Pipes and Pizza Interior, 1974

 

Photo contributed by Flickrer ochdist.

City Palace, Udaipur, is a palace complex in Udaipur, in the Indian state Rajasthan. It was built over a period of nearly 400 years being contributed by several kings of the dynasty, starting by the Maharana Udai Singh as the capital of the Sisodia Rajput clan in 1559, after he moved from Chittor. It is located on the east bank of the Lake Pichola and has several palaces built within its complex. Udaipur was the historic capital of the former kingdom of Mewar in the Rajputana Agency and its last capital.

 

The City Palace in Udaipur was built in a flamboyant style and is considered the largest of its type in Rajasthan, a fusion of the Rajasthani and Mughal architectural styles, and was built on a hill top that gives a panoramic view of the city and its surrounding, including several historic monuments such as the Lake Palace in Lake Pichola, the Jag Mandir on another island in the lake, the Jagdish Temple close to the palace, the Monsoon Palace on top of an overlooking hillock nearby and the Neemach Mata temple. These structures are linked to the filming of the James Bond movie Octopussy, which features the Lake Palace and the Monsoon Palace. The subsequent publicity has resulted in the epithet of Udaipur as "Venice of the East". In 2009, Udaipur was rated the top city in the World's Best Awards by Travel + Leisure.

 

HISTORY

The city Palace was built concurrently with establishment of the Udaipur city by Maharana Udai Singh, in 1559 and his successor Maharanas over a period of the next 300 years. It is considered the largest royal complex in Rajasthan and is replete with history. Founding of the city and building of the palace complex can not be looked in isolation as the Maharanas lived and administered their kingdom from this palace.

 

Prior to moving their capital from Udaipur to Chittor≤≥, the Mewar kingdom had flourished initially in Nagda (30 kilometres to the north of Udaipur), established in 568 AD by Guhil, the first Mewar Maharana. In the 8th century, the capital was moved to Chittor, a hill top fort from where the Sisodias ruled for 80 years. Maharana Udai Singh II inherited the Mewar kingdom at Chittor in 1537 but by that time there were signs of losing control of the fort in wars with the Mughals. Udai Singh II, therefore, chose the site near Lake Pichola for his new kingdom because the location was well protected on all sides by forests, lakes and the Aravalli hills. He had chosen this site for his new capital, much before the sacking of Chittor by Emperor Akbar, on the advice of a hermit he had met during one of his hunting expeditions.

 

At his capital Udaipur, Maharana Udai Singh soon faced defeat at the hands of Mughal Emperor Akbar. He soon moved to Udaipur to the chosen location to establish his new capital. The earliest royal structure he built here was the Royal courtyard or 'Rai Angan', which was the beginning of the building of the City Palace complex, at the place where the hermit had advised Maharana to build his Capital.

 

After Udai Singh’s death in 1572, his son Maharana Pratap took the reins of power at Udaipur. He was successful in defeating Akbar at the battle of Haldighati in 1576 and thereafter Udaipur was peaceful for quite some years. With this, prosperity of Udaipur ensued, palaces were built on the shore and in the midst of the Pichola lake. Concurrently art, particularly miniature painting, also flourished.

 

But in 1736, the marauding Marathas attacked Udaipur and by the end of the century the Mewar state was in dire straits and in ruins. However, the British came to Mewar’s rescue in the 19th century and soon the State of Mewar got re-established and prospered under British protection, under a treaty signed with the British. However, the British were not allowed to replace them. Once India got independence in 1947, the Mewar Kingdom, along with other princely states of Rajasthan, merged with the Democratic India, in 1949. The Mewar Kings subsequently also lost their special royal privileges and titles. However, the successor Maharanas have enjoyed the trust of their people and also retained their ownership of the palaces in Udaipur. They are now running the palaces by creating a trust, called the Mewar Trust, with the income generated from tourism and the heritage hotels that they have established in some of their palaces. With the fund so generated they are running charitable hospitals, educational institutions and promoting the cause of environmental preservation.

 

LEGEND

Historical legend narrated to the selection of the site for the palace is about a hermit meeting Maharana Udai Singh when he was on a hunting trail in the Udaipur hills. The Maharana met the hermit who was meditating on top of a hill above the Pichola Lake and sought the hermit’s blessings. The hermit advised the Maharana to build his palace at that very spot and that is where the palace complex came to be established at Udaipur.

 

GEOGRAPHY

The city palace located in Udaipur city at 24.576°N 73.68°E, which is set with an average elevation of 598 metres.

 

CLIMATE

The climate of Udaipur reflects the climate at the city palace. It is tropical, with the mercury recording between a maximum of 38.3 °C and a minimum of 28.8 °C during summers. Winter is cold with the maximum temperature rising to 28 °C and the minimum dipping to 11.6 °C. The average annual rainfall is 64 cm.

 

STRUCTURES

The series of palaces packed in the city palace complex, facing east (as customarily appropriate for the Maharana dynasty – the Sun dynasty), behind an exquisite facade of 244 metres length and 30.4 metres height, were built on a ridge on the east of lake Pichola. They were built over a long period, from 1559 onwards, by 76 generations of Sisodia Rajputs or Suryavanshi Rajputs (worshippers of Sun god). Several Maharanas (the title Maharana is distinctly different from Maharajah, as the former connotes a warrior and the latter a ruler or a king) starting with Udai Mirza Singh II, have richly contributed to this edifice, which comprises an agglomeration of structures, including 11 small separate palaces. The unique aspect of this conglomeration is that the architectural design (a rich blend of Rajasthani, Mughal, Medieval, European and Chinese Architecture) is distinctly homogeneous and eye catching. The palace complex has been built entirely in granite and marble. The interiors of the palace complex with its balconies, towers and cupolas exhibit delicate mirror-work, marble-work, murals, wall paintings, silver-work, inlay-work and leftover of colored glass. The complex provides a fine view of the lake and the Udaipur city from its upper terraces.

 

Located with the picturesque backdrop of rugged mountains, beside the Pichola lake on its shore, the city palace complex painted in gleaming white color has been compared to the Greek islands, such as the Mykonos.

 

The famous structures or palaces viewed from the Lake Palace appear like a fort. They are interlinked inside the complex through a number of chowks or quadrangles with zigzag corridors (planned in this fashion to avoid surprise attacks by enemies). Erected in the complex, after entering through the main Tripolia (triple) gate, are the Suraj Gokhda (public address facade), the Mor-chowk (Peacock courtyard), the Dilkhush Mahal (heart’s delight), the Surya Chopar, the Sheesh Mahal (Palace of glass and mirrors), the Moti Mahal (Palace of Pearls), the Krishna Vilas (named after Lord Krishna), Shambu Niwas (royal residence now), the Bhim Vilas, the Amar Vilas (with a raised garden) that faces the Badi Mahal (the big palace), the Fateprakash Palace and the Shiv Niwas Palace (the latest addition to the complex); the last two have been converted into heritage hotels. Details of all these structures are elaborated. The vast collection of structures are termed to form ‘a city within a city’ set with facilities of post office, bank, travel agency, numerous craft shops and also an Indian boutique belonging to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) for Nature. The entire complex is the property of the Mewar royal family and a number of trusts take care of the running and maintenance of the structures. The earliest royal structure built in the complex was the Royal courtyard or Rai Angan.

 

GATEWAYS

Gateways, colloquially called Pols, are set to the east of Udaipur city that was established by Maharana Udai Singh II, concurrently with the City Palace. A number of impressive gateways provide access to the palace complex.

 

The main entry from the city is through the 'Bara Pol' (Great Gate), which leads to the first courtyard. Bara Pol (built in 1600) leads to the ‘Tripolia Pol', a triple arched gate built in 1725, which provides the northern entry. The road between this gate and the palace is lined with shops and kiosks owned by craftsmen, book-binders, miniature painters, textile dealers and antique shops. Between these two gates, eight marble arches or Toranas are erected. It is said that the Maharanas used to be weighed here with gold and silver, which was then distributed among the local people. Following the Tripolia gate is an arena in front of the Toran Pol and the facade palace, where elephant fights were staged in the past to test their prowess before starting on war campaigns.

 

The main block of the city palace at Udaipur is approached through a modest door from the Ganesha Deodhi terrace. The door is flanked by whitewashed walls vibrantly painted with martial animals in the traditional Rajput style.

 

AMAR VILAS

Amar Vilas is the uppermost court inside the complex, which is a raised garden. It provides entry to the Badi Mahal. It is a pleasure pavilion built in Mughal style. It has cussed arcades enclosing a square marble tub. Amar Vilas' is the highest point of the City palace and has wonderful hanging gardens with fountains, towers and terraces.

 

BADI MAHAL

Badi Mahal (Great Palace) also known as Garden Palace and is the exotic central garden palace that is situated on a 27 metres high natural rock formation bis-a-bis the rest of the palace. The rooms on the ground floor appear to be at the level of the fourth floor in view of the height difference to its surrounding buildings. There is a swimming pool here, which was then used for Holi festival (festival of colors) celebration. In an adjoining hall, miniature paintings of 18th and 19th centuries are displayed. In addition, wall paintings of Jag Mandir (as it appeared in the 18th century), Vishnu of Jagdish temple, the very courtyard and an elephant fight scene are depicted.

 

The elephant fight depicted in a painting on the wall was a representation of the real elephant fights, which used to be organized by the Maharanas. It is mentioned that the elephants used to be fed hashish (opium) before arranging the fights. An interesting observation is that the word ‘assassin’ is a derivative of the word ‘hashish’. The last such fight was reported in 1995.

 

BHIM VILAS

Bhim Vilas has a gallery of a remarkable collection of miniature paintings that depict the real life stories of Radha-Krishna.

 

CHINI CHITRASHALA

Chini Chitrashala (Chinese art place) depicts Chinese and Dutch ornamental tiles.

 

CHOTI CHITRASHALI

Choti Chitrashali or 'Residence of Little Pictures', built in early 19th century, has pictures of peacocks.

 

DILKHUSHA MAHAL

Dilkhusha Mahal or ‘Palace of Joy’ was built in 1620.

 

DURBAR HALL

Durbar Hall was built in 1909 within the Fatepraksh Palace (now a heritage hotel) Official functions such as State banquets and meetings were held here. The gallery of the hall was used by the Royal ladies to observe the Durbar proceedings. This hall has luxuriant interior with some unusually large chandeliers. Weapons of the maharanas and also some of their unique portraits are also depicted here. The foundation stone for this hall was laid by Lord Minto, the Viceroy of India, in 1909, during the rule of Maharana Fateh Singh and was then called Minto Hall.

 

FATEPRAKASH PALCE

Fateprakash Palace, which is now run as a luxury hotel, has a crystal gallery that consists of crystal chairs, dressing tables, sofas, tables, chairs and beds, crockery, table fountains which were never used. There is also a unique jewel studded carpet here. Maharaja Sajjan Singh had ordered these rare items in 1877 from F& C Osler & Co of London but he died before they arrived here. It is said that the packages containing these crystals remained unopened for 110 years.

 

JAGDISH MANDIR

Jagdish Mandir, located 150 metres north of the city palace, was built in 1652 in Indo-Aryan architectural style. It is a large and aesthetically elegant temple where an idol of Lord Jagannath, a form of Lord Vishnu made in black stone is deified in the sanctum. The temple walls and the sikhara or tower are decorated with carvings of Vishnu, scenes from Lord Krishna’s life and figurines of nymphs or apsaras. A brass image of Garuda (half-bird, half-man image, which is Lord Vishnu’s vehicle), is placed in a separate shrine in front of the temple. Flanking the steps up the temple decoration of statues of elephants are seen. The street square, where the temple is located, is also known as Jagdish Chowk from where several roads radiate in different directions.

 

KRISHNA VILAS

Krishna Vilas is another chamber, which has rich collection of miniature paintings that portray royal processions, festivals and games of the Maharanas. However, there is tragic story linked to this wing of the City Palace. In the 19th century, a royal princess was unable to choose from two suitors seeking her hand in marriage, one from the royal family of Jaipur and another from Jodhpur, and hence in a state of dilemma, she poisoned herself to death.

 

LAXMI VILAS CHOWK

Laxmi Vilas Chowk is an art gallery with a distinctive collection of Mewar paintings.

 

MANAK MAHAL

The Manek mahal approached from the Manak Chowk is an enclosure for formal audience for the Udaipur rulers. It has a raised alcove inlaid completely in mirror glass. Sun-face emblems, in gleaming brass, religious insignia of the Sisodia dynasty are a recurring display at several locations in the City Palace; one of these prominent emblems is depicted on the façade of the Manak Chowk, which can also be seen from the outermost court below. The largest of such an emblem is also seen on the wall of the Surya Chopar, a reception centre at the lower level. Surya or Sun emblem of the Mewar dynasty depicts a Bhil, the Sun, Chittor Fort and a Rajput with an inscription in Sanskrit of a quotation from the Bhagavad Gita (Hindu holy scripture), which means “God Helps those who do their duty". It was customary for the Maharanas to offer obeisance to the Sun facing east, every morning before taking breakfast.

 

MOR CHOK

Mor Chok or Peacock square is integral to the inner courts of the palace. The elaborate design of this chamber consists of three peacocks (representing the three seasons of summer, winter and monsoon) modeled in high relief and faced with coloured glass mosaic, built into successive niches in the wall area or jharoka, These were built during Maharana Sajjan Singh’s reign, 200 years after the palace was established. The peacocks have been crafted with 5000 pieces of glass, which shine in green, gold and blue colours. The apartments in front of the Chowk are picturesquely depicted with scenes of Hindu god Lord Krishna’s legends. At the upper level, there is a projecting balcony, which is flanked by inserts of coloured glass. In an adjoining chamber, called the Kanch-ki-Burj, mosaic of mirrors adorn the walls. The Badi Charur Chowk within this chowk is a smaller court for private use. Its screen wall has painted and inlaid compositions depicting European men and Indian women. Proceeding further from the Mor-Chowk, in the Zenana Mahal or women’s quarters exquisitely designed alcoves, balconies, colored windows, tiled walls and floors are seen.

 

MUSEUM

n 1974, a part of the city palace and the 'Zenana Mahal' (Ladies Chamber) were converted into a museum. The museum is open for public. There is an interesting exhibit of a freaky monkey holding a lamp and also portraits of maharajas displaying a spectacular array of mustaches. ‘Lakshmi Chowk' is an elegant white pavilion in the same precinct.

 

RANG BHAWAN

Rang Bhawan is the palace that used to contain royal treasure. There are temples of Lord Krishna, Meera Bai and Shiva, located here.

 

SHEESH MAHAL

Sheess Mahal or Palace of Mirrors and glasses was built in 1716.

 

A shrine of Dhuni Mata is also located in the complex. This location is considered as the oldest part of the Palace, where a sage spent his entire life meditating.

 

THE PALACE IN FILM & TELEVISION

The palace was used as a hotel in the 1985 James Bond film Octopussy, where Bond (played by Roger Moore) stayed as he began his quest to apprehend the villainous Kamal Khan (Louis Jordan).

 

A 1991 documentary film directed for television by Werner Herzog is called Jag Mandir and consists of footage of an elaborate theatrical performance for the Maharana Arvind Singh Mewar at the City Palace staged by André Heller.

 

The palace was used for filming part of Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela (English: A Play of Bullets: Ram-Leela) 2013 directed by Sanjay Leela Bhansali.

 

WIKIPEDIA

"St. James Episcopal Church is a historic Episcopal church in the historic district of Wilmington, North Carolina. The church is part of the Episcopal Diocese of East Carolina and is the oldest church in the city of Wilmington. It is a contributing building in the Wilmington Historic District.

 

New York architect Henry C. Dudley (1813-1894) designed the truss roof in 1871 and the chancel and transept in 1885. Over his lifetime Dudley designed over 180 churches throughout the southern and eastern states.

 

Wilmington is a port city in and the county seat of New Hanover County in coastal southeastern North Carolina, United States.

 

With a population of 115,955 at the time of the 2020 United States Census, it is the eighth most populous city in the state. Wilmington is the principal city of the Wilmington Metropolitan Statistical Area, a metropolitan area that includes New Hanover and Pender counties in southeastern North Carolina, which has a population of 301,284 as of the 2020 Census. Its historic downtown has a 1.75-mile (2.82 km) Riverwalk, developed as a tourist attraction in the late 20th century. In 2014, Wilmington's riverfront was ranked as the "Best American Riverfront" by readers of USA Today. The National Trust for Historic Preservation selected Wilmington as one of its 2008 Dozen Distinctive Destinations.

 

City residents live between the river and the ocean, with four nearby beach communities just outside Wilmington: Fort Fisher, Wrightsville Beach, Carolina Beach and Kure Beach, all within half-hour drives from downtown Wilmington. The city is home to University of North Carolina Wilmington (UNCW), which provides a wide variety of programs for undergraduates, graduate students, and adult learners, in addition to cultural and sports events open to the community.

 

Toward the end of the 19th century, Wilmington was a majority-black, racially integrated prosperous city, and the largest city in North Carolina. In the Wilmington massacre of 1898, white supremacists launched a coup that overthrew the legitimately elected local Fusionist government. They expelled opposition black and white leaders from the city, destroyed the property and businesses of black citizens built up since the Civil War, including the only black newspaper in the city, and killed an estimated 60 to more than 300 people. This coincided with broader efforts of disenfranchisement at the state level. Whereas North Carolina had 125,000 registered black voters in 1896, it had 6,000 by 1902. By 1910, Charlotte overtook Wilmington as North Carolina's largest city.

 

In 2003 the city was designated by the U.S. Congress as a "Coast Guard City," one of twenty-nine cities which currently bear that designation, and was the home port for the USCGC Diligence, a United States Coast Guard medium endurance cutter until 2020. On September 2, 2020, then-President Trump officially declared Wilmington as the first World War II Heritage City in the country. The World War II battleship USS North Carolina, now a war memorial, is moored across from the downtown port area, and is open to the public for tours. Other attractions include the Cape Fear Museum of History and Science, The Children's Museum of Wilmington, and the Wilmington Hammerheads United Soccer Leagues soccer team.

 

Wilmington is also the home of EUE/Screen Gems Studios, the largest domestic television and movie production facility outside California. "Dream Stage 10," the facility's newest sound stage, is the third-largest in the United States. It houses the largest special-effects water tank in North America. After the studio's opening in 1984, Wilmington became a major center of American film and television production. Numerous movies in a range of genres and several television series have been produced here, including Iron Man 3, Super Mario Bros., The Conjuring, The Crow, We're the Millers, Fox's Sleepy Hollow, One Tree Hill, Dawson's Creek, and NBC's Revolution." - info from Wikipedia.

 

The fall of 2022 I did my 3rd major cycling tour. I began my adventure in Montreal, Canada and finished in Savannah, GA. This tour took me through the oldest parts of Quebec and the 13 original US states. During this adventure I cycled 7,126 km over the course of 2.5 months and took more than 68,000 photos. As with my previous tours, a major focus was to photograph historic architecture.

 

Now on Instagram.

 

Become a patron to my photography on Patreon or donate.

Located at 701 South Harrison Avenue, this lovely Prairie School house was built in 1900-01 using the designs of Frank Lloyd Wright. It is a contributing property to the Riverview Historic District, which was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986. The structure was later individually listed in 2009.

 

Located to the south of Chicago, Kankakee serves as the seat of Kankakee County.

reinventing media - fc/mc the alternative G20 protest media experiment.

 

FC/MC– International Media Center

++ Conclusions of the FC MC ++

++ FC MC will contribute to the evaluation of the events ++

 

A week after the end of the G20 summit in Hamburg, the International Media Center FC/MC draws its conclusions. The volunteer crew of the FC/MC self-organized a platform for over 1000 accreditated media workers, non-commercially and professionally. Workers were almost equally spread between freelancers, employees and media activists. The journalists came out of two dozen countries from South Africa to Russia. All types of media were present: print, online, television and radio. “At this G20 summit in Hamburg, we have experienced something that will keep us occupied for a long time. Our goal was to contribute to a differentiated perception of the G20 summit and the protests. This work wasn't something that we simply wanted to do - it was political necessity”, says Maren Grimm from the organizing team of the independent, international Media Center FC/MC, that for six days reported critically about the G20 from the FC St. Pauli stadium.

 

Conclusions of the FC MC

The FC/MC offered space to work, produced a live stream with reports from the streets, daily press conferences, facilitated interviews with representatives of social movements and NGOs, and integrated local and international media workers into the production process: Anybody who wanted to, could edit the materials there or work with the editorial team. New cooperations and a

productive, temporary community developed, which resulted in diverse content, in many formats - from documentaries to satire to video essays.

Multilingual twitter accounts of the FC/MC showed (and still show) not only the diverse produced materials, but also delivered timely reports of the

protests with checked and verified facts. The video ticker continously showed the current situation. Oliver Leistert from the organizing team said: “Our starting point and slogan was simply an monumental endavour: Re-invent critical journalism in times of affective populism. This still continues to be our task. The FC/MC has at least given an impetus, it has offered a proposal and

has shown that the way out of the journalistic crisis needs to be taken by the media workers themselves.” The FC/MC looked critically at the 'battle for the pictures in a fight about who has the power to interprete the events': “The FC/ MC editorial teams repeatedly discussed whether also to focus on the images that other channels such as n-tv and NDR streamed for hours. We decided against the 'riot porn', against focusing on the display of violence.” Without a broad support it would have been impossible to set up the FC/MC in such a short time from scratch - Solidarity came in the form of work time, materials and donations. We want to thank everybody who helped us: the members of the Chaos Computer Club and everyone from radical tech collectives who

kept network, servers and streams up and running; the many local companies that lent equipment and brought their expertise; the security crews who were available around the clock; the Mecklenbörgern who fed us, as well as the coffee collectives Aroma Zapatista and El Rojito; and the numerous people who gave the FC/MC their power and their sweat. Last but not least: 'You'll never walk alone' is real. About our cooperation with the FC St. Pauli we can only say one thing: “St. Pauli is the only option!”

 

And now?

The work of the FC/MC did not finished with the summit. There is still a lot of material that needs to be anaylised, processed and presented to the public. Also the editorial work continues: “It is now important to analyse the so-called 'display of modern police work' in the broader context of the events. We also set up the FC/MC because it was already obvious before the summit, that it would be used to move the discourse about security to set new standards for police operations in Germany. It now needs to be assessed in detail how far this procedure created the desired reality. The violations of fundamental rights,

and the breaches of the law, by the Police, must have consequences. We want to contribute to this with the material available at the FC/MC,” said Maren Grimm at the closing press conference of the FC/MC on 9 July. Our future work aims at documenting events, as well as rejecting the hegemonic discourse and its diffusion through the mass media, countering it with an insistence on the essential legitimacy of protest, it's urgency and its foundational importance. Beside the diverse protests and the violent clashes, there was police violence, attacks against lawyers, disregard for the freedom of the press and the freedom of assembly, and last but not least massive restrictions on the daily lives of people living in Hamburg. The G20 summit in Hamburg, its side effects, the political decisions and the police operation needs to be investigated and resolved.

 

Press contact: press@fcmc.tv

FC MC: fcmc.tv/

Recordings: media.ccc.de/c/fcmc17

YouTube channel: www.youtube.com/channel/UCHDTjtjyMFJqAhE4DxjAg9Q

Twitter: @fcmc_tv, @fcmc_info, @fcmc_n

 

cleaning/organizing my studio, feeling nostalgic and loving to all the people who have (on purpose or inadvertently) contributed to my inspiration wall

Eleven supremely fit and ruthlessly efficient cricketers, on top of their game, had their dreams of a first-ever world title ended by one audacious man. That cricket is a team game is an oft repeated cliché but South Africa were eliminated from the World Twenty20 at Trent Bridge solely because of Shahid Afridi's intensity and all-round skill.

 

Pakistan were yet to win a game against significant opposition in the tournament because of a team performance. They lost to England and Sri Lanka, beat minnows Netherlands and Ireland, and relied on Umar Gul to rout New Zealand. Their players hadn't contributed collectively and so it was unlikely all 11 players would maximise potential against opponents as able as South Africa. To have a hope of playing at Lord's on Sunday, Pakistan needed individual brilliance from one of their matchwinners: probably Gul, possibly Younis Khan, or perhaps Misbah-ul-Haq.

 

Instead, it came from Afridi. Pakistan and Afridi supporters always hope that it will come from him. They roar him to the crease, brimming with optimism, hoping he will destroy the opposition with his recklessly cavalier approach. Thousands of fans celebrated his arrival at the crease at Trent Bridge after Pakistan had lost Shahzaib Hasan in the second over.

 

Did they know that Afridi's last half-century, in any format of the game, came 28 innings ago, against Zimbabwe at Multan in 2008? And the one before that was 19 innings earlier, against Sri Lanka in Abu Dhabi in 2007? It didn't matter, for when it comes to Afridi, there's always reason to hope. He'll disappoint more often than not, but his successes are so spectacular that it's worth the heartbreaks.

 

Afridi batted at No. 6 during the initial stages of the World Twenty20 and having to necessarily find the boundary immediately didn't work for him. He made 5 against England, holing out to mid-on, was bowled for 13 by Dirk Nannes against Netherlands, and was dismissed for a first-ball duck against Sri Lanka. Pakistan decided to push him up to No. 5 against New Zealand and he made 29 low-pressure runs off 18 balls, and 24 off 13 balls at No 3 against Ireland. Afridi said Younis supported him fully, put no pressure on him, and asked him to bat higher in the order, only requesting that he take his time and not attempt impractical risks like trying to pull Muttiah Muralitharan into orbit off his first delivery.

 

On first evidence at Trent Bridge, Afridi appeared not to heed that request, whacking his first ball, from Wayne Parnell, over mid-on for four. He was bristling with aggression when Jacques Kallis tested his skill against the short ball. Afridi was beaten by the first couple but pulled two out of the following three to the midwicket boundary. Kallis walked up to him and stared and Afridi's response was an attempt to get under the skin of the bowler. "He [Kallis] came close to me, I gave him a kiss," Afridi said. "A flying kiss."

 

Afridi's posture had betrayed disappointment when Kamran Akmal fell off his 12th ball, having scored 23 off the first 11, by top-edging a pull to mid-on. Afridi had also started quickly, scoring 15 off nine, but wasn't about to go the Akmal way. No risks were taken immediately after the fielding restrictions were lifted, Afridi being content with working the ball cleverly into gaps to score at a run a ball.

 

Not until the 11th over did he cut loose, against Johan Botha, and his execution was precise. Three times in a row Afridi made room by moving towards leg, and all three times he placed the ball into the gap on the extra cover boundary. And when Graeme Smith reinforced his field, Afridi played the deftest of late cuts to take 18 off the over. His first moment of indiscretion was also his last for an ill-timed swipe across the line against JP Duminy's first ball went straight in the air. Trent Bridge reverberated with applause as Afridi returned to the dugout, having scored 51 off 34 balls. And he was only half done.

 

While Afridi's batting deteriorated over the last couple of years, his bowling has been vital to Pakistan's limited-over success. He even said on Cricinfo that he rates himself as a bowler first. So unlike his batting, Afridi's legspin was in top form during the World Twenty20 with eight wickets and an economy of less than six an over, going into the game against South Africa.

 

Bouyed by his batting, Afridi's high intensity levels kept him in the thick of the action. He appeared stunned after Gul dropped Smith and hit his head on the ground, standing motionless for a few moments before realising the ball needed to be collected, and then attended to his injured team-mate. He was given the ball in the seventh over and found rhythm immediately, getting one to turn, bounce and rip past Kallis' bat. Gibbs watched that from the non-striker's end and so pushed forward, playing away from his body for the legbreak, a ball later. It didn't turn. Instead it fizzed off the pitch and skidded straight through, knocking back off stump.

 

Afridi had an edge put down by Kamran Akmal off AB de Villiers in his next over. Unfazed, he forced the batsmen to play on the next ball, and celebrated in trademark style: running to the side of the pitch, standing upright with his chest proudly out, a knowing grin in his face and his left hand raised in triumph while his team-mates rushed in from all corners of the outfield. As they mobbed him, the DJ got the crowd going by playing Dil Dil Pakistan.

 

Afridi finished with 2 for 16 to go with his half-century. After he was done, Saeed Ajmal dismissed Kallis, Gul bowled a succession of yorkers, and Mohammad Aamer kept his cool when entrusted with the final over. There was no doubt, though, why Pakistan had won. It was obvious from the number of times Smith mentioned Afridi's name during the post-match press conference without even being specifically asked.

 

George Binoy is a senior sub-editor at Cricinfo

Feeds: George Binoy

Burke and Wills Menindee Camp Pamamaroo Creek 26/10/1860 to 26/01/1861.

The story of Burke and Wills has become an integral part of the Australian consciousness. Burke and Wills and their fate seem to encapsulate and justify the fear that many urban Australians have of the vast, lonely, dry wilderness which occupies over two-thirds of the continent. Of course the truth about the ignominious demise of Burke and wills is more pedestrian. What went wrong with their expedition can best be summed up by those well-known human failings - incompetence, arrogance, inflexibility and racial bigotry. The expedition was ill-conceived from the outset. It is now generally agreed that the raison d'etre of the whole undertaking was overwhelming pride. This pride was a result of the newly found wealth of Melbourne (a direct result of the gold rushes) and the newly created colonial independence of Victoria. Public enthusiasm for the expedition was high. Public subscriptions exceeded £3000 and the government contributed £6000. Under ordinary circumstances this would have been adequate funding but over half of the funds were spent on purchasing and importing twenty-four camels from Afghanistan. The committee then advertised for a man to lead the expedition. They had thirteen applicants out of whom they chose Irish-born police inspector Robert O'Hara Burke. Burke had no experience and no apparent knowledge of the Australian bush. Why he was chosen to lead an expedition which was going to travel across thousands of miles of rugged and unknown terrain remains a mystery. It was not so much an expedition as a public display. The camels and packhorses were carrying twenty-one tons of equipment including 120 mirrors as presents for Aborigines, sixty gallons of rum, four gallons of brandy, supplies of rockets, arms and vast qualities of dried food.

 

On 6 September when the expedition reached Swan Hill Burke sold off a large quantity of stores and hired two new men. In Balranald the foreman, Ferguson, quit; Burke dismissed Creber, Cowen, Fletcher, the cook Drakeford, and Langan; and some stores including the expedition's entire supply of lime juice were sold. At the Darling River camp at Pamamaroo Creek Burke insisted that all items weighing over thirty pounds be abandoned. This decision meant that neither Dr Beckler nor the naturalist Ludwig Becker could carry their instruments. Becker left the expedition at Menindee. Prior to Becker's departure the second-in-command, Landells, realised that he would never be able to work with Burke and resigned. At Menindee news arrived from Melbourne that another continental crossing was about to commence. All pretence about the desire to 'enquire into the report upon the exploration of the Australian interior' was abandoned. Burke could not tolerate the thought that he might be beaten. On 19 October Burke, Wills, Brabe, King, Gray, McDonough, Patton and an Afgan cameleer Dost Mohammed left Menindee. Wright was left behind with instructions to bring stores and provisions and to follow the main party in a week to Cooper’s Creek. The main party reached Cooper Creek on 11 November and on 27 November the famous Camp 65 was established under a coolibah tree on the banks of the river. On 16 December 1860 with six camels, one pony, and Wills, Gray and King, Burke began the final push north to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Disaster now followed disaster on the trip north and back to Cooper Creek. On 17 April on the way back Charley Gray died. Four days later Burke, Wills and King reached the Cooper Creek depot. They were exhausted and in desperate need of fresh supplies. To their horror the depot had been abandoned only hours earlier. On a tree William Brahe, the depot foreman, had carved DIG. Confronted with an empty depot, a small cache of supplies and the prospect of starvation, Burke had to decide whether he was going to go back to Menindee or attempt a 320 kilometre walk across the desert to a cattle station at Mount Hopeless. Once again Burke made the wrong decision. He decided to head for Mount Hopeless. It is perhaps the most telling comment about the character of Burke he ignored his only chance saving himself, Wills and King. It is almost certain that the local Aborigines could have saved the trio. But Burke saw himself as the conqueror, as a member of a superior civilisation. The idea that he could be saved from death by a group of 'savages' was unthinkable. The base camp in Menindee was thus occupied by part of the group from 19 Oct 1860 to 26 Jan 1861 before they headed back to Melbourne. Only John King made it back alive from Cooper Creek because he had accepted the hospitality of the Aboriginal people there. Dost Mahomet returned and lived in Menindee and worked for Ah Chung the Chinese baker. He died in 1880 and was buried just outside the town. The base camp at Pamamaroo Creek near Menindee was occupied from 19 October 1860 to 26 January 1861. Before setting off north Burke stayed in the hotel in Menindee and not with his men at Pamamaroo Creek depot. The main weir on the River Darling diverts water into Lake Pamamaroo which becomes the water supply of Broken Hill and the source of irrigation water for the fruit and vines around Menindee.

 

Row houses located on the 1800 block of California Street NW in the Adams Morgan neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The homes are designated contributing properties to the Washington Heights Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.

 

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This is one of my older photos I originally uploaded to Wikimedia Commons.

The garden at Sissinghurst Castle in the Weald of Kent, near Sissinghurst village, is owned and maintained by the National Trust. It is among the most famous gardens in England.

 

Sissinghurst's garden was created in the 1930s by Vita Sackville-West, poet and gardening writer, and her husband Harold Nicolson, author and diplomat. Sackville-West was a writer on the fringes of the Bloomsbury Group who found her greatest popularity in the weekly columns she contributed as gardening correspondent of The Observer, which incidentally—for she never touted it—made her own garden famous. The garden itself is designed as a series of "rooms", each with a different character of colour and/or theme, the walls being high clipped hedges and many pink brick walls. The rooms and "doors" are so arranged that, as one enjoys the beauty in a given room, one suddenly discovers a new vista into another part of the garden, making a walk a series of discoveries that keeps leading one into yet another area of the garden. Nicolson spent his efforts coming up with interesting new interconnections, while Sackville-West focused on making the flowers in the interior of each room exciting.

 

For Sackville-West, Sissinghurst and its garden rooms came to be a poignant and romantic substitute for Knole, reputedly the largest house in Britain, which as the only child of Lionel, the 3rd Lord Sackville she would have inherited had she been a male, but which had passed to her cousin as the male heir.

 

The site is ancient— "hurst" is the Saxon term for "an enclosed wood". A manorhouse with a three-armed moat was built here in the Middle Ages. By 1305, Sissinghurst was impressive enough for King Edward I to spend the night. In 1490, Thomas Baker purchased Sissinghurst.The house was given a new brick gatehouse in the 1530s by Sir John Baker, one of Henry VIII's Privy Councillors, and hugely enlarged in the 1560s by his son Sir Richard Baker, when it became the centre of a 700-acre (2.8 km2) deer park. In 1573, Queen Elizabeth I spent three nights at Sissinghurst.

 

The Bride of Frankenstein (Universal, 1935). Lobby Card (11" X 14").

Bride of Frankenstein. Full Feature. www.veoh.com/watch/v68308074se9ajHpk

 

Universal Pictures followed up their highly successful Frankenstien with what has to be one of the best sequels out of Hollywood. James Whale's Bride of Frankenstein (BoF) had many factors contributing to its success. For some of those, see the Notes section below. It is a bigger, richer tale. Two key cast members reprised their roles. Colin Clive again played the obsessed and tormented Henry Frankenstein. Boris Karloff again played the monster. Other lesser characters were picked up by new faces. A couple of new characters were added. To some, BoF surpasses the original. Few sequels get such acclaim.

Synopsis

The film opens on a suitably dark and stormy night in the early 1800s. Mary Shelley, Percy Shelley and Lord Byron sit around a fire talking of Mary's story. Was that how it ended? No. Mary tells what happened next. (cross fade to burning windmill). The crowds filter on home. Maria's father insists on seeing the body of the monster, so goes into the smoking rubble. He falls into the water filled cellar. The monster is there too, much alive. He drowns Hans. The monster emerges. The crowd took Henry back to his family castle, thinking he was dead, but he moves his hand. He's Alive! He swears to never dabble in man-making again. Just then, a sketchy former classmate arrives. Dr. Pretoreous heard of Henry's work and wants him to partner, to make a perfect man. Henry goes to Pretorious' lab to see his work. Six glass jars, each with a miniature person inside. A queen, a king, a bishop, a devil, a ballerina and a mermaid. Pretorious makes them from raw materials, not dead body parts, but can only make smaller things. He wants Henry to make a full-sized body again. Pretorious would supply the brain. Meanwhile, the monster roams the woods. A shepherdess sees him, screams and falls in a river. The monster rescues her, but hunters heard her screams and shoots the Monster in the arm. A new mob combs the woods finally capturing the monster. They haul him into town and chain him in a jail cell. Stronger than his chains, the monster escapes and rampages around the village awhile before fleeing into the woods again. Tired, hurt and hungry, the monster comes to the shack of an old blind hermit. The hermit befriends the monster, eventually teaching him to talk. Hunters find the monster in the shack, so he flees again. Yet another mob chases him through the woods. The monster goes down into a crypt to hide. There, he sees Pretorious and henchmen stealing body parts (bones). When henchmen leave, Pretorious entertains the monster and suggests Henry should build him a woman, a mate. The monster likes that idea. Pretorious tells Henry it's time to start building. Henry refuses. Pretorious has the monster kidnap Elizabeth and take her to a cave. Her ransom is to build the new woman. Henry, under duress, starts working in the old tower again. They have the "bride" done and exposed to dramatic sparks. She's Alive! When the monster comes in to meet his bride, she screams and runs from him. Enraged that even his own kind rejects him, the monster rampages around the lab. This lab is equipped with a self-destruct lever, (for some reason). The monster starts to pull it. He tells Henry to get away with Elizabeth (now free). "You go. You live." He pulls the lever and the tower blows up dramatically, crumbling to rubble. Henry and Elizabeth embrace on an adjacent hilltop. The End.

Much of Henry's prior electro-biology technology is reused. The equipment is ramped up a bit, though. Henry uses two 3-winged kites (ala Ben Franklin) to gather lightening. Pretorious' process is more akin to alchemy, and in that way similar to the "science" used in Edison's 1910 version.

The plot in BoF is an expansion on elements in Mary's original novel. In her story, the monster demands that Victor create a mate for him. In BoF, it was Pretorious who pushes the idea. The scene with the hermit befriending the monster is a good parallel to the DeLacy family whom Mary's monster lived with for awhile, there learning to talk, etc.

BoF is such a close sequel, it is more like the second part of a single story. It picks up immediately where the first film left off. After all the action, things return to pretty much where they started. A notable exclusion is Henry's father, the old baron. Suddenly, even though it is the "same night", the old baron is gone and Henry is "now" the baron. Despite all the action, BoF ends as it began. Henry and Elizabeth survive and want to put all the nastiness behind them. The monster is, again, presumed to have died in a dramatic architectural collapse.

Superior Sequel -- Where most sequels falter is that they try to do the same thing as the original, with just a little variation. It is as if the writers or producers don't dare tamper with "success". James Whale was bold. He continued the story in the same time line. He kept the 2 main characters. They start out as they left off, but change (grow) during the film. Whale introduces a key antagonist and some potent sub-plots. The 1931 film was spartan and a bit claustrophobic, with two worlds -- one sane, one unstable. This befit the birth of the creature. BoF is a wider tale, with more characters and much more going on. This is befitting the monster's growth into personhood. BoF is clearly not just a retread, Frankenstein II.

Ernest Thesiger plays Dr. Pretorious, who is a Mephistopheles-like character. This lends a very Faustian flavor to the saga. When Pretorius is showing off his miniature people, he shows off his miniature bishop, the voice of morality. Then he shows his fourth. "This one is the very devil. There is a certain resemblance to me, don't you think? Or do I flatter myself?"

In a broadening of the monster character from the first movie, the monster learns to speak. Granted, they're rudimentary sentences. "Friend…Good." But, even with just a few words, a deep range of the monster's thoughts and desires become known. It is said that Boris Karloff objected, at first, to having "his" monster speak. But he did and it made the monster much more "human" and sympathetic.

