of F-22 export sales on U.S. aerospace industry.
Some Australian politicians and defense commentators proposed that Australia should attempt to purchase F-22s instead of the planned F-35s, citing the F-22's known capabilities and F-35's delays and developmental uncertainties. However, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) determined that the F-22 was unable to perform the F-35's strike and close air support roles. The Japanese government also showed interest in the F-22 for its Replacement-Fighter program. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) would reportedly require fewer fighters for its mission if it obtained the F-22, thus reducing engineering and staffing costs. However, in 2009 it was reported that acquiring the F-22 would require increases to the Japanese government's defense budget beyond the historical 1 percent of its GDP. With the end of F-22 production, Japan chose the F-35 in December 2011. Israel also expressed interest, but eventually chose the F-35 because of the F-22's price and unavailability.
Production termination
Throughout the 2000s, the need for F-22s was debated, due to rising costs and the lack of relevant adversaries. In 2006, Comptroller General of the United States David Walker found that "the DoD has not demonstrated the need" for more investment in the F-22, and further opposition to the program was expressed by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon R. England, Senator John McCain, and Chairman of U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services Senator John Warner. The F-22 program lost influential supporters in 2008 after the forced resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley.
In November 2008, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates stated that the F-22 was not relevant in post-Cold War conflicts such as irregular warfare operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, and in April 2009, under the new Obama Administration, he called for ending production in FY2011, leaving the USAF with 187 production aircraft. In July, General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stated to the Senate Committee on Armed Services his reasons for supporting termination of F-22 production. They included shifting resources to the multirole F-35 to allow proliferation of fifth-generation fighters for three service branches and preserving the F/A-18 production line to maintain the military's electronic warfare (EW) capabilities in the Boeing EA-18G "Growler". Issues with the F-22's reliability and availability also raised concerns. After President Obama threatened to veto further production, the Senate voted in July 2009 in favor of ending production and the House subsequently agreed to abide by the 187 production aircraft cap. Gates stated that the decision was taken in light of the F-35's capabilities, and in 2010, he set the F-22 requirement to 187 aircraft by lowering the number of major regional conflict preparations from two to one.
In 2010, USAF initiated a study to determine the costs of retaining F-22 tooling for a future Service Life Extension Program (SLEP). A RAND Corporation paper from this study estimated that restarting production and building an additional 75 F-22s would cost $17 billion, resulting in $227 million per aircraft, or $54 million higher than the flyaway cost. Lockheed Martin stated that restarting the production line itself would cost about $200 million. Production tooling and associated documentation were subsequently stored at the Sierra Army Depot, allowing the retained tooling to support the fleet life cycle. There were reports that attempts to retrieve this tooling found empty containers, but a subsequent audit found that the tooling was stored as expected.
Russian and Chinese fighter developments have fueled concern, and in 2009, General John Corley, head of Air Combat Command, stated that a fleet of 187 F-22s would be inadequate, but Secretary Gates dismissed General Corley's concern. In 2011, Gates explained that Chinese fifth-generation fighter developments had been accounted for when the number of F-22s was set, and that the U.S. would have a considerable advantage in stealth aircraft in 2025, even with F-35 delays. In December 2011, the 195th and final F-22 was completed out of 8 test EMD and 187 operational aircraft produced; the aircraft was delivered to the USAF on 2 May 2012.
In April 2016, the House Armed Services Committee (HASC) Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee proposed legislation that would direct the Air Force to conduct a cost study and assessment associated with resuming production of the F-22. Since the production halt directed in 2009 by then Defense Secretary Gates, lawmakers and the Pentagon noted that air warfare systems of Russia and China were catching up to those of the U.S. Lockheed Martin has proposed upgrading the Block 20 training aircraft into combat-coded Block 30/35 versions as a way to increase numbers available for deployment. On 9 June 2017, the Air Force submitted their report to Congress stating they had no plans to restart the F-22 production line due to economic and operational issues; it estimated it would cost approximately $50 billion to procure 194 additional F-22s at a cost of $206–$216 million per aircraft, including approximately $9.9 billion for non-recurring start-up costs and $40.4 billion for aircraft procurement costs.