Consider how the screenwriters and Whale made the monster an allegory of Jesus. Note these parallels. He did not have the usual mom-dad-birth, but has a creator. He was befriended by the poor, but rejected by the better-off. Some of the visuals are too obvious to ignore. He was hung on a pole (half a cross). Watch the scene where they're hammering in the chain rings in the jail. This is a strong parallel to the nailing of Christ's hands. Then, note at the end of the film, the monster acts noticeably out-of-character for a horror film monster. Instead, he (again) parallel's Christ, in that he voluntarily gives up his own life to save someone else, and to wipe away that person's "sins" and the devilish power of temptation over them. All this Christ-parallel is a very curious inclusion, but it clearly adds depth to the BoF story.

BoF exacerbates the name confusion over who is "Frankenstein" -- the man or the monster. When the female creature is unveiled, Pretorious declares, "Behold, the bride of Frankenstein." Most people take that to mean the bride of the monster. Yet, it could still mean the "bride" that Henry created. The poster adds another layer of ambiguity, by suggesting that the monster ("frankenstein") might chose either Elizabeth or the new woman as his bride. (The monster does kidnap Elizabeth at one point -- the primeval bride-selection method). Yet, Elizabeth is also the bride of Henry. More ambiguity!

James Whale made his sequel much more complex by weaving in occasional comic moments. Some of it verges on camp, as with most of the scenes with Minnie (Henry's old biddy house keeper). Even the monster drinking and smoking, saying lines like "Smoke… Good." were designed to get a laugh. Some humor was more subtle, such as Pretorious saying that each vice, wine, cigars, etc. were "his only weakness." Happily, the humor and camp did not overtake the deeper plot. This early bit of comic relief, though, does open the door for later films like Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein.

BoF is another classic that should be seen. Perhaps the best way is to watch the 1931 film and BoF as a double feature. Much of what "worked" in the original is still in the sequel, but BoF adds new, vibrant material. Whale weaves a complex, yet not confusing, plot and paces it very quickly. Bride of Frankenstein is a movie milestone that even all old movie fans should experience.

Installed in the 1920s after a major renovation, the Jesus as the Good Shepherd window was created by Melbourne stained glass manufacturer Brooks, Robinson and Company Glass Merchants, who dominated the market in stained glass in Melbourne during the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. The image of Jesus clutching a lamb is commonly found in windows such as these. The image refers to a passage in John's Gospel in the New Testament, wherein Jesus describes himself as the good shepherd. The image of the Good Shepherd is designed to remind parishioners of Jesus' love for all his sheep, even the black ones, and the value that each person has for him.

 

He stands benevolently with his shepherds' crook, clutching a lamb, whilst in the vignette below him at the bottom of the lancet window, Jesus is shown bringing his wayward flock safely into the safety of the barn. The sheep to his left looks wistfully up at him, whilst the lamb held in his arms in the main depiction is shown in the vignette draped over the crook of his arm.

 

The letters IHS appear intertwined in a monogram at the top of the lancet window. These letters are a contraction for "Iesus Hominum Salvator"; "Jesus, Savior of Men".

 

Built amid workers' cottages and terrace houses of shopkeepers, St. Mark the Evangelist Church of England sits atop an undulating rise in the inner Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy. Nestled behind a thick bank of agapanthus beyond its original cast-iron palisade fence, it would not look out of place in an English country village with its neat buttresses, bluestone masonry and simple, unadorned belfry.

 

St. Mark the Evangelist was the first church to be built outside of the original Melbourne grid as Fitzroy developed into the city's first suburb. A working-class suburb, the majority of its residents were Church of England and from 1849 a Mission Church and school served as a centre for religious, educational and recreational facilities. The school was one of a number of denominational schools established by the Church of England and was partly funded by the Denominational School Board.

 

St. Mark the Evangelist Church of England was designed by architect James Blackburn and built in Early English Gothic style. Richard Grice, Victorian pastoralist and philanthropist, generously contributed almost all the cost of its construction. Work commenced in 1853 to accommodate the growing Church of England congregation of Fitzroy. On July 1st, 1853, the first stone of St. Mark the Evangelist was laid by the first Bishop of Melbourne, The Right Rev. Charles Perry.

Unfortunately, Blackburn did not live to see its completion, dying the following year in 1854 of typhoid. This left St. Mark the Evangelist without an architect to oversee the project, and a series of other notable Melbourne architects helped finish the church including Lloyd Tayler, Leonard Terry and Charles Webb. Even then when St. Mark the Evangelist opened its doors on Sunday, January 21st, 1855, the church was never fully completed with an east tower and spire never realised. The exterior of the church is very plain, constructed of largely unadorned bluestone, with simple buttresses marking structural bays and tall lancet windows. The church's belfry is similarly unadorned, yet features beautiful masonry work. It has a square tower and broach spire.

 

Inside St. Mark the Evangelist Church of England it is peaceful and serves as a quiet sanctuary from the noisy world outside. I visited it on a hot day, and its enveloping coolness was a welcome relief. Walking across the old, highly polished hardwood floors you cannot help but note the gentle scent of the incense used during mass. The church has an ornately carved timber Gothic narthex screen which you walk through to enter the nave. Once there you can see the unusual two storey arcaded gallery designed by Leonard Terry that runs the entire length of the east side of building. Often spoken of as “The Architect’s Folly” Terry's gallery was a divisive point in the Fritzroy congregation. Some thought it added much beauty to the interior with its massive square pillars and seven arches supporting the principals of the roof. Yet it was generally agreed that the gallery was of little effective use, and came with a costly price tag of £3,000.00! To this day, it has never been fully utlised by the church. St. Mark the Evangelist has been fortunate to have a series of organs installed over its history; in 1854 a modest organ of unknown origin: in 1855 an 1853 Foster and Andrews, Hull, organ which was taken from the Athenaeum Theatre in Melbourne's Collins Street: in 1877 an organ built by Melbourne organ maker William Anderson: and finally in 1999 as part of major renovation works a 1938 Harrison and Harrison, Durham, organ taken from St. Luke's Church of England in Cowley, Oxfordshire. The church has gone through many renovations over the ensuing years, yet the original marble font and pews have survived these changes and remain in situ to this day. Blackwood reredos in the chancel, dating from 1939, feature a mosaic of the last supper by stained glass and church outfitters Brooks, Robinson and Company. A similar one can be found at St. Matthew's Church of England in High Street in Prahran. The fine lancet stained glass windows on the west side of St. Mark the Evangelist feature the work of the stained glass firms Brooks, Robinson and Company. and William Montgomery. Many of the windows were installed in the late Nineteenth Century.

 

The St. Mark the Evangelist Parish Hall and verger's cottage were added in 1889 to designs by architects Hyndman and Bates. The hall is arranged as a nave with clerestorey windows and side aisles with buttresses. In 1891 the same architects designed the Choir Vestry and Infants Sunday School on Hodgson Street, to replace the earlier school of 1849 which had been located in the forecourt of the church.

 

The present St. Mark the Evangelist's vicarage, a two-storey brick structure with cast-iron lacework verandahs, was erected in 1910.

 

I am very grateful to the staff of Anglicare who run the busy adjoining St. Mark's Community Centre for allowing me to have free range of the inside of St. Mark the Evangelist for a few hours to photograph it so extensively.

 

James Blackburn (1803 - 1854) was an English civil engineer, surveyor and architect. Born in Upton, West Ham, Essex, James was the third of four sons and one daughter born to his parents. His father was a scalemaker, a trade all his brothers took. At the age of 23, James was employed by the Commissioners of Sewers for Holborn and Finsbury and later became an inspector of sewers. However, his life took a dramatic turn in 1833, when suffering economic hardship, he forged a cheque. He was caught and his penalty was transportation to Van Diemen’s Land (modern day Tasmania). As a convicted prisoner, yet also listed as a civil engineer, James was assigned to the Roads Department under the management of Roderic O’Connor, a wealthy Irishman who was the Inspector of Roads and Bridges at the time. On 3 May 1841 James was pardoned, whereupon he entered private practice with James Thomson, another a former convict. In April 1849, James sailed from Tasmania aboard the "Shamrock" with his wife and ten children to start a new life in Melbourne. Once there he formed a company to sell filtered and purified water to the public, and carried out some minor architectural commissions including St. Mark the Evangelist in Fitzroy. On 24 October he was appointed city surveyor, and between 1850 and 1851 he produced his greatest non-architectural work, the basic design and fundamental conception of the Melbourne water supply from the Yan Yean reservoir via the Plenty River. He was injured in a fall from a horse in January 1852 and died on 3 March 1854 at Brunswick Street, Collingwood, of typhoid. He was buried as a member of St. Mark The Evangelist Church of England. James is best known in Tasmania for his ecclesiastical architectural work including; St Mark's Church of England, Pontville, Tasmania (1839-1841), Holy Trinity Church, Hobart, Tasmania (1841-1848): St. George's Church of England, Battery Point, Tasmania, (1841-1847).

 

Leonard Terry (1825 - 1884) was an architect born at Scarborough, Yorkshire, England. Son of Leonard Terry, a timber merchant, and his wife Margaret, he arrived in Melbourne in 1853 and after six months was employed by architect C. Laing. By the end of 1856 he had his own practice in Collins Street West (Terry and Oakden). After Mr. Laing's death next year Leonard succeeded him as the principal designer of banks in Victoria and of buildings for the Anglican Church, of which he was appointed diocesan architect in 1860. In addition to the many banks and churches that he designed, Leonard is also known for his design of The Melbourne Club on Collins Street (1858 - 1859) "Braemar" in East Melbourne (1865), "Greenwich House" Toorak (1869) and the Campbell residence on the corner of Collins and Spring Streets (1877). Leonard was first married, at 30, on 26 June 1855 to Theodosia Mary Welch (d.1861), by whom he had six children including Marmaduke, who trained as a surveyor and entered his father's firm in 1880. Terry's second marriage, at 41, on 29 December 1866 was to Esther Hardwick Aspinall, who bore him three children and survived him when on 23 June 1884, at the age of 59, he died of a thoracic tumor in his last home, Campbellfield Lodge, Alexandra Parade, in Collingwood.

 

Lloyd Tayler (1830 - 1900) was an architect born on 26 October 1830 in London, youngest son of tailor William Tayler, and his wife Priscilla. Educated at Mill Hill Grammar School, Hendon, and King's College, London, he is said to have been a student at the Sorbonne. In June 1851 he left England to join his brother on the land near Albury, New South Wales. He ended up on the Mount Alexander goldfields before setting up an architectural practice with Lewis Vieusseux, a civil engineer in 1854. By 1856 he had his own architectural practice where he designed premises for the Colonial Bank of Australasia. In the 1860s and 1870s he was lauded for his designs for the National Bank of Australasia, including those in the Melbourne suburbs of Richmond and North Fitzroy, and further afield in country Victoria at Warrnambool and Coleraine. His major design for the bank was the Melbourne head office in 1867. With Edmund Wright in 1874 William won the competition for the design of the South Australian Houses of Parliament, which began construction in 1881. The pair also designed the Bank of Australia in Adelaide in 1875. He also designed the Australian Club in Melbourne's William Street and the Melbourne Exchange in Collins Street in 1878. Lloyd's examples of domestic architecture include the mansion "Kamesburgh", Brighton, commissioned by W. K. Thomson in 1872. Other houses include: "Thyra", Brighton (1883): "Leighswood", Toorak, for C. E. Bright: "Roxcraddock", Caulfield: "Cherry Chase", Brighton: and "Blair Athol", Brighton. In addition to his work on St. Mark the Evangelist in Fitzroy, Lloyd also designed St. Mary's Church of England, Hotham (1860); St Philip's, Collingwood, and the Presbyterian Church, Punt Road, South Yarra (1865); and Trinity Church, Bacchus Marsh (1869). The high point of Lloyd's career was the design for the Melbourne head office of the Commercial Bank of Australia. His last important design was the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Headquarters Station, Eastern Hill in 1892. Lloyd was also a judge in 1900 of the competition plans for the new Flinders Street railway station. Lloyd was married to Sarah Toller, daughter of a Congregational minister. They established a comfortable residence, Pen-y-Bryn, in Brighton, and it was from here that he died of cancer of the liver on the 17th of August 1900 survived by his wife, four daughters and a son.

 

Charles Webb (1821 - 1898) was an architect. Born on 26 November 1821 at Sudbury, Suffolk, England, he was the youngest of nine children of builder William Webb and his wife Elizabeth. He attended Sudbury Academy and was later apprenticed to a London architect. His brother James had migrated to Van Diemen's Land in 1830, married in 1833, gone to Melbourne in 1839 where he set up as a builder in and in 1848 he bought Brighton Park, Brighton. Charles decided to join James and lived with James at Brighton. They went into partnership as architects and surveyors. The commission that established them was in 1850 for St Paul's Church, Swanston Street. It was here that Charles married Emma Bridges, daughter of the chief cashier at the Bank of England. Charles and James built many warehouses, shops and private homes and even a synagogue in the city. After his borther's return to England, Charles designed St. Andrew's Church, Brighton, and receiving an important commission for Melbourne Church of England Grammar School in 1855. In 1857 he added a tower and a slender spire to Scots Church, which James had built in 1841. He designed Wesley College in 1864, the Alfred Hospital and the Royal Arcade in 1869, the South Melbourne Town Hall and the Melbourne Orphan Asylum in 1878 and the Grand Hotel (now the Windsor) in 1884. In 1865 he had designed his own home, "Farleigh", in Park Street, Brighton, where he died on 23 January 1898 of heat exhaustion. Predeceased by Emma in 1893 and survived by five sons and three daughters, he was buried in Brighton cemetery.

 

Brooks, Robinson and Company first opened their doors on Elizabeth Street in Melbourne in 1854 as importers of window and table glass and also specialised in interior decorating supplies. Once established the company moved into glazing and were commonly contracted to do shopfronts around inner Melbourne. In the 1880s they commenced producing stained glass on a small scale. Their first big opportunity occurred in the 1890s when they were engaged to install Melbourne's St Paul's Cathedral's stained-glass windows. Their notoriety grew and as a result their stained glass studio flourished, particularly after the closure of their main competitor, Ferguson and Urie. They dominated the stained glass market in Melbourne in the early 20th Century, and many Australian glass artists of worked in their studio. Their work may be found in the Princess Theatre on Melbourne's Spring Street, in St John's Church in Toorak, and throughout churches in Melbourne. Brooks, Robinson and Company was taken over by Email Pty Ltd in 1963, and as a result they closed their stained glass studio.

Finished in October 2016, these are segments that contribute to a 100 foot by 30 foot mural collaboration between Mari Shibuya, Leo Shallat, and Noah Neighbor along the Burke-Gilman trail in the University District, painted on the back walls of multiple business buildings.

"editor-in-chief" James H.Marsh.

 

Edmonton, Hurtig Publishers Limited, [january] 1985. ISBN o-8883o-269-X.

 

3 volumes in 9-1/8 12-1/16 x 5 ivory linen-covered brown board slipbox, both sides printed gold foil letterpress:

 

1. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME I A - For..

ISBN o-8883o-27o-3.

8-7/16 x 1o-7/8, 176 sheets white Rolland 5o Lb S.T. Encyclopedia Opaque folded to 22 signatures of 8 sheets each, sewn pearl white in 11 stitches & glued into white heavy bond endpapers & 8-13/16 x 11-5/16 navy linen-covered boards with approx.1-7/16" yellow & blue cloth applique head~ & tailbands, spine only printed gold foil letterpress, interiors all except 5 pp (versos of free endleaves & 3rd, 4th & 19th leaves) printed black offset with 3-colour process additions to 257 pp (436 black only); paginated i-xxxvii/1-666;

 

2. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME II For - Pat.

ISBN o-8883o-271-1.

as volume 1 but sewn pearl cream in double-stitches, 3-colour process additions to 339 pp (365 black only); paginated 669-137o;

 

3. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME III Pat - Z.

ISBN o-8883o-272-X.

as volume 1 but 18o sheets in 23 signatures (the 18th of 4 sheets), with 3-colour process additions to 284 pp (431 black only); paginated 1373-2o89.

 

all volumes with uniform endpaper graphic by Tom McNeely.

 

2676 contributors ID'd (note: 376 asterisked names contribute to all 3 volumes; questioned names appear in the index without their contribution(s) having been located):

Caroline Louise Abbott*, Irving Abella*, Thomas S.Abler*, Baha R.Abu-Laban, Donald F.Acton, W.Peter Adams, Peter A.Adie, Catherine Ahearn, David E.Aiken*, Jim Albert, Frederick A.Aldrich, Peter Aliknak, Gratien Allaire, Jacques Allard, A.Richard Allen, Karyn Elizabeth Allen, Max Allen, Robert S.Allen*, Willard F.Allen, Marlene Michele Alt*, John Amatt, Laurent Amiot, Pierre Anctil, Bob Anderson, Donald W.Anderson*, Doris H.Anderson*, Duncan M.Anderson, Frank W.Anderson, Grace Merle Anderson, Peter S.Anderson*, Christopher A.Andreae, Bernard Andres*, Sheila Andrew, Florence K.Andrews, Donald F.P.Andrus, Paul Anicef, Thomas H.Anstey*, Louis Applebaum, Christon I.Archer*, David J.W.Archer, Clinton Archibald, Mary Archibald, Eugene Arima, Allan Arlett, Leslie Armour, G.M.H.Armstrong(?), Pat Armstrong, W.Armstrong, John T.Arnason, Georges Arsenault, Celine Arseneault*, Eric R.Arthur, Alan F.J.Artibise*, Michael I.Asch, Kenojuak Ashevak, Kiugak Ashoona, Athanasios Asimakopulos, Alain Asselin, Barbara Astman, John Atchison, Margaret Atwood, Irene E.Aubrey, Alasi Audla, Karl Aun, Peter J.Austin-Smith, Helgi H.Austman, Donald H.Avery, William A.Ayer, Hugh D.Ayers, G.Burton Ayles, John Ayre, Maureen Aytenfisu, Douglas R.Babcock, Robert H.Babcock, Robert E.Babe, Morrell P.Bachynski, George Back, Harry Baglole, David H.Bai, Margaret J.Baigent, Karen E.Bailey, David M.Baird, Patricia A.Baird, Allan J.Baker, G.Blaine Baker, Melvin Baker*, Douglas O.Baldwin, John R.Baldwin, Gordon Bale, Robert J.Bandoni, Paul A.Banfield, Marilyn J.Barber, Douglas F.Barbour*, Clifford A.V.Barker, Jon C.Barlow, Jean Barman, David T.Barnard, John Barnes, Reg Barnes, Elinor Barr, John J.Barr, Robert F.Barratt*, [--?--] Barrett, Tony Barrett, Wayne R.Barrett, H.J.Barrie, Ted Barris*, George S.Barry, Donald R.Bartlett, William Henry Bartlett, James F.Basinger, Peter A.Baskerville, Marilyn J.Baszczynski, Alan H.Batten*, Jean-Louis Baudouin(?), Carol Baum, Jules Bazin, Gladys Bean, William R.Beard, Belinda A.Beaton*, Henri Beau, Gerald-A.Beaudoin*, Rejean Beaudoin, Jacqueline Beaudoin-Ross, Louise Beaudry, France Beauregard, Brian P.N.Beaven, J.Murray Beck*, Margaret Beckman, John Beckwith, Roger Bedard, Michael Bedford, Don R.Beer, Michael D.Behiels*, Madeleine Beland, Mario Beland, Guy Belanger, Real Belanger, Rene Belanger, Jean Belisle, Norman W.Bell, Ruben C.Bellan, Andre Belleau, Jacques-Nicolas Bellin, Rene J.Belzile*, J.W.Bengough, Gerry Bennett, John Bennett*, Edward Horton Bensley, Douglas Bentham, D.M.R.Bentley, W.D.Bentley, David J.Bercuson, William Von Moll Berczy, John J.Bergen, Jeniva Berger, Thomas R.Berger, Claude Bergeron, A.T.Bergerud, Norbert Berkowitz, Andre Bernard, Frank R.Bernard*, Jean-Paul Bernard, Jean-Thomas Bernard, Jacques Bernier*, Marc Bernier, Silvie Bernier, Elliott Bernshaw, Nicole Bernshaw, Jonathan Berry, Michael J.Berry, Ralph Berry, Pierre Berton*, Neil Besner*, Diane E.Bessa, Carl Betke, Roger Betz, John Michael Bewers, Onnig Beylerian, M.Vincent Bezeau, Reginald W.Bibby, Gilles Bibeau, Ivan B.Bickell, Julius Bigauskas, Petro B.T.Bilaniuk, B.C.Binning, Carolyn J.Bird(?), Michael S.Bird, Richard M.Bird, Andrew Birrell, Carol Anne Bishop, Charles A.Bishop, Mary F.Bishop, Alastair Bissett-Johnson, Conrad M.Black, Joseph Laurence Black, Meredith Jean Black, Naomi Black, Robert G.Blackadar, Robert H.Blackburn, John D.Blackwell, Alex M.Blair, Robert Blair, Andre Blais, Phyllis R.Blakeley, Elsie Blaschke, J.Sherman Bleakney, Bertram C.Blevis, Lawrence C.Bliss, Michael Bliss, E.D.Blodgett, Jean Blodgett, Hans Blohn, Ronald Bloor, Arthur W.Blue, Robin W.Boadway, David A.Boag, Douglas H.Bocking*, Jack Boddington, Trevor Boddy, John M.Bodner, George J.Boer, James P.Bogart, Jean Sutherland Boggs, Tibor Bognar, Gilles Boileau, Aurelien Boivin, Bernard Boivin*, Jean Boivin, Andre Bolduc, Yves Bolduc, Glen W.Boles*, Francis W.P.Bolger, Kenneth E.Bollinger, George Bonavia, Flint Bondurant, Joseph Bonenfant, Gayle Bonish, Roy Bonisteel, Rudy Boonstra*, Paul-Emil Borduas, Robert Bothwell*, Robert D.Bott, Randy Bouchard*, Michel A.Boucher, Gilles Boulet, Roger H.Boulet, Doug Boult, Andre G.Bourassa*, Nicole Bourbonnais, Pierre L.Bourgault, Patricia E.Bovey, Wilbur Fee Bowker, Roy T.Bowles, Hartwell Bowsfield, Christine Boyanoski, Farrell M.Boyce, John Boyd, Oliver A.Bradt, William J.Brady, Chris Braiden, F.Gerald Brander, Guy R.Brassard, Ted J.Brasser, Bernard Brault, R.Matthew Bray*, David H.Breen*, Francois Bregha, Willard Brehaut*, J.William Brennan*, Paul W.Brennan, Fred Breummer, John E.C.Brierley*, Jean L.Briggs, David R.Brillinger, Jack Brink, Ralph O.Brinkhurst, Andre Brochu, Irwin M.Brodo, Somer Brodribb, Alan A.Brookes, Ian A.Brookes*, Bill Brooks*, David B.Brooks, Robert S.Broughton, David Brown, Desmond H.Brown*, E.Brown, Jennifer S.H.Brown*, R.G.B.Brown*, Robert Craig Brown, Roy I.Brown, Thomas E.Brown*, Lorne D.Bruce, John H.Brumley, Alan G.Brunger, Reinhart A.Brust, Rorke Bardon Bryan, Giles Bradley Bryant, Thomas A.Brzustowki, [--?--] Buache, Norman Buchignani, Ruth Matheson Buck, Phillip A.Buckner*, Geoff Budden, Susan Buggey, Lise Buisson, J.M.Bumsted*, James Burant, Joan Burke, Robert D.Burke, Jean Burnet, David Burnett*, Marilyn Schiff Burnett*, Dorothy K.Burnham, Eedson Louis Millard Burns, Robert J.Burns, Robin Burns, Ian Burton, Jack Bush, Paul Buteux*, Frank Taylor Butler, K.Jack Butler, William Butterfield, Edward Butts, Robert E.Butts, Marcel Cadotte, John C.Callaghan, John W.Callahan, Lorraine Camerlain, Bill Cameron, Christina Cameron, Duncan Cameron, Elspeth Cameron, Wendy Cameron*, A.Barrie Campbell, Beverly Campbell, Douglas F.Campbell, Gordon Campbell, Ian A.Campbell*, J.Milton Campbell, Neil John Campbell, Percy I.Campbell(?), Sandra Campbell, Richard Campion, William T.Cannon, Pierre Cantin, Usher Caplan, Emily F.Carasco, Clifton F.Carbin, Douglas Cardinal, Patrick Robert Thomas Cardy, Thomas H.Carefoot, J.M.S.Careless*, Jock Alan Carlisle, Derek Caron, Laurent G.Caron, Carole H.Carpenter, Ken Carpenter, Emily Carr, Gaston Carriere, Carman V.Carroll, Brian G.Carter, George E.Carter, Margaret Carter, Richard J.Cashin, Ian Casselman, George Catlin, Paul B.Cavers*, Richard Chabot, Roland Chagnon, Edward J.Chambers, Francis J.Chambers, James Chambers, Robert D.Chambers, Michel Champagne*, James K.Chapman, John D.Chapman, Louis Charbonneau, Murray Norman Charlton, L.Margaret Chartrand, Luc chatrand, Rene Chartrand, Brian D.E.Chatterton, Michael Vincent Cheff, Walter I.Childers, Peter D.Chimbos, Alexander J.Chisholm, Robert Choquette, Catherine D.Chorniawy, Timothy J.Christian, William E.Christian, Carl A.Christie, G.L.Christie, Innis Christie, B.Bert Chubey, Charles Stephen Churcher*, Janet Chute, S.Donald C.Chutter, Jacques Cinq-Mars, V.Claerhout*, John J.Clague, Michael Thomas Clandinin, A.McFadyen Clark, Howard C.Clark, Lovell C.Clark*, Paraskeva Clark, Robert H.Clark, T.Alan Clark, Thomas H.Clark, R.Allyn Clarke*, Stephen Clarkson, Wallace Clement, Nathalie Clerk*, Norman Clermont, Yves W.Clermont, Howard Clifford, Richard T.Clippingdae*, W.J.Clouston, Nicole Cloutier, Gigi Clowes, Brian W.Coad, John P.Coakley, Donna Coates, Bente Roed Cochran, J.P.Cockburn, James Cockburn, William James Cody*, Dale R.Cogswell, Fred Cogswell, Stanley A.Cohen, Susan G.Cole, Patricia H.Coleman, Elizabeth Collard, Malcolm M.C.Collins, John Robert Colombo*, Alex Colville, Charles Comfort, Odette Condemine, M.Patricia Connelly, James T.H.Connor, Leonard W.Conolly, Robert J.Conover*, Margaret Conrad, A.Brandon Conron, Brian E.Conway, F.Graham Cooch, Eung-Do Cook, Francis R.Cook, Owen Cook, Kenyon Cooke, O.A.Cooke*, David Cooper, Gordon William Cope, Pierre Corbeil, Frank Corcoran, J.Clement Cormier, Peter McCaul Cornell, Vincenzo Coronelli, Frank Cosentino*, Ronald L.Cosper, Jacques Cotnam, Robert T.Coupland, Thomas J.Courchene, John J.Courtney, John J.Cove, Jeff G.Cowan, Harold G.Coward, Bruce Cox, Diane Wilson Cox, Michael F.Crabb*, Laurence Harold Cragg, Mary M.Craig*, Terrence L.Craig, Ian K.Crain, Brian A.Crane, David Crane, John L.Cranmer-Byng, Donald A.Cranstone, David L.Craven, Roy D.Crawford, Tim Creery, Philippe Crine, Harold Crookell, John Crosby*, Michael S.Cross, Diane Crossley, E.J.Crossman, Omer Croteau, A.David Crowe, Keith Jeffray Crowe, David M.Cruden, David A.Cruickshank, Paul E.Crunican, Rudolf P.Cujes, Maurice Cullen, Carman W.Cumming, Leslie Merrill Cumming, Philip J.Currie, Raymond F.Currie, Walter A.Curtin*, Christopher G.Curtis*, James E.Curtis, Leonard J.Cusack, Maurice Cutler, Jerome S.Cybulski, Joachim B.Czypionka, Anne Innis Dagg, Lorraine G.D'Agincourt*, Edward H.Dahl, Hallvard Dahlie, Moshie E.Dahms, Hugh Monro Dale, Ralph Dale, John H.Dales, Micheline D'Allaire, F.Dally, D.Daly, Eric W.Daly, Pierre Dansereau, Ruth Danys, Regna Darnell, Hugh A.Daubeny, Paul Davenport, Gilbert David, Helene David, Peter P.David, William A.B.Davidson, Adriana A.Davies, Gwendolyn Davies, Jim Davies, John A.Davies, R.K.S.Davies, Thomas Davies, Ann Davis, Chuck Davis, Richard C.Davis, Michael J.Dawe, John M.Day, Lawrence Day, Barbara K.Deans, P.Dearden, Chris DeBresson, Theod De Bry, Malcolm Graeme Decarie, Samuel De Champlain*, Bart F.Deeg*, Ronald K.Deeprose, James DeFelice, C.G.Van Zyll De Jong, Nicolas J.De Jong*, J.De Lavoye, Vincent M.Del Buono, Guillaume Delisle, L.Denis Delorme, Hugh A.Dempsey*, L.James Dempsey, A.A.Den Otter, Dora De Pedery-Hunt, Honor De Pencier, D.De Richeterre, Jacques F.Derome, Duncan R.Derry, Ramsay Derry, Peter Desbarats, Pierre Desceliers, Donald Deschenes, Jean-Luc DesGranges, Andree Desilets*, Yvon Desloges, Gerald L.De Sorcy, Marquis De Tracy, John DeVisser*, Lyle Dick, Lloyd Merlin Dickie, John A.Dickinson, W.Trevor Dickinson, Nigel Dickson, Larry Dillon, Milan V.Dimic, Gerard Dion, Rene Dion, Gerald E.Dirks, Patricia G.Dirks, Richard J.Diubaldo, Murray Dobbin, Mike Dobel, A.Rodney Dobell, Diane Dodd, Donald Andrew Dodman, Audrey D.Doerr, Allen Doiron, Claude Ernest Dolman, Louise Dompierre, Mairi Donaldson, Sue Ann Donaldson, Mark A.Donelan(?), Margaret Mary Donnelly, John Donner, Andre Donneur, Penelope B.R.Doob*, Peter K.Doody, Joyce Doolittle, Anthony H.J.Dorsey, Gilles Dorian, Lydia Dotto, Roger A.Doucet, Leonard A.Doucette, Charles Dougall, Jane L.Dougan, Charles Douglas, W.A.B.Douglas*, William F.Dowbiggin, R.Keith Downey, Arthur T.Doyle*, Denzil J.Doyle, Richard J.Doyle, Pierre Doyon, Sharon Drache, Derek C.Drager, Wilhelmina M.Drake, D.W.Draper, James A.Draper, Nandor Fred Dreisziger, Kenneth F.Drinkwater, Bernadette Driscoll, Jean-Pierre Drolet, Glenn Drover, Ian M.Drummond*, R.Norman Drummond, Jean E.Dryden, Patrick D.Drysdale, Jean-Marie M.Dubois*, James R.Dubro, Leo Ducharme, Raymond Duchesne*, Francois Duchesneau, Jean-Marcel Duciaume, Madeleine Ducroq-Poirier, J.Dennis Duffy*, M.R.Dufresne, Walter W.Duley, Gaston Dulong, Micheline Dumont, Max J.Dunbar, Graham W.Duncan, Leonard Duncan, Neil J.Duncan, Marilyn E.Dunlop, A.Davidson Dunton, Jean R.Duperreault, Jean-Claude Dupont, Rene Durocher, Gabriel Dussault, Noel Dyck, Charles C.Dyer, James G.Dykes, John A.Eagle*, Peter R.Eakins, Ross Eaman, Harry C.Eastman, Dorothy Harley Eber, William John Eccles*, Christine Eddie, E.V.Eddie, Charles Edenshaw, Morris Edwards, Oliver Edward Edwards, Peggy Edwards, Roger B.Ehrhardt, Margrit Eichler, Neil Einarson, Wilfred L.Eisnor, R.Bruce Elder, Jean Elford, Peter Douglas Elias, C.W.J.Eliot, David R.Elliott, James A.Elliott, Kosso Eloul, John A.Elson, George Emery, Donald W.Emmerson, Douglas B.Emmons, Maurice Emond, William F.Empey, John R.English*, Murray W.Enkin, Philip C.Enros, Frank H.Epp, Robert Bruce Erb, Arthur Erickson, Anthony J.Erskine, Sorel Etrog, Brian L.Evans*, David Evans*, James Evans, John Evans, Ivan Kenneth Eyre, Joe Fafard, Curtis Fahey, Valerie J.Fall, A.Murray Fallis, Peter V.Fankboner, D.M.L.Farr*, Dorothy M.Farr, Fred Farrell*, Alison Feder, Sergey Fedoroff, Margery Fee, Kevin O'Brien Fehr, William Feindel, Seth R.Feldman, Donald Fenna, William O.Fennell, M.Brock Fenton, Terry L.Fenton, Bob L.Ferguson*, Howard L.Ferguson, Mary W.Ferguson*, Jean Ferron, Doug Fetherling*, George Field, John L.Field, Richard Henning Field, Leonard M.Findlay, Howard R.Fink, Maxwell Finklestein, Douglas A.Finlayson*, Gerard Finn, Douglas J.Fisher, Richard S.Fisher, Robin Fisher, Stan C.Fisher, John Walter Fitsell, Lionel LeMoine FitzGerald, Patrick J.Fitzgerald, Tim Fitzharris*, David J.Flaherty, Thomas Flanagan, R.B.Fleming, Sandford Fleming, Marilyn G.Flitton, Halle Flygare*, David G.Fong*, Maxwell L.Foran, Ernest R.Forbes*, R.E.Forbes, William B.Forbes, Richard G.Forbis, Dennis P.Forcese, Anne Rochon Ford, Clifford Ford, Derek C.Ford, Gillian Ford, Susan Ford, Bertrand Forest, Ronald W.Forrester, Warren D.Forrester, Eugene Alfred Forsey*, Frank R.Forsyth, Peter A.Forsyth, Claire-Andree Fortin, Gerald Fortin, Charles N.Forward, William F.Forward, Brian F.Foss, Franklin L.Foster, J.Bristol Foster, John E.Foster*, Michael K.Foster, Glenn B.Foulds, Nancy Brown Foulds, Edith M.Fowke, Marian Fowler, Charlie Fox, Paul W.Fox, Richard C.Fox, Daniel Francis*, Diane Francis, David Frank*, Julius F.Frank*, Colin Athel Franklin, C.E.S.Franks*, David Fransen, Robert T.Franson, Arman Frappier(?), Jorge Frascara, John A.Fraser, Kathleen D.J.Fraser, Robert Lochiel Fraser*, Pierre Frechette, Howard Townley Fredeen, Benjamin Freedman, Gordon Russel Freeman, Mac Freeman, Milton M.R.Freeman, Minnie Aodla Freeman, Roger D.Freeman, Walter H.P.Freitag, Carey French, Hugh M.French, James S.Frideres, Gerald Friesen, James D.Friesen, Stanley Brice Frost, Adam G.Fuerstenberg, Robert Fulford, Anthony M.Fuller, George R.Fuller, Thomas Fuller, William A.Fuller, Douglas H.Fullerton, Ian F.Furniss, Richard W.Fyfe*, William S.Fyfe, Rene Robert Gadacz*, Chad Gaffield, David P.Gagan, Michel Gagne, Francois-Marc Gagnon*, Victor Gaizauskas, Claude Galarneau, Peggy Gale, Gerald L.Gall*, Daniel T.Gallacher, Paul Gallagher, Strome Galloway, Natarajan Ganapathy, Herman Ganzevoort, David E.Gardner*, Eve Gardner, Norman Gardner, Ron Gardner, Christopher J.R.Garrett, John F.Garrett, Jane Gaskell, Lise Gauvin, M.J.Gauvin, Hugh J.Gayler, Douglas A.Geekie, John Grigsby Geiger*, Valerius Geist*, John Gellner, Paul Gendreau, Ghislain Gendron, M.V.George, Joseph F.Gerrath(?), Julia Gersovitz, Trisha Gessler, Ian A.L.Getty, Elmer N.Ghostkeeper(?), Jacques R.Giard, Sandra Gibb, Kenneth M.Gibbons, Graeme Gibson, Lee Gibson, William C.Gibson, Perry James Giffen, Elizabeth Hollingsworth Gignac, Richard Giguere, C.W.Gilchrist, J.N.Giles, John Patrick Gillese, Beryl C.Gillespie, Bill Gillespie, John M.Gillett, Margaret Gillett, Geraldine Gilliss, Alan M.Gillmor, Cedric Gillot, J.C.Gilson, Yves Gingras*, Andre Girouard, J.Gleadah, Burton Glendenning, Michael Gnarowski, David J.Goa, Barbara Godard, Ensley A.Godby, W.Earl Godfrey*, William G.Godfrey, R.Bruce Godwin(?), Cy Gonick, Cecilia A.Gonzales, Bryan N.S.Gooch, S.James Gooding, Jerry Goodis, John T.Goodman, R.G.Goold, Arthur S.Goos, Paul A.Goranson, Anne Gordon, Donald C.Gordon, Walter L.Gordon, Deborah Gorham, Harriet R.Gorham, Stanley W.Gorham, Calvin Carl Gotlieb, Daniel H.Gottesman, Barry Morton Gough, Joseph B.Gough, Judy Gouin*, Allan M.Gould*, Henri Goulet, Benoit-Beaudry Gourd*, James Iain Gow, Alan Gowans, J.Wesley Graham, Jane E.Graham, John F.Graham, Katherine A.Graham, Roger Graham, E.H.Grainger, J.L.Granatstein*, Alix Granger, Luc Granger, John A.G.Grant, John Webster Grant, Peter Grant*, Ted Grant, Carolyn Elizabeth Gray, David Robert Gray, Earle Gray*, G.Ronald Gray, James T.Gray, D'Arcy M.Greaves, Harold V.Green, J.Paul Green, Janet Green, Leslie C.Green*, Melvyn Green, Richard Green*, Reesa Greenberg, John P.Greene, Thomas B.Greenfield(?), Brereton Greenhous*, Cyril Greenland, John Edward Ross Greenshields, Allan Greer, Patrick T.Gregory, Robert W.Gregory, Julius H.Grey, Norman T.Gridgeman*, Foster J.K.Griezic, Herbert L.Griffin, John D.M.Griffin, Anthony J.F.Griffiths, Barry Griffiths, Graham C.D.Griffiths, Naomi E.S.Griffiths, Sergio Grinstein, Jack W.Grove, Patrick D.Gruber, Hans E.Gruen, Dennis Guest*, Hal J.Guest*, Arman Guilmette, Bernadette Guilmette, H.Pearson Gundy, Kristjana Gunnars, S.W.Gunner, Harry Emmet Gunning, Allan Guy, Julian Gwyn, Richard J.Gwyn, Peter P.Haanappel, Erich Haber, Carlotta Hacker, Jim Hackler, Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Keith D.Hage, H.Haig, G.Brenton Haliburton, David J.Hall*, Frederick A.Hall*, Jim Hall, John W.Hall, Roger Hall, Mary E.Hallett, Hugh A.Halliday, Ian Halliday, Mary Halloran, Gerald Hallowell, Beryl M.Hallworth*, Francess G.Halpenny, Marjorie M.Halpin, V.Carl Hamacher, Louis-Edmond Hamelin, Donald G.Hamilton, Sally A.Hamilton, William B.Hamilton, Brent M.Hamre, Geoffrey Hancock, Lyn Hancock*, Piers Handling*, James Hanrahan, Asbjorn T.Hansen, John D.Harbron, Peter Harcourt, David F.Hardwick, Jean-Pierre Hardy, Rene Hardy, F.Kenneth Hare, Clara Hargittay, J.Anthony Hargreaves, Alex M.Harper, J.Russell Harper*, Richard Harrington*, Cole Harris, G.J.Harris, Lawren Harris, Peter Harris, R.Cole Harris, Robert Harris, Stephen Harris*, Stuart A.Harris, Lionel G.Harrison, Peter J.Harte, Al Harvey, David J.Harvey, Fred J.Hatch, Wilbert O.Haufe, Jo Hauser, Ronald G.Haycock*, Michael Hayden, Florence C.Hayes, David M.Hayne*, Robert H.Haynes, Carol Hayter, Henry F.Heald, Trevor D.Heaver, Richard J.Hebda, Gerard Hebert, C.D.Heidenreich, Conrad E.Heidenreich, Frederick M.Helleiner, Rudolph A.Helling, June Helm, Bruce S.Heming, Odile Henault, William B.Henderson, Tom Hendry, E.Henn, Ralph L.Hennessy, Jacques Henripin, Michael M.Henry, Yude M.Henteleff, Frank Alec Herbert, George Heriot, Alex W.Herman, Craig Heron*, Don J.Herperger, Stephen M.Herrero, Ingo Hessel, Phillip Hewett, Irving Hexham, Benedykt Heydenkorn, Edward S.Hickcox, Michael Hickman, Donald Higgins, David Higgs, Walter Hildebrandt, Charles Christie Hill, Harry M.Hill, Stanley Hill, Tom Hill, James K.Hiller*, Anne Trowell Hillmer*, Norman Hillmer*, W.G.R.Hind, Ole Hindsgaul, Sherman Hines, Akira Hirose, Carolyn Hlus, Helen Hobbs, R.Gerald Hobbs, James Hockings, John Edwin Hodgetts*, Bruce W.Hodgins, J.W.Hodgins, Judith F.M.Hoeniger, J.J.Hogan*, Helen Sawyer Hogg, Gerald Holdsworth, H.T.Holman, C.Janet Holmes, Jeffrey Holmes, John W.Holmes, Eric J.Holmgren*, Alvin George Hong, Frances Ann Hopkins, Robin Hopper, Peter Hopwood, Michiel Horn, Alan S.Hourston, C.Stuat Houston*, James Houston, Ross K.Howard, Victor M.Howard, Colin D.Howell, Julie O.Hrapko, Raymond Hudon, Douglas R.Hudson, Raymond J.A.Huel, Fred Huffman, Richard David Hughes, Elizabeth Hulse, William Humber*, Stephen Hume, Monte Hummel, Jack Humphrey, Charles W.Humphries, Edward William Humphrys, [--?--] Hunsberger, Geoffrey Hunt, John R.Hunter, Tony Hunt, Kenneth E.Hunter, Mel Hurtig, Mervyn J.Huston, Linda Hutcheon, Gerald M.Hutchinson, Roger C.Hutchinson, Richard J.Huyda, A.M.J.Hyatt, Doreen Marie Indra, Elizabeth Ingolfsrud, Avrom Isaacs, Colin F.W.Isaacs, Bill Ivy, David Jackel, Susan Jackel*, Sydney W.Jackman, A.Y.Jackson, Bernard S.Jackson, Graham Jackson, Harold Jackson, John D.Jackson, John James Jackson, John N.Jackson, Lionel E.Jackson, Robert J.Jackson, Roger C.Jackson, Stephen O.Jackson, Peter Jacob, Ronny Jacques, Cornelius J.Jaenen*, Donna James, Ellen S.James, Ross D.James*, Sheilagh S.Jameson, Stuart M.Jamieson, Hudson N.Janisch, Christian T.L.Janssen, Lorraine L.Janus, Richard A.Jarrell, Marguerite Jean, Alan H.Jeeves, T.Jefferys, Robert Jekyll, Michael Jenkin, Phyllis Marie Jensen, Vickie D.Jensen, Jane Jenson, L.Martin Jerry, Alan M.Jessop, Dean Jobb, Louis Jobin, Jan C.Jofriet(?), Peter Johansen, Timothy Johns, Walter H.Johns, J.K.Johnson, Peter Wade Johnson, Alfred G.Johnston, C.Fred Johnston, Charles M.Johnston, Frances E.M.Johnston, Frank Johnston, Hugh Johnston, Patricia C.Johnston, Richard Johnston, W.Stafford Johnston, William Johnston, Brian Jones, David Phillip Jones, Elwood Hugh Jones, Gaynor G.Jones, Laura Jones, Richard A.Jones*, Alan V.Jopling*, Colin Jose, Neal R.Jotham, Walter Jungkind, Richard Kadulski, Joseph Kage, A.A.Kahil, Patricia Kaiser, Warren E.Kalbach, Henry Kalen, Stephan Felix Kaliski, Helmut Kallman*, Karen Dazelle Kallweit*, Harold D.Kalman*, Paul Kane*, George Kapelos, Martha Kaplan, William Edward Kaplan, Isabel Kaprielian, Urjo Kareda, Malak Karsh, Yousuf Karsh, Peter Karsten, Elinor Mary Kartzmark, Naim Kattan, Martin L.Kaufmann, Leslie S.Kawamura, Gregory S.Kealey*, David R.Keane, King S.Kearns, Michael J.Keen, David L.Keenlyside, Elaine Keillor, W.J.Keith, William Stirling Keizer*, Frances C.Kelley, Louis Gerard Kelly, David D.Kemp, Walter H.Kemp, Kay Kendall, John Edward Kendle, Dorothy Kennedy*, J.E.Kennedy, John L.Kennedy*, Elizabeth H.Kennell, John A.C.Kentfield, John P.B.Kenyon, Walter A.Kenyon, Kenneth Kernaghan, Lois Kathleen Kernaghan*, Adam J.Kerr, Gordon R.Kerr, Robert B.Kerr, Stephen R.Kerr, Paula Kestelman, Jean-Pierre Kesteman, Wilfred H.Kesterton, Keith S.Ketchen, Douglas Keith McEwan Kevan*, Peter G.Kevan(?), J.E.Michael Kew, John Keyes, Bruce Kidd, Thomas W.Kierans, Gerald Killan, M.G.Kingshott, Ray A.Kingsmith, Stanislav J.Kirschbaum, John James Kirton, Walter Klaassen, Murray S.Klamkin, Lewis N.Klar, Stanley Klenganberg, Harold R.Klinck, Robert B.Klymasz, Richard W.Knapton*, Judith Knelman, Alan R.Knight, David B.Knight, Robert Hugh Knowles, Brian M.Knudsen, Franz M.Koennecke, Wray E.Koepke, Lilly Koltun, Paul M.Koroscil, J.Anthony Koslow, Myrna Anne Kostash, Tony Kot, Vladimir J.Krajina, Kate Kranck, Stephen J.Kraseman, Cheryl Krasnick(?), Peter V.Krats, J.A.Kraulis*, Charles J.Krebs, F.Henry Krenz, Cornelius Krieghoff, Andrea Kristof, Jerg Kroener, Martin Krossel, Larry L.Kulisek, Walter O.Kupsch, William Kurelek, Eva M.Kushner, Ernie Kuyt*, David Kwavnick, C.Ian Kyar, Micheline Labelle, Danielle Laberge, Michele Lacombe*, [--?--] La Cosa, Estelle Lacoursiere*, Laurier Lacroix, Michel Laferriere, Guy Lafrance, William G.Laidlaw, Mabel H.Laine*, Dennis Laing, Gertrude M.Laing, Claude Lajeunesse, G.-Raymond Laliberte, Andre N.Lalonde, W.Kaye Lamb*, Geoffrey Lambert, James H.Lambert*, George E.Lammers, Yvan Lamonde, Peter Lancaster, R.Brian Land, Pierre Landreville, E.David Lane*, Robert B.Lane, Robert P.Langlands, Wayne Lankinen*, Robert Lansdale, Karlis O.Lapin, Pierre-Louis Lapointe, Eleanor R.Laquian, Peter Anthony Larkin, Jean B.D.Larmour, Emma D.LaRocque, Andre Larose, Serge Larose, Jeanette Larouche, Edward N.Larter, Pierre LaSalle, Daniel Latouche*, Viviane F.Launay, Gerard Laurence, Karen Laurence, Marc Laurendeau, Michael Lauzon, Omer Lavallee, Kathleen Laverty*, Kenneth R.Lavery, Marie Lavigne, Patricia Johnston Lavigueur(?), Leslie M.Lavkulich, Michel Lavoie*, Paul Lavoie, Pierre Lavoie, Charles Law, Don G.Law-West, Jim Laxer, Arleigh H.Laycock, David H.Laycock, Richard E.C.Layne, Marvin Lazerson, Fred Lebensold, Hugues LeBlanc, Charles P.Leblond, Paul H.LeBlond, Sylvio LeBlond, Antonio Lechasseur*, Donald J.Lecraw, Johanne Ledoux, Fernand Leduc, Laurence LeDuc, Rene Leduc-Park, David Lee, John Alan Lee, Robin Leech, John G.Leefe, Joseph Legare, Camille Legendre, Russel D.Legge, Robert F.Legget*, Doug Leighton, Jean M.Leiper, Michel Lemaire, Jean-Paul Lemay, Pierre H.Lemieux, Raymond U.Lemieux, Vincent Lemieux, Guy Lemire, Maurice Lemire, Robert Lemire, Robert E.Lemon(?), Dorothy A.Lenarsic, Jos L.Lennards, Frank Lennon, Yvan G.Lepage, Donald J.Le Roy, Rodney L.LeRoy, Peter M.Leslie, M.Claude Lessard, Carol Anne Letheren, Trevor H.Levere, Malcolm Levin, Allan E.Levine, Gilbert Levine, Joseph Levitt, Brian S.Lewis, John B.Lewis, Joyce C.Lewis, Laurie Lewis, Elliott H.Leyton, James W.Lightbody, Norman R.Lightfoot, Jack N.Lightstone, Gary M.Lindberg, Ernest Lindner, Evert E.Lindquist*, Peter L.Lindsay, Joseph D.Lindsey, Paul-Andre Linteau, Mary Jane Lipkin, Arthur Lismer, Marilyn Lister, Rota Herzberg Lister*, John W.Y.Lit, Moe M.Litman, Donna Livingstone, Douglas G.Lochhead, Carl J.Lochnan*, Anthony R.Lock, Jack L.Locke, Gulbrand Loken, D.Edwards Loney, Kathleen Lord, James Lorimer, Frances Loring, Marcel Lortie, Arthur Loughton, Laurence Dale Lovick, Raymond Nicholson Lowes, Peter J.M.Lown, W.Mark Lowry, Edward P.Lozowski*, Frere Luc, D.Paul Lumsden, Harry G.Lumsden, Ian Gordon Lumsden, John Lund, Gar Lunney, Mandy R.Lupul, Real Lussier, John M.Lyle, John Goodwin Lyman, Gerald Lynch, Deborah Maryth Lyon*, G.F.Lyon, William I.Macadam, J.Malcolm Macartney, Terence Macartney-Filgate, Hugh MacCallum, Cathy Macdonald, G.Edward MacDonald, Heather MacDonald*, J.E.H.MacDonald, Les MacDonald, Martha MacDonald, R.H.Macdonald, Roderick A.Macdonald, Stewart D.MacDonald, Valerie Isabel Macdonald, April J.MacDougall, Heather MacDougall, Laurel Sefton MacDowell*, Thomas F.Mace, Grant MacEwan, Royce MacGillivray, James G.MacGregor, Joseph B.MacInnis, Tessa macIntosh, David Clark MacKenzie, Heather M.Mackenzie, Robert C.MacKenzie, Ross G.MacKenzie, William C.MacKenzie, George O.Mackie, C.S.Mackinnon, Frank MacKinnon, William R.MacKinnon, Bruce B.MacLachlan, Roy MacLaren, Raymond A.MacLean, Kenneth Ogilvie MacLeod, Malcolm MacLeod, Pegi Nicol MacLeod, Roderick C.Macleod, Carrie H.MacMillan, Keith MacMillan, Andrew H.Macpherson, Duncan Macpherson, Ian MacPherson*, Kay Macpherson, Roger W.Macqueen, Donald A.MacRae, Anthony A.Magnin, Warren Magnuson, Gilles-D.Mailhiot, Laurent Mailhot*, Pierre Mailhot*, J.S.Maini, Lise Maisonneuve, Jean-Louis Major(?), Robert Major, Peter Malkin, David Malloch, Cedric R.Mann, Kenneth H.Mann, Martha Mann, J.R.Marchand, Anthony Mardiros, Michel Marengere, Leo Margolis, Salomon Marion, Philip De Lacey Markham, William E.Markham, James H.Marsh*, John S.Marsh*, J.Stewart Marshall, Victor W.Marshall, J.Douglas Martin, Jean-Claude Martin, John E.H.Martin, Sandra Martin, Andre Martineau(?), May Maskow, Allan M.Maslove, Donald C.Masters, Perry Mastrovito, John Ross Matheson, William A.Matheson, R.D.Mathews, Robin Mathews, William G.Mathewson, Thomas Mathien*, John R.Mathieson, Jacques Mathieu*, Keith Matthews, John S.Matthiasson, David Mattison, Mary McDougall Maude*, Jean Mauger, Christopher J.Maule, Alfred R.Maurer, Jean Mauvide, Valerie J.May, Valerie L.May, John Maybank*, Paul F.Maycock, Jack Maze, R.Ann McAfee, Don E.McAllister, William J.McAndrew, D.S.McBean, W.A.E.McBryde, Christina McCall, Douglas McCalla, Margaret Elizabeth McCallum, Lawrence D.McCann*, S.B.McCann, Bennett McCardle*, Peter J.McCart, Michael J.McCarthy, Catharine McClellan, P.McCloskey, W.H.McConnell, A.Ross McCormack, Jane McCracken, Harvey A.McCue, James A.W.McCulloch, A.B.McCullough, Michael McDonald, Allan K.McDougall, Anne McDougall*, John N.McDougall, Robert L.McDougall, Duncan McDowall, Alec C.McEwen, Freeman L.McEwen, K.D.McFadden, Jean McFall, Pat McFarlane(?), Tom McFeat, Elizabeth W.McGahan, Harold Franklin McGee Jr., Timothy J.McGee, Robert McGhee*, William B.McGill(?), Donald G.McGillivray, Roderick Alan McGinn, Janice Dickin McGinnis*, Pauline McGregor, Eric McGuinness, Dave McIntosh, W.John McIntyre, Alexander G.McKay, Gordon A.McKay, J.Alex McKeague, John McKee, Ruth McKendry, Barbara A.McKenna, Brian McKenna, Ruth McKenzie, Rita McKeough, A.Brian McKillop*, J.McLachlan, Angus McLaren, Ian A.McLaren, K.M.McLaughlin, Kenneth McLaughlin, Catherine M.McLay, A.Anne McLellan, Cam McLeod(?), Elizabeth McLuhan, Gerald R.McMaster, Barclay McMillan*, Donald Burley McMillan, Michael McMordie*, Lorraine McMullen*, Stanley E.McMullin, William C.McMurray, Debra A.McNabb*, Anne McNamara, Kenneth McNaught, Tom McNeely*, Martin K.McNicholl*, Jean McNulty, Hugo A.McPherson, Sandra F.McRae, King G.McShane*, Ian McTaggart-Cowan*, Peter B.E.McVetty, Ian R.McWhinney, Stanley R.Mealing*, Sheva Medjuck, John Medley, Harry Medovy, Sharon P.Meen, Benoit Melancon, William H.Melody*, James R.Melvin, Philip E.Merilees, Jim Merrithew*, Ann Messenger, George Metcalf, David R.Metcalfe, Janis John Mezaks, T.H.Glynn Michael, Jacques Michon, F.W.Micklethwaite, Tom Middlebro', Ivan Mihaychuk, James Francis Verchere Millar, A.J.Miller, Carman Miller*, Elizabeth Russell Miller, J.R.Miller, John A.Miller, Judith N.Miller, Mark Miller*, Mary Jane Miller, Orlo Miller, Leslie Millin, Peter B.Millman, Thomas R.Millman, Charles A.Mills, Dave Mills, David Mills*, Eric L.Mills, Isabel Margaret Mills, Trevor Mills, Brian Milne, David Milne, David A.Milne*, William J.Milne, Marc Milner, David G.Milton, Janice Milton, Gordon Minnes, Dale Miquelon*, Edward D.Mitchell*, Ken R.Mitchell, Lillian Mitchell, Wendy L.Mitchinson, Johann W.Mohr, John S.Moir*, George Dempster Molnar, Patrick M.Moncrieff, Jacques Monet*, Ian Montagnes, D.Wayne Moodie, Susanna Moodie, Barry M.Moody, Peter N.Moogk*, Kathleen A.Mooney, Christopher Moore, James G.G.Moore, Keith L.Moore, Teresa Moore, Andrew J.Moriarty, E.Alan Morinis, Pierre Morisset, Yves-Marie Morissette, Raymond Moriyama, Richard E.Morlan, J.Terence Morley*, Patricia A.Morley, T.J.Morley, J.W.Morrice, Cerise Morris, Peter Morris*, David A.Morrison, Jack W.Morrison, Jean Morrison*, Kenneth L.Morrison*, Rod Morrison, W.Douglas Morrison, William R.Morrison*, Norval Morrisseau, Don Morrow, Pat Morrow*, Desmond Morton*, John K.Morton, Allan Moscovitch, John Moss, Mary Jane Mossman, Roger Motut, Farley Mowat, Susanne Mowat, David S.Moyer, R.Gordon Moyles, Maria Muehlen, R.D.Muir, Del A.Muise, Francis C.Muldoon, Robert M.Mummery, Mohiudden Munawar, R.E.Munn, J.Ian Munro, Sean Murphy, Joan Murray*, Robert G.E.Murray, Brian T.P.Mutimer, Luba Mycio, John Myles, Robert Nadeau, Vincent Nadeau, Josephine C.Naidoo, George Nakash, Agnes Nanogak, A.Nantel, Roald Nasgaard, Roger P.Nason, Susan M.Nattrass, Francis P.D.Navin, Margaret Neal, Peter Neary, H.Blair Neatby, Leslie H.Neatby*, Edwin H.Neave, A.W.H.Needler, George T.Needler, James M.Neelin, Robert F.Neill, H.Vivian Nelles, Joseph S.Nelson, Pierre Nepveu*, David N.Nettleship*, Edward Peter Neufeld, Ronald W.Newfeldt, Shirley Neuman, William H.New, Michael J.Newark*, Dianne Newell, David L.Newlands, Peter C.Newman, Roy Nicholls, Norman L.Nicholson*, John S.Nicks, Murray William Nicolson, N.Ole Nielsen, Jorge E.Niosi*, Thomas Nisbet, Lawrence C.Nkendirim, William C.Noble, Ib L.Nonnecke, Kenneth H.Norrie, William Notman*, Barbara Novak*, J.Ralph Nursall, V.Walter Nuttall*, Allan O'Brien, John O'Brien, Lucius O'Brien, Serge Occhietti*, Shane O'Dea, Daphne Odjig, Ronald K.O'Dor, [--?--] Odesse, Jillian M.Officer*, Will Ogilvie, James A.Ogilvy*, Jean O'Grady, Timothy R.Oke, Kim Patrick O'Leary, R.V.Oleson, W.J.Oliver, Patrick B.O'Neill, Mario Onyszchuk, Robert R.Orford, Mark M.Orkin, Lionel Orlikow, Margaret A.Ormsby, Brian Stuart Osborne, Fernand Ouellet, Henri Ouellet, Real Ouellet, John N.Owens*, Doug R.Owram, Charles Pachter, John G.Packer(?), Donald M.Page, Garnet T.Page, James E.Page, Malcolm Page, Lee Paikin*, Sandra Paikowsky*, Howard Pain, Michael F.Painter, Jean Palardy, Murray S.Palay, Bryan D.Palmer, Howard Palmer, Tamara Jeppson Palmer, Khayyam Zev Paltiel, Leo Panitch, Frits Pannekoek*, Gerald Ernest Panting, Jean-Marc Paradis, Jean Pariseau*, Seth Park, George L.Parker, Graham E.Parker, Tom W.Parkin*, Timothy R.Parkins, [Joy?] Parr, Keith Parry, John Parsons, Ralph T.Pastore, Thomas H.Patching, Donald G.Paterson, Peter Paterson, W.Stan B.Paterson, Mariko Patrie*, E.P.Patterson, Freeman Patterson, G.James Patterson, Diane Paulette Payment, John G.Peacey*, Gordon B.Peacock, Frank A.Peake, Jane H.Pease, William H.Pease, Diana Pedersen, Susan Pedwell, Bruce Peel, Frank W.Peers, Alfred Pellan, Gerard Pelletier, Jacques Pelletier, Rejean Pelletier, W.Richard Peltier, Terence Penelhum, Norman Penner, M.James Penton*, Michael B.Percy, William T.Perks*, R.I.Perla, Trivedi V.N.Persaud, Erik J.Peters*, Robert Henry Peters, Jean Peterson, Jeannie Peterson, R.L.Peterson, Thomas E.Peterson, Jaroslav Petryshyn, Louis-Philippe Phaneuf, P.P.Phelan(?), Edward Phelps, Carol A.Phillips, David W.Phillips, Paul Phillips*, Roy A.Phillips*, Ruth Bliss Phillips, Truman P.Phillips, Ronald J.C.Phillipson*, Fred Phipps, Ellen I.Picard, Victor Piche, George L.Pickard, Richard A.Pierce, Claudine Pierre-Deschenes*, Ruth Roach Pierson, Juri Pill, Mike Pinder, K.A.Pirozynski, David G.Pitt, Janet E.M.Pitt*, Robert D.Pitt*, Joseph Pivato, Antoine Plamondon, Rejean Plamondon, Richard L.Plant, Jozinus Ploeg, Helene Plouffe*, T.J.Plunkett, Thomas K.Poiker, Mario Polese, H.Pollard, Frank Polnaszek, J.Rick Ponting, Annelies M.Pool*, Kananginak Pootoogook, Carol Ann Pope, Hugh A.Porteous, Arthur Porter, John R.Porter, Marion Porter, Michael Posluns, Bernard Pothier, Gilles Potvin, Gabrielle Poulin, Deborah J.Powell, James V.Powell, Margaret E.Prang, Christopher Pratt, Larry R.Pratt, Mary Pratt, Norman E.P.Pressman, E.Carter Preston, Richard A.Preston*, Richard J.Preston, Hugh Preston-Thomas, John A.Price, Alexander D.Pringle*, Gordon Pritchard*, John Pritchard, John T.A.Proctor, Michel Proulx, Pudlo Pudlat, Garth Charles Pugh, Nancy Pukingrnak, Terrence M.Punch, Eric D.Putt, Zenon W.Pylyshyn(?), Terence H.Qualter, Harvey A.Quamme, D.B.Quayle, Karl-Heinz Raach*, H.Keith Ralston, Victor J.Ramraj, Donald A.Ramsay, Peter G.Ramsden, P.Keith Raney, Toby Rankin, Egon Rapp, John Rasmussen, Mark A.Rasmussen*, Anthony W.Rasporich, Beverly J.Rasporich, George A.Rawlyk, Arthur J.Ray, Alan Rayburn, Gordon Rayner, Ed Rea, J.E.Rea*, John H.Read, Walter Redinger, Gerald Redmond*, Austin Reed, F.Leslie C.Reed, John Reeves, Randall R.Reeves*, Ellen M.Regan, T.D.Regehr*, Alison M.Reid, Bill Reid, David C.Reid, George Agnew Reid, Ian A.Reid, John G.Reid*, M.H.Lefty Reid, Richard Reid, Robert G.B.Reid, J.Nolan Reilly, Sharon Reilly, Henry M.Reiswig, Gil Remillard, A.Jim Rennie, Donald Andrews Rennie, Viljo Revell, Francois Ricard, Pierre Richard, John Richards, William D.Richards, Eric Harvey Richardson, Keith W.Richardson, W.George Richardson, Alex Richman, Roger R.Rickwood, Laurie Ricou, W.Craig Riddell, Peter E.Rider*, Robin Ridington, Walter E.Riedel, Paul W.Riegert*, Bert Riggs, Peter Rindisbacher, J.C.Ritchie, S.Andrew Robb, Jean-Claude Robert*, Lucie Robert, Eugene Roberto, Goodridge Roberts, John S.Roberts(?), William Roberts, Ian Ross Robertson*, J.A.L.Robertson, Raleigh John Robertson, Rejean Robidoux, Denise Robillard, Bart T.Robinson, J.Lewis Robinson*, Sinclair Robinson, Tom W.Robson, Yves Roby, Douglas Roche, Guy Rocher, William Rodney , Russell G.A.Rodrigo, Juan Rodriguez, Robert C.Roeder, Jacob Rogers*, Robert J.Rogerson*, Charles G.Roland, Eugene W.Romaniuk, Joseph R.Romanow(?), Barbara Romanowski, David Rome, George Romney, Keith Ronald, William Ronald, Donna Yavorsky Ronish, Edward Roper, Albert Rose, Phyllis Rose, Earl Rosen(?), Ann C.Rosenberg, Alexander M.Ross, Catherine Sheldrick Ross, David J.Ross, David P.Ross, Henry U.Ross, Gordon Rostoker, Gordon Oliver Rothney, George A.Rothrock, Samuel Rothstein, Abraham Rotstein, Leonard R.Roueche, Jacques Rouillard*, Guildo Rousseau, Henri-Paul Rousseau, Adolphe-Basile Routhier, Marie Routledge, Donald Cameron Rowat, R.Geoffrey Rowberry, Frederick W.Rowe, John Stanley Rowe, Kenneth Rowe, Percy A.Rowe, Gordon G.Rowland, Diana Rowley, Harry C.Rowsell, David J.Roy, Fernande Roy, Patricia E.Roy, Reginald H.Roy*, Kenneth Roy Rozee, Lorne Rubenstein*, Ken Rubin, Leon J.Rubin, Gerald J.Rubio, Mary H.Rubio, David-Thierry Ruddel, Norman J.Ruff, Wilson Ruiz, Norman A.Rukavina, Oliver John Clyve Runnalls, Robert John Rupert, Karl M.Ruppenthal, Roger Rushdy, Dale A.Russell, Hilary Russell, Loris S.Russell*, Peter A.Russell, Victor L.Russell*, Paul Frederick William Rutherford, R.W.Rutherford, Nathaniel W.Rutter, Douglas E.Ryan, James T.Ryan, John Ryan, Shannon Ryan, June M.Ryder, Stanley-Brehaut Ryerson(?), Oiva W.Saarinen, Ann P.Sabina, Nickolay Sabolotny, Moshe Safdie, Eric W.Sager, Marc Saint Hilaire*, Bernard Saint-Jacques, Gaston J.Saint Laurent, B.Saladin-D'Anglure, Arnaud Sales, Jeff Sallot, Liora Salter, Douglas D.Sameoto, G.M.Sanders, Marie E.Sanderson, Margaret J.Sandison, Joan Sangster, [N.B?] Sanson, Joy L.Santink*, Allen Sapp, A.Margaret Sarjeant, William A.S.Sarjeant, Roger Sarty*, David J.Sauchyn, John S.Saul, Pierre Sauriol, Harry Savage, Pierre Savard, D.B.O.Savile, Joel S.Savishinsky, Ronald Savitt, Rodney J.Sawatsky, Ronald G.Sawatsky, Lorne William Sawula, Deborah C.Sawyer*, John T.Saywell, Christopher M.Scarfe, M.H.Scargill, Otto Schaefer, Barbara Ann Schau, Sidney S.Schipper, Peter Schledermann, Benjamin Schlesinger, Wilhelm Schmidt, Nancy Schmitz*, Norbert Schoenauer*, Barbara Schrodt*, A.Karstad Schueler, George A.Schultz, Joan M.Schwartz*, Elizabeth J.Schweizer, Karl W.Schweizer, Charles Schwier, Stephen Scobie*, David S.Scott, Peter J.Scott, Stephen A.Scott, W.Beverly Scott*, Geoffrey G.E.Scudder, Allen Seager*, D.Bruce Sealey, Gary Sealey(?), Spencer G.Sealey, Louis M.Sebert, Harold N.Segall, Martin Segger, Norman Seguin, Alec H.Sehon, H.John Selwoood, Neil A.Semple*, Yoshio Senda, Elinor Senior, Hereward Senior, Robert Allan Serne, John Sewell, Christopher M.Seymour, Patrick D.Seymour, Aqjangajuk Shaa, Doris Shadbolt, Douglas Shadbolt, Ed Shaffer, Fouad E.Shaker, Elizabeth E.Shannon, Bernard J.Shapiro, Frances M.Shaver, Gordon C.Shaw, Joseph W.Shaw, L.Shaw, Murray C.Shaw*, Steve Shaw, Clifford D.Shearing, Carol Sheehan*, Nancy M.Sheehan*, Harry Sheffer, Edward Ottawa Sheffield, Rose Sheinen, Ben-Z.Shek, Jaroslaw W.Shelest, Roy J.Shephard, R.Ronald Sheppard, Robert Sheppard, Ellen Shifrin, Chang-Tai Shih, Rosemary Shipton, Thomas K.Shoyama, William L.H.Shuter, Nicholas Sidor, Arthur Siegel, David P.Silcox, Lennard Sillanpaa, Elaine Leslau Silver man, C.Ross Silversides, Richard Simeon*, Tom Sinclair-Faulkner*, Antoine Sirois, Rebecca Sisler, O.F.G.Sitwell, Alan Edward Skeoch, Grace Skogstad, Peter Slater, Yar Slavutych, H.Olav Slaymaker, William A.Sloan*, D.Scott Slocombe, Charles E.Slonecker, Peter Gerent Sly, Patricia Smart, Andre Smith, Barry L.Smith, Bill Smith, David B.Smith*, David E.Smith, Denis Smith*, Derek G.Smith, Donald A.Smith, Donald B.Smith*, Douglas A.Smith, Frances K.Smith, James G.E.Smith, James N.M.Smith, Kenneth V.Smith, Maurice V.Smith*, Peter C.Smith*, Peter J.Smith, Shirlee Anne Smith, T.Bradbrooke Smith, William Young Smith(?), Joseph Smucker, D.Laureen Snider, Dean R.Snow, Michael Snow, James D.Snowdon, Thomas P.Socknat, Omond M.Solandt, Margaret A.Somerville, Karl Sommerer, James Herbert Soper, John R.Sorfleet, Mary E.Southcott, Jack G.Souther, David A.E.Spalding, Roman Spalek, Stephen A.Speisman, Andrew N.Spencer, Deirdre Spencer, Don Spencer, John F.T.Spencer, John H.Spencer, Douglas O.Spettigue, Godfrey L.Spragge, D.N.Sprague*, William A.Spray, R.A.Sproule, Irene M.Spry, C.P.Stacey, C.R.Stacey, Robert Stacey*, Shirley Stacey, John K.Stager, Ronald J.Stagg, Elvira Stahl, Denis Stairs, Douglas G.Stairs, Robert M.Stamp*, W.T.Stanbury, David M.Stanley, Della M.M.Stanley*, George F.G.Stanley, Laurie C.C.Stanley, Charles R.Stanton, Gail Starr(?), Michael Staveley, Margaret M.Stayner, Gordon W.Stead, James Steele, Taylor A.Steeves, Baldur R.Stefansson, Con Stefurak, Janet R.Stein, Michael B.Stein, Gilbert A.Stelter, Philip C.Stenning, Philip H.R.Stepney*, Howard A.Steppler*, Theodor D.Sterling, H.H.Stern, Peter Stevens, Charlotte Stevenson, Garth Stevenson*, John T.Stevenson, F.Stewart, J.Douglas Stewart, John B.Stewart*, John R.Stewart*, Kenneth W.Stewart, Lillian D.Stewart*, Michael E.Stiles, John R.Stocking, Jennifer Stoddart, Boris Peter Stoicheff, Kay F.Stone, Donald H.Stonehouse, Anna K.Storgaard, Gerald J.Stortz, George Morley Story*, Jon C.Stott, Grant Strate*, Otto P.Strausz, Elwood W.Stringham, Charles Strong*, Veronica Strong-Boag, J.R.Tim Struthers, James Struthers, Richard Stuart, Ross Stuart, Konrad W.Studnicki-Gizbert, Franc Sturino, Peter Stursberg, Richard Stursberg, Brian E.Sullivan, William F.Summers, Ann G.Sunahara, Shan-Ching Sung, Maxwell Sutherland, Neil Sutherland, Sharon L.Sutherland, Stuart R.J.Sutherland*, Maia-Mari Sutnik, David Takayoshi Suzuki, Donald Swainson, Neil A.Swainson, Robert Sward, Alastair Sweeny, George Swinton, William Elgin Swinton, Frances A.Swyripa, T.Sykes, Philippe Sylvain*, Guy Sylvestre, Rodney Symington, E.Leigh Syms, Emoke J.E.Szathmary, Gerald Tailfeathers, James J.Talman, Adrian Tanner, Louis-Paul Tardif(?), Walter Surma Tarnopolsky, Leslie K.Tarr, Sylvie Taschereau, Jeremy B.Tatum, Thomas E.Tausky, C.J.Taylor*, Charles Taylor, Christopher Edward Taylor, J.Garth Taylor, J.Mary Taylor, Jeff Taylor, John H.Taylor, John Leonard Taylor, M.Brook Taylor*, Philip S.Taylor, Roy Lewis Taylor, Sylvia Taylor, William Clyne Taylor, William E.Taylor, Ghassem Tehrani, Robert G.Telewiak, R.John Templin, Brian D.Tennyson, Lorne Tepperman, Joan Terasmae, Yves Tessier, Pierre Theberge, Sharon Thesen*, George J.Thiessen, Stuart A.Thiesson, Marise Thivierge, Nicole Thivierge, Ann W.Thomas, Clara Thomas, Eileen Mitchell Thomas, Gregory Thomas, Morley K.Thomas*, Paul G.Thomas, Andrew Royden Thompson, Dixon A.R.Thompson, John R.Thompson, Teresa Thompson, William Paul Thompson*, Alex J.Thomson, J.Thomson, Malcolm [H?] Thomson, Malcolm M.Thomson, Reginald George Thomson, Stanley Thomson, Tom Thomson, Hugh G.Thorburn, Frederick J.Thorpe*, Catherine M.V.Thuro, John L.Tiedje, Herman Tiessen, Louis C.Tiffany, Seha M.Tinic, Ewen C.D.Todd, James M.Toguri, George S.Tomkins, Vladislav A.Tomovic, Peter M.Toner, Pierre Tousignant, Harold B.Town*, Joan B.Townsend, Richard G.Townsend, Charlotte Townsend-Gault, Anthony A.Travill*, Claire Tremblay*, Gaetan Tremblay, Jean-Yves Tremblay, Marc-Adelard Tremblay*, Pierre Trepanier, Stanley G.Triggs, Susan Mann Trofimenkoff, Harold Troper, Elizabeth A.Trott*, Barry D.Truax, Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Marc J.Trudel, Marcel Trudel, Mark E.H.Trueman, James A.Tuck*, Albert V.Tucker, Jaap J.Tuinman, Verena J.Tunnicliffe, Archie L.W.Tuomi, Allan Tupper, Gael Turnbull, H.E.Turner, Nancy J.Turner*, William J.Turnock, Katherine Tweedie, Christopher D.Tyler, Edward W.Tyrchniewicz, M.C.Urquhart, Auguste Vachon, G.Oliver Vagt, Gail C.Valaskakis, Frank G.Vallee, Marc Vallieres, Andre Vanasse, Rosamond M.Vendenburgh, Robert O.Van Everdingen, Blanche Lemco Van Ginkel, Walter Van Nus, Francoise Van Roey-Roux, Charles E.Van Wagner, Alice Van Wart, Christine Van Zwamen, Christopher Varley*, Frederick Horsman Varley, Joan M.Vastokas, Frederick Vaughan, Edmund W.Vaz, Bill Vazan, Richard Veatch, Michele M.Veeman, Terrence S.Veeman, Arjen Verkaik, Andre Vermeirre, F.A.Verner, Pierre Veronneau*, Claude Vezina, Raymond Vezina, Roger Vick*, Bernard L.Vigod*, Aubrey R.Vincent, Thomas B.Vincent, Kati Vita, Vadim D.Vladykov, Douglas Voice, Nive Voisine*, George M.Volkoff, Michael Vollmer, C.Haehling Von Lanzenauer, Roger D.Voyer, Richard Vroom*, Pamela S.Wachna, Stephen M.Waddams, Susan Wagg, Anton Wagner*, W.A.Waiser, P.B.Waite*, Michael John Wakroft, David B.Walden, Deward E.Walker Jr, James W.St.G.Walker, John P.Walker, Susan Walker, Thomas Walkom, Birgitta Linderoth Wallace, Carl M.Wallace*, Hugh N.Wallace, P.R.Wallace, Jean-Pierre Wallot*, J.A.Walper, Susan Walsh, J.Grant Wanzel*, Norman Ward*, Philip R.Ward, W.Peter Ward, Tracy Ware, John Warkentin, John Anson Warner, A.M.C.Waterman, Janice Waters, Elizabeth Waterston*, Mel Watkins, Homer Watson, Lorne Watson, Robert D.Watt, Ron Watts* Douglas Waugh, Earle H.Waugh, Morris Wayman, Christopher Weait, John C.Weaver, James L.Webb, Anna Weber, Roland Weber, D.B.Webster*, Douglas R.Webster, Gloria Cranmer Webster, Helen R.Webster, William G.Wegenast, Peter H.Weinrich, Robert Stanley Weir, Thomas R.Weir, Merrily Weisbord, G.Vernon Wellburn, John Wells, Harry L.Welsh, Carl J.Wenaas, Leo H.Werner, Douglas Wertheimer, D.V.Chip Weseloh, Benjamin West, J.Thomas West*, Roxroy West, Marla L.Weston, Robert Reginald Whale, Linda D.Whalen, C.F.J.Whebell, John O.Wheeler, Reginald Whitaker, Clinton Oliver White, John White, M.Lillian White, Alan Whitehorn, Leon Whiteson, James R.Whiteway, Gordon Francis Whitmore, Donald R.Whyte, Edgar B.Wickberg, Joyce Wieland, Thomas Wien, Clifford Wiens, Ernest J.Wiggins, Darlene Wight, Betty Wilcox, Frank Shorty Wilcox, Norman J.Wilimovsky, Karen Wilkin*, Bruce William Wilkinson, J.A.Wilkinson*, Robert C.Willey, Al Williams, David Ricardo Williams, Glyndwr Williams, Patricia Lynn Williams*, Richard M.Williams, S.Ridgeley Williams, Sydney B.Williams, M.W.Williams, Mary F.Williamson, Moncrieff Williamson, Christopher J.Willis, Norman M.Willis, Rod Willmot, Frank Wills, Bruce G.Wilson, H.E.Wilson, Ian E.Wilson, J.Donald Wilson, J.Tuzo Wilson, Jean Wilson*, Helmut K.Wimmer, Brent Windwick, Robin W.Winks, Gregory Wirick, Ronald G.Wirick, S.F.Wise, William J.Withrow, Henry Wittenberg, Leonhard S.Wolfe, William C.Wonders, Bernard Wood, George Woodcock*, John Woodruff, M.Emerson Woodruff, Robert James Woods, Glenn T.Wright, Harold E.Wright, J.F.C.Wright, J.V.Wright, Janet Wright*, Kenneth O.Wright, Roy A.Wright*, Paul Wyczynski, Jan Wyers, Max Wyman, Graeme Wynn, Leo Yaffe, Maxwell F.Yalden, Dong Yee, Derek York, A.J.Sandy Young, C.Maureen Young, David A.Young, Gayle Young, H.Brig Young, Jane Young, Jeffery Young, John H.Young, Roland S.Young, Walter D.Young, Manuel Zack, Jas Zagan, Suzanne E.Zeller*, Jarold K.Zeman, Joyce Zemans*, Norman W.Zepp, Jacob S.Ziegel, Bruce Ziff, Frank D.Zingrone, Stephen C.Zoltai*, Louise Zuk.