Upgrades
The first aircraft with combat-capable Block 3.0 software flew in 2001. Increment 2, the first upgrade program, was implemented in 2005 for Block 20 aircraft onward and enabled the employment of Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM). Certification of the improved AN/APG-77(V)1 radar was completed in March 2007, and airframes from production Lot 5 onward are fitted with this radar, which incorporates air-to-ground modes. Increment 3.1 for Block 30 aircraft onward provided improved ground-attack capability through synthetic aperture radar mapping and radio emitter direction finding, electronic attack and Small Diameter Bomb (SDB) integration; testing began in 2009 and the first upgraded aircraft was delivered in 2011. To address oxygen deprivation issues, F-22s were fitted with an automatic backup oxygen system (ABOS) and modified life support system starting in 2012.
Increment 3.2 for Block 35 aircraft is a two-part upgrade process; 3.2A focuses on electronic warfare, communications and identification, while 3.2B includes geolocation improvements and a new stores management system to show the correct symbols for the AIM-9X and AIM-120D. To enable two-way communication with other platforms, the F-22 can use the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) as a gateway. The planned Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL) integration was cut due to development delays and lack of proliferation among USAF platforms. The F-22 fleet is planned to start receiving Increment 3.2B as well as a software upgrade for cryptography capabilities and avionics stability in May 2019. A Multifunctional Information Distribution System-Joint (MIDS-J) radio that replaces the current Link-16 receive-only box is expected to be operational by 2020. Subsequent upgrades are also focusing on having an open architecture to enable faster future enhancements.
In 2024, funding is projected to begin for the F-22 mid-life upgrade (MLU), which is expected to include new sensors and antennas, hardware refresh, cockpit improvements, and a helmet mounted display and cuing system. Other enhancements being developed include IRST functionality for the AN/AAR-56 Missile Launch Detector (MLD) and more durable stealth coating based on the F-35's.
The F-22 was designed for a service life of 8,000 flight hours, with a $350 million "structures retrofit program". Investigations are being made for upgrades to extend their useful lives further. In the long term, the F-22 is expected to be superseded by a sixth-generation jet fighter to be fielded in the 2030s.
Design
Overview
The F-22 "Raptor" is a fifth-generation fighter that is considered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology by the USAF. It is the first operational aircraft to combine supercruise, supermaneuverability, stealth, and sensor fusion in a single weapons platform. The F-22 has four empennage surfaces, retractable tricycle landing gear, and clipped delta wings with reverse trailing edge sweep and leading edge extensions running to the upper outboard corner of the inlets. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, ailerons, rudders on the canted vertical stabilizers, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); for speed brake function, the ailerons deflect up, flaperons down, and rudders outwards to increase drag.
The aircraft's dual Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 augmented turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate pitch-axis thrust vectoring nozzles with a range of ±20 degrees; each engine has maximum thrust in the 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class. The F-22's thrust-to-weight ratio at typical combat weight is nearly at unity in maximum military power and 1.25 in full afterburner. Maximum speed without external stores is approximately Mach 1.8 at military power and greater than Mach 2 with afterburners.
The F-22's high cruise speed and operating altitude over prior fighters improve the effectiveness of its sensors and weapon systems, and increase survivability against ground defenses such as surface-to-air missiles. The aircraft is among only a few that can supercruise, or sustain supersonic flight without using fuel-inefficient afterburners; it can intercept targets which subsonic aircraft would lack the speed to pursue and an afterburner-dependent aircraft would lack the fuel to reach. The F-22's thrust and aerodynamics enable regular combat speeds of Mach 1.5 at 50,000 feet (15,000 m). The use of internal weapons bays permits the aircraft to maintain comparatively higher performance over most other combat-configured fighters due to a lack of aerodynamic drag from external stores. The aircraft's structure contains a significant amount of high-strength materials to withstand stress and heat of sustained supersonic flight. Respectively, titanium alloys and composites comprise 39% and 24% of the structural weight.