 

includes:

i) Governor General's Literary Awards, by [anonymous] (pp.758-761; in 2 parts, bpNichol listed for poetry, 197o, in part (chart) 2, Governor General's Award Winners)

ii) Humorous Writing in English, by Stephen Scobie (pp.847-848; prose, with a halfparagraph on Nichol's the martyrology)

iii) Literature in English, by W.H.New (pp1o17-1o2o; prose in 4 parts, passing reference to Nichol in part 4, History, itself in 6 parts, Nichol reference in part 6, 1959-80s)

iv) Nichol, Barrie Phillip, by Douglas Barbour (p.1259; prose)

v) Ondaatje, Michael, by Sharon Thesen (p.1318; prose, passing reference to Nichol/sons of captain poetry)

vi) Oral Literature in English, by Barbara Godard (pp.1331-1332; prose, passing reference to Nichol/Four Horsemen)

vii) Poetry in English, 1960-1980s, by Douglas Barbour (pp.1433-1434; prose, multiple references to Nichol)

viii) Short Fiction in English, by J.R.Tim Struthers (pp.1692-1693; prose in 9 parts, Nichol & Craft Dinner referenced in part 6, Experimental Writing)

ix) INDEX, by Eve Gardner & Ron Gardner (pp.1993-2o89; secondary references only includes Four Horsemen but with no way to access Nichol references other than (iv) above)

___________________________

 

- 2nd edition, 1988

......

www.nationaltrust.org.uk/sissinghurst-castle-garden

 

"Sissinghurst's garden was created in the 1930s by Vita Sackville-West, poet and gardening writer, and her husband Harold Nicolson, author and diplomat. Sackville-West was a writer on the fringes of the Bloomsbury Group who found her greatest popularity in the weekly columns she contributed as gardening correspondent of The Observer, which incidentally—for she never touted it—made her own garden famous. The garden itself is designed as a series of 'rooms', each with a different character of colour and/or theme, the walls being high clipped hedges and many pink brick walls. The rooms and 'doors' are so arranged that, as one enjoys the beauty in a given room, one suddenly discovers a new vista into another part of the garden, making a walk a series of discoveries that keeps leading one into yet another area of the garden. Nicolson spent his efforts coming up with interesting new interconnections, while Sackville-West focused on making the flowers in the interior of each room exciting.

 

For Sackville-West, Sissinghurst and its garden rooms came to be a poignant and romantic substitute for Knole, reputedly the largest house in Britain, which as the only child of Lionel, the 3rd Lord Sackville she would have inherited had she been a male, but which had passed to her cousin as the male heir.

 

The site is ancient; "hurst" is the Saxon term for an enclosed wood. A manor house with a three-armed moat was built here in the Middle Ages. In 1305, King Edward I spent a night here. It was long thought that in 1490 Thomas Baker, a man from Cranbrook, purchased Sissinghurst, although there is no evidence for it. What is certain is that the house was given a new brick gatehouse in the 1530s by Sir John Baker, one of Henry VIII's Privy Councillors, and greatly enlarged in the 1560s by his son Sir Richard Baker, when it became the centre of a 700-acre deer park. In August 1573, Queen Elizabeth I spent three nights at Sissinghurst.

 

Rose arbour in Sissinghurst's White Garden room, which set a fashion for 'white gardens' After the collapse of the Baker family in the late 17th century, the building had many uses: as a prisoner-of-war camp during the Seven Years' War; as the workhouse for the Cranbrook Union; after which it became homes for farm labourers.

 

Sackville-West and Nicolson found Sissinghurst in 1930 after concern that their property Long Barn, near Sevenoaks, Kent, was close to development over which they had no control. Although Sissinghurst was derelict, they purchased the ruins and the farm around it and began constructing the garden we know today.[ The layout by Nicolson and planting by Sackville-West were both strongly influenced by the gardens of Gertrude Jekyll and Edwin Lutyens; by the earlier Cothay Manor in Somerset, laid out by Nicolson's friend Reginald Cooper, and described by one garden writer as the "Sissinghurst of the West Country"; and by Hidcote Manor Garden, designed and owned by Lawrence Johnston, which Sackville-West helped to preserve. Sissinghurst was first opened to the public in 1938.

 

The National Trust took over the whole of Sissinghurst, its garden, farm and buildings, in 1967. The garden epitomises the English garden of the mid-20th century. It is now very popular and can be crowded in peak holiday periods. In 2009, BBC Four broadcast an eight-part television documentary series called Sissinghurst, describing the house and garden and the attempts by Adam Nicolson and his wife Sarah Raven, who are 'Resident Donors', to restore a form of traditional Wealden agriculture to the Castle Farm. Their plan is to use the land to grow ingredients for lunches in the Sissinghurst restaurant. A fuller version of the story can be found in Nicolson's book, Sissinghurst: An Unfinished History (2008)."

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sissinghurst_Castle_Garden

 

......

It seems a lifetime ago, but in fact was just four weeks gone, that Jools came up to meet with me in Godmanchester before going to see Mum in Papworth.

 

I chose Godmanchester because a contact/friend on GWUK had published shots from there, and it looked interesting, and was a ten minute drive from the hospital.

 

The spire of St Mary can be seen from almost everywhere in the town, drawing me in like a flame to a moth. And thankfully it was open.

 

------------------------------------------

 

My children both had their birthdays the same weekend, and announced plans to invite all their friends from around the country to spend the weekend and to go out together, fifty or so of them, some of them staying over. They'd have a party in the back garden first, my son DJing. They are good children, generally trustworthy, and their mother promised to keep an eye on them. Smiling, nodding, I reached for the Holiday Inn Express website and booked myself a Saturday night at Huntingdon Holiday Inn. Two days of exploring the churches of south-west Cambridgeshire were in prospect.

 

The plan for Day One was to circumnavigate Grafham Water, the great reservoir created to serve Cambridge and Peterborough in the 1960s, taking in all the churches along the way. The slight crimp in the plan is that, to retain the rural nature of the area and to stop traffic cutting between A1 and A14, there is no road running to the north of Grafham Water other than the A14, although using the OS Landranger map I was able to piece together what I thought would be enough bridleways, byways and permissive cycle tracks to achieve this object. During the day I would visit thirteen new churches, all of which were open except for two, and they had keyholder notices.

 

It was a really hot day, and I didn't want to overstretch myself, so I made a leisurely start from Ipswich arriving in Huntingdon at about half past ten. Huntingdon is a small town really, barely 30,000 people, and it is separated by the Ouse from the older town of Godmanchester, pronounced god-m'n-chester, my first port of call. Indeed, Godmanchester is Cambridgeshire's oldest town, a major Roman settlement where Ermine Street crossed the road from Colchester to Chester. In Roman times it was the third biggest place in the east of England after Colchester and Lincoln, and was there long before Peterborough, Huntingdon and Cambridge were a twinkle in the celestial milkman's eye.

 

The Ouse and its water meadows are wide enough to make Huntingdon and Godmanchester seem separate places. For a town of less than 10,000 people it is really grand, with lots of 18th Century buildings and a delightful setting along the Ouse with islands and a park.

 

It was already shaping up into a bright, warm summer day as I reached the huge church, one of the biggest in the county, and typical in style of the Ouse valley. The spire is a familiar sight from the A14 rising above the mill on the river below. The nave south aisle you step into is alone bigger than many churches. A wide, gloomy interior, with acres of Kempe glass leavened somewhat by a good, big Burne-Jones window in the south aisle. Very urban, but with plenty of evidence of the borough's importance up until the 18th Century, at which time it was of equal size with neighbouring Huntingdon. But the Industrial Revolution changed all that. All very impressive, but not a place to gladden the heart.

 

And so, I headed south.

 

www.flickr.com/photos/norfolkodyssey/sets/72157653449416853/

 

-------------------------------------------

 

Godmundcestre (xi cent.), Gutmuncetre, Gudmencestre, Gumencestre, Guncestre (xii cent.), Gumecestre, Gurmundcestre (xiii cent.), Godmanchester (xiv cent.).

 

The parish and borough of Godmanchester, (fn. 1) which are co-terminous, contain 4,832 acres of land and 75 acres of land covered by water. The River Ouse forms the northern boundary and divides Godmanchester from the borough of Huntingdon. The land near to the river is liable to floods, but the ground rises gradually to the south, where it is mostly arable. The population is chiefly occupied in agriculture, and in 1921 numbered 2,035 persons. In the 17th century Godmanchester was described as 'a very great county Toune, and of as great name for tillage; situate in an open ground, of a light mould, and bending to ye sun.' (fn. 2) In 1604 the borough charter tells of like conditions, and especially exempted the store horses and others employed in agriculture from the king's service. (fn. 3) The inhabitants boasted that they had formerly received kings on their progress with a pageant of nine score ploughs, (fn. 4) but in the royal progresses to and from Scotland in 1633 the borough apparently only presented Charles I and his queen with pieces of plate. (fn. 5) Later records mention feasts at the election of town officials, (fn. 6) but in the 16th century the bailiffs contributed from the town funds to many entertainments, such as bear-baiting, visits of players and of the Lord of Misrule from Offord Cluny. (fn. 7)

 

Of other industries besides agriculture, coal porterage on the Ouse was formerly an important business, and in the last century a tan-yard, jute factory, iron foundry and brick works existed, and basket-making was also carried on. (fn. 8) At the present day a stocking factory at the bridge provides a considerable amount of work, and there is also a flour mill.

 

There is a railway station near Huntingdon Bridge which is a junction for the London Midland and Scottish Railway and the London and North Eastern Railway.

 

The parish was inclosed by private Act of Parliament in 1803, (fn. 9) and the award is in the possession of the Corporation. Preserved at the Court Hall, (fn. 10) is a remarkable series of records, dating from the charter of King John in 1212 to the present day. These materials were used by Robert Fox, one of the bailiffs of the borough in 1831–2, in his History of Godmanchester. (fn. 11) Other natives of Godmanchester who may be mentioned are William of Godmanchester, who was elected Abbot of Ramsey in 1267, (fn. 12) and Stephen Marshall, the Parliamentarian divine and one of the authors of Smectymnuus, (fn. 13) published in 1641.

 

The town seems to have arisen on the site of a Roman settlement here, which has already been described. (fn. 14) Its lay-out, however, has apparently been changed to suit the later requirements of a market town. Ermine Street, the Roman road from London to the north, and the Roman roads from Sandy and the south and from Cambridge, which joined it, stop abruptly at the points where they touch what is supposed to be the site of the Roman town, and their place is taken by a road which almost circuits the medieval town and so links them up. It was customary in most medieval market towns to arrange the lay-out of the streets so as to compel the traffic to pass through the market place and pay toll. It would appear that Godmanchester was laid out in this way as a market town, although there is little evidence of an early market here. The road from St. Neots to Huntingdon enters the town by West Street towards the south end of what was intended for the market place and passes that from Cambridge towards the north end, by East Street. In the same way the traffic to and from London and the north is carried by the road on the west side of the town, through the same place.

 

Entering the town from Huntingdon on the north, after crossing Huntingdon Bridge, which has already been described, (fn. 15) the road passes over a causeway which was apparently of ancient construction, as we find that in 1279 its repair was charged on a meadow in the tenure of the prior of St. Mary's, Huntingdon. (fn. 16) In 1331 it was rebuilt (fn. 17) and in 1433 it appears that the road was carried over a series of small bridges. (fn. 18) The causeway was again rebuilt in 1637 by Robert Cooke as a thank-offering for his escape from drowning in a flood here. A stone in the parapet of the southern of the two bridges, each of eight arches, of which the causeway is composed, bears an inscription copied from an earlier one, 'Robertus Cooke ex aquis emersus hoc viatoribus sacrum D.D. 1637.' The bridges underwent repairs in 1767 and were rebuilt in 1784. The causeway (fn. 19) now forms a fine wide approach to the town, with many half-timbered houses of the 17th century and later, on either side. At the north-west corner of East Street stood the vicarage, a 17th-century house, lately demolished; adjoining it on the east side is Church Lane, leading to St. Mary's Church. A little to the east on the south side of East Street is a range of three picturesque half-timber houses with overhanging upper story and an overhanging gable at the west end. The western of the two original chimney stacks bears the date 1611 and the eastern 1613. Over a fireplace in the east room on the first floor are painted the Stuart royal arms with the initials I.R. for James I. There are other 17th-century houses in East Street. Opposite to East Street in the Causeway is the New Court or Town Hall, built in 1844, at which time this part of the Causeway was raised 2 ft. The Town Hall was largely rebuilt in 1899. (fn. 20) Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, a brick building with tiled roof, built about 1560, faces the new Court Hall. It originally consisted of a hall and two-storied porch, bearing above the window of the upper story the inscription 'Eliz. Reg. hujus scholae fundatrix,' over which is a sundial bearing the words 'Sibi Aliisque.' It was restored in 1851 and some buildings were added on the north side. Near the school was the 'cage' for the temporary safeguarding of prisoners, which was built in 1687. The governors of the school, however, complained that the position was 'very inconvenient and unapt,' and so the overseers were ordered to build it near the Court Hall Yard. (fn. 21) In the main street, probably opposite St. Ann's Lane, was a cross called St. Ann's Cross, mentioned in 1526 (fn. 22) and 1545, (fn. 23) and may have existed as early as 1279; tenants of Godmanchester are described as 'ad crucem.' (fn. 24) The road south to old Court Hall was then apparently called Post Street and later Silver Street. Pinfold Lane, which goes off eastward, is referred to in 1539. (fn. 25) In it are the almshouses erected in 1738 by Mrs. Barbary Manser for four dwellings and rebuilt in 1859 for two dwellings. In West Street are some 17th-century half-timber houses, and on the outskirts of the town is a timber and plaster house, formerly the 'Shepherd and Dog' Inn, which bears the date 1593 in the south-west gable. The upper story formerly projected, but has been underbuilt in brick. Further west on the opposite side is Belle Isle House, a 17th-century half-timber house. Returning to the main street, the house at the northeast corner of the island site has an overhanging upper story. Near this spot stood the Horse Shoe Inn in Post Street, (fn. 26) where much of the business of the town was transacted. Southward is Old Courthall, called from the place where the Court Hall, which was pulled down in 1844, formerly stood at the junction of Silver Street and the old bridle road running to Toseland. (fn. 27) At first apparently the hall was only a covered inclosure (fn. 28) in which the view of frankpledge was held, the courts and council meetings or 'parvis' being frequently held in private houses, a custom which persisted even after the Court House was built in 1508. (fn. 29) The Court House was apparently a half-timber building with overhanging gables, and around the walls in the hall were oak benches for the bailiffs. (fn. 30) Near the hall was the 'Pondefolde,' before the gates of the prior of Merton, which may be identified with the town pound, from which Pinfold Lane possibly took its name. Here the king had the right to impound the cattle distrained at the hundred court. (fn. 31) In Old Courthall are two 17th-century inns, the Queen Victoria Inn, a timber and plaster house with overhanging upper story, and the Red Lion Inn, a brick house. Corpus Christi Lane no doubt takes its name from the gild of that name which existed in the town in the 15th century. Here and in Duck End are some 17th-century cottages.

 

Ermine Street, which is not on the site of the original street of that name, comprises some interesting 17th-century houses, particularly Tudor House, of timber and plaster, at the north end of the street. It bears the date 1600 in the south gable and 1603 on the doorway. There are also two other good timber and plaster houses of a later date in the street. On the Cambridge Road is a 16th-century half-timber house, and also a brick house with a stone panel bearing the date 1714. On the west side of the London Road, on the outskirts of the town, is Porch Farm, a 16th-century house which takes its name from a picturesque wooden porch with brick base added at the end of the century; on the opposite side of the road is Lookers Farm, a 17th-century house with a good chimney stack.

 

MANOR

 

¶The manor of GODMANCHESTER was held by Edward the Confessor as 14 hides. (fn. 32) It was valued at £40 a year, which was a sum which it paid in 1086 to William the Conqueror, who succeeded to it as crown land. (fn. 33) Thus, as ancient demesne of the crown, it acquired certain privileges and obligations. (fn. 34) Before Michaelmas, 1190, (fn. 35) Richard I granted Godmanchester to David Earl of Huntingdon, at the increased farm of £50 to hold at the king's pleasure. (fn. 36) In 1194 a new grant in fee was made to the earl and his heirs. (fn. 37) The manor appears to have been in King John's hands in 1199, (fn. 38) but in the same year a new charter was obtained by the earl, (fn. 39) who held it in 1210–12 by the service of one knight's fee. (fn. 40) It again came into the king's hands in 1212, perhaps the most important date in the history of Godmanchester, for in that year King John granted the manor to 'the men of Godmanchester' to hold at the fee-farm rent of £120 a year. (fn. 41) Subsequent grants of the manor by Henry III in 1217 to Faulkes de Breauté, (fn. 42) in 1224 to the Master of the Templars for a debt, (fn. 43) and in 1236 to Eleanor of Provence as part of her dower, (fn. 44) were presumably grants of the rent only. In 1267 the fee-farm rent was granted to Edmund Earl of Lancaster, the king's second son, to hold by military service. (fn. 45) Queen Eleanor, as a widow, unsuccessfully sued her son in 1278 for the manor. (fn. 46) The possession of the rent was also complicated by the claims of Margaret Countess of Derby, one of the eventual co-heiresses of David of Huntingdon. (fn. 47) She seems to have obtained a grant of the manor from Edward I, and a similar grant was made by Edmund for her life at the annual rent of 12d. (fn. 48) Many of her receipts to the town for the fee-farm rent are still in existence. (fn. 49) On her death it reverted to the earls of Lancaster and the manor formed part of the Duchy of Lancaster, finally merging in the crown on the accession of Henry IV. (fn. 50) In 1662, Charles II granted the annual fee-farm rent to Edward Earl of Sandwich, (fn. 51) and it is still paid by the borough to the present Earl of Sandwich.

 

The charter of 1212 had transferred all the manorial rights at Godmanchester to the men of the manor to hold from the king and his heirs. (fn. 52) The privileges attached to the manor are not specified, but David Earl of Huntingdon had sac and soc, toll and theam and infangenthief, (fn. 53) and these, with possibly further rights, were exercised by the men of Godmanchester. The grant made the town, what is somewhat rare, a self-governing manor or liberty. It did not become a borough, and except the right of self-government, and the custom of borough-English, had none of the usually accepted marks of a borough. The charter was confirmed by Edward I, Edward III, Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V, Henry VI, Edward IV, Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary and Elizabeth. (fn. 54) Richard II, however, added a definite list of the privileges enjoyed by the men of Godmanchester. In 1381 he recognised that they and their predecessors in virtue of the charter of 1212 had the chattels of felons and fugitives and waifs and strays, (fn. 55) but in his charter of 1392 they were to have chattels of felons, fugitives, suicides, outlaws and those who renounce the realm of England, infangenthief, outfangenthief, and all forfeitures within the manor, both from residents and foreigners. (fn. 56) He also expressly confirmed their privilege as tenants of ancient demesne, of freedom from toll and similar dues throughout the kingdom. (fn. 57)

 

The earlier development of the manor from pre-Conquest days, which enabled the men of Godmanchester to obtain a grant of self-government, is unfortunately obscure. We learn little from the Domesday Survey (1086) as to the status of the inhabitants, but it seems probable that the 80 villiens and 16 bordars of Godmanchester, there recorded, (fn. 58) had been a community of free sokemen, holding their lands for a rent payable to the king; indeed in 1279 the tenants of Godmanchester all claimed to be and were accepted as free sokemen, with no bondmen among them. (fn. 59) The pre-Conquest organisation seems to have persisted to some extent during the 12th century, when payments to the sheriff are entered on the Pipe Rolls as due from the commonalty (communis) of Godmanchester. (fn. 60) As already pointed out, the payment of £40 from the manor in 1066 represented the amount received by the king, and it is possible that each holding was already assessed to pay its share of this sum annually. Such a practice was certainly established after 1212, and in 1279 over 500 tenements were assessed for payment of the fee-farm rent, generally at the rate of 8d. an acre. (fn. 61) The system i still in existence, each acre now paying 1d. towards the rent.

 

The most important result of the grant of the manor was that the king's officers ceased to hold the courts, though the phrases 'the King's manor' or in Elizabeth's reign 'the Queen's court' remained in use. (fn. 62) In 1286 the two town bailiffs claimed on behalf of themselves and the commonalty of the town to have gallows and to hold the view of frankpledge freely, but it was proved that they paid an annual fine of 20s. to the sheriff for the privilege. (fn. 63) In the 15th century the Duchy court decreed that this payment should no longer be made to the sheriff. (fn. 64) The bailiffs also held the usual three-weeks court of the manor, which was peculiarly important on the ancient demesne of the crown. The court rolls are preserved at Godmanchester from 1271; at first no distinction is made in the headings of the rolls between the two courts, the view only being distinguished by the presence of the 12 jurors. (fn. 65) By 1324, however, the roll of the view was kept separately, (fn. 66) though the regular series of rolls does not begin until the reign of Edward III.

 

The privileges of the liberty of Godmanchester oelonged to the tenants of holdings assessed to the payment of the fee-farm rent, their sons, daughters and widows. (fn. 67) Sons were admitted on reaching the age of twenty, daughters at sixteen. (fn. 68) Foreigners, or those living outside the manor, were also admitted to the freedom of the town at the three-weeks court, by the consent of the commonalty, on payment of a fine and the taking of an oath. (fn. 69) Sureties were required during the 15th century, but the custom disappeared in the reign of Henry VII. (fn. 70) All tenants were bound to be present at the view of frankpledge, and they elected the twelve jurors for the year, but it is not clear whether the tenants or all admitted to the freedom made this election. (fn. 71) Besides the ordinary business of the view, the bailiffs and jurors declared the customs or by-laws of the manor and acted as a town council. The earliest enrolled declaration is in 1278–9, (fn. 72) but in 1324 the commonalty empowered the two bailiffs and the jurors to draw up a custumal which should be accepted by all. The result represents the codification of ancient usage rather than the introduction of new rules. (fn. 73)

 

A second edition of the custumal was made in 1465, and later additions of the following century have been added on the same roll. (fn. 74) In 1324, for administrative purposes, the town was divided into four quarters or wards named after the chief streets of Godmanchester. The government consisted of two bailiffs, elected for one year by the twelve jurors. The bailiffs were chosen one year from Post Street and Erning (Arning) Street and in the alternate year from West Street and East Street. The elections of all officers took place in the court held next before the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin. All rolls were given into the custody of four keepers of the common chest. The complete list of other officials is not given, but mention is made of the collectors of the fee-farm rents and the chief warden of the mills. All officials were to render account of their year of office to the two bailiffs and the jurors. (fn. 75) The rolls of the coroners of Godmanchester exist for the reign of Edward II, so that they must have been functioning in 1324, although their election is not recorded till 1482. (fn. 76) In the 15th century, the election of the officers is regularly recorded in the court books of the threeweeks court. The officials then consisted of the two bailiffs, two constables, eight collectors of the farm, two from each street, two churchwardens, four collectors of amerciaments of the view, the collectors of the aletoll, the warden of the water and the subbailiff. (fn. 77) In 1484, the record shows that three jurors of the leet were elected from each street; (fn. 78) in 1485, the warden of the swans appears, (fn. 79) and in 1486 the bellman. (fn. 80) The clerk of the court is mentioned in 1376, (fn. 81) but no election is shown till 1497, (fn. 82) and it was probably a permanent and not an annual office. The business at the three weeks court consisted of the admission of freemen, landsuits and the surrenders of land, peculiar to manors of the ancient demesne, and civil cases where the damages claimed were under 40s. (fn. 83) In 1592 it was ordained by the bailiffs and jurors that in future cases in this court should be heard by the two bailiffs, three of the twelve suitors at the court on the day of trial and three or four ex-bailiffs. (fn. 84) Appeals from the manorial court were made to the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and were heard in the court of the Duchy. (fn. 85) All land in Godmanchester, except the original endowment of the church, (fn. 86) was, and still is, held in socage of the ancient demesne of the crown. (fn. 87) The tenure was never merged, as elsewhere, in copyhold, although in the 16th century land is occasionally described as held by copy of court roll. (fn. 88) Every tenement when it changed hands was surrendered in court into the hands of the bailiffs, who gave seisin to the incoming tenant on payment of a fine or gersom. (fn. 89) This procedure is still followed, but the surrenders are not made in court, but only to the mayor of the borough and, under the Law of Property (Amendment) Act of 1924, this very rare survival of socage of the ancient demesne is disappearing. Each tenement when it is surrendered to the mayor passes to the incoming tenant as ordinary freehold property. All land suits were heard in the three-weeks court; (fn. 90) the cases were begun by the king's little writ of right close. The first writ appears on a 13th-century court roll (fn. 91) and the actual writs are generally attached to the roll on which the case was recorded. (fn. 92) A writ was brought into the Court of Pleas as late as 1805. (fn. 93) The procedure closely followed that of the royal courts in freehold suits. In the early cases in the 13th and 14th centuries, an assize was held with twenty-four jurors, (fn. 94) but later fines and recoveries 'according to the custom of the manor' were more common. (fn. 95) The town was very jealous of its rights, and there were many complaints in the Duchy Courts that tenants had been impleaded in the common law or other royal courts instead of the manorial court. (fn. 96) Except in the use of the little writ of right close, the Godmanchester tenure approximated to free socage and all the terms of a freehold tenure were used: a daughter was given her land in free marriage; (fn. 97) a widow obtained her dower; (fn. 98) no servile services were paid and the land was held for suit of court and a money rent, without even the boonwork often due from freehold land. (fn. 99) From the customal of 1324, it appears that a tenant could assign, sell or bequeath his land by will, saving only the right of the widow to her dower. (fn. 100) This right of the widow persists at the present day, so that a man still cannot sell his land without his wife's consent. The only other restriction in 1324 was the rule forbidding the sale of land to a foreigner or an ecclesiastic. (fn. 101) Land still descends by the rule of Borough English to the youngest son of the first wife, unless testamentary dispositions have been made bequeathing it differently. (fn. 102)

 

BOROUGH

 

Godmanchester remained a selfgoverning manor for nearly 400 years, but in the 16th century the town was increasingly prosperous and the townspeople wished for the privileges of incorporation. In their documents the use of such terms as corporation and burgess crept in, (fn. 103) and during a lawsuit in 1569 it was claimed that Godmanchester was 'an ancient borough time out of mind.' (fn. 104) The town used a common seal, (fn. 105) but legally they were not incorporated and when, in 1585, a newly admitted tenant, named Richard Fairpoint, defied the authority of the bailiffs and commonalty, he threatened to sue the bailiffs, officials, and chief inhabitants one by one. (fn. 106)

 

A charter of incorporation was obtained from James I in 1604, and Godmanchester became a free borough, under the name of 'the Bailiffs, Assistants and Commonalty of the borough of Gumecestre, alias Godmanchester.' (fn. 107) The government of the town, however, was but slightly altered, the Common Council being formed of two Bailiffs and twelve Assistants, who replaced the jurors of the view of frankpledge in matters of town legislation. The first officials were appointed by King James, but the bailiffs after a year of office were in the future to be elected in the Court next before the Nativity of the Virgin Mary by the existing bailiffs and assistants. The assistants were appointed for life and were replaced from the burgesses of the borough by election by the bailiffs and remaining assistants. (fn. 108) It may be noticed that the new constitution was less democratic and placed the power of election in the hands of the Common Council instead of the tenants and freemen. Even the jurors of the leet were in 1615 to be impanelled by the bailiffs. (fn. 109) Other officials under the new charter were the steward, (fn. 110) recorder and town clerk. The borough and manor were granted to the corporation to hold as previously at a fee-farm rent of £120 of lawful English money. (fn. 111)

 

During the Commonwealth, preliminaries were begun for obtaining a new charter, but nothing was actually done. (fn. 112)

 

In 1684, the charter of James I was surrendered to Charles II, but it was not restored before his death (fn. 113) and the following year James II granted a new charter. (fn. 114) The differences in it were small and, after the Revolution of 1688, all corporations were ordered to resume their former charters (fn. 115) and the corporation acted under the charter of 1604 until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. (fn. 116)

 

The lesser officials, though not named in the charter, were unchanged after the incorporation of the borough and the jurisdiction of the courts remained the same, though they became the courts of the bailiffs, assistants and commonalty instead of the courts of the King. (fn. 117) The manorial court became known as the Court of Pleas. (fn. 118)

 

A new edition of the by-laws was promulgated in 1615, repeating the main provisions of the older custumals of 1324 and 1465 and later enactments. Considerable additions had been made in the regulations of common rights; the most important, enacted in 1607, provided that only tenements constituted or divided before 28 September 1601 should have the right of common attached to them. (fn. 119) In consequence of these common rights, the freedom of the borough became of considerable value, and large sums were paid by foreigners for admission. (fn. 120) The curious custom by which a freeman gave a bucket and two scoops on admission is mentioned in 1635. (fn. 121) Afterwards the gift was commuted for money, but the system of purchasing the freedom of the borough came to an end in 1875, and the last payment instead of the bucket and scoops was made in 1876. (fn. 122) Now the freedom is an hereditary right and freemen only sign the roll on admission.

 

In 1835 the old constitution was swept away under the Municipal Corporations Act; a mayor and 4 aldermen and 12 councillors replaced the two bailiffs and assistants and the franchise was vested in the ratepayers. (fn. 123) The Court of Pleas had been growing of less and less importance, a few cases of debts and surrenders of land being its only business, but it continued as the mayor's court till 1847. (fn. 124) Special courts, however, were held for surrenders and giving seisin of land, (fn. 125) but latterly these have taken place in the mayor's presence only. The business of the court leet is now confined entirely to the stocking of the commons. It is held once a year by the mayor, when the 'grass-hirers' are appointed for the year, but the twelve jurors are no longer impanelled. (fn. 126) The limitation of the enjoyment of common rights to freemen tenants of commonable houses has led to a good deal of litigation, while the gradual exclusion of the freemen from the government of the borough has brought about outbreaks of discontent on their part. (fn. 127)

 

The seal of the borough is circular, 15/8 in. in diameter, with the device of a fleur de lis, possibly in reference to the dedication of the Parish Church, with the legend 'Commune Sigillum Gumecestre.' It seems to be of 13th century date. The mace is of silver of excellent design and bears the date 1745. The mayoral chain is of gold with enamel medallions, given by different donors since 1896.

 

For parliamentary purposes the borough was united to Huntingdon, which sent two members to Parliament. In 1867 the representation was reduced to one member and in 1885 it was merged into the county constituency.

 

No right to hold a market appears to have been granted to Godmanchester, but it seems probable that a market was held at the Horseshoe corner. In the bailiffs' accounts for 1533, there is an item paid for crying a cow and two stray horses in the market, (fn. 128) and in 1615 it certainly was the custom to bring fish to the 'Common Market' on Fridays. (fn. 129)

 

A fair on Easter Tuesday and the following Wednesday was granted by James I in the charter of 1604, together with a court of pie-powder. (fn. 130) It developed into an important horse and cattle fair held in the streets of the town near the old Court Hall. The cattle and sheep disappeared by 1870 after the rinderpest outbreak of the previous years, (fn. 131) but the horse fair continued till Easter 1914. It had been lessening in importance for some years and has never revived since the war. The charter of James II granted a second fair on the Tuesday after the Feast of SS. Simon and Jude, but the right to hold it ceased after the resumption of the old charter in 1688. (fn. 132) The court of pie-powder was held during the 17th century, (fn. 133) but it certainly was no longer held in 1834. (fn. 134)

 

¶The control of the waters of the Ouse has always been a matter of great importance to the town of Godmanchester. In the 13th century, the obstructions in the river put up by the Abbot of Ramsey, the Prior of Huntingdon and Reginald de Grey as lords of the mills respectively at Houghton, Hartford and Hemingford Grey led to complaints on the part of Huntingdon and not of Godmanchester, (fn. 135) but in the 15th century the latter town suffered severely by the continual flooding of its meadows. A series of complaints were made to the Court of the Duchy of Lancaster by the bailiffs and commonalty (fn. 136) and finally in 1524 the right to control the floodgates at Houghton and Hemingford was transferred from the Duchy authorities to the men of Godmanchester. (fn. 137) This right still exists and has been safeguarded in the various schemes for the improvement of the Ouse navigation, begun by Arnold Spencer in 1638. (fn. 138) It was finally confirmed to the borough in a judgment of the House of Lords in 1897 against Mr. Simpson, who had in 1893 acquired by purchase the entire rights of navigation granted to Spencer, and in the following year began an action against the corporation to prevent them from opening the sluice gates at Godmanchester, Hemingford and Houghton in times of flood. (fn. 139)

 

In 1279, the bailiffs of Godmanchester claimed that the town held a free fishery by the grant of King John and that they formerly had the right, as appurtenant to the manor, of fishing from Hayle to Swiftiswere, but were prevented by the Bishop of Lincoln and others from doing so. (fn. 140) The right to the free fishery continued, and from the borough custumal drawn up in 1615, it appears that the 'common fishers' of the town were bound to bring their fish to the common market at the Horseshoe corner every Friday and whenever they had fish to sell, on pain of a fine of 6s. 8d. (fn. 141).

 

In 1086 three water-mills were attached to the manor of Godmanchester, rendering 100s. yearly to the king. (fn. 142) The mills passed with the manor (q.v.) to the men of Godmanchester and in 1279 they paid 15s. a year to the fee-farm rent and a holm containing 8 acres was attached to them. (fn. 143) At the close of the 15th century they were let on lease, and this system seems to have been continued by the corporation until 1884. (fn. 144) At that time no tenant could be found. The corporation applied for leave to sell the property, but opposition was made on the ground that the freemen had the right to have their corn ground freely on the grist stone. No sale took place and the old mill stood derelict (fn. 145) and has been finally pulled down since 1926. A windmill is mentioned in 1599, when it was sold by Robert Green to Oliver Cromwell, alias Williams. (fn. 146)

 

CHURCH

 

The Church of ST. MARY consists of a chancel (44 ft. by 20 ft.) with organ chamber and two vestries on the north side, nave (72 ft. by 27 ft.), north aisle (15 ft. wide), south aisle (19 ft. wide), west tower and spire (19 ft. by 17½ ft.) and north and south porches. The walls are of stone and pebble rubble with stone dressings, except the tower, which is of ashlar. The roof coverings are of lead.

 

¶The church is mentioned in the Domesday Survey (1086) but, except for a few stones in the walling, nothing of this early building remains. The church seems to have been rebuilt about the middle of the 13th century, and of this period are the chancel, the west wall of the nave, and small parts of the west walls of the aisles. About 1340 a north vestry was added to the chancel, and at the end of this century and extending into the next a further reconstruction took place, beginning at the west end of the aisles and embracing the arcades, clearstory and porches, and the raising and altering of the chancel. The tower and spire, being ruinous, were taken down and rebuilt in 1623. The upper part of the south porch was rebuilt probably in 1669. The roofs and parapets were repaired early in the 19th century; the church was generally restored in 1853, the vestry rebuilt and the organ chamber and choir vestry added in 1860. A general restoration took place in 1885, and the chancel was restored in 1912.

 

The 13th-century chancel, reconstructed and raised c. 1510, (fn. 147) has an east window of three modern lancets. The north wall has a 15th-century two-light window, a 14th-century doorway to the clergy vestry, a 13th-century doorway (visible in the choir vestry), and a modern arch to the organ chamber. The south wall has three 15th-century windows of two-lights, the western set within an earlier opening, and a 15th-century doorway.

 

The chancel arch is two centred and of two chamfered orders resting on similar responds; most of the stones are of the 13th century, but the arch has been reconstructed and raised, c. 1490, (fn. 148) cutting into the sills of two 13th-century lancets in the gable above, the splays of which still retain some original painted decoration. Under it is a modern; screen. The low-pitched roof is practically all modern; the jack-legs rest on modern shafts and corbels.

 

The organ chamber and the two vestries on the north are modern, but in the east wall of the former is a reset 15th-century two-light window doubtless from the north wall of the chancel; and the vestry has a 14th-century single-light window reset.

 

The nave arcades, c. 1500, are of five bays, with two-centred arches of two moulded orders supported by narrow piers formed by the continuation downward of the outer orders of the arch between two attached shafts with moulded capitals and bases. The contemporary clearstory has five two-light windows on each side. The contemporary roof is of low pitch, has moulded beams, jack-legs and braces, but has been much restored.

 

The north aisle, c. 1500, has a five-light transomed east window with remains of niches in the splays, which now opens into the organ chamber; (fn. 149) at the extreme south end is a broken piscina. The north wall has four three-light transomed windows, and a reset 13th-century doorway, above which is a blocked doorway opening into a chamber over the porch. The west wall has a four-light transomed window, to the south of which is the splay of an earlier window. The pent roof has plain beams and curved braces, and the jack-legs are supported on carved corbels.

 

The south aisle, c. 1500, has in the east wall a fivelight transomed window, and a blocked doorway to the rood staircase. The south wall has three threelight windows and a two-light window, all transomed, a doorway with a moulded arch and jamb-shafts flanked on the outside by two niches, and a squareheaded doorway to the stairs leading to the chamber over the porch. The west wall has a four-light transomed window, to the north of which is the jamb and splay of an earlier window. The stairs to the rood loft were in a circular turret outside the wall at the north-east corner, now used as a smoke flue. The roof is similar to that of the north aisle.

 

The west tower, built in 1623, (fn. 150) has a 13th-century tower arch of three chamfered orders supported on semi-octagonal responds with carved stiff-leaf capitals and moulded bases. The west doorway has a moulded two-centred arch on sunk chamfered jambs and moulded imposts; (fn. 151) above it is a sunk panel with a shield bearing a fleur de lis and a scroll inscribed 'BVRGVS GVMECESTRE,' and above this another panel with date '1623.' Still higher are a pair of twolight windows with semicircular heads. In the next stage the north and south walls have each a two-light; and the belfry has coupled two-light windows with transoms. The tower has buttresses square at the angles, and is finished with an embattled parapet with pinnacles at the angles and a large fleur-de-lis on the central merlons. Behind the parapet rises an octagonal spire with three tiers of lights all on the cardinal faces; the top is 151 ft. 3 in. above the ground. The whole of the details are strongly tinged with Renaissance feeling, but a successful attempt has been made to harmonize with the architecture of the church.

 

The 15th-century north porch has a moulded two-centred arch on jambs with engaged shafts; the side walls have each a two-light window. Single-light windows in the east and west walls light the chamber above, and there is now a modern single-light window in the north wall. There is a small chamber over this porch, but the present roof and parapets are modern.

 

The 15th-century south porch has a four-centred outer archway with lily-pot at the apex of the label; on each side of it are large niches. Each side wall has two two-light windows. The chamber above, which is of later date, has a small single-light window in each of the outer walls, and a beam in the roof is dated 1669.

 

The 13th-century font (fn. 152) is an irregular octagon with crude carved heads projecting from the diagonal faces; the stem and base are modern.

 

There are eight bells, inscribed (1) Intactum sileo percute dulce cano: T. Osborn, Downham, fecit, 1794; (2) and (3) T. Osborn, founder, 1794; (4) Thomas Osborn, fecit. Our voices shall with joyful sound. Make hills and valleys eccho round. 1794; (5) T. Osborn, fecit, 1794; (6) J. Taylor & Co., Founders, Loughborough, 1870. F. T. Mc.Dougall, D.C.L., Vicar. P. E. Tillard, Henry Quince, Churchwardens; (7) T. Osborn, founder, 1794; (8) Revd. Castle Sherard, Rector, (fn. 153) Jno. Martin, Robt. Waller, Bailiffs, Jno. Scott, Richd. Miles, Ch. Wardens, T. Osborn, fecit: 1794. A sanctus bell seems to have remained as late as 1763. (fn. 154) Osborn had cast the whole peal of eight in 1794, using the metal of an earlier set of five; (fn. 155) the old fourth bell had been cast in 1710, by a shepherd at the Angel Inn in Godmanchester. (fn. 156) The bells were rehung and the 6th bell recast in 1870; it apparently had no inscription on it.

 

The 15th-century chancel stalls have shaped divisions with carved elbows, poppy heads and misericords, and panelled and traceried fronts. The carvings on the misericords include a falcon displayed, a dog with collar and resting on a cushion, a fleur-de-lis on a shield, a hare in the midst of a sun-in-splendour, (fn. 157) an ape, a wyvern, a fox and goose, the letters W.S. on a shield, (fn. 158) a cat and mouse; on the elbows a jester, angels, crowned heads, &c.; on the poppy heads two owls back to back, four birds, wyverns, etc.

 

Some of the fronts and backs of the modern seating and some of the bench ends have 15th-century tracery inserted in them.

 

In the nave is a chained oak poor-box, circular, bound with metal, and with a painted inscription. (fn. 159)

 

On one of the south buttresses of the chancel is a late 13th-century carved wheel-dial; and on the gable of the south porch is a small dial inscribed 'G. 1623. W.S.'

 

Lying loose in the porch is a portion of a 12th-century circular stone shaft with scale ornament.

 

On the floor of the nave is an early 16th-century brass figure of a civilian, with indents for two wives, two groups of children, and inscription panel; and in the chancel is the indent of an inscription plate.

 

There are the following monuments: In the chancel, to the Rev. Geoffrey Hawkins, Rector of Higham Gobion, Beds, d. 1727 (son of Geoffrey Hawkins, Rector of Chesterton, Hunts), Mary, his wife, d. 1750, and Hannah Worley, widow, d. 1771; Martha (Maylam) wife of George Rowley, d. 1765; John Hawkins, d. 1806; the Rev. Charles Gray, Vicar, d. 1854; and windows to the Rev. Charles Gray, Vicar, 1854; the Rev. W. P. E. Lathbury, Vicar, d. 1855; the Rev. John Hartley Richardson, curate, d. 1863; and the Rev. Henry Hart Chamberlain [d. 1899]. In the nave to Elizabeth (Meadows) wife of Edward Martin, d. 1805, and Edward Martin, d. 1853; Robert Hicks, d. 1825, Mary, widow of Rev. S. Hicks, Rector of Wrestlingworth, Beds, d. 1805, John Hicks, d. 1827, and Mary widow of Robert, d. 1862; floor slabs to Alured Clarke, d. 1744, Ann, his widow, d. 1755, and John Clarke, d. 1745; William Mehew, d. 1772, and Ann his wife, d. 1793; William Mehew, d. 1792; and Richard Miles, d. 1834. In the north aisle, to Alured Clarke, d. 1744, and family; Jos. Bull, d. 1764, Ann his wife, d. 1780, and Elizabeth their daughter, d. 1791; Thomas Townsend, d. 1792, Martha his wife, d. 1789, John, their son, d. 1799, and Ann, widow of John, d. 1817, James Stratton, d. 1800, son-in-law of Tho. Townsend, Ann his wife, d. 1835, Ann their daughter, d. 1826, George Turney her husband, d. 1825, and George Turney their son, d. 1835; John Chapman, d. 1858, and Edward Theodore, his son, d. 1859, Mary Chapman, widow of John, d. 1899; War Memorial 1914–18; and windows to Bishop Francis Thomas McDougall, Vicar, erected 1903; Frederick Robert Beart, d. 1905; Emma Frances Amelia Baumgartner, d. 1911. In the south aisle, to Thomas Betts, d. 1696, and Elizabeth his wife, d. 1700; Edward Martin, d. 1799, Alice his relict, d. 1801, and Harriet their infant daughter, d. 1788; John Martin, d. 1822, and Mary his wife, d. 1854; Henry Percy Tillard, d. 1858; John Thomas Baumgartner, d. 1874; Algernon Tillard, d. 1887; Francis Bonham Tillard, d. 1903, Helen wife of General Robert Julian Baumgartner, d. 1911; Mary Emily (Tillard) wife of Col. I. F. R. Thompson, d. 1915, and Lt.-Col. Ivan Frank Ross Thompson, d. 1917; Allen Victor Herbert, d. 1918; floor slabs to Thomas Bentley, d. 1709; John Martin, d. 1752; Elizabeth daughter of Samuel and Elizabeth Fox, d. 1755; Jane, relict of John Martin, d. 1789; and windows to two children of J. T. and P. Baumgartner, d. 1827 and 1844; Phoebe, wife of John Lancaster, d. 1833; John Thomas Baumgartner, d. 1874; Philipa Julia (Baumgartner) wife of Philip Tillard, d. 1885; Philip Tillard, d. 1887; the Rev. Preston John Williams, Vicar, erected 1894; General Robert Julian Baumgartner, d. 1895. In the tower, windows to Edward Martin, d. 1835, and Elizabeth his wife, d. . . . .; and William Beart, d. 1852. In the south porch to the wife and children of the Rev. H. H. Chamberlain.

 

The registers are as follows: (i) Baptisms, 23 Dec. 1604 to 3 Jan. 1642–3; marriages, 3 Jan. 1603–4 to 30 Aug. 1653, and 6 March 1742–3 to 8 Sept. 1754; burials, 1 Feb. 1604–5 to Dec. 1647, and 1653; (ii) baptisms, 30 Sept. 1653 to 5 Aug. 1660, and three entries in 1669, 1671 and 1674; marriages, 9 Jan. 1653–4 to 16 April 1718; burials, 3 Oct. 1653 to 14 May 1717; (iii) marriages, 13 April 1718 to 11 Jan. 1753; burials, 31 March 1718 to 24 Dec. 1751; (iv) baptisms and burials, 20 Oct. 1754 to 22 April 1798; (v) the official marriage book, 1 Aug. 1754 to 5 Nov. 1783; (vi) the same, 10 Nov. 1783 to 28 Feb. 1811; (vii) baptisms and burials, 13 Jan. 1798 to 30 Dec. 1812; (viii) the official marriage book, 6 March 1811 to 25 Oct. 1812. The first two books are in considerable disorder and apparently several years are missing, and the second book is much damaged by damp. The first book has been rebound and the second requires similar treatment.

 

The church plate consists of: A silver cup of Elizabethan date, no date letter; a silver gilt cup and cover paten, hall-marked for 1559–60; a silver plate engraved 'Benedicamus Patrem et filium cum spiritu,' and inscribed 'To the Glory of God and the use of St. Mary's Church, Godmanchester, 1848. E. I. W. dedit,' hall-marked for 1846–7; a silver alms-dish, engraved 'hilarem datorem diligit Deus,' and inscribed as last, hall-marked for 1847–8; a plated dish and flagon, the latter inscribed 'The gift of Charles Gray, M.A., Vicar, to the Parish Church of Godmanchester, A.D. 1834.'

 

ADVOWSON

 

The Church of St. Mary (fn. 160) is stated to have been given with 3 hides of land by King Edgar (c. 969) to the monks of Ramsey, (fn. 161) but it was no longer in their possession at the time of the Domesday Survey (fn. 162) and they never seem to have laid claim to it. In 1086 a church and priest were attached to the manor (fn. 163) and remained in royal possession until Stephen gave the church to Merton Priory in Surrey. (fn. 164) In 1284, the endowment of the church consisted of 48 acres of land and also 15 acres of meadow held by the Prior of Merton in commutation for all tithes of hay. (fn. 165) He held other lands, but these were assessed to the fee-farm rent and were not spiritualities. (fn. 166) After the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the rectory was granted in 1542 to the dean and chapter of Westminster (fn. 167) and except during the reign of Mary and the Commonwealth they have owned it ever since. (fn. 168) It has been held by a succession of lessees and in a lease of 1640 the dean and chapter stipulated for entertainment for two days and two nights for themselves or their officers at the lessee's expense. (fn. 169)

 

Between 1209 and 1219 the vicarage was instituted and two houses, land and meadow, as well as the vicarial tithes were assigned to it. (fn. 170) The advowson of the vicarage has always been held with the rectory, (fn. 171) although the first recorded presentation by the dean and chapter of Westminster was not till 1599. (fn. 172) A custumal of the vicar's tithing was drawn up in 1599 in great detail and is specially interesting in showing the payments made from parishioners who were not landholders. (fn. 173) In the 17th century the vicarage was too poor to support a suitable vicar for the town and consequently in 1655 the Town Council decided to purchase a house called the Star, next to the vicarage, which was ruinous. (fn. 174) The Star was finally annexed to the vicarage when the dean and chapter had recovered the patronage after the Restoration. (fn. 175) The purchase of the Star is an illustration of control of church affairs by the governing body both before and after Godmanchester became a borough. In 1532 the town officials appointed an organist and the expenses incurred over his engagement were charged to the bailiffs' account. (fn. 176) In the reign of Henry VI the two churchwardens appear amongst the elected officials of the town (fn. 177) and they accounted to the bailiffs and jurors. (fn. 178) Throughout the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries the churchwardens' accounts were presented to the Town Council, although in the 18th century protest was apparently made against the practice. In 1712 a churchwarden, apparently not a freeman of the borough, brought the matter into the spiritual courts to the great indignation of the Council, who decreed that he was never to be admitted to the freedom and also indemnified his successors against any damages they might incur during the trial. (fn. 179) In 1824, the Common Council enacted a careful table of precedence for its members in the corporation pews in the chancel. (fn. 180)

 

CHANTRIES

 

The Chantry of the Blessed Mary (fn. 181) or Roode's Chantry, (fn. 182) in the parish church, was in existence in 1297 (fn. 183) and possibly earlier, since in 1279 Martin the chaplain was a town tenant of 4½ acres of land and some meadow, though his benefice is not named. (fn. 184) In 1307, Roger de Strateshill, probably the chaplain of the chantry, wished to endow it with 31 acres of land and 4 acres of meadow to provide a daily celebration of mass, but difficulties appear to have arisen with John Dalderby, Bishop of Lincoln (1300–1329). (fn. 185) The matter was taken up by the town, and at the request of Henry Roode, apparently one of the bailiffs, licence was obtained from the king in 1316 for Roger de Strateshill's gift. (fn. 186) Further gifts of land are recorded (fn. 187) and each incumbent was seemingly given seisin for his life by the bailiffs, 'who reserved the right to annul the grant, thus avoiding any grant of the lands in mortmain. (fn. 188) The chantry was thus especially associated with the town and the chaplain was bound to pray, in English, at the daily mass 'for the good state, welfare and prosperity of the Bayliffs of this town, and all the Comynalty of the same, fundars of this Chauntre.' (fn. 189) At the time of the dissolution of the chantries, the chaplain both provided assistance to the vicar and was also master of a grammar school. (fn. 190) The possessions of the chantry, together with those of the Gilds of Corpus Christi (q.v.) and the Holy Trinity (q.v.) were seized by the crown and in 1553 were leased to John Shepherd and others of the royal household for twenty-one years at an annual rent of £35 16s. 10d. (fn. 191) The fee-farm rents of £5 15s. 5d. due to the bailiffs of Godmanchester were paid by the crown until 1592, (fn. 192) when Elizabeth, in a new lease to Peter Proby, remitted the fee-farm rent and a charge of 4s. payable to the poor and received a lower rent from the lessee. (fn. 193) Soon after the grant of the charter of 1604, the borough unsuccessfully attempted to recover the chantry lands and were involved in lawsuits in the Duchy courts and considerable expenses, (fn. 194) the issue being complicated by the grant in fee, in 1606–7 by James I, of the disputed lands to Edward Newport. (fn. 195) In 1657, they were held by Robert Barnard, (fn. 196) but it seems possible that they were seized by the Commissioners for the sale of fee-farm rents during the Protectorate, (fn. 197) since at some subsequent date they were attached to the Rectory on whose 'lessee the old crown rent of £30 per annum is charged as an annuity in augmentation of the vicarage as also with the sum of £5 19s. 5d. to the annual fee-farm rent of the town.' (fn. 198)

 

The Gild of Corpus Christi is first mentioned in 1366, (fn. 199) and the fraternity was an established body in 1396. (fn. 200) It consisted of brothers and sisters governed by two wardens. (fn. 201) A later benefactor was John Copegray, chaplain of the gild and vicar of Alconbury (1463–69). (fn. 202) After the dissolution of the chantries, the endowments, which amounted in 1536 to £11 7s. 4d. a year, (fn. 203) passed with those of Roode's Chantry (q.v.). The name is still preserved in Corpus Christi Lane.

 

The Gild of the Holy Trinity was founded before 1279, when William, chaplain of the Trinity, held 1½ acre of land. (fn. 204) It was governed by two wardens (fn. 205) and is mentioned in wills of Godmanchester inhabitants, (fn. 206) but its endowments were small and at its dissolution amounted to only £3 4s. 9d. a year. (fn. 207) Edmund Archpole was then chaplain of both Corpus Christi (q.v.) and Holy Trinity Gilds, (fn. 208) but there does not seem to have been any formal amalgamation of the gilds. The lands of the gild followed the descent of those of Roode's chantry (q.v.).

 

Little is known of the origin of the Gild of St. John the Baptist, (fn. 209) but it was founded before 1359, when William Balle seems to have been the chaplain. (fn. 210) Possibly the gild had a separate chapel, since 'land next to the chapel' are mentioned at the same date. (fn. 211) The fraternity appears in the town rentals until 1549, (fn. 212) but all trace of it is afterwards lost and its lands do not appear in the certificate of chantry lands at the dissolution of the chantries. Nine acres of land formed the endowment of certain lights and lamps in the church, and they were valued at 22s. 2d. a year after deducting the fee-farm rent. (fn. 213) In 1553, obit lands appear in the lease of chantry lands to John Shepherd and to later tenants (fn. 214) and a payment of 1s. 10½d. a year to the bellman was chargeable on the chantry lands. (fn. 215)

 

At the present time there is a Particular Baptist Chapel, founded in 1815, and the Union Chapel, built in 1844, to replace an older chapel. (fn. 216)

 

CHARITIES

 

The following charities are regulated by a scheme of the Charity Commissioners dated 12 February 1926:—

 

Christopher Fisher in 1674 gave a piece of land containing 2 a. and 3 r. in Reed Meadow, and John Dryden by a declaration of trust dated 17 Dec. 1708 gave the sum of £200 which was laid out in the purchase of 24 a. 1 r. 20 p. of land, the rents to be applied in apprenticing poor children of the parish. The endowment of the charities now consists of £1,578 8s. 9d., 2½ per cent. Consols and various other sums of stock with the Official Trustees, the whole producing about £60 annually in dividends which are applied in apprenticing.

 

John Banks by will dated 19 November 1707 charged his lands and hereditaments in Dunton with a yearly payment of £12 to be applied for apprenticing and for the poor. The endowment now consists of a rentcharge of £12 per annum issuing out of Millow Hall Farm, Dunton, £21 1s. 5 per cent. War Stock and £25 4 per cent. Victory Bonds with the Official Trustees. £5, part of the rentcharge, is applied for the benefit of the poor and the residue £7 is applied for apprenticing.

 

Note.—Under clause 19 of the above-mentioned scheme the trustees are empowered to apply that part of the income applicable for apprenticing and not required for that purpose in assisting poor persons in the case of Banks's charity and in assisting poor boys for their advancement in life in the case of Fisher's and Dryden's charities.

 

Fishbourne's Charity. This charity consists of a rentcharge of 10s. per annum issuing out of hereditaments at Hartford. The rent is distributed by the mayor to four poor widows not in receipt of parish relief.

 

Anonymous Charity for Poor founded in 1727. The endowment of this charity consists of a rentcharge of 3s. 4d. per annum charged upon or issuing out of hereditaments in Post Street. This sum is distributed in bread amongst the poor of the parish.

 

Grainger's Gift. Robert Grainger by will dated 10 October 1578 charged his mansion-house in Godmanchester with one comb of wheat to be made into bread and distributed among the poor. The value of one comb of wheat is now charged upon property in Godmanchester now in the occupation of Mr. W. F. Beart and distributed to the poor of the parish in bread.

 

¶The charity known as the Rectory Charge was founded by deed dated 27 January 1443 for the benefit of the poor of the parish. The endowment consists of four quarters of wheat and three quarters of barley charged on the Rectory Farm, Godmanchester. Under the provisions of the above-mentioned scheme the vicar and the mayor (ex-officio trustees) and six representative trustees appointed by the Borough Council, were appointed the trustees of the charities.

 

Almshouses. These consist of four almshouses in East Chadleigh Lane, Godmanchester, built with money given in 1723 by Mr. Dryden, together with two small almshouses in Penfold Lane (known as Manser's Charity) formerly four houses but converted into two. There are no endowments in connection with these almshouses, which are kept in repair at the parish expense.

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hunts/vol2/pp286-296

Built amid workers' cottages and terrace houses of shopkeepers, St. Mark the Evangelist Church of England sits atop an undulating rise in the inner Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy. Nestled behind a thick bank of agapanthus beyond its original cast-iron palisade fence, it would not look out of place in an English country village with its neat buttresses, bluestone masonry and simple, unadorned belfry.

 

St. Mark the Evangelist was the first church to be built outside of the original Melbourne grid as Fitzroy developed into the city's first suburb. A working-class suburb, the majority of its residents were Church of England and from 1849 a Mission Church and school served as a centre for religious, educational and recreational facilities. The school was one of a number of denominational schools established by the Church of England and was partly funded by the Denominational School Board.

 

St. Mark the Evangelist Church of England was designed by architect James Blackburn and built in Early English Gothic style. Richard Grice, Victorian pastoralist and philanthropist, generously contributed almost all the cost of its construction. Work commenced in 1853 to accommodate the growing Church of England congregation of Fitzroy. On July 1st, 1853, the first stone of St. Mark the Evangelist was laid by the first Bishop of Melbourne, The Right Rev. Charles Perry.

Unfortunately, Blackburn did not live to see its completion, dying the following year in 1854 of typhoid. This left St. Mark the Evangelist without an architect to oversee the project, and a series of other notable Melbourne architects helped finish the church including Lloyd Tayler, Leonard Terry and Charles Webb. Even then when St. Mark the Evangelist opened its doors on Sunday, January 21st, 1855, the church was never fully completed with an east tower and spire never realised. The exterior of the church is very plain, constructed of largely unadorned bluestone, with simple buttresses marking structural bays and tall lancet windows. The church's belfry is similarly unadorned, yet features beautiful masonry work. It has a square tower and broach spire.

 

Inside St. Mark the Evangelist Church of England it is peaceful and serves as a quiet sanctuary from the noisy world outside. I visited it on a hot day, and its enveloping coolness was a welcome relief. Walking across the old, highly polished hardwood floors you cannot help but note the gentle scent of the incense used during mass. The church has an ornately carved timber Gothic narthex screen which you walk through to enter the nave. Once there you can see the unusual two storey arcaded gallery designed by Leonard Terry that runs the entire length of the east side of building. Often spoken of as “The Architect’s Folly” Terry's gallery was a divisive point in the Fritzroy congregation. Some thought it added much beauty to the interior with its massive square pillars and seven arches supporting the principals of the roof. Yet it was generally agreed that the gallery was of little effective use, and came with a costly price tag of £3,000.00! To this day, it has never been fully utlised by the church. St. Mark the Evangelist has been fortunate to have a series of organs installed over its history; in 1854 a modest organ of unknown origin: in 1855 an 1853 Foster and Andrews, Hull, organ which was taken from the Athenaeum Theatre in Melbourne's Collins Street: in 1877 an organ built by Melbourne organ maker William Anderson: and finally in 1999 as part of major renovation works a 1938 Harrison and Harrison, Durham, organ taken from St. Luke's Church of England in Cowley, Oxfordshire. The church has gone through many renovations over the ensuing years, yet the original marble font and pews have survived these changes and remain in situ to this day. Blackwood reredos in the chancel, dating from 1939, feature a mosaic of the last supper by stained glass and church outfitters Brooks, Robinson and Company. A similar one can be found at St. Matthew's Church of England in High Street in Prahran. The fine lancet stained glass windows on the west side of St. Mark the Evangelist feature the work of the stained glass firms Brooks, Robinson and Company. and William Montgomery. Many of the windows were installed in the late Nineteenth Century.

 

The St. Mark the Evangelist Parish Hall and verger's cottage were added in 1889 to designs by architects Hyndman and Bates. The hall is arranged as a nave with clerestorey windows and side aisles with buttresses. In 1891 the same architects designed the Choir Vestry and Infants Sunday School on Hodgson Street, to replace the earlier school of 1849 which had been located in the forecourt of the church.

 

The present St. Mark the Evangelist's vicarage, a two-storey brick structure with cast-iron lacework verandahs, was erected in 1910.

 

I am very grateful to the staff of Anglicare who run the busy adjoining St. Mark's Community Centre for allowing me to have free range of the inside of St. Mark the Evangelist for a few hours to photograph it so extensively.

 

James Blackburn (1803 - 1854) was an English civil engineer, surveyor and architect. Born in Upton, West Ham, Essex, James was the third of four sons and one daughter born to his parents. His father was a scalemaker, a trade all his brothers took. At the age of 23, James was employed by the Commissioners of Sewers for Holborn and Finsbury and later became an inspector of sewers. However, his life took a dramatic turn in 1833, when suffering economic hardship, he forged a cheque. He was caught and his penalty was transportation to Van Diemen’s Land (modern day Tasmania). As a convicted prisoner, yet also listed as a civil engineer, James was assigned to the Roads Department under the management of Roderic O’Connor, a wealthy Irishman who was the Inspector of Roads and Bridges at the time. On 3 May 1841 James was pardoned, whereupon he entered private practice with James Thomson, another a former convict. In April 1849, James sailed from Tasmania aboard the "Shamrock" with his wife and ten children to start a new life in Melbourne. Once there he formed a company to sell filtered and purified water to the public, and carried out some minor architectural commissions including St. Mark the Evangelist in Fitzroy. On 24 October he was appointed city surveyor, and between 1850 and 1851 he produced his greatest non-architectural work, the basic design and fundamental conception of the Melbourne water supply from the Yan Yean reservoir via the Plenty River. He was injured in a fall from a horse in January 1852 and died on 3 March 1854 at Brunswick Street, Collingwood, of typhoid. He was buried as a member of St. Mark The Evangelist Church of England. James is best known in Tasmania for his ecclesiastical architectural work including; St Mark's Church of England, Pontville, Tasmania (1839-1841), Holy Trinity Church, Hobart, Tasmania (1841-1848): St. George's Church of England, Battery Point, Tasmania, (1841-1847).

 

Leonard Terry (1825 - 1884) was an architect born at Scarborough, Yorkshire, England. Son of Leonard Terry, a timber merchant, and his wife Margaret, he arrived in Melbourne in 1853 and after six months was employed by architect C. Laing. By the end of 1856 he had his own practice in Collins Street West (Terry and Oakden). After Mr. Laing's death next year Leonard succeeded him as the principal designer of banks in Victoria and of buildings for the Anglican Church, of which he was appointed diocesan architect in 1860. In addition to the many banks and churches that he designed, Leonard is also known for his design of The Melbourne Club on Collins Street (1858 - 1859) "Braemar" in East Melbourne (1865), "Greenwich House" Toorak (1869) and the Campbell residence on the corner of Collins and Spring Streets (1877). Leonard was first married, at 30, on 26 June 1855 to Theodosia Mary Welch (d.1861), by whom he had six children including Marmaduke, who trained as a surveyor and entered his father's firm in 1880. Terry's second marriage, at 41, on 29 December 1866 was to Esther Hardwick Aspinall, who bore him three children and survived him when on 23 June 1884, at the age of 59, he died of a thoracic tumor in his last home, Campbellfield Lodge, Alexandra Parade, in Collingwood.

 

Lloyd Tayler (1830 - 1900) was an architect born on 26 October 1830 in London, youngest son of tailor William Tayler, and his wife Priscilla. Educated at Mill Hill Grammar School, Hendon, and King's College, London, he is said to have been a student at the Sorbonne. In June 1851 he left England to join his brother on the land near Albury, New South Wales. He ended up on the Mount Alexander goldfields before setting up an architectural practice with Lewis Vieusseux, a civil engineer in 1854. By 1856 he had his own architectural practice where he designed premises for the Colonial Bank of Australasia. In the 1860s and 1870s he was lauded for his designs for the National Bank of Australasia, including those in the Melbourne suburbs of Richmond and North Fitzroy, and further afield in country Victoria at Warrnambool and Coleraine. His major design for the bank was the Melbourne head office in 1867. With Edmund Wright in 1874 William won the competition for the design of the South Australian Houses of Parliament, which began construction in 1881. The pair also designed the Bank of Australia in Adelaide in 1875. He also designed the Australian Club in Melbourne's William Street and the Melbourne Exchange in Collins Street in 1878. Lloyd's examples of domestic architecture include the mansion "Kamesburgh", Brighton, commissioned by W. K. Thomson in 1872. Other houses include: "Thyra", Brighton (1883): "Leighswood", Toorak, for C. E. Bright: "Roxcraddock", Caulfield: "Cherry Chase", Brighton: and "Blair Athol", Brighton. In addition to his work on St. Mark the Evangelist in Fitzroy, Lloyd also designed St. Mary's Church of England, Hotham (1860); St Philip's, Collingwood, and the Presbyterian Church, Punt Road, South Yarra (1865); and Trinity Church, Bacchus Marsh (1869). The high point of Lloyd's career was the design for the Melbourne head office of the Commercial Bank of Australia. His last important design was the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Headquarters Station, Eastern Hill in 1892. Lloyd was also a judge in 1900 of the competition plans for the new Flinders Street railway station. Lloyd was married to Sarah Toller, daughter of a Congregational minister. They established a comfortable residence, Pen-y-Bryn, in Brighton, and it was from here that he died of cancer of the liver on the 17th of August 1900 survived by his wife, four daughters and a son.

 

Charles Webb (1821 - 1898) was an architect. Born on 26 November 1821 at Sudbury, Suffolk, England, he was the youngest of nine children of builder William Webb and his wife Elizabeth. He attended Sudbury Academy and was later apprenticed to a London architect. His brother James had migrated to Van Diemen's Land in 1830, married in 1833, gone to Melbourne in 1839 where he set up as a builder in and in 1848 he bought Brighton Park, Brighton. Charles decided to join James and lived with James at Brighton. They went into partnership as architects and surveyors. The commission that established them was in 1850 for St Paul's Church, Swanston Street. It was here that Charles married Emma Bridges, daughter of the chief cashier at the Bank of England. Charles and James built many warehouses, shops and private homes and even a synagogue in the city. After his borther's return to England, Charles designed St. Andrew's Church, Brighton, and receiving an important commission for Melbourne Church of England Grammar School in 1855. In 1857 he added a tower and a slender spire to Scots Church, which James had built in 1841. He designed Wesley College in 1864, the Alfred Hospital and the Royal Arcade in 1869, the South Melbourne Town Hall and the Melbourne Orphan Asylum in 1878 and the Grand Hotel (now the Windsor) in 1884. In 1865 he had designed his own home, "Farleigh", in Park Street, Brighton, where he died on 23 January 1898 of heat exhaustion. Predeceased by Emma in 1893 and survived by five sons and three daughters, he was buried in Brighton cemetery.

"VERILY YON VOUSSOIRS alternate between brick and stone don't they," I thundered as I took pictures from a vulnerable position in the expansive driveway of a busy gas station across the street.

 

-----------------------

 

In downtown St Joseph, Missouri, on March 31st, 2022, 205-207 S 4th St (built circa 1875, a "contributing property" in the South Fourth Street Commercial Historic District, 91000124 on the National Register of Historic Places) on the east side of South 4th Street, south of Edmond Street.

 

The building formerly had a third floor.

 

-----------------------

 

Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names terms:

• Buchanan (county) (2001175)

• Saint Joseph (7014443)

 

Art & Architecture Thesaurus terms:

• blind arcades (300002582)

• brick (clay material) (300010463)

• brick red (color) (300311462)

• building stone (300011700)

• concrete blocks (300374976)

• double doors (300002806)

• evening (300343633)

• historic buildings (300008063)

• historic districts (300000737)

• keystones (300001183)

• pilasters (300002737)

• remodeling (300135427)

• semicircular arches (300001062)

• two-story (300163703)

• voussoirs (300001177)

 

Wikidata items:

• 31 March 2022 (Q69306385)

• 1870s in architecture (Q74241498)

• contributing property (Q76321820)

• Kansas City-Overland Park-Kansas City, MO-KS Combined Statistical Area (Q111496508)

• National Register of Historic Places (Q3719)

• March 31 (Q2461)

• March 2022 (Q61312974)

• Platte Purchase (Q1112748)

• South Fourth Street Commercial Historic District (Q28006243)

• Treaty with the Iowa, etc., 1836 (Q111633398)

• Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes, etc., 1830 (Q27989232)

 

Library of Congress Subject Headings:

• Commercial buildings—Missouri (sh2003007753)

• Concrete masonry (sh85030722)

"If you have anything really valuable to contribute to the world it will come through the expression of your own personality, that single spark of divinity that sets you off and makes you different from every other living creature." Bruce Barton

 

submitted to 100 words

39/100 words: expression

Puri is a city and a Municipality of Odisha. It is the district headquarters of Puri district, Odisha, eastern India. It is situated on the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometres south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as Jagannath Puri after the 12th-century Jagannath Temple located in the city. It is one of the original Char Dham pilgrimage sites for Indian Hindus.

 

Puri was known by several names from the ancient times to the present, and locally called as Badadeula. Puri and the Jagannath Temple were invaded 18 times by Hindu and Muslim rulers, starting from the 4th century to the start of the 19th century with the objective of looting the treasures of the temple. Odisha, including Puri and its temple, were under the British Raj from 1803 till India attained independence in August 1947. Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati Dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple. The temple town has many Hindu religious maths or monasteries.

 

The economy of Puri town is dependent on the religious importance of the Jagannath Temple to the extent of nearly 80%. The festivals which contribute to the economy are the 24 held every year in the temple complex, including 13 major festivals; Ratha Yatra and its related festivals are the most important which are attended by millions of people every year. Sand art and applique art are some of the important crafts of the city. Puri is one of the 12 heritage cities chosen by the Government of India for holistic development.

 

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

GEOGRAPHY

Puri, located on the east coast of India on the Bay of Bengal, is in the center of the district of the same name. It is delimited by the Bay of Bengal on the south east, the Mauza Sipaurubilla on the west, Mauz Gopinathpur in the north and Mauza Balukhand in the east. It is within the 67 kilometres coastal stretch of sandy beaches that extends between Chilika Lake and the south of Puri city. However, the administrative jurisdiction of the Puri Municipality extends over an area of 16.3268 square kilometres spread over 30 wards, which includes a shore line of 5 kilometres.

 

Puri is in the coastal delta of the Mahanadi River on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. In the ancient days it was near to Sisupalgarh (Ashokan Tosali) when the land was drained by a tributary of the River Bhargavi, a branch of the Mahanadi River, which underwent a meandering course creating many arteries altering the estuary, and formed many sand hills. These sand hills could not be "cut through" by the streams. Because of the sand hills, the Bhargavi River flowing to the south of Puri, moved away towards the Chilika Lake. This shift also resulted in the creation of two lagoons known as Sar and Samang on the eastern and northern parts of Puri respectively. Sar lagoon has a length of 8.0 km in an east-west direction and has a width of 3.2 km in north-south direction. The river estuary has a shallow depth of 1.5 m only and the process of siltation is continuing. According to a 15th-century chronicle the stream that flowed at the base of the Blue Mountain or Neelachal was used as the foundation or high plinth of the present temple which was then known as Purushottama, the Supreme Being. A 16th century chronicle attributes filling up of the bed of the river which flowed through the present Grand Road, during the reign of King Narasimha II (1278–1308).

 

CLIMATE

According to the Köppen and Geiger the climate of Puri is classified Aw. The city has moderate and tropical climate. Humidity is fairly high throughout the year. The temperature during summer touches a maximum of 36 °C and during winter it is 17 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1,337 millimetres and the average annual temperature is 26.9 °C.

 

HISTORY

NAMES IN HISTORY

Puri, the holy land of Lord Jaganath, also known popularly as Badadeula in local usage, has many ancient names in the Hindu scriptures such as the Rigveda, Matsya purana, Brahma Purana, Narada Purana, Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Kapila samhita and Niladrimahodaya. In the Rigveda, in particular, it is mentioned as a place called Purushamandama-grama meaning the place where the Creator deity of the world – Supreme Divinity deified on altar or mandapa was venerated near the coast and prayers offered with vedic hymns. Over time the name got changed to Purushottama Puri and further shortened to Puri and the Purusha became Jagannatha. Close to this place sages like Bhrigu, Atri and Markandeya had their hermitage. Its name is mentioned, conforming to the deity worshipped, as Srikshetra, Purusottama Dhāma, Purusottama Kshetra, Purusottama Puri and Jagannath Puri. Puri is however, a common usage now. It is also known the geographical features of its siting as Shankhakshetra (layout of the town is in the form of a conch shell.), Neelāchala ("blue mountain" a terminology used to name very large sand lagoon over which the temple was built but this name is not in vogue), Neelāchalakshetra, Neelādri, The word 'Puri' in Sanskrit means "town", or 'city' and is cognate with polis in Greek.

 

Another ancient name is Charita as identified by Cunningham which was later spelled as Che-li-ta-lo by Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang.When the present temple was built by the Ganga king Chodangadev in the 11th and 12th centuries it was called Purushottamkshetra. However, the Moghuls, the Marathas and early British rulers called it Purushottama-chhatar or just Chhatar. In Akbar's Ain-i-Akbari and subsequent Muslim historical records it was known as Purushottama. In the Sanskrit drama authored by Murari Mishra in the 8th century it is referred as Purushottama only. It was only after twelfth century Puri came to be known by the shortened form of Jagannatha Puri, named after the deity or in a short form as Puri. In some records pertaining to the British rule, the word 'Jagannath' was used for Puri. It is the only shrine in India, where Radha, along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Bhudevi, Sati, Parvati, and Shakti abodes with Krishna, also known as Jagannath.

 

ANCIENT PERIOD

According to the chronicle Madala Panji, in 318 the priests and servitors of the temple spirited away the idols to escape the wrath of the Rashtrakuta King Rakatavahu. The temple's ancient historical records also finds mention in the Brahma Purana and Skanda Purana as having been built by the king Indradyumna of Ujjayani.

 

According to W.J. Wilkinson, in Puri, Buddhism was once a well established practice but later Buddhists were persecuted and Brahmanism became the order of the religious practice in the town; the Buddha deity in now worshipped by the Hindus as Jagannatha. It is also said that some relics of Buddha were placed inside the idol of Jagannath which the Brahmins claimed were the bones of Krishna. Even during Ashoka’s reign in 240 BC Odisha was a Buddhist center and that a tribe known as Lohabahu (barbarians from outside Odisha) converted to Buddhism and built a temple with an idol of Buddha which is now worshipped as Jagannatha. It is also said that Lohabahu deposited some Buddha relics in the precincts of the temple.

 

Construction of the Jagannatha Temple started in 1136 and completed towards the later part of the 12th century. The King of the Ganga dynasty, Anangabhima dedicated his kingdom to the God, then known as the Purushottam-Jagannatha and resolved that from then on he and his descendants would rule under "divine order as Jagannatha's sons and vassals". Even though princely states do not exist in independent India, the heirs of the Gajapati dynasty of Khurda still perform the ritual duties of the temple; the king formally sweeps the road in front of the chariots before the start of the Rathayatra.

 

MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN PERIODS

History of the temple is the history of the town of Puri, which was invaded 18 times during its history to plunder the treasures of the Jagannath Puri temple. The first invasion was in the 8th century by Rastrakuta king Govinda-III (AD 798–814) and the last was in 1881 by the followers of Alekh Religion who did not recognize Jagannath worship. In between, from the 1205 onward there were many invasions of the city and its temple by Muslims of the Afghans and Moghuls descent, known as Yavanas or foreigners; they had mounted attacks to ransack the wealth of the temple rather than for religious reasons. In most of these invasions the idols were taken to safe places by the priests and the servitors of the temple. Destruction of the temple was prevented by timely resistance or surrender by the kings of the region. However, the treasures of the temple were repeatedly looted. Puri is the site of the Govardhana matha, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankaracharya, when he visited Puri in 810 and since then it has become an important dham (divine centre) for the Hindus; the others being those at Sringeri, Dwaraka and Jyotirmath. The matha is headed by Jagatguru Shankarachrya. The significance of the four dhams is that the Lord Vishnu takes his dinner at Puri, has his bath at Rameshwaram, spends the night at Dwarka and does penance at Badrinath.

 

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of Bengal who established the Bhakti movements of India in the sixteenth century, now known by the name the Hare Krishna movement, spent many years as a devotee of Jagannatha at Puri; he is said to have merged his "corporal self" with the deity. There is also a matha of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu here.

 

In the 17th century for the sailors sailing on the east coast of India, the landmark was the temple located in a plaza in the centre of the town which they called the "White Pagoda" while the Konark Sun Temple, 60 kilometres away to the east of Puri, was known as the "Black Pagoda".

 

The iconographic representation of the images in the Jagannath temple are believed to be the forms derived from the worship made by the tribal groups of Sabaras belonging to northern Odisha. These images are replaced at regular intervals as the wood deteriorates. This replacement is a special event carried out ritulistically by special group of carpenters.

 

The town has many Mathas (Monasteries of the various Hindu sects). Among the important mathas is the Emar Matha founded by the Tamil Vaishnav Saint Ramanujacharya in the 12th century AD. At present this matha is located in front of Simhadvara across the eastern corner of the Jagannath Temple is reported to have been built in the 16th century during the reign of Suryavamsi Gajapati. The matha was in the news recently for the large cache of 522 silver slabs unearthded from a closed room.

 

The British conquered Orissa in 1803 and recognizing the importance of the Jagannatha Temple in the life of the people of the state they initially placed an official to look after the temple's affairs and later declared it a district with the same name.

 

MODERN HISTORY

In 1906, Sri Yukteswar an exponent of Kriya Yoga, a resident of Puri, established an ashram in the sea-side town of Puri, naming it "Kararashram" as a spiritual training center. He died on 9 March 1936 and his body is buried in the garden of the ashram.

 

The city is the site of the former summer residence of British Raj built in 1913–14 during the era of governors, the Raj Bhavan.

 

For the people of Puri Lord Jagannath, visualized as Lord Krishna, is synonymous with their city. They believe that the Jagannatha looks after the welfare of the state. However, after the incident of the partial collapse of the Jagannatha Temple, the Amalaka part of the tower on 14 June 1990 people became apprehensive and thought it was not a good omen for the welfare of the State of Odisha. The replacement of the fallen stone by another of the same size and weight (seven tons) had to be done only in the an early morning hours after the gods had woken up after a good nights sleep which was done on 28 February 1991.

 

Puri has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of the Indian Government. It is one of 12 the heritage cities chosen with "focus on holistic development" to be implemented in 27 months by end of March 2017.

 

Non-Hindus are not permitted to enter the shrines but are allowed to view the temple and the proceedings from the roof of the Raghunandan library within the precincts of the temple for a small donation.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

As of 2001 India census, Puri city, an urban Agglomeration governed by Municipal Corporation in Orissa state, had a population of 157,610 which increased to 200,564 in 2011. Males, 104,086, females, 96,478, children under 6 years of age, 18,471. The sex ratio is 927 females to 1000 males. Puri has an average literacy rate of 88.03 percent (91.38 percent males and 84.43 percent females). Religion-wise data is not reported.

 

ECONOMY

The economy of Puri is dependent on tourism to the extent of about 80%. The temple is the focal point of the entire area of the town and provides major employment to the people of the town. Agricultural production of rice, ghee, vegetables and so forth of the region meets the huge requirements of the temple, with many settlements aroiund the town exclusively catering to the other religious paraphernalia of the temple. The temple administration employs 6,000 men to perform the rituals. The temple also provides economic sustenance to 20,000 people belonging to 36 orders and 97 classes. The kitchen of the temple which is said to be the largest in the world employs 400 cooks.

 

CITY MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE

Puri Municipality, Puri Konark Development Authority, Public Health Engineering Organisastion, Orissa Water Supply Sewerage Board are some of the principal organizations that are devolved with the responsibility of providing for all the urban needs of civic amenities such as water supply, sewerage, waste management, street lighting, and infrastructure of roads. The major activity which puts maximum presuure on these organizations is the annual event of the Ratha Yatra held for 10 days during July when more than a million people attend the grand event. This event involves to a very large extent the development activities such as infrastructure and amenities to the pilgrims, apart from security to the pilgrims.

 

The civic administration of Puri is the responsibility of the Puri Municipality which came into existence in 1864 in the name of Puri Improvement Trust which got converted into Puri Municipality in 1881. After India's independence in 1947, Orissa Municipal Act-1950 was promulgated entrusting the administration of the city to the Puri Municipality. This body is represented by elected representative with a Chairperson and councilors representing the 30 wards within the municipal limits.