The F-22's aerodynamics, relaxed stability, and powerful thrust-vectoring engines give it excellent maneuverability and energy potential across its flight envelope. The airplane has excellent high alpha (angle of attack) characteristics, capable of flying at trimmed alpha of over 60° while maintaining roll control and performing maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver (J-turn) and Pugachev's Cobra. The flight control system and full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) make the aircraft highly departure resistant and controllable, thus giving the pilot carefree handling.
Stealth
The F-22 was designed to be highly difficult to detect and track by radar. Measures to reduce radar cross-section (RCS) include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges, fixed-geometry serpentine inlets and curved vanes that prevent line-of-sight of the engine faces and turbines from any exterior view, use of radar-absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return. The F-22 was also designed to have decreased radio emissions, infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye. The aircraft's flat thrust-vectoring nozzles reduce infrared emissions of the exhaust plume to mitigate the threat of infrared homing ("heat seeking") surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles. Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include special topcoat and active cooling of leading edges to manage the heat buildup from supersonic flight.
Compared to previous stealth designs like the F-117, the F-22 is less reliant on RAM, which are maintenance-intensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions. Unlike the B-2, which requires climate-controlled hangars, the F-22 can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar. The F-22 has a Signature Assessment System which delivers warnings when the radar signature is degraded and necessitates repair. While the F-22's exact RCS is classified, in 2009 Lockheed Martin released information indicating that from certain angles the aircraft has an RCS of 0.0001 m² or −40 dBsm – equivalent to the radar reflection of a "steel marble". Effectively maintaining the stealth features can decrease the F-22's mission capable rate to 62–70%.
The effectiveness of the stealth characteristics is difficult to gauge. The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of the aircraft's frontal or side area from the perspective of a static radar. When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a completely different set of angles and surface area, potentially increasing radar observability. Furthermore, the F-22's stealth contouring and radar absorbent materials are chiefly effective against high-frequency radars, usually found on other aircraft. The effects of Rayleigh scattering and resonance mean that low-frequency radars such as weather radars and early-warning radars are more likely to detect the F-22 due to its physical size. However, such radars are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and have low precision. Additionally, while faint or fleeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth aircraft is present, reliably vectoring interception to attack the aircraft is much more challenging. According to the USAF an F-22 surprised an Iranian F-4 "Phantom II" that was attempting to intercept an American UAV, despite Iran's assertion of having military VHF radar coverage over the Persian Gulf.
Stairway and landing, Agudas Achim North Shore Synagogue, Chicago Illinois.
The Agudas Achim North Shore Synagogue, Constructed in 1922, served the many Jewish immgrants that flooded into the area in the early part of the 20th century. An adjoining Hebrew school was subsequently constructed next door, but by the 1940's, the neighborhood was deteriorating rapidly, and Jews began settling even farther north. By the 1960's, the old synagogue had fallen into severe disrepair from vandalism and neglect, and by the 1980's, the synagogue had been abandoned.
In the 1990's, Russian Orthodox Jews started repairs on the building and began holding services again, but the revival was short-lived, and the building has been abandoned ever since.
Night, fully dark lobby, ambient city light through windows, CTO-gelled Lux Pro 630 flashlight.
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Harris & Ewing,, photographer.
NO CAPTION
[1924 May]
1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. or smaller
Notes:
Date based on date of negatives in same range.
Gift; Harris & Ewing, Inc. 1955.
Subjects:
United States.
Format: Glass negatives.
Rights Info: No known restrictions on publication. For more information, see Harris & Ewing Photographs - Rights and Restrictions Information www.loc.gov/rr/print/res/140_harr.html
Repository: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA, hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
Part Of: Harris & Ewing photograph collection (DLC) 2009632509
General information about the Harris & Ewing Collection is available at hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.hec
Higher resolution image is available (Persistent URL): hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/hec.32363
Call Number: LC-H27- A-8470