 

LANDMARKS

JAGANNATH TEMPLE AT PURI

The Temple of Jagannath at Puri is one of the major Hindu temples built in the Kalinga style of architecture, in respect of its plan, front view and structural detailing. It is one of the Pancharatha (Five chariots) type consisting of two anurathas, two konakas and one ratha with well-developed pagas. Vimana or Deula is the sanctum sanctorum where the triad (three) deities are deified on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls), and over which is the temple tower, known as the rekha deula; the latter is built over a rectangular base of the pidha temples as its roof is made up of pidhas that are sequentially arranged horizontal platforms built in descending order forming a pyramidal shape. The mandapa in front of the sanctum sanctorum is known as Jagamohana where devotees assemble to offer worship. The temple tower with a spire rises to a height of 58 m in height and a flag is unfurled above it fixed over a wheel (chakra). Within the temple complex is the Nata Mandir, a large hall where Garuda stamba (pillar). Chaitanya Mahaprabhu used to stand here and pray. In the interior of the Bhoga Mantap, adjoining the Nata mandir, there is profusion of decorations of sculptures and paintings which narrate the story of Lord Krishna. The temple is built on an elevated platform (of about 39,000 m2 area), 20 ft above the adjoining area. The temple rises to a height of 214 ft above the road level. The temple complex covers an area of 4,3 ha. There is double walled enclosure, rectangular in shape (rising to a height of 20 ft) surrounding the temple complex of which the outer wall is known as Meghanada Prachira, measuring 200 by 192 metres. The inner walled enclosure, known as Kurmabedha. measures 126m x 95m. There are four entry gates (in four cardinal directions to the temple located at the center of the walls in the four directions of the outer circle. These are: the eastern gate called Singhadwara (Lions Gate), the southern gate known as Ashwa Dwara (Horse Gate), the western gate called the Vyaghra Dwara (Tigers Gate) or the Khanja Gate, and the northern gate called the Hathi Dwara or (elephant gate). The four gates symbolize the four fundamental principles of Dharma (right conduct), Jnana (knowledge), Vairagya (renunciation) and Aishwarya (prosperity). The gates are crowned with pyramid shapes structures. There is stone pillar in front of the Singhadwara called the Aruna Stambha {Solar Pillar}, 11 metres in height with 16 faces, made of chlorite stone, at the top of which is mounted an elegant statue of Arun (Sun) in a prayer mode. This pillar was shifted from the Konarak Sun temple. All the gates are decorated with guardian statues in the form of lion, horse mounted men, tigers and elephants in the name and order of the gates. A pillar made of fossilized wood is used for placing lamps as offering. The Lion Gate (Singhadwara) is the main gate to the temple, which guarded by two guardian deities Jaya and Vijaya. The main gates is ascended through 22 steps known as Baisi Pahaca which are revered as it is said to possess "spiritual animation". Children are made to roll down these steps from top to bottom to bring them spiritual happiness. After entering the temple on the left hand side there is huge kitchen where food is prepared in hygienic conditions in huge quantities that it is termed as "the biggest hotel of the world".

 

The legend says that King Indradyumma was directed by Lord Jagannath in a dream to build a temple for him and he built it as directed. However, according to historical records the temple was started some time during the 12th century by King Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. It was however completed by his descendant, Anangabhima Deva, in the 12th century. The wooden images of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra were then deified here. The temple was under the control of the Hindu rulers up to 1558. Then, when Orissa was occupied by the Afghan Nawab of Bengal, it was brought under the control of the Afghan General Kalapahad. Following the defeat of the Afghan king by Raja Mansingh, the General of Mughal emperor Akbar, the temple became a part of the Mughal empire till 1751 AD. Subsequently it was under the control of the Marathas till 1803. Then, when British Raj took over Orissa, the Puri Raja was entrusted with its to management until 1947.

 

The triad of images in the temple are of Jagannatha, personifying Lord Krishna, Balabhadra, his older brother, and Subhadra his younger sister, which are made of wood (neem) in an unfinished form. The stumps of wood which form the images of the brothers have human arms and that of Subhadra does not have any arms. The heads are large and un-carved and are painted. The faces are made distinct with the large circular shaped eyes.

 

THE PANCHA TIRTHA OF PURI

Hindus consider it essential to bathe in the Pancha Tirtha or the five sacred bathing spots of Puri, India, to complete a pilgrimage to Puri. The five sacred water bodies are the Indradyumana Tank, the Rohini Kunda, the Markandeya Tank, Swetaganga Tank, and the The Sea also called the Mahodadhi is considered a sacred bathing spot in the Swargadwar area. These tanks have perennial sources of supply in the form of rain water and ground water.

 

GUNDICHA TEMPLE

Known as the Garden House of Jagannath, the Gundicha temple stands in the centre of a beautiful garden, surrounded by compound walls on all sides. It lies at a distance of about 3 kilometres to the north east of the Jagannath Temple. The two temples are located at the two ends of the Bada Danda (Grand Avenue) which is the pathway for the Rath Yatra. According to a legend, Gundicha was the wife of King Indradyumna who originally built the Jagannath temple.

 

The temple is built using light-grey sandstone and architecturally, it exemplifies typical Kalinga temple architecture in the Deula style. The complex comprises four components: vimana (tower structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), nata-mandapa (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). There is also a kitchen connected by a small passage. The temple is set within a garden, and is known as "God's Summer Garden Retreat" or garden house of Jagannath. The entire complex, including garden, is surrounded by a wall which measures 131 m × 98 m with height of 6.1 m.

 

Except for the 9-day Rath Yatra when triad images are worshipped in Gundicha Temple, the rest of the year it remains unoccupied. Tourists can visit the temple after paying an entry fee. Foreigners (prohibited entry in the main temple) are allowed inside this temple during this period. The temple is under the Jagannath Temple Administration, Puri – the governing body of the main temple. A small band of servitors maintain the temple.

 

SWARGADWAR

Swargadwar is the name given to the cremation ground or burning ghat which is located on the shores of the sea were thousands of dead bodies of Hindus are brought from faraway places to cremate. It is a belief that the Chitanya Mahaparabhu disppaeread from this Swargadwar about 500 years back.

 

BEACH

The beach at Puri known as the "Ballighai beach} is 8 km away at the mouth of Nunai River from the town and is fringed by casurian trees. It has golden yellow sand and has pleasant sunshine. Sunrise and sunset are pleasant scenic attractions here. Waves break in at the beach which is long and wide.

 

DISTRICT MUSEUM

The Puri district museum is located on the station road where the exhibits are of different types of garments worn by Lord Jagannath, local sculptures, patachitra (traditional, cloth-based scroll painting) and ancient Palm-leaf manuscripts and local craft work.

 

RAGHUNANDANA LIBRARY

Raghunandana Library is located in the Emmra matha complex (opposite Simhadwara or Lion gate, the main entrance gate). The Jagannatha Aitihasika Gavesana Samiti (Jagannatha Historical Center) is also located here. The library contains ancient palm leaf manuscripts of Jagannatha, His cult and the history of the city. From the roof of the library one gets a picturesque view of the temple complex.

 

FESTIVALS OF PURI

Puri witnesses 24 festivals every year, of which 13 are major festivals. The most important of these is the Rath Yatra or the Car festival held in the month June–July which is attended by more than 1 million people.

 

RATH YATRA AT PURI

The Jagannath triad are usually worshiped in the sanctum of the temple at Puri, but once during the month of Asadha (Rainy Season of Orissa, usually falling in month of June or July), they are brought out onto the Bada Danda (main street of Puri) and travel 3 kilometrer to the Shri Gundicha Temple, in huge chariots (ratha), allowing the public to have darśana (Holy view). This festival is known as Rath Yatra, meaning the journey (yatra) of the chariots (ratha). The yatra starts, according to Hindu calendar Asadha Sukla Dwitiya )the second day of bright fortnight of Asadha (June–July) every year.

 

Historically, the ruling Ganga dynasty instituted the Rath Yatra at the completion of the great temple around 1150 AD. This festival was one of those Hindu festivals that was reported to the Western world very early. In his own account of 1321, Odoric reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King and Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.

 

The Rathas are huge wheeled wooden structures, which are built anew every year and are pulled by the devotees. The chariot for Jagannath is about 14 m high and 35 feet square and takes about 2 months to construct. Th chariot is mounted with 16 wheels, each of 2.1 m diameter. The carvings in the front of the chariot has four wooden horses drawn by Maruti. On its other three faces the wooden carvings are Rama, Surya and Vishnu. The chariot is known as Nandi Ghosha. The roof of the chariot is covered with yellow and golden coloured cloth. The next chariot is that of Balabhadra which is 13 m in height fitted with 14 wheels. The chariot is carved with Satyaki as the charioteer. The carvings on this chariot also include images of Narasimha and Rudra as Jagannath's companions. The next chariot in the order is that of Subhadra, which is 13 m in height supported on 12 wheels, roof covered in black and red colour cloth and the chariot is known as Darpa-Dalaan. The charioteer carved is Arjuna. Other images carved on the chariot are that of Vana Durga, Tara Devi and Chandi Devi. The artists and painters of Puri decorate the cars and paint flower petals and other designs on the wheels, the wood-carved charioteer and horses, and the inverted lotuses on the wall behind the throne. The huge chariots of Jagannath pulled during Rath Yatra is the etymological origin of the English word Juggernaut. The Ratha-Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra and Ghosha yatra

 

CHHERA PAHARA

The Chhera Pahara is a significant ritual associated with the Ratha-Yatra. During the festival, the Gajapati King wears the outfit of a sweeper and sweeps all around the deities and chariots in the Chera Pahara (sweeping with water) ritual. The Gajapati King cleanses the road before the chariots with a gold-handled broom and sprinkles sandalwood water and powder with utmost devotion. As per the custom, although the Gajapati King has been considered the most exalted person in the Kalingan kingdom, he still renders the menial service to Jagannath. This ritual signified that under the lordship of Jagannath, there is no distinction between the powerful sovereign Gajapati King and the most humble devotee.

 

CHADAN YATRA

In Akshaya Tritiya every year the Chandan Yatra festival marks the commencement of the construction of the Chariots of the Rath Yatra. It also marks the celebration of the Hindu new year.

 

SNANA YATRA

On the Purnima day in the month of Jyestha (June) the triad images of the Jagannath temple are ceremonially bathed and decorated every year on the occasion of Snana Yatra. Water for the bath is taken in 108 pots from the Suna kuan (meaning: "golden well") located near the northern gate of the temple. Water is drawn from this well only once in a year for the sole purpose of this religious bath of the deities. After the bath the triad images are dressed in the fashion of the elephant god, Ganesha. Later during the night the original triad images are taken out in a procession back to the main temple but kept at a place known as Anasara pindi. After this the Jhulana Yatra is when proxy images of the deities are taken out in a grand procession for 21 days, cruised over boats in the Narmada tank.

 

ANAVASARA OR ANASARA

Anasara literally means vacation. Every year, the triad images without the Sudarshan after the holy Snana Yatra are taken to a secret altar named Anavasara Ghar Palso known as "Anasara pindi} where they remain for the next dark fortnight (Krishna paksha). Hence devotees are not allowed to view them. Instead of this devotees go to nearby place Brahmagiri to see their beloved lord in the form of four handed form Alarnath a form of Vishnu. Then people get the first glimpse of lord on the day before Rath Yatra, which is called Navayouvana. It is said that the gods suffer from fever after taking ritual detailed bath and they are treated by the special servants named, Daitapatis for 15 days. Daitapatis perform special niti (rite) known as Netrotchhaba (a rite of painting the eyes of the triad). During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.

 

NAVA KALEVARA

One of the most grandiloquent events associated with the Lord Jagannath, Naba Kalabera takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another lunar month of Aashadha, called Adhika Masa (extra month). This can take place in 8, 12 or even 18 years. Literally meaning the "New Body" (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body), the festival is witnessed by as millions of people and the budget for this event exceeds $500,000. The event involves installation of new images in the temple and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. The idols that were worshipped in the temple, installed in the year 1996, were replaced by specially made new images made of neem wood during Nabakalebara 2015 ceremony held during July 2015. More than 3 million devotees were expected to visit the temple during the Nabakalebara 2015 held in July.

 

SUNA BESHA

Suna Bhesha also known as Raja or Rajadhiraja bhesha or Raja Bhesha, is an event when the triad images of the Jagannath Temple are adorned with gold jewelry. This event is observed 5 times during a year. It is commonly observed on Magha Purnima (January), Bahuda Ekadashi also known as Asadha Ekadashi (July), Dashahara (Vijyadashami) (October), Karthik Purnima (November), and Pousa Purnima (December). While one such Suna Bhesha event is observed on Bahuda Ekadashi during the Rath Yatra on the chariots placed at the lion's gate or the Singhdwar; the other four Bheshas' are observed inside the temple on the Ratna Singhasana (gem studded altar). On this occasion gold plates are decorated over the hands and feet of Jagannath and Balabhadra; Jagannath is also adorned with a Chakra (disc) made of gold on the right hand while a silver conch adorns the left hand. However, Balabhadra is decorated with a plough made of gold on the left hand while a golden mace adorns his right hand.

 

NILADRI BIJE

Celebrated on Asadha Trayodashi. It marks the end of the 12 days Ratha yatra. The large wooden images of the triad of gods are moved from the chariots and then carried to the sanctum sanctorum, swaying rhythmically, a ritual which is known as pahandi.

 

SAHI YATRA

Considered the world's biggest open-air theatre, the Sahi yatra is an 11 day long traditional cultural theatre festival or folk drama which begins on Ram Navami and ending in Rama avishke (Sanskrit:anointing) every year. The festival includes plays depicting various scenes from the Ramayan. The residents of various localities or Sahis are entrusted the task of performing the drama at the street corners.

  

TRANSPORT

Earlier when roads did not exist people walked or travelled by animal drawn vehicles or carriages along beaten tracks. Up to Calcutta travel was by riverine craft along the Ganges and then by foot or carriages to Puri. It was only during the Maratha rule that the popular Jagannath Sadak (Road) was built around 1790. The East India Company laid the rail track from Calcutta to Puri which became operational in 1898. Puri is now well connected by rail, road and air services. A broad gauge railway line of the South Eastern Railways connects with Puri and Khurda is an important Railway junction. By rail it is about 499 kilometres away from Calcutta and 468 kilometres from Vishakhapatnam. Road network includes NH 203 that links the town with Bhubaneswar, the capital of Odisha which is about 60 kilometres away. NH 203 B connects the town with Satapada via Brahmagiri. Marine drive which is part of NH 203 A connects Puri with Konark. The nearest airport is at Bhubaneswar, about 60 kilometres away from Puri. Puri railway station is among the top hundred booking stations of Indian Railways.

 

ARTS AND CRAFTS

SAND ART

Sand art is a special art form that is created on the beaches of the sea coast of Puri. The art form is attributed to Balaram Das, a poet who lived in the 14th century. He started crafting the sand art forms of the triad deities of the Jagannath Temple at the Puri beach. Now sculptures in sand of various gods and famous people are created by amateur artists which are temporal in nature as they get washed away by waves. This is an art form which has gained international fame in recent years. One of the well known sand artist is Sudarshan Patnaik. He has established the Golden Sand Art Institute in 1995 at the beach to provide training to students interested in this art form.

 

APPLIQUE ART

Applique art work, which is a stitching based craft, unlike embroidery, which was pioneered by the Hatta Maharana of Pipili is widely used in Puri, both for decoration of the deities but also for sale. His family members are employed as darjis or tailors or sebaks by the Maharaja of Puri who prepare articles for decorating the deities in the temple for various festivals and religious ceremonies. These applique works are brightly coloured and patterned fabric in the form of canopies, umbrellas, drapery, carry bags, flags, coberings of dummy horses and cows, and other household textiles which are marketed in Puri. The cloth used are in dark colours of red, black, yellow, green, blue and turquoise blue.

 

CULTURE

Cultural activities, apart from religiuos festivals, held annually are: The Puri Beach Festival held between 5 and 9 November and the Shreeksherta Utsav held from 20 December to 2 January where cultural programmes include unique sand art, display of local and traditional handicrafts and food festival. In addition cultural programmes are held every Saturday for two hours on in second Saturday of the moth at the district Collector's Conference Hall near Sea Beach Polic Station. Apart from Odissi dance, Odiya music, folk dances, and cultural programmes are part of this event. Odishi dance is the cultural heritage of Puri. This dance form originated in Puri in the dances performed Devadasis (Maharis) attached to the Jagannath temple who performed dances in the Natamantapa of the temple to please the deities. Though the devadadsi practice has been discontinued, the dance form has become modern and classical and is widely popular, and many of the Odishi virtuoso artists and gurus (teachers) are from Puri.

 

EDUCATION

SOME OF THE EDUCATIONNAL INSTITUTIONS IN PURI

- Ghanashyama Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management

- Gangadhar Mohapatra Law College, established in 1981[84]

- Extension Unit of Regional Research Institute of Homoeopathy; Puri under Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), New Delhi established in March 2006

- Sri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, established in July 1981

- The Industrial Training Institute, a Premier Technical Institution to provide education in skilled, committed & talented technicians, established in 1966 of the Government of India

 

PURI PEOPLE

Gopabandhu Das

Acharya Harihar

Nilakantha Das

Kelucharan Mohapatra

Pankaj Charan Das

Manasi Pradhan

Raghunath Mohapatra

Sudarshan Patnaik

Biswanath Sahinayak

Rituraj Mohanty

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

Image availabe for purchase from www.ballaratheritage.com.au

 

Information from the Australian Heritage Places inventory

Port Campbell National Park

Source: Go to the Register of the National Estate for more information.

Identifier: 3778

Location: Great Ocean Rd, Port Campbell

Local

Government: Corangamite Shire

State: VIC

Country: Australia

Statement of

Significance: The rugged coastline with sheer cliffs and rocky island stack formations contributes to the outstanding scenery of the park. There are a large number of these formations including London Bridge, the Twelve Apostles, Loch Ard Gorge, the Blowhole and the Arch. They graphically represent the geomorphological processes of coastal erosion that are constantly taking place.

 

The area has representative communities of coastal heath, grass and scrub vegetation on calcareous soils. Morning flag (ORTHROSATHUS MULTIFLORUS) grows here.

 

Significant fauna of the area includes a small colony of fairy penguins, the only penguins native to the mainland and nesting sites for muttonbird (PUFFINUS TENUIROSTRIS). Ninety one species of bird have been recorded in the park eg. swamp harrier, Australian gannet, white goshawk, singing honey eater.

 

Between 1855-1908 there were five shipwrecks off the park coastline. In 1878 the Loch Ard went down, losing fifty lives. A small cemetery near the Gorge still remains.

Description: Port Campbell National Park is a linear coastal reserve between Peterborough and Princetown on the south western coast of Victoria. The Park's sheer cliffs, gorges, arches and offshore stacks form one of the most scenic and best known sections of coastline in Australia. Marls (calcareous silts) and marine limestones of the Miocene Port Campbell Limestone are overlain by Pleistocene dune limestone in the place. The dominant coastal landform is precipitous and undercut cliffs up to 60 metres in height. Erosion of the cliffs by strong wave action is guided by vertical joints in the limestone, producing elongated bays and narrow gorges including caves between rectilinear promontories such as Loch Ard Gorge and the Grotto. These promontories pass through various stages of evolution under the influence of marine erosion. Caves are the first features to form, followed by arches, and when these collapse, isolated stacks, such as the Twelve Apostles, remain. The stacks are then gradually worn down to offshore platforms of limestone. Horizontal notches occur on the exposed cliffs and stacks where softer material is eroded from between harder bands of rock. Shore platforms are uncommon, but narrow benches at the base of cliffs occur where harder rock has developed.

 

The cliffs are backed by an undulating plateau of red-brown clay and Pleistocene dune calcarenite. The larger streams that dissect the plateau have cut down to sea level. These include the Curdies River, Port Campbell Creek, and Sherbrooke River. Smaller streams that cross the plateau emerge from the cliffs as waterfalls. Another feature of the plateau are the circular sinkholes that are often filled by ponds and swamps. In some cases these sinkholes have intersected areas of cliff recession such as caves.

 

Few beaches occur along the Port Campbell coast, and those that are present are usually narrow and backed by steep cliffs. Beaches are more extensive where there are sandy calcarenite dunes on the cliff crest. A sandy barrier occurs at the mouth of the Curdies River which separates the lagoon from the sea during times of low river flow.

 

Port Campbell National Park contains several broad vegetation communities, some of which are the largest and most important areas of native vegetation remaining between Portland and the Otways. The first line of vegetation along the seaward edge of the coast mainly consists of tussock grasslands and shrublands. The grasslands are dominated by blue tussock-grass POA POIFORMIS, cushion bush CALOCEPHALUS BROWNII, black-anther flax-lily DIANELLA REVOLUTA, coast saw-sedge GAHNIA TRIFIDA, coast sword-sedge LEPIDOSPERMA GLADIATUM and Australia salt-grass DISTICHLIS DISTICHOPHYLLA. Further inland are shrublands of coast beard-heath LEUCOPOGON PARVIFLORUS, coast daisy-bush OLEARIA AXILLARIS and coast everlasting HELICHRYSUM PARALIUM.

 

Soils on the coastal plateau that include a hardpan support species-rich closed heaths. These communities are dominated by scrub sheoke ALLOCASUARINA PALUDOSA, prickly tea-tree LEPTOSPERMUM CONTINENTALE, manuka L. SCOPARIUM, silver banksia BANKSIA MARGINATA, common heath EPACRIS IMPRESSA, prickly moses ACACIA VERTICILLATA and dusty miller SPYRIDIUM PARVIFOLIUM. The diverse understorey includes bare twig-sedge BAUMEA JUNCEA, sword-sedges LEPIDOSPERMA spp., bog-sedges SCHOENUS spp., and grass-trees XANTHORRHOEA spp. These communities may include an overstorey of messmate EUCALYPTUS OBLIQUA and shining peppermint E. WILLISII on better soils, or swamp gum E. OVATA and tree everlasting OZOTHAMNUS FERRUGINEUS on wetter sites.

 

The catchments of some of the larger streams include open forests of swamp gum and rough-barked manna-gum E. VIMINALIS ssp. CYGNETENSIS, with a heath and bracken PTERIDIUM ESCULENTUM dominated understorey. These forests may grade into riparian communities dominated by swamp gum, manna gum E. VIMINALIS, mountain grey gum E. CYPELLOCARPA, and blackwood ACACIA MELANOXYLON. The understorey includes a number of damp forest shrubs such as hazel pomaderris POMADERRIS ASPERA and musk daisy-bush OLEARIA ARGOPHYLLA.

 

The native mammal fauna of the Port Campbell includes eastern grey kangaroo MACROPUS GIGANTEUS, swamp antechinus ANTECHINUS MINIMUS, white-footed dunnart SMINTHOPSIS LEUCOPUS, echidna TACHYGLOSSUS ACULEATUS and broad-toothed rat MASTACOMYS FUSCUS. The avifauna includes a mix of species associated with the coast, estuaries, heathlands, open forests, and surrounding farmland. Some characteristic birds include the rufous bristlebird DASYORNIS BROADBENTI, ground parrot PEZOPORUS WALLICUS, little penguin EUDYPTULA MINOR, short-tailed shearwater PUFFINUS TENUIROSTRIS, Australasian gannet MORUS SERRATOR, grey goshawk ACCIPITER NOVAEHOLLANDIAE, peregrine falcon FALCO PEREGRINUS, striated thornbill ACANTHIZA LINEATA, singing honeyeater LICHENOSTOMUS VIRESCENS, white-eared honeyeater L. LEUCOTIS and beautiful firetail STAGONOPLEURA BELLA. The inlets along the coast support a variety of waterbirds and shorebirds.

 

Reptiles found in the place include the swamp skink EGERNIA COVENTRYI, glossy grass skink PSEUDEMOIA RAWLINSONI, jacky lizard AMPHIBOLURUS MURICATUS, White's skink EGERNIA WHITII, blotched blue-tongued lizard TILIQUA NIGROLUTEA and lowland copperhead AUSTRELAPS SUPERBUS. Eight species of frogs have been recorded in the park, including the smooth frog GEOCRINIA LAEVIS and southern toadlet PSEUDOPHRYNE SEMIMARMORATA.

Trekking in Nepal is part of adventure trekking tourism and Adventure Trekking in Nepal and Trekking in Himalaya. Natures to renew one’s own self regard, to relive oneself, to realize Nepal beauty, to interact with its generous, friendly peoples are highlights of Trekking in Nepal. Trekking is one long term activity that draws repeat visitors. So, Nepal is final purpose for trekking. Offers numerous options walking excursion to meet snowy peaks, their foot hills, valleys but however there is amazing for each who hope Trek in Nepal hill, mountain area. Typical trekking and Hiking in Nepal as unique combination of natural glory, spectacular trekking trips to hard climbing and Everest Base Camp Trek is most rewarding way to skill Nepal natural beautification and cultural array is to walking, trekking, width and the height of country. Trekking is important of Travel Nepal for Trekking Tours in Himalaya on description Nepal Tour of large range of ecological features for Nepal Travel Holiday. The country nurtures a variety of flora and scenery. Addition to natural atmosphere is rich Himalayan culture. Many of visitor trek to different part of Nepal every year to experience its rustic charm, nature and culture. Most treks through areas between 1000 to 5185m, though some popular parts reach over 5648 meters. Trekking is not climbing, while the climb of Himalayan peaks and enjoy walking Holiday in Nepal and Trekking Tours Nepal might be an attraction for travelers. Every travelers knows for the Trekking in Nepal from all over the words an inspiring knowledge. Attraction for your Travel Holiday in Nepal of beauty and its excellent culture.

 

Nepal Trekking heartily welcome your Travel Holiday in Nepal. We are honest your travel and Travel and Trekking in Nepal with us from our try to be fully satisfy client in our country and we anticipate good suggestion from you for our agency always. Client gratify is our motto and continually faithful frequently in our service when you are in any types of travel activities in Nepal. We presume to positives feedback in future and increase Nepal travelers with us every year. All the crews from our agency in Nepal are expert in Travel and Tourism in Nepal, as well as trekking and Peak Climbing in Nepal. Customer’s security, safety, relaxed and enjoyment always in high priority. Adventure Guided Walking make sure that every knowledge with us how to satisfy and remarkable Holiday in Nepal. Hope you confident to make trips inquiries and our company quick responds to you make joyful Holiday Travel.

 

We organize Holiday Tours in Nepalas well as adventure trekking in himalaya, luxury Trek in Nepal well skill in travel trekking related field similar to Everest Trekking, Annapurna Trekking and Langtang Trekking related in travel and tourism industry based on own experience. treks adventure in Nepal always welcome to you in Nepal for Trekking Tour in Nepal from surrounding countries for adventure Hiking Holiday Tour with us from you, family, friend, research group, officially Nepal visitors or individual travelers in Nepal Adventure Tours in Himalaya for Nepal holiday to see how you could benefit from Nepal holiday by letting us our serving of your holiday travel in Nepal, trek tour Nepal and Trek in Nepal. We have countless opportunity for travel, Trekking in Nepal focus eco Tourism in Nepal opportunities to meet with local people in remote areas of Nepal Trekking to understand their invite travelers for Tours Holiday in Nepal from different country for tour in Nepal for Trekking Holiday in Nepal in countryside for Adventure Tours Nepal in remotes area of Nepal Treks increase tourism. Hiking in Nepal, Holiday Travel, Trekking in Himalaya, Adventure Activities in Nepal and Himalaya Adventure Trekking, Expedition in Nepal, Adventure Himalaya, Adventure Holiday Trekking are equally way will make fully satisfaction is our motto. We deeply sincerely to consideration how client delighted from Nepal Travel by our trekking agency in Nepal fully travel information in Nepal for walking trekking in Nepal acclimatize for high pass trekking. Travelers happy is positives feedback for us in future, Nepal travelers who exceptionally interested tours Walking in Nepal, Visit in Nepal to explore Adventure Nepal Himalaya. We arrange trek to difficult part of Nepal which is class of word Adventure Trekking it is in world hard trekking route in Nepal that we well organize. Grateful your budget Tours in Nepal and Travel Holiday, Nepal Trekking Tours, trekking adventure with us in Nepal, Cheap Holiday Travel. Great Nepal traveling and Trek Nepal to mountain pass, stunning scenery is best travel activities in Nepal. Trekkin in Himalaya greatly a distinctive cultural treks knowledge with Nepal Travel Holiday. Further interested to Travel Holiday walking and we highly provided best service of Holiday Tours Package in Nepal for your vacation.

 

Annapurna trekking region of Nepal enjoy with magnificent view close to highest and impressive mountain range in the world. Day exploration in Pokhara and morning morning flight to Jomsom or drive to Besishisahar from Kathmandu begin of trek. High destination, Muktinath 3800m and in generally highest point of whole Annapurna is 5416m. Thorangla la is situated in Buddhist Monastery, an eternal flame, and Hindus Vishnu Tempe of Juwala Mai making it a pilgrimage site for both Hindus and Buddhists and Muktinath is on the way down from popular trekking it call Thorang la pass which is incredible view in Annapurna region. Whenever possible we will arrive at lodging mid-afternoon, which should leave plenty time for explore the local villages, enjoy the hot springs at Tatopani, continue to Ghorepani where there is forever the possibility of sunrise hike to Poon Hill for spectacular views of Dhaulagiri, Fishtail, Nilgiri and the Annapurna Himalaya range. Continue on to Birethanti finally between with the Baglung road where we will catch cab to Pokhara, next day drive or fly to Kathmandu.

 

Everest trekking

region, although fairly effortless compare to some of other trek, takes you high along trails to Tengboche monastery Everest Solu Khumbu is the district south and west of Mount Everest. It is inhabited by sherpa, cultural group that has achieve fame because of the develop of its men on climbing expeditions. Khumbu is the name of the northern half of this region above Namche, includes highest mountain (Mt. Everest 8848m.) in the world. Khumbu is in part of Sagarmatha National Park. This is a short trek but very scenic trek offers really superb view of the world's highest peaks, including Mt. Everest, Mt. Lhotse, Mt. Thamserku, Mt. Amadablam and other many snowy peaks. Fly from Kathmandu to Lukla it is in the Khumbu region and trek up to Namche Bazzar, Tyangboche and into the Khumjung village, a very nice settlement of Sherpas people. This trek introduction to Everest and Sherpa culture with great mountain views, a very popular destination for first time trekkers in Nepal. Justifiably well-known world uppermost mountain (8848m.) and also for its Sherpa villages and monasteries. Few days trek from Lukla on the highland, takes you to the entry to Sagarmatha National Park and town of Namche Bazaar is entrance of Everest Trek. Environment of the towering Himalayas is a very delicate eco-system that is effortlessly put out of balance.

 

Langtang trekking region mixture of three beautiful trek taking us straight into some of the wildest and most pretty areas of Nepal. Starting from the lovely hill town of Syabrubensi our trek winds during gorgeous rhododendron and conifer forests throughout the Langtang National Park on the way to the higher slopes. Leads up to the high alpine yak pastures, glaciers and moraines around Kyanging. Along this route you will have an chance to cross the Ganja La Pass if possible from Langtang Valley. Trail enters the rhododendron (National flower of Nepal) forest and climbs up to alpine yak pastures at Ngegang (4404m). From Ngegang we make a climb of Ganja La Pass (5122m). We start southwest, sliding past Gekye Gompa to reach Tarkeghyang otherwise we take a detour and another unique features of trekking past, the holy lakes of Gosainkund (4300 m.) cross into Helambu via Laurebina to Ghopte (3430 m) and further to Trakegyang. Northern parts of the area mostly fall within the boundaries of Langtang National park.

 

Peak Climbing in Nepal is great view of Himalayas and most various geological regions in asia. Climbing of peaks in Nepal is restricted under the rules of Nepal Mountaineering Association. Details information and application for climbing permits are available through Acute Trekking. First peak climbing in Nepal by Tenzing Norgey Sherpa and Sir Edmund Hilary on May 29, 1953 to Mt. Everest. Trekking Agency in Nepal necessary member from Nepal Mountaineering Association. Our agency will arrange equipment, guides, high altitude porters, food and all necessary gears for climbing in Nepal. Although for some peaks, you need to contribute additional time, exertion owing to improved elevation and complexity. Climbing peaks is next step beyond simply trekking and basic mountaineering course over snow line with ice axe, crampons, ropes etc under administration and coaching from climbing guide, who have substantial mountaineering knowledge and for your climbing in mountain.

 

Everest Base Camp Trek well noon its spectacular mountain peaks and the devotion and openness of its inhabitants, the Everest region is one of the most popular destination for tourists in Nepal. While numerous of the routes through the mountains are difficult, there are plenty places to rest and enjoy a meal along the way. Additionally, don't worry about receiving lost. Just ask a local the way to the next village on your route, and they will direct you. Most Sherpas under the age of fifty can at least understand basic English, and many speak it fluently.

 

Annapurna Base Camp Trek is the major peaks of the western portion of the great Annapurna Himalaya, Annapurna South, Fang, Annapurna, Ganagapurna, Annapurna 3 and Machhapuchhare and including Annapurna first 8091 meters are arranged almost exactly in a circle about 10 miles in diameter with a deep glacier enclosed field at the center. From this glacier basin, known as the Annapurna base camp trek (Annapurna sanctuary trek), the Modi Khola way south in a narrow ravine fully 12 thousand ft. deep. Further south, the ravine opens up into a wide and fruitful valley, the domain of the Gurungs. The center and upper portions of Modi Khola offer some of the best short routes for trekking in Nepal and the valley is situated so that these treks can be easily joint with treks into the Kali Gandaki (Kali Gandaki is name of the river in Nepal) region to the west.

 

Upper Mustang Trekking name Make an escapade beginning from world deepest gorge Kaligandaki valley into world's highest area of Lo-Mangthang valley that passes through an almost tree-less barren landscape, a steep stony trail up and down hill and panorama views of high Annapurna Himalaya including Nilgiri, Annapurna, Dhaulagiri and numerous other peaks. The trek passes through high peaks, passes, glaciers, and alpine valleys. The thousands years of seclusion has kept the society, lifestyle and heritage remain unaffected for centuries and to this date.

 

Helicopter Tour in Nepal having high mountains and wonderful landscape of countryside but is effortlessly reachable by land transport, is known as helicopter tours country. Helicopter services industry in Nepal is now well well-known with many types and categories of helicopters for the fly to different of Nepal. The pilots are very knowledgeable expert with 1000 of flying hours knowledge in Nepal. We have service for helicopter is outstanding reputations and established records for reliable emergency and rescue flight too. Here we would like to offer some of amazing helicopter tour in Himalaya country of Nepal. Further more details information about Nepal tour itinerary for helicopter tour in different part of Nepal contact us without hesitation.

 

Kathmandu Pokhra Tour is an exclusive tour package specially designed for all level travelers. Kathmandu Pokhara tour package is effortless tour alternative for Nepal visitors. This tour package vacation the historically significant and ethnically rich capital (Kathmandu ) of Nepal and the most stunning city of world by the nature, Pokhara. Mountain museum and world peace stupa are another charming of Pokhara tour. Pokhara is the center of escapade tourism in Nepal. Package tour to Kathmandu Pokhara is design to discover highlighted areas of Kathmandu and Pokhara valley. Nepal is the country which is socially and geographically different that’s why we powerfully recommend you discover Nepal to visit once in life time. It is hard to explore all Nepal in one Nepal tours trip in this way we design this trip to show you the highlights of Nepal especially in Kathmandu and Pokhara.

 

Adventure trekking in the southern part of the asia continent there lays a tiny rectangular kingdom squeezed between two hugely populated countries, China to the north and India to the south, this country is Nepal a world of its own. Adventure trekking is a type of tourism, involving exploration or travel to remote, exotic and possibly hostile areas. Adventure trekking in Nepal is rapidly growing in popularity, as tourists seek different kinds of vacations. The land of contrast is presumably the exact way to define the scenery of Nepal for you will find maximum world highest peaks high high up above the clouds determined for the gods above. Straight, active and attractive learning experience adventure trekking in Nepal that engross the whole person and have real adventure. Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Daulagiri, and Annapurna and many more are there for the offering for mountain-lovers, adventurers and travelers.

 

Trekking in Nepal

Adventure Trekking

Adventure Trekking in Nepal

Trekking in Himalaya

Everest Base Camp Trek

Nepal Tour

Nepal Travel Holiday

Travel Holiday in Nepal

Hiking in Nepal

Trek in Nepal

Nepal Holiday

Annapurna Trekking

Everest Trekking

Langtang Trekking

Peak Climbing in Nepal

Everest Base Camp Trek

Annapurna Base Camp Trek

Upper Mustang Trekking

Helicopter Tour in Nepal

Adventure Trekking

Kathmandu Pokhra Tour

Nepal Peak Climbing

Nepal Helicopter Tour

Tea House Trek in Nepal

High Pass Trekking in Nepal

Everest Helicopter Trekking

Island Peak Climbing

 

Trekking in Nepal - Nepal Trekking - Tea House Trekking - Lodge Trekking - Kathmandu Pokhara Tour - High Pass Trekking - Luxury Trekking in Nepal - Luxury Tour in Nepal - Helicopter Tour in Nepal - Nepal Helicopter Tour - Annapurna Trekking - Annapurna Base Camp Trek - Annapurna Sanctuary Trek - Annapurna Panirama Trekking - Ghorepani Trekking - Jomsom Muktinath Trekking - Annapurna Circuit Trekking - Annapurna Round Trekking - Tilicho Mesokanto Trekking - Tilicho Lake Mesokanto Pass Trekking - Upper Mustang Trekking - Everest Trekking - Everest Base Camp Trek - Everest Panorama Trekking - Gokyo Trekking - Gokyo Everest Trekking - Renjola Pass Trekking - Kongmala Pass Trekking - Three Pass Trekking - Jiri Everest Trekking - Langtang Trekking - Langtang Valley Trekking - Gosaikunda Trekking - Helambu Trekking - Tamang Heritage Trekking - Chisapani Nagarkot Trekking - Kathmandu Valley Cultural Trekking - Langtang Gosaikunda Helambu Trekking - Ganjala Pass Trekking - Peak Climbing in Nepal - Nepal Peak Climbing - High Pass Trekking - Nepal For All Season - Package Tour in Nepal - Island Peak Climbing - Mera Peak Climbing - Pisang Peak Climbing - Adventure Trekking - Adventures Trekking - Mustang Trekking - Upper Mustang Trek - Lower Mustang Trekking - Seasonal Package Trekking Tours in Nepal - Annapurna Trekking Region - Annapurna Base Camp Trek - Everest Trekking Region - Gokyo Trekking - Langtang Trekking Region - Tea House Trek or Lodge Trek - Three Pass Trekking or Everest High Pass Trekking

The Spanish Armada (a.k.a. the Invincible Armada or the Enterprise of England, Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, lit. 'Great and Most Fortunate Navy') was a Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, commanded by the Alonso de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia, an aristocrat without previous naval experience appointed by Philip II of Spain. His orders were to sail up the English Channel, join with the Duke of Parma in Flanders, and escort an invasion force that would land in England and overthrow Elizabeth I. Its purpose was to reinstate Catholicism in England, end support for the Dutch Republic, and prevent attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas.

 

The Spanish were opposed by an English fleet based in Plymouth. Faster and more manoeuvrable than the larger Spanish galleons, they were able to attack the Armada as it sailed up the Channel. Several subordinates advised Medina Sidonia to anchor in The Solent and occupy the Isle of Wight, but he refused to deviate from his instructions to join with Parma. Although the Armada reached Calais largely intact, while awaiting communication from Parma, it was attacked at night by English fire ships and forced to scatter. The Armada suffered further losses in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines, and was in danger of running aground on the Dutch coast when the wind changed, allowing it to escape into the North Sea. Pursued by the English, the Spanish ships returned home via Scotland and Ireland. Up to 24 ships were wrecked along the way before the rest managed to get home. Among the factors contributing to the defeat and withdrawal of the Armada were bad weather conditions and the better employment of naval guns and battle tactics by the English.

 

The expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War. The following year, England organized a similar large-scale campaign against Spain, known as the "English Armada", and sometimes called the "counter-Armada of 1589", which failed. Three further Spanish armadas were sent against England and Ireland in 1596, 1597, and 1601, but these likewise ended in failure.

 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne Trinity House is a private corporation in Newcastle upon Tyne which emerged in the 16th century as a guild formed by the City's seafarers. For the past 500 years it has occupied premises in Broad Chare on the Newcastle's Quayside, from which it continues to provide a combination of professional and charitable maritime services. It remains one of only three bodies in England authorized for the examination and licensing of deep-sea pilots.

 

Origins

The 'Guild of the Blessed Trinity of Newcastle upon Tyne' emerged in the late 15th century, and was formally constituted on 4 January 1505 when it obtained an area of land close to the river on which to build a chapel, meeting room and lodgings for mariners (it was secured by the quit-rent of one red rose, payable annually to a Mr Ralph Hebborn on Midsummer's Day.) Early in its history, the corporation (as it came to be known) was given responsibility for improving the Tyne as a navigable river. For example, the first Royal Charter (received from Henry VIII in 1536) stipulated the building and fortification of a pair of towers at a certain point on the north bank, and the maintenance of lights thereon for the purposes of navigation. (These were precursors of the High and Low Lights which still stand today at North Shields).

 

Premises

'Trinity House' is the name of the corporation's headquarters buildings by the Quayside, a site which it has occupied since the day of its foundation in 1505. Though there have been several rebuildings, some sixteenth-century (and older) fabric remains, and later 18th and 19th-century additions and restorations were sympathetic to the Tudor style of the original. A chapel, some offices, the banqueting hall and boardroom, along with the former school and several almshouse buildings, are arranged around three courtyards, described as 'the most pleasant exterior spaces' in the City. Entry is via a gateway on Broad Chare. The warehouses to the south of the gatehouse are currently leased to Live Theatre; they formerly housed the Trinity Maritime Museum, which closed in 2002.

 

Later developments

Before long, the corporation was responsible for the licensing of mariners and pilots and for 'keeping the sea lanes' between Whitby and Berwick-upon-Tweed. At the same time, the corporation was (and had been since its early years) active in charitable work, including the provision of almshouses for aged mariners and the establishment of a school on its premises. The corporation was a high profile organisation in the city, for example hosting a visit by Archduke Frederick of Austria in 1841, and presenting him with a commemorative gold snuff box.

 

All these activities were financed principally through the levying of duties on every ship entering the Tyne to trade – a practice which only ceased in 1861. Following the passing of the Harbour and Passing Tolls Act in that year, the corporation began to devolve some responsibilities to other bodies; in particular, a new board took on responsibility for pilotage on the Tyne, and a new commission took on maintenance of the river's channels and buoyage, together with the corporation's lights at North and South Shields. Newcastle Trinity House continued though to be responsible for buoys, marks and lights along parts of the coast until the mid-1990s.

 

In the latter part of the 20th century the corporation's Trinity Maritime Museum occupied a pair of early Victorian warehouses on Broad Chare, adjacent to the main site.[6] The museum closed in 2002 and the buildings are now leased by the Live Theatre Company.

 

Present-day activities and governance

Today, the corporation remains active in the provision of professional and charitable maritime services. In addition to its work as a deep-sea pilot authority, it also offers a broader professional maritime consultancy service. It furthermore continues to provide charitable support for 'aged mariners and their widows', as well as varied educational programmes (raising an awareness of maritime history and practice among younger generations, including in schools). It is also committed to the upkeep of its historic buildings (which are nowadays regularly used for corporate and other events) and its extensive archives.

 

Trinity House has been a registered charity since 1966 and is governed by a royal charter of 1667. Its operation is overseen by an annually elected board; principal officers include the master, deputy master and several wardens with responsibility for different areas of activity. All are master mariners, except the Secretary to the Board. Mariners who are full members of the corporation are styled 'brethren'. Others wishing to support the work of the charity may join as 'associate members'. On formal occasions, the brethren wear a naval-style uniform (similar to that worn by their counterparts in Trinity House, London). The arms of the corporation are worn as a cap-badge and are also prominent on and in the buildings of Trinity House (not just those on Broad Chare, but also structures built and owned by the corporation in former years such as North Shields High Light).

 

Despite several similarities of nomenclature, structure and activity, Newcastle-upon-Tyne Trinity House is and always has been entirely independent of its namesake Trinity House in London. Trinity House, Kingston-Upon-Hull is similarly an independent body with past and continuing maritime responsibilities in and around the Humber, and there are also similar institutions in Scotland.

 

Newcastle upon Tyne, or simply Newcastle is a cathedral city and metropolitan borough in Tyne and Wear, England. It is located on the River Tyne's northern bank, opposite Gateshead to the south. It is the most populous settlement in the Tyneside conurbation and North East England.

 

Newcastle developed around a Roman settlement called Pons Aelius, the settlement became known as Monkchester before taking on the name of a castle built in 1080 by William the Conqueror's eldest son, Robert Curthose. It was one of the world's largest ship building and repair centres during the industrial revolution. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it separated and formed a county of itself. In 1974, Newcastle became part of Tyne and Wear. Since 2018, the city council has been part of the North of Tyne Combined Authority.

 

The history of Newcastle upon Tyne dates back almost 2,000 years, during which it has been controlled by the Romans, the Angles and the Norsemen amongst others. Newcastle upon Tyne was originally known by its Roman name Pons Aelius. The name "Newcastle" has been used since the Norman conquest of England. Due to its prime location on the River Tyne, the town developed greatly during the Middle Ages and it was to play a major role in the Industrial Revolution, being granted city status in 1882. Today, the city is a major retail, commercial and cultural centre.

 

Roman settlement

The history of Newcastle dates from AD 122, when the Romans built the first bridge to cross the River Tyne at that point. The bridge was called Pons Aelius or 'Bridge of Aelius', Aelius being the family name of Roman Emperor Hadrian, who was responsible for the Roman wall built across northern England along the Tyne–Solway gap. Hadrian's Wall ran through present-day Newcastle, with stretches of wall and turrets visible along the West Road, and at a temple in Benwell. Traces of a milecastle were found on Westgate Road, midway between Clayton Street and Grainger Street, and it is likely that the course of the wall corresponded to present-day Westgate Road. The course of the wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort at Wallsend, with the fort of Arbeia down-river at the mouth of the Tyne, on the south bank in what is now South Shields. The Tyne was then a wider, shallower river at this point and it is thought that the bridge was probably about 700 feet (210 m) long, made of wood and supported on stone piers. It is probable that it was sited near the current Swing Bridge, due to the fact that Roman artefacts were found there during the building of the latter bridge. Hadrian himself probably visited the site in 122. A shrine was set up on the completed bridge in 123 by the 6th Legion, with two altars to Neptune and Oceanus respectively. The two altars were subsequently found in the river and are on display in the Great North Museum in Newcastle.

 

The Romans built a stone-walled fort in 150 to protect the river crossing which was at the foot of the Tyne Gorge, and this took the name of the bridge so that the whole settlement was known as Pons Aelius. The fort was situated on a rocky outcrop overlooking the new bridge, on the site of the present Castle Keep. Pons Aelius is last mentioned in 400, in a Roman document listing all of the Roman military outposts. It is likely that nestling in the shadow of the fort would have been a small vicus, or village. Unfortunately, no buildings have been detected; only a few pieces of flagging. It is clear that there was a Roman cemetery near Clavering Place, behind the Central station, as a number of Roman coffins and sarcophagi have been unearthed there.

 

Despite the presence of the bridge, the settlement of Pons Aelius was not particularly important among the northern Roman settlements. The most important stations were those on the highway of Dere Street running from Eboracum (York) through Corstopitum (Corbridge) and to the lands north of the Wall. Corstopitum, being a major arsenal and supply centre, was much larger and more populous than Pons Aelius.

 

Anglo-Saxon development

The Angles arrived in the North-East of England in about 500 and may have landed on the Tyne. There is no evidence of an Anglo-Saxon settlement on or near the site of Pons Aelius during the Anglo-Saxon age. The bridge probably survived and there may well have been a small village at the northern end, but no evidence survives. At that time the region was dominated by two kingdoms, Bernicia, north of the Tees and ruled from Bamburgh, and Deira, south of the Tees and ruled from York. Bernicia and Deira combined to form the kingdom of Northanhymbra (Northumbria) early in the 7th century. There were three local kings who held the title of Bretwalda – 'Lord of Britain', Edwin of Deira (627–632), Oswald of Bernicia (633–641) and Oswy of Northumbria (641–658). The 7th century became known as the 'Golden Age of Northumbria', when the area was a beacon of culture and learning in Europe. The greatness of this period was based on its generally Christian culture and resulted in the Lindisfarne Gospels amongst other treasures. The Tyne valley was dotted with monasteries, with those at Monkwearmouth, Hexham and Jarrow being the most famous. Bede, who was based at Jarrow, wrote of a royal estate, known as Ad Murum, 'at the Wall', 12 miles (19 km) from the sea. It is thought that this estate may have been in what is now Newcastle. At some unknown time, the site of Newcastle came to be known as Monkchester. The reason for this title is unknown, as we are unaware of any specific monasteries at the site, and Bede made no reference to it. In 875 Halfdan Ragnarsson, the Danish Viking conqueror of York, led an army that attacked and pillaged various monasteries in the area, and it is thought that Monkchester was also pillaged at this time. Little more was heard of it until the coming of the Normans.

 

Norman period

After the arrival of William the Conqueror in England in 1066, the whole of England was quickly subjected to Norman rule. However, in Northumbria there was great resistance to the Normans, and in 1069 the newly appointed Norman Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Comines and 700 of his men were killed by the local population at Durham. The Northumbrians then marched on York, but William was able to suppress the uprising. That same year, a second uprising occurred when a Danish fleet landed in the Humber. The Northumbrians again attacked York and destroyed the garrison there. William was again able to suppress the uprising, but this time he took revenge. He laid waste to the whole of the Midlands and the land from York to the Tees. In 1080, William Walcher, the Norman bishop of Durham and his followers were brutally murdered at Gateshead. This time Odo, bishop of Bayeux, William's half brother, devastated the land between the Tees and the Tweed. This was known as the 'Harrying of the North'. This devastation is reflected in the Domesday Book. The destruction had such an effect that the North remained poor and backward at least until Tudor times and perhaps until the Industrial Revolution. Newcastle suffered in this respect with the rest of the North.

 

In 1080 William sent his eldest son, Robert Curthose, north to defend the kingdom against the Scots. After his campaign, he moved to Monkchester and began the building of a 'New Castle'. This was of the "motte-and-bailey" type of construction, a wooden tower on top of an earthen mound (motte), surrounded by a moat and wooden stockade (bailey). It was this castle that gave Newcastle its name. In 1095 the Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Mowbray, rose up against the king, William Rufus, and Rufus sent an army north to recapture the castle. From then on the castle became crown property and was an important base from which the king could control the northern barons. The Northumbrian earldom was abolished and a Sheriff of Northumberland was appointed to administer the region. In 1091 the parish church of St Nicholas was consecrated on the site of the present Anglican cathedral, close by the bailey of the new castle. The church is believed to have been a wooden building on stone footings.

 

Not a trace of the tower or mound of the motte and bailey castle remains now. Henry II replaced it with a rectangular stone keep, which was built between 1172 and 1177 at a cost of £1,444. A stone bailey, in the form of a triangle, replaced the previous wooden one. The great outer gateway to the castle, called 'the Black Gate', was built later, between 1247 and 1250, in the reign of Henry III. There were at that time no town walls and when attacked by the Scots, the townspeople had to crowd into the bailey for safety. It is probable that the new castle acted as a magnet for local merchants because of the safety it provided. This in turn would help to expand trade in the town. At this time wool, skins and lead were being exported, whilst alum, pepper and ginger were being imported from France and Flanders.

 

Middle Ages

Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was England's northern fortress, the centre for assembled armies. The Border war against Scotland lasted intermittently for several centuries – possibly the longest border war ever waged. During the civil war between Stephen and Matilda, David 1st of Scotland and his son were granted Cumbria and Northumberland respectively, so that for a period from 1139 to 1157, Newcastle was effectively in Scottish hands. It is believed that during this period, King David may have built the church of St Andrew and the Benedictine nunnery in Newcastle. However, King Stephen's successor, Henry II was strong enough to take back the Earldom of Northumbria from Malcolm IV.

 

The Scots king William the Lion was imprisoned in Newcastle, in 1174, after being captured at the Battle of Alnwick. Edward I brought the Stone of Scone and William Wallace south through the town and Newcastle was successfully defended against the Scots three times during the 14th century.

 

Around 1200, stone-faced, clay-filled jetties were starting to project into the river, an indication that trade was increasing in Newcastle. As the Roman roads continued to deteriorate, sea travel was gaining in importance. By 1275 Newcastle was the sixth largest wool exporting port in England. The principal exports at this time were wool, timber, coal, millstones, dairy produce, fish, salt and hides. Much of the developing trade was with the Baltic countries and Germany. Most of the Newcastle merchants were situated near the river, below the Castle. The earliest known charter was dated 1175 in the reign of Henry II, giving the townspeople some control over their town. In 1216 King John granted Newcastle a mayor[8] and also allowed the formation of guilds (known as Mysteries). These were cartels formed within different trades, which restricted trade to guild members. There were initially twelve guilds. Coal was being exported from Newcastle by 1250, and by 1350 the burgesses received a royal licence to export coal. This licence to export coal was jealously guarded by the Newcastle burgesses, and they tried to prevent any one else on the Tyne from exporting coal except through Newcastle. The burgesses similarly tried to prevent fish from being sold anywhere else on the Tyne except Newcastle. This led to conflicts with Gateshead and South Shields.

 

In 1265, the town was granted permission to impose a 'Wall Tax' or Murage, to pay for the construction of a fortified wall to enclose the town and protect it from Scottish invaders. The town walls were not completed until early in the 14th century. They were two miles (3 km) long, 9 feet (2.7 m) thick and 25 feet (7.6 m) high. They had six main gates, as well as some smaller gates, and had 17 towers. The land within the walls was divided almost equally by the Lort Burn, which flowed southwards and joined the Tyne to the east of the Castle. The town began to expand north of the Castle and west of the Lort Burn with various markets being set up within the walls.

 

In 1400 Henry IV granted a new charter, creating a County corporate which separated the town, but not the Castle, from the county of Northumberland and recognised it as a "county of itself" with a right to have a sheriff of its own. The burgesses were now allowed to choose six aldermen who, with the mayor would be justices of the peace. The mayor and sheriff were allowed to hold borough courts in the Guildhall.

 

Religious houses

During the Middle Ages a number of religious houses were established within the walls: the first of these was the Benedictine nunnery of St Bartholomew founded in 1086 near the present-day Nun Street. Both David I of Scotland and Henry I of England were benefactors of the religious house. Nothing of the nunnery remains now.

 

The friary of Blackfriars, Newcastle (Dominican) was established in 1239. These were also known as the Preaching Friars or Shod Friars, because they wore sandals, as opposed to other orders. The friary was situated in the present-day Friars Street. In 1280 the order was granted royal permission to make a postern in the town walls to communicate with their gardens outside the walls. On 19 June 1334, Edward Balliol, claimant to be King of Scotland, did homage to King Edward III, on behalf of the kingdom of Scotland, in the church of the friary. Much of the original buildings of the friary still exist, mainly because, after the Dissolution of the Monasteries the friary of Blackfriars was rented out by the corporation to nine of the local trade guilds.

 

The friary of Whitefriars (Carmelite) was established in 1262. The order was originally housed on the Wall Knoll in Pandon, but in 1307 it took over the buildings of another order, which went out of existence, the Friars of the Sac. The land, which had originally been given by Robert the Bruce, was situated in the present-day Hanover Square, behind the Central station. Nothing of the friary remains now.

 

The friary of Austinfriars (Augustinian) was established in 1290. The friary was on the site where the Holy Jesus Hospital was built in 1682. The friary was traditionally the lodging place of English kings whenever they visited or passed through Newcastle. In 1503 Princess Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII of England, stayed two days at the friary on her way to join her new husband James IV of Scotland.

 

The friary of Greyfriars (Franciscans) was established in 1274. The friary was in the present-day area between Pilgrim Street, Grey Street, Market Street and High Chare. Nothing of the original buildings remains.

 

The friary of the Order of the Holy Trinity, also known as the Trinitarians, was established in 1360. The order devoted a third of its income to buying back captives of the Saracens, during the Crusades. Their house was on the Wall Knoll, in Pandon, to the east of the city, but within the walls. Wall Knoll had previously been occupied by the White Friars until they moved to new premises in 1307.

 

All of the above religious houses were closed in about 1540, when Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries.

 

An important street running through Newcastle at the time was Pilgrim Street, running northwards inside the walls and leading to the Pilgrim Gate on the north wall. The street still exists today as arguably Newcastle's main shopping street.

 

Tudor period

The Scottish border wars continued for much of the 16th century, so that during that time, Newcastle was often threatened with invasion by the Scots, but also remained important as a border stronghold against them.

 

During the Reformation begun by Henry VIII in 1536, the five Newcastle friaries and the single nunnery were dissolved and the land was sold to the Corporation and to rich merchants. At this time there were fewer than 60 inmates of the religious houses in Newcastle. The convent of Blackfriars was leased to nine craft guilds to be used as their headquarters. This probably explains why it is the only one of the religious houses whose building survives to the present day. The priories at Tynemouth and Durham were also dissolved, thus ending the long-running rivalry between Newcastle and the church for control of trade on the Tyne. A little later, the property of the nunnery of St Bartholomew and of Grey Friars were bought by Robert Anderson, who had the buildings demolished to build his grand Newe House (also known as Anderson Place).

 

With the gradual decline of the Scottish border wars the town walls were allowed to decline as well as the castle. By 1547, about 10,000 people were living in Newcastle. At the beginning of the 16th century exports of wool from Newcastle were more than twice the value of exports of coal, but during the century coal exports continued to increase.

 

Under Edward VI, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, sponsored an act allowing Newcastle to annexe Gateshead as its suburb. The main reason for this was to allow the Newcastle Hostmen, who controlled the export of Tyne coal, to get their hands on the Gateshead coal mines, previously controlled by the Bishop of Durham. However, when Mary I came to power, Dudley met his downfall and the decision was reversed. The Reformation allowed private access to coal mines previously owned by Tynemouth and Durham priories and as a result coal exports increase dramatically, from 15,000 tons in 1500 to 35,000 tons in 1565, and to 400,000 tons in 1625.

 

The plague visited Newcastle four times during the 16th century, in 1579 when 2,000 people died, in 1589 when 1700 died, in 1595 and finally in 1597.

 

In 1600 Elizabeth I granted Newcastle a charter for an exclusive body of electors, the right to elect the mayor and burgesses. The charter also gave the Hostmen exclusive rights to load coal at any point on the Tyne. The Hostmen developed as an exclusive group within the Merchant Adventurers who had been incorporated by a charter in 1547.

 

Stuart period

In 1636 there was a serious outbreak of bubonic plague in Newcastle. There had been several previous outbreaks of the disease over the years, but this was the most serious. It is thought to have arrived from the Netherlands via ships that were trading between the Tyne and that country. It first appeared in the lower part of the town near the docks but gradually spread to all parts of the town. As the disease gained hold the authorities took measures to control it by boarding up any properties that contained infected persons, meaning that whole families were locked up together with the infected family members. Other infected persons were put in huts outside the town walls and left to die. Plague pits were dug next to the town's four churches and outside the town walls to receive the bodies in mass burials. Over the course of the outbreak 5,631 deaths were recorded out of an estimated population of 12,000, a death rate of 47%.

 

In 1637 Charles I tried to raise money by doubling the 'voluntary' tax on coal in return for allowing the Newcastle Hostmen to regulate production and fix prices. This caused outrage amongst the London importers and the East Anglian shippers. Both groups decided to boycott Tyne coal and as a result forced Charles to reverse his decision in 1638.

 

In 1640 during the Second Bishops' War, the Scots successfully invaded Newcastle. The occupying army demanded £850 per day from the Corporation to billet the Scottish troops. Trade from the Tyne ground to a halt during the occupation. The Scots left in 1641 after receiving a Parliamentary pardon and a £4,000,000 loan from the town.

 

In 1642 the English Civil War began. King Charles realised the value of the Tyne coal trade and therefore garrisoned Newcastle. A Royalist was appointed as governor. At that time, Newcastle and King's Lynn were the only important seaports to support the crown. In 1644 Parliament blockaded the Tyne to prevent the king from receiving revenue from the Tyne coal trade. Coal exports fell from 450,000 to 3,000 tons and London suffered a hard winter without fuel. Parliament encouraged the coal trade from the Wear to try to replace that lost from Newcastle but that was not enough to make up for the lost Tyneside tonnage.

 

In 1644 the Scots crossed the border. Newcastle strengthened its defences in preparation. The Scottish army, with 40,000 troops, besieged Newcastle for three months until the garrison of 1,500 surrendered. During the siege, the Scots bombarded the walls with their artillery, situated in Gateshead and Castle Leazes. The Scottish commander threatened to destroy the steeple of St Nicholas's Church by gunfire if the mayor, Sir John Marley, did not surrender the town. The mayor responded by placing Scottish prisoners that they had captured in the steeple, so saving it from destruction. The town walls were finally breached by a combination of artillery and sapping. In gratitude for this defence, Charles gave Newcastle the motto 'Fortiter Defendit Triumphans' to be added to its coat of arms. The Scottish army occupied Northumberland and Durham for two years. The coal taxes had to pay for the Scottish occupation. In 1645 Charles surrendered to the Scots and was imprisoned in Newcastle for nine months. After the Civil War the coal trade on the Tyne soon picked up and exceeded its pre-war levels.

 

A new Guildhall was completed on the Sandhill next to the river in 1655, replacing an earlier facility damaged by fire in 1639, and became the meeting place of Newcastle Town Council. In 1681 the Hospital of the Holy Jesus was built partly on the site of the Austin Friars. The Guildhall and Holy Jesus Hospital still exist.

 

Charles II tried to impose a charter on Newcastle to give the king the right to appoint the mayor, sheriff, recorder and town clerk. Charles died before the charter came into effect. In 1685, James II tried to replace Corporation members with named Catholics. However, James' mandate was suspended in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution welcoming William of Orange. In 1689, after the fall of James II, the people of Newcastle tore down his bronze equestrian statue in Sandhill and tossed it into the Tyne. The bronze was later used to make bells for All Saints Church.

 

In 1689 the Lort Burn was covered over. At this time it was an open sewer. The channel followed by the Lort Burn became the present day Dean Street. At that time, the centre of Newcastle was still the Sandhill area, with many merchants living along the Close or on the Side. The path of the main road through Newcastle ran from the single Tyne bridge, through Sandhill to the Side, a narrow street which climbed steeply on the north-east side of the castle hill until it reached the higher ground alongside St Nicholas' Church. As Newcastle developed, the Side became lined with buildings with projecting upper stories, so that the main street through Newcastle was a narrow, congested, steep thoroughfare.

 

In 1701 the Keelmen's Hospital was built in the Sandgate area of the city, using funds provided by the keelmen. The building still stands today.

 

Eighteenth century

In the 18th century, Newcastle was the country's largest print centre after London, Oxford and Cambridge, and the Literary and Philosophical Society of 1793, with its erudite debates and large stock of books in several languages predated the London Library by half a century.

 

In 1715, during the Jacobite rising in favour of the Old Pretender, an army of Jacobite supporters marched on Newcastle. Many of the Northumbrian gentry joined the rebels. The citizens prepared for its arrival by arresting Jacobite supporters and accepting 700 extra recruits into the local militia. The gates of the city were closed against the rebels. This proved enough to delay an attack until reinforcements arrived forcing the rebel army to move across to the west coast. The rebels finally surrendered at Preston.

 

In 1745, during a second Jacobite rising in favour of the Young Pretender, a Scottish army crossed the border led by Bonnie Prince Charlie. Once again Newcastle prepared by arresting Jacobite supporters and inducting 800 volunteers into the local militia. The town walls were strengthened, most of the gates were blocked up and some 200 cannon were deployed. 20,000 regulars were billeted on the Town Moor. These preparations were enough to force the rebel army to travel south via the west coast. They were eventually defeated at Culloden in 1746.

 

Newcastle's actions during the 1715 rising in resisting the rebels and declaring for George I, in contrast to the rest of the region, is the most likely source of the nickname 'Geordie', applied to people from Tyneside, or more accurately Newcastle. Another theory, however, is that the name 'Geordie' came from the inventor of the Geordie lamp, George Stephenson. It was a type of safety lamp used in mining, but was not invented until 1815. Apparently the term 'German Geordie' was in common use during the 18th century.

 

The city's first hospital, Newcastle Infirmary opened in 1753; it was funded by public subscription. A lying-in hospital was established in Newcastle in 1760. The city's first public hospital for mentally ill patients, Wardens Close Lunatic Hospital was opened in October 1767.

 

In 1771 a flood swept away much of the bridge at Newcastle. The bridge had been built in 1250 and repaired after a flood in 1339. The bridge supported various houses and three towers and an old chapel. A blue stone was placed in the middle of the bridge to mark the boundary between Newcastle and the Palatinate of Durham. A temporary wooden bridge had to be built, and this remained in use until 1781, when a new stone bridge was completed. The new bridge consisted of nine arches. In 1801, because of the pressure of traffic, the bridge had to be widened.

 

A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of Fenham Barracks in 1806. The facilities at the Castle for holding assizes, which had been condemned for their inconvenience and unhealthiness, were replaced when the Moot Hall opened in August 1812.

 

Victorian period

Present-day Newcastle owes much of its architecture to the work of the builder Richard Grainger, aided by architects John Dobson, Thomas Oliver, John and Benjamin Green and others. In 1834 Grainger won a competition to produce a new plan for central Newcastle. He put this plan into effect using the above architects as well as architects employed in his own office. Grainger and Oliver had already built Leazes Terrace, Leazes Crescent and Leazes Place between 1829 and 1834. Grainger and Dobson had also built the Royal Arcade at the foot of Pilgrim Street between 1830 and 1832. The most ambitious project covered 12 acres 12 acres (49,000 m2) in central Newcastle, on the site of Newe House (also called Anderson Place). Grainger built three new thoroughfares, Grey Street, Grainger Street and Clayton Street with many connecting streets, as well as the Central Exchange and the Grainger Market. John Wardle and George Walker, working in Grainger's office, designed Clayton Street, Grainger Street and most of Grey Street. Dobson designed the Grainger Market and much of the east side of Grey Street. John and Benjamin Green designed the Theatre Royal at the top of Grey Street, where Grainger placed the column of Grey's Monument as a focus for the whole scheme. Grey Street is considered to be one of the finest streets in the country, with its elegant curve. Unfortunately most of old Eldon Square was demolished in the 1960s in the name of progress. The Royal Arcade met a similar fate.

 

In 1849 a new bridge was built across the river at Newcastle. This was the High Level Bridge, designed by Robert Stephenson, and slightly up river from the existing bridge. The bridge was designed to carry road and rail traffic across the Tyne Gorge on two decks with rail traffic on the upper deck and road traffic on the lower. The new bridge meant that traffic could pass through Newcastle without having to negotiate the steep, narrow Side, as had been necessary for centuries. The bridge was opened by Queen Victoria, who one year later opened the new Central Station, designed by John Dobson. Trains were now able to cross the river, directly into the centre of Newcastle and carry on up to Scotland. The Army Riding School was also completed in 1849.

 

In 1854 a large fire started on the Gateshead quayside and an explosion caused it to spread across the river to the Newcastle quayside. A huge conflagration amongst the narrow alleys, or 'chares', destroyed the homes of 800 families as well as many business premises. The narrow alleys that had been destroyed were replaced by streets containing blocks of modern offices.

 

In 1863 the Town Hall in St Nicholas Square replaced the Guildhall as the meeting place of Newcastle Town Council.

 

In 1876 the low level bridge was replaced by a new bridge known as the Swing Bridge, so called because the bridge was able to swing horizontally on a central axis and allow ships to pass on either side. This meant that for the first time sizeable ships could pass up-river beyond Newcastle. The bridge was built and paid for by William Armstrong, a local arms manufacturer, who needed to have warships access his Elswick arms factory to fit armaments to them. The Swing Bridge's rotating mechanism is adapted from the cannon mounts developed in Armstrong's arms works. In 1882 the Elswick works began to build ships as well as to arm them. The Barrack Road drill hall was completed in 1890.

 

Industrialisation

In the 19th century, shipbuilding and heavy engineering were central to the city's prosperity; and the city was a powerhouse of the Industrial Revolution. Newcastle's development as a major city owed most to its central role in the production and export of coal. The phrase "taking coals to Newcastle" was first recorded in 1538; it proverbially denotes bringing a particular commodity to a place that has more than enough of it already.

 

Innovation in Newcastle and surrounding areas included the following:

 

George Stephenson developed a miner's safety lamp at the same time that Humphry Davy developed a rival design. The lamp made possible the opening up of ever deeper mines to provide the coal that powered the industrial revolution.

George and his son Robert Stephenson were hugely influential figures in the development of the early railways. George developed Blücher, a locomotive working at Killingworth colliery in 1814, whilst Robert was instrumental in the design of Rocket, a revolutionary design that was the forerunner of modern locomotives. Both men were involved in planning and building railway lines, all over this country and abroad.

 

Joseph Swan demonstrated a working electric light bulb about a year before Thomas Edison did the same in the USA. This led to a dispute as to who had actually invented the light bulb. Eventually the two rivals agreed to form a mutual company between them, the Edison and Swan Electric Light Company, known as Ediswan.

 

Charles Algernon Parsons invented the steam turbine, for marine use and for power generation. He used Turbinia, a small, turbine-powered ship, to demonstrate the speed that a steam turbine could generate. Turbinia literally ran rings around the British Fleet at a review at Spithead in 1897.

 

William Armstrong invented a hydraulic crane that was installed in dockyards up and down the country. He then began to design light, accurate field guns for the British army. These were a vast improvement on the existing guns that were then in use.

 

The following major industries developed in Newcastle or its surrounding area:

 

Glassmaking

A small glass industry existed in Newcastle from the mid-15th century. In 1615 restrictions were put on the use of wood for manufacturing glass. It was found that glass could be manufactured using the local coal, and so a glassmaking industry grew up on Tyneside. Huguenot glassmakers came over from France as refugees from persecution and set up glasshouses in the Skinnerburn area of Newcastle. Eventually, glass production moved to the Ouseburn area of Newcastle. In 1684 the Dagnia family, Sephardic Jewish emigrants from Altare, arrived in Newcastle from Stourbridge and established glasshouses along the Close, to manufacture high quality flint glass. The glass manufacturers used sand ballast from the boats arriving in the river as the main raw material. The glassware was then exported in collier brigs. The period from 1730 to 1785 was the highpoint of Newcastle glass manufacture, when the local glassmakers produced the 'Newcastle Light Baluster'. The glassmaking industry still exists in the west end of the city with local Artist and Glassmaker Jane Charles carrying on over four hundred years of hot glass blowing in Newcastle upon Tyne.

 

Locomotive manufacture

In 1823 George Stephenson and his son Robert established the world's first locomotive factory near Forth Street in Newcastle. Here they built locomotives for the Stockton and Darlington Railway and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, as well as many others. It was here that the famous locomotive Rocket was designed and manufactured in preparation for the Rainhill Trials. Apart from building locomotives for the British market, the Newcastle works also produced locomotives for Europe and America. The Forth Street works continued to build locomotives until 1960.

 

Shipbuilding

In 1296 a wooden, 135 ft (41 m) long galley was constructed at the mouth of the Lort Burn in Newcastle, as part of a twenty-ship order from the king. The ship cost £205, and is the earliest record of shipbuilding in Newcastle. However the rise of the Tyne as a shipbuilding area was due to the need for collier brigs for the coal export trade. These wooden sailing ships were usually built locally, establishing local expertise in building ships. As ships changed from wood to steel, and from sail to steam, the local shipbuilding industry changed to build the new ships. Although shipbuilding was carried out up and down both sides of the river, the two main areas for building ships in Newcastle were Elswick, to the west, and Walker, to the east. By 1800 Tyneside was the third largest producer of ships in Britain. Unfortunately, after the Second World War, lack of modernisation and competition from abroad gradually caused the local industry to decline and die.

 

Armaments

In 1847 William Armstrong established a huge factory in Elswick, west of Newcastle. This was initially used to produce hydraulic cranes but subsequently began also to produce guns for both the army and the navy. After the Swing Bridge was built in 1876 allowing ships to pass up river, warships could have their armaments fitted alongside the Elswick works. Armstrong's company took over its industrial rival, Joseph Whitworth of Manchester in 1897.

 

Steam turbines

Charles Algernon Parsons invented the steam turbine and, in 1889, founded his own company C. A. Parsons and Company in Heaton, Newcastle to make steam turbines. Shortly after this, he realised that steam turbines could be used to propel ships and, in 1897, he founded a second company, Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company in Wallsend. It is there that he designed and manufactured Turbinia. Parsons turbines were initially used in warships but soon came to be used in merchant and passenger vessels, including the liner Mauretania which held the blue riband for the Atlantic crossing until 1929. Parsons' company in Heaton began to make turbo-generators for power stations and supplied power stations all over the world. The Heaton works, reduced in size, remains as part of the Siemens AG industrial giant.

 

Pottery

In 1762 the Maling pottery was founded in Sunderland by French Huguenots, but transferred to Newcastle in 1817. A factory was built in the Ouseburn area of the city. The factory was rebuilt twice, finally occupying a 14-acre (57,000 m2) site that was claimed to be the biggest pottery in the world and which had its own railway station. The pottery pioneered use of machines in making potteries as opposed to hand production. In the 1890s the company went up-market and employed in-house designers. The period up to the Second World War was the most profitable with a constant stream of new designs being introduced. However, after the war, production gradually declined and the company closed in 1963.

 

Expansion of the city

Newcastle was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835: the reformed municipal borough included the parishes of Byker, Elswick, Heaton, Jesmond, Newcastle All Saints, Newcastle St Andrew, Newcastle St John, Newcastle St Nicholas, and Westgate. The urban districts of Benwell and Fenham and Walker were added in 1904. In 1935, Newcastle gained Kenton and parts of the parishes of West Brunton, East Denton, Fawdon, Longbenton. The most recent expansion in Newcastle's boundaries took place under the Local Government Act 1972 on 1 April 1974, when Newcastle became a metropolitan borough, also including the urban districts of Gosforth and Newburn, and the parishes of Brunswick, Dinnington, Hazlerigg, North Gosforth and Woolsington from the Castle Ward Rural District, and the village of Westerhope.

 

Meanwhile Northumberland County Council was formed under the Local Government Act 1888 and benefited from a dedicated meeting place when County Hall was completed in the Castle Garth area of Newcastle in 1910. Following the Local Government Act 1972 County Hall relocated to Morpeth in April 1981.

 

Twentieth century

In 1925 work began on a new high-level road bridge to span the Tyne Gorge between Newcastle and Gateshead. The capacity of the existing High-Level Bridge and Swing Bridge were being strained to the limit, and an additional bridge had been discussed for a long time. The contract was awarded to the Dorman Long Company and the bridge was finally opened by King George V in 1928. The road deck was 84 feet (26 m) above the river and was supported by a 531 feet (162 m) steel arch. The new Tyne Bridge quickly became a symbol for Newcastle and Tyneside, and remains so today.

 

During the Second World War, Newcastle was largely spared the horrors inflicted upon other British cities bombed during the Blitz. Although the armaments factories and shipyards along the River Tyne were targeted by the Luftwaffe, they largely escaped unscathed. Manors goods yard and railway terminal, to the east of the city centre, and the suburbs of Jesmond and Heaton suffered bombing during 1941. There were 141 deaths and 587 injuries, a relatively small figure compared to the casualties in other industrial centres of Britain.

 

In 1963 the city gained its own university, the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, by act of parliament. A School of Medicine and Surgery had been established in Newcastle in 1834. This eventually developed into a college of medicine attached to Durham University. A college of physical science was also founded and became Armstrong College in 1904. In 1934 the two colleges merged to become King's College, Durham. This remained as part of Durham University until the new university was created in 1963. In 1992 the city gained its second university when Newcastle Polytechnic was granted university status as Northumbria University.

 

Newcastle City Council moved to the new Newcastle Civic Centre in 1968.

 

As heavy industries declined in the second half of the 20th century, large sections of the city centre were demolished along with many areas of slum housing. The leading political figure in the city during the 1960s was T. Dan Smith who oversaw a massive building programme of highrise housing estates and authorised the demolition of a quarter of the Georgian Grainger Town to make way for Eldon Square Shopping Centre. Smith's control in Newcastle collapsed when it was exposed that he had used public contracts to advantage himself and his business associates and for a time Newcastle became a byword for civic corruption as depicted in the films Get Carter and Stormy Monday and in the television series Our Friends in the North. However, much of the historic Grainger Town area survived and was, for the most part, fully restored in the late 1990s. Northumberland Street, initially the A1, was gradually closed to traffic from the 1970s and completely pedestrianised by 1998.

 

In 1978 a new rapid transport system, the Metro, was built, linking the Tyneside area. The system opened in August 1980. A new bridge was built to carry the Metro across the river between Gateshead and Newcastle. This was the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge, commonly known as the Metro Bridge. Eventually the Metro system was extended to reach Newcastle Airport in 1991, and in 2002 the Metro system was extended to the nearby city of Sunderland.

 

As the 20th century progressed, trade on the Newcastle and Gateshead quaysides gradually declined, until by the 1980s both sides of the river were looking rather derelict. Shipping company offices had closed along with offices of firms related to shipping. There were also derelict warehouses lining the riverbank. Local government produced a master plan to re-develop the Newcastle quayside and this was begun in the 1990s. New offices, restaurants, bars and residential accommodation were built and the area has changed in the space of a few years into a vibrant area, partially returning the focus of Newcastle to the riverside, where it was in medieval times.

 

The Gateshead Millennium Bridge, a foot and cycle bridge, 26 feet (7.9 m) wide and 413 feet (126 m) long, was completed in 2001. The road deck is in the form of a curve and is supported by a steel arch. To allow ships to pass, the whole structure, both arch and road-deck, rotates on huge bearings at either end so that the road deck is lifted. The bridge can be said to open and shut like a human eye. It is an important addition to the re-developed quayside area, providing a vital link between the Newcastle and Gateshead quaysides.

 

Recent developments

Today the city is a vibrant centre for office and retail employment, but just a short distance away there are impoverished inner-city housing estates, in areas originally built to provide affordable housing for employees of the shipyards and other heavy industries that lined the River Tyne. In the 2010s Newcastle City Council began implementing plans to regenerate these depressed areas, such as those along the Ouseburn Valley.

Semi-detached homes located at 1300-1302 30th Street NW in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The buildings are designated contributing properties to the Georgetown Historic District, a National Historic Landmark listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1967.

 

The Federal style 1300 30th Street NW, also known as the Beall House, was built in 1807. Previous occupants include dean of the National Medical College and Confederate sympathizer Dr. Grafton Tyler, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court Abe Fortas, U.S. ambassador to France and president of the Boy Scouts of America Amory Houghton, government attorney Sherlock Davis, and U.S. Attorney General under President Richard Nixon John N. Mitchell. You'll notice there's a for sale sign on the left. It sold in 2010 for $1,900,000 to the president and CEO of a health insurance company.

 

1302 30th Street NW is a Federal style house built in 1811.

 

----------

 

This is one of my older photos I originally uploaded to Wikimedia Commons.

Built amid workers' cottages and terrace houses of shopkeepers, St. Mark the Evangelist Church of England sits atop an undulating rise in the inner Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy. Nestled behind a thick bank of agapanthus beyond its original cast-iron palisade fence, it would not look out of place in an English country village with its neat buttresses, bluestone masonry and simple, unadorned belfry.

 

St. Mark the Evangelist was the first church to be built outside of the original Melbourne grid as Fitzroy developed into the city's first suburb. A working-class suburb, the majority of its residents were Church of England and from 1849 a Mission Church and school served as a centre for religious, educational and recreational facilities. The school was one of a number of denominational schools established by the Church of England and was partly funded by the Denominational School Board.

 

St. Mark the Evangelist Church of England was designed by architect James Blackburn and built in Early English Gothic style. Richard Grice, Victorian pastoralist and philanthropist, generously contributed almost all the cost of its construction. Work commenced in 1853 to accommodate the growing Church of England congregation of Fitzroy. On July 1st, 1853, the first stone of St. Mark the Evangelist was laid by the first Bishop of Melbourne, The Right Rev. Charles Perry.

Unfortunately, Blackburn did not live to see its completion, dying the following year in 1854 of typhoid. This left St. Mark the Evangelist without an architect to oversee the project, and a series of other notable Melbourne architects helped finish the church including Lloyd Tayler, Leonard Terry and Charles Webb. Even then when St. Mark the Evangelist opened its doors on Sunday, January 21st, 1855, the church was never fully completed with an east tower and spire never realised. The exterior of the church is very plain, constructed of largely unadorned bluestone, with simple buttresses marking structural bays and tall lancet windows. The church's belfry is similarly unadorned, yet features beautiful masonry work. It has a square tower and broach spire.

 

Inside St. Mark the Evangelist Church of England it is peaceful and serves as a quiet sanctuary from the noisy world outside. I visited it on a hot day, and its enveloping coolness was a welcome relief. Walking across the old, highly polished hardwood floors you cannot help but note the gentle scent of the incense used during mass. The church has an ornately carved timber Gothic narthex screen which you walk through to enter the nave. Once there you can see the unusual two storey arcaded gallery designed by Leonard Terry that runs the entire length of the east side of building. Often spoken of as “The Architect’s Folly” Terry's gallery was a divisive point in the Fritzroy congregation. Some thought it added much beauty to the interior with its massive square pillars and seven arches supporting the principals of the roof. Yet it was generally agreed that the gallery was of little effective use, and came with a costly price tag of £3,000.00! To this day, it has never been fully utlised by the church. St. Mark the Evangelist has been fortunate to have a series of organs installed over its history; in 1854 a modest organ of unknown origin: in 1855 an 1853 Foster and Andrews, Hull, organ which was taken from the Athenaeum Theatre in Melbourne's Collins Street: in 1877 an organ built by Melbourne organ maker William Anderson: and finally in 1999 as part of major renovation works a 1938 Harrison and Harrison, Durham, organ taken from St. Luke's Church of England in Cowley, Oxfordshire. The church has gone through many renovations over the ensuing years, yet the original marble font and pews have survived these changes and remain in situ to this day. Blackwood reredos in the chancel, dating from 1939, feature a mosaic of the last supper by stained glass and church outfitters Brooks, Robinson and Company. A similar one can be found at St. Matthew's Church of England in High Street in Prahran. The fine lancet stained glass windows on the west side of St. Mark the Evangelist feature the work of the stained glass firms Brooks, Robinson and Company. and William Montgomery. Many of the windows were installed in the late Nineteenth Century.

 

The St. Mark the Evangelist Parish Hall and verger's cottage were added in 1889 to designs by architects Hyndman and Bates. The hall is arranged as a nave with clerestorey windows and side aisles with buttresses. In 1891 the same architects designed the Choir Vestry and Infants Sunday School on Hodgson Street, to replace the earlier school of 1849 which had been located in the forecourt of the church.

 

The present St. Mark the Evangelist's vicarage, a two-storey brick structure with cast-iron lacework verandahs, was erected in 1910.

 

I am very grateful to the staff of Anglicare who run the busy adjoining St. Mark's Community Centre for allowing me to have free range of the inside of St. Mark the Evangelist for a few hours to photograph it so extensively.

 

James Blackburn (1803 - 1854) was an English civil engineer, surveyor and architect. Born in Upton, West Ham, Essex, James was the third of four sons and one daughter born to his parents. His father was a scalemaker, a trade all his brothers took. At the age of 23, James was employed by the Commissioners of Sewers for Holborn and Finsbury and later became an inspector of sewers. However, his life took a dramatic turn in 1833, when suffering economic hardship, he forged a cheque. He was caught and his penalty was transportation to Van Diemen’s Land (modern day Tasmania). As a convicted prisoner, yet also listed as a civil engineer, James was assigned to the Roads Department under the management of Roderic O’Connor, a wealthy Irishman who was the Inspector of Roads and Bridges at the time. On 3 May 1841 James was pardoned, whereupon he entered private practice with James Thomson, another a former convict. In April 1849, James sailed from Tasmania aboard the "Shamrock" with his wife and ten children to start a new life in Melbourne. Once there he formed a company to sell filtered and purified water to the public, and carried out some minor architectural commissions including St. Mark the Evangelist in Fitzroy. On 24 October he was appointed city surveyor, and between 1850 and 1851 he produced his greatest non-architectural work, the basic design and fundamental conception of the Melbourne water supply from the Yan Yean reservoir via the Plenty River. He was injured in a fall from a horse in January 1852 and died on 3 March 1854 at Brunswick Street, Collingwood, of typhoid. He was buried as a member of St. Mark The Evangelist Church of England. James is best known in Tasmania for his ecclesiastical architectural work including; St Mark's Church of England, Pontville, Tasmania (1839-1841), Holy Trinity Church, Hobart, Tasmania (1841-1848): St. George's Church of England, Battery Point, Tasmania, (1841-1847).

 

Leonard Terry (1825 - 1884) was an architect born at Scarborough, Yorkshire, England. Son of Leonard Terry, a timber merchant, and his wife Margaret, he arrived in Melbourne in 1853 and after six months was employed by architect C. Laing. By the end of 1856 he had his own practice in Collins Street West (Terry and Oakden). After Mr. Laing's death next year Leonard succeeded him as the principal designer of banks in Victoria and of buildings for the Anglican Church, of which he was appointed diocesan architect in 1860. In addition to the many banks and churches that he designed, Leonard is also known for his design of The Melbourne Club on Collins Street (1858 - 1859) "Braemar" in East Melbourne (1865), "Greenwich House" Toorak (1869) and the Campbell residence on the corner of Collins and Spring Streets (1877). Leonard was first married, at 30, on 26 June 1855 to Theodosia Mary Welch (d.1861), by whom he had six children including Marmaduke, who trained as a surveyor and entered his father's firm in 1880. Terry's second marriage, at 41, on 29 December 1866 was to Esther Hardwick Aspinall, who bore him three children and survived him when on 23 June 1884, at the age of 59, he died of a thoracic tumor in his last home, Campbellfield Lodge, Alexandra Parade, in Collingwood.

 

Lloyd Tayler (1830 - 1900) was an architect born on 26 October 1830 in London, youngest son of tailor William Tayler, and his wife Priscilla. Educated at Mill Hill Grammar School, Hendon, and King's College, London, he is said to have been a student at the Sorbonne. In June 1851 he left England to join his brother on the land near Albury, New South Wales. He ended up on the Mount Alexander goldfields before setting up an architectural practice with Lewis Vieusseux, a civil engineer in 1854. By 1856 he had his own architectural practice where he designed premises for the Colonial Bank of Australasia. In the 1860s and 1870s he was lauded for his designs for the National Bank of Australasia, including those in the Melbourne suburbs of Richmond and North Fitzroy, and further afield in country Victoria at Warrnambool and Coleraine. His major design for the bank was the Melbourne head office in 1867. With Edmund Wright in 1874 William won the competition for the design of the South Australian Houses of Parliament, which began construction in 1881. The pair also designed the Bank of Australia in Adelaide in 1875. He also designed the Australian Club in Melbourne's William Street and the Melbourne Exchange in Collins Street in 1878. Lloyd's examples of domestic architecture include the mansion "Kamesburgh", Brighton, commissioned by W. K. Thomson in 1872. Other houses include: "Thyra", Brighton (1883): "Leighswood", Toorak, for C. E. Bright: "Roxcraddock", Caulfield: "Cherry Chase", Brighton: and "Blair Athol", Brighton. In addition to his work on St. Mark the Evangelist in Fitzroy, Lloyd also designed St. Mary's Church of England, Hotham (1860); St Philip's, Collingwood, and the Presbyterian Church, Punt Road, South Yarra (1865); and Trinity Church, Bacchus Marsh (1869). The high point of Lloyd's career was the design for the Melbourne head office of the Commercial Bank of Australia. His last important design was the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Headquarters Station, Eastern Hill in 1892. Lloyd was also a judge in 1900 of the competition plans for the new Flinders Street railway station. Lloyd was married to Sarah Toller, daughter of a Congregational minister. They established a comfortable residence, Pen-y-Bryn, in Brighton, and it was from here that he died of cancer of the liver on the 17th of August 1900 survived by his wife, four daughters and a son.

 

Charles Webb (1821 - 1898) was an architect. Born on 26 November 1821 at Sudbury, Suffolk, England, he was the youngest of nine children of builder William Webb and his wife Elizabeth. He attended Sudbury Academy and was later apprenticed to a London architect. His brother James had migrated to Van Diemen's Land in 1830, married in 1833, gone to Melbourne in 1839 where he set up as a builder in and in 1848 he bought Brighton Park, Brighton. Charles decided to join James and lived with James at Brighton. They went into partnership as architects and surveyors. The commission that established them was in 1850 for St Paul's Church, Swanston Street. It was here that Charles married Emma Bridges, daughter of the chief cashier at the Bank of England. Charles and James built many warehouses, shops and private homes and even a synagogue in the city. After his borther's return to England, Charles designed St. Andrew's Church, Brighton, and receiving an important commission for Melbourne Church of England Grammar School in 1855. In 1857 he added a tower and a slender spire to Scots Church, which James had built in 1841. He designed Wesley College in 1864, the Alfred Hospital and the Royal Arcade in 1869, the South Melbourne Town Hall and the Melbourne Orphan Asylum in 1878 and the Grand Hotel (now the Windsor) in 1884. In 1865 he had designed his own home, "Farleigh", in Park Street, Brighton, where he died on 23 January 1898 of heat exhaustion. Predeceased by Emma in 1893 and survived by five sons and three daughters, he was buried in Brighton cemetery.

Biennalist

Biennalist is an Art Format commenting on active biennials and managed cultural events through artworks.Biennalist takes the thematics of the biennales and similar events like festivals and conferences seriously, questioning the established structures of the staged art events in order to contribute to the debate, which they wish to generate.

  

About artist Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thierry_Geoffroy

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Room_(art)

  

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

  

www.colonel.dk/

  

Biennalist :

Biennalist is an Art Format commenting on active biennials and managed cultural events through artworks.Biennalist takes the thematics of the biennales and similar events like festivals and conferences seriously, questioning the established structures of the staged art events in order to contribute to the debate, which they wish to generate.

-------------------------------------------

links about Biennalist :

 

Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thierry_Geoffroy

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Room_(art)

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

 

www.colonel.dk/

 

—--Biennale from wikipedia —--

 

The Venice International Film Festival is part of the Venice Biennale. The famous Golden Lion is awarded to the best film screening at the competition.

Biennale (Italian: [bi.enˈnaːle]), Italian for "biennial" or "every other year", is any event that happens every two years. It is most commonly used within the art world to describe large-scale international contemporary art exhibitions. As such the term was popularised by Venice Biennale, which was first held in 1895. Since the 1990s, the terms "biennale" and "biennial" have been interchangeably used in a more generic way - to signify a large-scale international survey show of contemporary art that recurs at regular intervals but not necessarily biannual (such as triennials, Documenta, Skulptur Projekte Münster).[1] The phrase has also been used for other artistic events, such as the "Biennale de Paris", "Kochi-Muziris Biennale", Berlinale (for the Berlin International Film Festival) and Viennale (for Vienna's international film festival).

Characteristics[edit]

According to author Federica Martini, what is at stake in contemporary biennales is the diplomatic/international relations potential as well as urban regeneration plans. Besides being mainly focused on the present (the “here and now” where the cultural event takes place and their effect of "spectacularisation of the everyday"), because of their site-specificity cultural events may refer back to,[who?] produce or frame the history of the site and communities' collective memory.[2]

 

The Great Exhibition in The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, in 1851, the first attempt to condense the representation of the world within a unitary exhibition space.

A strong and influent symbol of biennales and of large-scale international exhibitions in general is the Crystal Palace, the gigantic and futuristic London architecture that hosted the Great Exhibition in 1851. According to philosopher Peter Sloterdijk,[3][page needed] the Crystal Palace is the first attempt to condense the representation of the world in a unitary exhibition space, where the main exhibit is society itself in an a-historical, spectacular condition. The Crystal Palace main motives were the affirmation of British economic and national leadership and the creation of moments of spectacle. In this respect, 19th century World fairs provided a visual crystallization of colonial culture and were, at the same time, forerunners of contemporary theme parks.

The Venice Biennale as an archetype[edit]

 

The structure of the Venice Biennale in 2005 with an international exhibition and the national pavilions.

The Venice Biennale, a periodical large-scale cultural event founded in 1895, served as an archetype of the biennales. Meant to become a World Fair focused on contemporary art, the Venice Biennale used as a pretext the wedding anniversary of the Italian king and followed up to several national exhibitions organised after Italy unification in 1861. The Biennale immediately put forth issues of city marketing, cultural tourism and urban regeneration, as it was meant to reposition Venice on the international cultural map after the crisis due to the end of the Grand Tour model and the weakening of the Venetian school of painting. Furthermore, the Gardens where the Biennale takes place were an abandoned city area that needed to be re-functionalised. In cultural terms, the Biennale was meant to provide on a biennial basis a platform for discussing contemporary art practices that were not represented in fine arts museums at the time. The early Biennale model already included some key points that are still constitutive of large-scale international art exhibitions today: a mix of city marketing, internationalism, gentrification issues and destination culture, and the spectacular, large scale of the event.

Biennials after the 1990s[edit]

The situation of biennials has changed in the contemporary context: while at its origin in 1895 Venice was a unique cultural event, but since the 1990s hundreds of biennials have been organized across the globe. Given the ephemeral and irregular nature of some biennials, there is little consensus on the exact number of biennials in existence at any given time.[citation needed] Furthermore, while Venice was a unique agent in the presentation of contemporary art, since the 1960s several museums devoted to contemporary art are exhibiting the contemporary scene on a regular basis. Another point of difference concerns 19th century internationalism in the arts, that was brought into question by post-colonial debates and criticism of the contemporary art “ethnic marketing”, and also challenged the Venetian and World Fair’s national representation system. As a consequence of this, Eurocentric tendency to implode the whole word in an exhibition space, which characterises both the Crystal Palace and the Venice Biennale, is affected by the expansion of the artistic geographical map to scenes traditionally considered as marginal. The birth of the Havana Biennial in 1984 is widely considered an important counterpoint to the Venetian model for its prioritization of artists working in the Global South and curatorial rejection of the national pavilion model.

International biennales[edit]

In the term's most commonly used context of major recurrent art exhibitions:

Adelaide Biennial of Australian Art, South Australia

Asian Art Biennale, in Taichung, Taiwan (National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts)

Athens Biennale, in Athens, Greece

Bienal de Arte Paiz, in Guatemala City, Guatemala[4]

Arts in Marrakech (AiM) International Biennale (Arts in Marrakech Festival)

Bamako Encounters, a biennale of photography in Mali

Bat-Yam International Biennale of Landscape Urbanism

Beijing Biennale

Berlin Biennale (contemporary art biennale, to be distinguished from Berlinale, which is a film festival)

Bergen Assembly (triennial for contemporary art in Bergen, Norway)www.bergenassembly.no

Bi-City Biennale of Urbanism\Architecture, in Shenzhen and Hong Kong, China

Bienal de Arte de Ponce in Ponce, Puerto Rico

Biënnale van België, Biennial of Belgium, Belgium

BiennaleOnline Online biennial exhibition of contemporary art from the most promising emerging artists.

Biennial of Hawaii Artists

Biennale de la Biche, the smallest biennale in the world held at deserted island near Guadeloupe, French overseas region[5][6]

Biwako Biennale [ja], in Shiga, Japan

La Biennale de Montreal

Biennale of Luanda : Pan-African Forum for the Culture of Peace,[7] Angola

Boom Festival, international music and culture festival in Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal

Bucharest Biennale in Bucharest, Romania

Bushwick Biennial, in Bushwick, Brooklyn, New York

Canakkale Biennial, in Canakkale, Turkey

Cerveira International Art Biennial, Vila Nova de Cerveira, Portugal [8]

Changwon Sculpture Biennale in Changwon, South Korea

Dakar Biennale, also called Dak'Art, biennale in Dakar, Senegal

Documenta, contemporary art exhibition held every five years in Kassel, Germany

Estuaire (biennale), biennale in Nantes and Saint-Nazaire, France

EVA International, biennial in Limerick, Republic of Ireland

Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art, in Gothenburg, Sweden[9]

Greater Taipei Contemporary Art Biennial, in Taipei, Taiwan

Gwangju Biennale, Asia's first and most prestigious contemporary art biennale

Havana biennial, in Havana, Cuba

Helsinki Biennial, in Helsinki, Finland

Herzliya Biennial For Contemporary Art, in Herzliya, Israel

Incheon Women Artists' Biennale, in Incheon, South Korea

Iowa Biennial, in Iowa, USA

Istanbul Biennial, in Istanbul, Turkey

International Roaming Biennial of Tehran, in Tehran and Istanbul

Jakarta Biennale, in Jakarta, Indonesia

Jerusalem Biennale, in Jerusalem, Israel

Jogja Biennale, in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Karachi Biennale, in Karachi, Pakistan

Keelung Harbor Biennale, in Keelung, Taiwan

Kochi-Muziris Biennale, largest art exhibition in India, in Kochi, Kerala, India

Kortrijk Design Biennale Interieur, in Kortrijk, Belgium

Kobe Biennale, in Japan

Kuandu Biennale, in Taipei, Taiwan

Lagos Biennial, in Lagos, Nigeria[10]

Light Art Biennale Austria, in Austria

Liverpool Biennial, in Liverpool, UK

Lofoten International Art Festival [no] (LIAF), on the Lofoten archipelago, Norway[11]

Manifesta, European Biennale of contemporary art in different European cities

Mediations Biennale, in Poznań, Poland

Melbourne International Biennial 1999

Mediterranean Biennale in Sakhnin 2013

MOMENTA Biennale de l'image [fr] (formerly known as Le Mois de la Photo à Montréal), in Montreal, Canada

MOMENTUM [no], in Moss, Norway[12]

Moscow Biennale, in Moscow, Russia

Munich Biennale, new opera and music-theatre in even-numbered years

Mykonos Biennale

Nakanojo Biennale[13]

NGV Triennial, contemporary art exhibition held every three years at the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia

October Salon – Belgrade Biennale [sr], organised by the Cultural Center of Belgrade [sr], in Belgrade, Serbia[14]

OSTEN Biennial of Drawing Skopje, North Macedonia[15]

Biennale de Paris

Riga International Biennial of Contemporary Art (RIBOCA), in Riga, Latvia[16]

São Paulo Art Biennial, in São Paulo, Brazil

SCAPE Public Art Christchurch Biennial in Christchurch, New Zealand[17]

Prospect New Orleans

Seoul Biennale of Architecture and Urbanism

Sequences, in Reykjavík, Iceland[18]

Shanghai Biennale

Sharjah Biennale, in Sharjah, UAE

Singapore Biennale, held in various locations across the city-state island of Singapore

Screen City Biennial, in Stavanger, Norway

Biennale of Sydney

Taipei Biennale, in Taipei, Taiwan

Taiwan Arts Biennale, in Taichung, Taiwan (National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts)

Taiwan Film Biennale, in Hammer Museum, Los Angeles, U.S.A.

Thessaloniki Biennale of Contemporary Art [el], in Thessaloniki, Greece[19]

Dream city, produced by ART Rue Association in Tunisia

Vancouver Biennale

Visayas Islands Visual Arts Exhibition and Conference (VIVA ExCon) in the Philippines [20]

Venice Biennale, in Venice, Italy, which includes:

Venice Biennale of Contemporary Art

Venice Biennale of Architecture

Venice Film Festival

Vladivostok biennale of Visual Arts, in Vladivostok, Russia

Whitney Biennial, hosted by the Whitney Museum of American Art, in New York City, NY, USA

Web Biennial, produced with teams from Athens, Berlin and Istanbul.

West Africa Architecture Biennale,[21] Virtual in Lagos, Nigeria.

WRO Biennale, in Wrocław, Poland[22]

Music Biennale Zagreb

[SHIFT:ibpcpa] The International Biennale of Performance, Collaborative and Participatory Arts, Nomadic, International, Scotland, UK.

 

—---Venice Biennale from wikipedia —

 

The Venice Biennale (/ˌbiːɛˈnɑːleɪ, -li/; Italian: La Biennale di Venezia) is an international cultural exhibition hosted annually in Venice, Italy by the Biennale Foundation.[2][3][4] The biennale has been organised every year since 1895, which makes it the oldest of its kind. The main exhibition held in Castello, in the halls of the Arsenale and Biennale Gardens, alternates between art and architecture (hence the name biennale; biennial).[5][6][7] The other events hosted by the Foundation—spanning theatre, music, and dance—are held annually in various parts of Venice, whereas the Venice Film Festival takes place at the Lido.[8]

Organization[edit]

Art Biennale

Art Biennale

International Art Exhibition

1895

Even-numbered years (since 2022)

Venice Biennale of Architecture

International Architecture Exhibition

1980

Odd-numbered years (since 2021)

Biennale Musica

International Festival of Contemporary Music

1930

Annually (Sep/Oct)

Biennale Teatro

International Theatre Festival

1934

Annually (Jul/Aug)

Venice Film Festival

Venice International Film Festival

1932

Annually (Aug/Sep)

Venice Dance Biennale

International Festival of Contemporary Dance

1999

Annually (June; biennially 2010–16)

  

International Kids' Carnival

2009

Annually (during Carnevale)

  

History

1895–1947

On April 19, 1893, the Venetian City Council passed a resolution to set up an biennial exhibition of Italian Art ("Esposizione biennale artistica nazionale") to celebrate the silver anniversary of King Umberto I and Margherita of Savoy.[11]

A year later, the council decreed "to adopt a 'by invitation' system; to reserve a section of the Exhibition for foreign artists too; to admit works by uninvited Italian artists, as selected by a jury."[12]

The first Biennale, "I Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte della Città di Venezia (1st International Art Exhibition of the City of Venice)" (although originally scheduled for April 22, 1894) was opened on April 30, 1895, by the Italian King and Queen, Umberto I and Margherita di Savoia. The first exhibition was seen by 224,000 visitors.

The event became increasingly international in the first decades of the 20th century: from 1907 on, several countries installed national pavilions at the exhibition, with the first being from Belgium. In 1910 the first internationally well-known artists were displayed: a room dedicated to Gustav Klimt, a one-man show for Renoir, a retrospective of Courbet. A work by Picasso "Family of Saltimbanques" was removed from the Spanish salon in the central Palazzo because it was feared that its novelty might shock the public. By 1914 seven pavilions had been established: Belgium (1907), Hungary (1909), Germany (1909), Great Britain (1909), France (1912), and Russia (1914).

During World War I, the 1916 and 1918 events were cancelled.[13] In 1920 the post of mayor of Venice and president of the Biennale was split. The new secretary general, Vittorio Pica brought about the first presence of avant-garde art, notably Impressionists and Post-Impressionists.

1922 saw an exhibition of sculpture by African artists. Between the two World Wars, many important modern artists had their work exhibited there. In 1928 the Istituto Storico d'Arte Contemporanea (Historical Institute of Contemporary Art) opened, which was the first nucleus of archival collections of the Biennale. In 1930 its name was changed into Historical Archive of Contemporary Art.

In 1930, the Biennale was transformed into an Ente Autonomo (Autonomous Board) by Royal Decree with law no. 33 of 13-1-1930. Subsequently, the control of the Biennale passed from the Venice city council to the national Fascist government under Benito Mussolini. This brought on a restructuring, an associated financial boost, as well as a new president, Count Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata. Three entirely new events were established, including the Biennale Musica in 1930, also referred to as International Festival of Contemporary Music; the Venice Film Festival in 1932, which they claim as the first film festival in history,[14] also referred to as Venice International Film Festival; and the Biennale Theatro in 1934, also referred to as International Theatre Festival.

In 1933 the Biennale organized an exhibition of Italian art abroad. From 1938, Grand Prizes were awarded in the art exhibition section.

During World War II, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted: 1942 saw the last edition of the events. The Film Festival restarted in 1946, the Music and Theatre festivals were resumed in 1947, and the Art Exhibition in 1948.[15]

1948–1973[edit]

The Art Biennale was resumed in 1948 with a major exhibition of a recapitulatory nature. The Secretary General, art historian Rodolfo Pallucchini, started with the Impressionists and many protagonists of contemporary art including Chagall, Klee, Braque, Delvaux, Ensor, and Magritte, as well as a retrospective of Picasso's work. Peggy Guggenheim was invited to exhibit her collection, later to be permanently housed at Ca' Venier dei Leoni.

1949 saw the beginning of renewed attention to avant-garde movements in European—and later worldwide—movements in contemporary art. Abstract expressionism was introduced in the 1950s, and the Biennale is credited with importing Pop Art into the canon of art history by awarding the top prize to Robert Rauschenberg in 1964.[16] From 1948 to 1972, Italian architect Carlo Scarpa did a series of remarkable interventions in the Biennale's exhibition spaces.

In 1954 the island San Giorgio Maggiore provided the venue for the first Japanese Noh theatre shows in Europe. 1956 saw the selection of films following an artistic selection and no longer based upon the designation of the participating country. The 1957 Golden Lion went to Satyajit Ray's Aparajito which introduced Indian cinema to the West.

1962 included Arte Informale at the Art Exhibition with Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Emilio Vedova, and Pietro Consagra. The 1964 Art Exhibition introduced continental Europe to Pop Art (The Independent Group had been founded in Britain in 1952). The American Robert Rauschenberg was the first American artist to win the Gran Premio, and the youngest to date.

The student protests of 1968 also marked a crisis for the Biennale. Student protests hindered the opening of the Biennale. A resulting period of institutional changes opened and ending with a new Statute in 1973. In 1969, following the protests, the Grand Prizes were abandoned. These resumed in 1980 for the Mostra del Cinema and in 1986 for the Art Exhibition.[17]

In 1972, for the first time, a theme was adopted by the Biennale, called "Opera o comportamento" ("Work or Behaviour").

Starting from 1973 the Music Festival was no longer held annually. During the year in which the Mostra del Cinema was not held, there was a series of "Giornate del cinema italiano" (Days of Italian Cinema) promoted by sectorial bodies in campo Santa Margherita, in Venice.[18]

1974–1998[edit]

1974 saw the start of the four-year presidency of Carlo Ripa di Meana. The International Art Exhibition was not held (until it was resumed in 1976). Theatre and cinema events were held in October 1974 and 1975 under the title Libertà per il Cile (Freedom for Chile)—a major cultural protest against the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.

On 15 November 1977, the so-called Dissident Biennale (in reference to the dissident movement in the USSR) opened. Because of the ensuing controversies within the Italian left wing parties, president Ripa di Meana resigned at the end of the year.[19]

In 1979 the new presidency of Giuseppe Galasso (1979-1982) began. The principle was laid down whereby each of the artistic sectors was to have a permanent director to organise its activity.

In 1980, the Architecture section of the Biennale was set up. The director, Paolo Portoghesi, opened the Corderie dell'Arsenale to the public for the first time. At the Mostra del Cinema, the awards were brought back into being (between 1969 and 1979, the editions were non-competitive). In 1980, Achille Bonito Oliva and Harald Szeemann introduced "Aperto", a section of the exhibition designed to explore emerging art. Italian art historian Giovanni Carandente directed the 1988 and 1990 editions. A three-year gap was left afterwards to make sure that the 1995 edition would coincide with the 100th anniversary of the Biennale.[13]

The 1993 edition was directed by Achille Bonito Oliva. In 1995, Jean Clair was appointed to be the Biennale's first non-Italian director of visual arts[20] while Germano Celant served as director in 1997.

For the Centenary in 1995, the Biennale promoted events in every sector of its activity: the 34th Festival del Teatro, the 46th art exhibition, the 46th Festival di Musica, the 52nd Mostra del Cinema.[21]

1999–present[edit]

In 1999 and 2001, Harald Szeemann directed two editions in a row (48th & 49th) bringing in a larger representation of artists from Asia and Eastern Europe and more young artists than usual and expanded the show into several newly restored spaces of the Arsenale.

In 1999 a new sector was created for live shows: DMT (Dance Music Theatre).

The 50th edition, 2003, directed by Francesco Bonami, had a record number of seven co-curators involved, including Hans Ulrich Obrist, Catherine David, Igor Zabel, Hou Hanru and Massimiliano Gioni.

The 51st edition of the Biennale opened in June 2005, curated, for the first time by two women, Maria de Corral and Rosa Martinez. De Corral organized "The Experience of Art" which included 41 artists, from past masters to younger figures. Rosa Martinez took over the Arsenale with "Always a Little Further." Drawing on "the myth of the romantic traveler" her exhibition involved 49 artists, ranging from the elegant to the profane.

In 2007, Robert Storr became the first director from the United States to curate the Biennale (the 52nd), with a show entitled Think with the Senses – Feel with the Mind. Art in the Present Tense.

Swedish curator Daniel Birnbaum was artistic director of the 2009 edition entitled "Fare Mondi // Making Worlds".

The 2011 edition was curated by Swiss curator Bice Curiger entitled "ILLUMInazioni – ILLUMInations".

The Biennale in 2013 was curated by the Italian Massimiliano Gioni. His title and theme, Il Palazzo Enciclopedico / The Encyclopedic Palace, was adopted from an architectural model by the self-taught Italian-American artist Marino Auriti. Auriti's work, The Encyclopedic Palace of the World was lent by the American Folk Art Museum and exhibited in the first room of the Arsenale for the duration of the biennale. For Gioni, Auriti's work, "meant to house all worldly knowledge, bringing together the greatest discoveries of the human race, from the wheel to the satellite," provided an analogous figure for the "biennale model itself...based on the impossible desire to concentrate the infinite worlds of contemporary art in a single place: a task that now seems as dizzyingly absurd as Auriti's dream."[22]

Curator Okwui Enwezor was responsible for the 2015 edition.[23] He was the first African-born curator of the biennial. As a catalyst for imagining different ways of imagining multiple desires and futures Enwezor commissioned special projects and programs throughout the Biennale in the Giardini. This included a Creative Time Summit, e-flux journal's SUPERCOMMUNITY, Gulf Labor Coalition, The Invisible Borders Trans-African Project and Abounaddara.[24][25]

The 2017 Biennale, titled Viva Arte Viva, was directed by French curator Christine Macel who called it an "exhibition inspired by humanism".[26] German artist Franz Erhard Walter won the Golden Lion for best artist, while Carolee Schneemann was awarded a posthumous Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement.[27]

The 2019 Biennale, titled May You Live In Interesting Times, was directed by American-born curator Ralph Rugoff.[28]

The 2022 edition was curated by Italian curator Cecilia Alemani entitled "The Milk of Dreams" after a book by British-born Mexican surrealist painter Leonora Carrington.[29]

The Biennale has an attendance today of over 500,000 visitors.[30][31][32]

Role in the art market[edit]

When the Venice Biennale was founded in 1895, one of its main goals was to establish a new market for contemporary art. Between 1942 and 1968 a sales office assisted artists in finding clients and selling their work,[33] a service for which it charged 10% commission. Sales remained an intrinsic part of the biennale until 1968, when a sales ban was enacted. An important practical reason why the focus on non-commodities has failed to decouple Venice from the market is that the biennale itself lacks the funds to produce, ship and install these large-scale works. Therefore, the financial involvement of dealers is widely regarded as indispensable;[16] as they regularly front the funding for production of ambitious projects.[34] Furthermore, every other year the Venice Biennale coincides with nearby Art Basel, the world's prime commercial fair for modern and contemporary art. Numerous galleries with artists on show in Venice usually bring work by the same artists to Basel.[35]

Central Pavilion and Arsenale[edit]

The formal Biennale is based at a park, the Giardini. The Giardini includes a large exhibition hall that houses a themed exhibition curated by the Biennale's director.

Initiated in 1980, the Aperto began as a fringe event for younger artists and artists of a national origin not represented by the permanent national pavilions. This is usually staged in the Arsenale and has become part of the formal biennale programme. In 1995 there was no Aperto so a number of participating countries hired venues to show exhibitions of emerging artists. From 1999, both the international exhibition and the Aperto were held as one exhibition, held both at the Central Pavilion and the Arsenale. Also in 1999, a $1 million renovation transformed the Arsenale area into a cluster of renovated shipyards, sheds and warehouses, more than doubling the Arsenale's exhibition space of previous years.[36]

A special edition of the 54th Biennale was held at Padiglione Italia of Torino Esposizioni – Sala Nervi (December 2011 – February 2012) for the 150th Anniversary of Italian Unification. The event was directed by Vittorio Sgarbi

 

SMITH, GOLDWIN, writer, journalist, and controversialist; b. 13 Aug. 1823 in Reading, England, son of Richard Pritchard Smith, an Oxford-educated physician and railway promoter and director, and Elizabeth Breton, and the only one of their seven children to survive to adulthood; d. 7 June 1910 in Toronto.

 

After attending a private school and Eton College, Goldwin Smith in 1841 went to Christ Church and then in 1842 to Magdalen College, both at Oxford. He was awarded a first class in literae humaniores and obtained a ba in 1845 and an ma in 1848. He also carried off a series of prizes in classical studies, including one for a Latin essay on the position of women in ancient Greece. He both translated and wrote Latin verse, interests he would retain throughout his life. His education was intended as a preparation for the law and in 1842 his name had been entered at Lincoln’s Inn. He was called to the bar in 1850 but he never pursued a legal career.

 

When Smith was at Oxford the university was racked with religious controversy which focused on John Henry Newman and the Oxford Movement. Smith apparently admired Newman’s style but he was repelled by the movement’s ritualistic tendencies and its affinities with Roman Catholicism. Although he was a member of the Church of England, as was required of all Oxford students at the time, his mother’s Huguenot background may have contributed to his developing religious liberalism and dislike of clericalism. He would remain interested in religious issues until the end of his life, but his knowledge of theology was superficial. In addition, his understanding of the scientific controversies that were beginning to arise in pre-Darwinian Oxford was modest and was probably gained at the geological lectures of William Buckland, who upheld William Paley’s view that God’s existence was demonstrated by design in nature. Although Smith would come to accept a version of evolution and to realize, as he wrote in 1883, that it had “wrought a great revolution,” he never fully understood Charles Darwin’s hypothesis.

 

Smith spent the late 1840s in London and in travels on the Continent with Oxford friends. His growing interest in liberal reforms, especially in reducing the privileged status of the Church of England, was stimulated by events and personalities at home and abroad, though he quickly joined the side of authority during the Chartist disturbances in 1848. His first reformist thrusts were directed at Oxford. A fellow in civil law at University College from 1846, he joined in a demand for a reduction in clerical control over the university. Partly as a result of the agitation, which included letters from Smith to the Times of London in 1850, a royal commission, with Smith as assistant secretary, was struck in that year to investigate the university. The commission reported in 1852 and the Oxford University Act two years later relaxed but did not abolish religious tests.

 

During his years with the royal commission Smith widened his contacts in the political and intellectual world and turned to journalism, which was to be his permanent vocation. In 1850 he began contributing to the Morning Chronicle and in 1855 to the Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art, both published in London, reviewing poetry and advocating university reform. In 1858 he was made a member of a new royal commission, chaired by the Duke of Newcastle, to examine Britain’s educational system, and he wrote part of the report which appeared in 1862. Meanwhile, also in 1858, the Conservative government of Lord Derby appointed Smith regius professor of modern history at Oxford. This post carried such prestige that Smith, who was only 35, might have been expected to settle into it for the rest of his life. In 1861 he indicated his intention to withdraw from active journalism and devote himself to his new profession as an historian. He apparently planned to write some serious scholarly works, but this goal proved incompatible with his intense interest in contemporary affairs. Lack of detachment was the most prominent characteristic of Smith’s historical writing. He always knew which side was right. For him history was not an arid, scientific search for objective accuracy. “History,” he argued, “without moral philosophy, is a mere string of facts; and moral philosophy, without history, is apt to become a dream.”

 

Smith used his chair largely to engage in controversies over political and religious questions. Although he was undoubtedly a stimulating and devoted lecturer and tutor, he showed no interest in original research and published nothing of scholarly merit. His later historical publications and literary biographies, including histories of the United States and the United Kingdom and studies on William Cowper and Jane Austen, were little more than a reworking of secondary sources usually spiced up with a dose of his principles and prejudices. He was a man of letters, not a research scholar, and he also published travel books and Latin and Greek authors in translation. His first book was typical. Of his five Lectures on modern history (1861), three dealt with religious controversies related to rationalism and agnosticism, another with the idea of progress, and only one with a historical topic, the founding of the American colonies. Though denying that history was a science, Smith was quite prepared to draw moral laws from his reading of the past. In the first place, he considered “the laws of the production and distribution of wealth . . . the most beautiful and wonderful of the natural laws of God. . . . To buy in the cheapest and sell in the dearest market, the supposed concentration of economical selfishness, is simply to fulfil the commands of the Creator.” These laws, discovered by Adam Smith, whom he viewed as a prophet, expressed a tenet of political economy from which he would never deviate: a market economy guided by the “hidden hand” was divinely sanctioned and if faithfully observed would lead to a just social order. Secondly, Smith’s reading of history convinced him that religion provided the cement holding the social order in place. “Religion,” he warned those who contended that progress had made Christianity obsolete, “is the very core, centre, and vital support of our social and political organization; so that without a religion the civil tie would be loosened, personal would completely prevail over public motives, selfish ambition and cupidity would break loose in all directions, and society and the body politic would be in danger of dissolution.”

 

To these lessons of history Smith added a third which would serve as a permanent guide to his judgements on the way of the world, a conviction that “colonial emancipation” should take place as rapidly as possible because it was – except for India and Ireland – inevitable. This conclusion appeared in a series of articles published in the London Daily News in 1862–63 and then in pamphlet form as The empire in 1863. There he presented a distillation of the opinions of his friends John Bright, Richard Cobden, and others of the so-called Manchester school who believed that Britain’s economic power, under free trade, was so great that the formal, political empire could be disbanded without economic loss. The lesson of the American revolution, for Smith a disaster which had divided the Anglo-Saxon people, was simply that colonies should be allowed to grow naturally into nations. Once they were freed of the yoke of dependency, “something in the nature of a great Anglo-Saxon federation may, in substance if not form, spontaneously arise out of affinity and mutual affection.” Though condemned by the Times and attacked by Benjamin Disraeli as one of the “prigs and pedants” who should make way for statesmen, Smith clung tenaciously to his anti-imperial faith.

 

A drastic alteration in Smith’s personal circumstances led to his departure from England in 1868. He had resigned his chair at Oxford in 1866 in order to attend to his father, who had suffered permanent injury in a railway accident. In the autumn of 1867, when Smith was briefly absent, his father took his own life. Doubtless blaming himself for the tragedy – and now without an Oxford appointment – he decided to travel to North America, which he had previously visited in 1864, when Andrew Dickson White, president of Cornell University at Ithaca, N.Y., invited him to take up a teaching post at the newly founded institution. Smith was attracted by the determination of its founder, Ezra Cornell, to organize a university that was non-sectarian and open to all classes of society, though he had no sympathy for its commitment to coeducation. He remained at Cornell on a full-time basis for only two years but his connection with the university, which in 1906 named a building after him, continued for life. Whether it was the climate or the presence of women, admitted in 1869, that caused Smith to leave, he decided in 1871 to move to Toronto and to be near some relatives. Four years later that move became permanent as a consequence of his marriage in Toronto on 3 Sept. 1875 to William Henry Boulton*’s widow, Harriet Elizabeth Mann, née Dixon, who was two years his junior, an American by birth, and possessor of a significant fortune which included the estate named the Grange. Smith settled into a late-blooming marital bliss and the Grange’s affluent surroundings with ease: “a union for the afternoon and evening of life,” he told his American friend Charles Eliot Norton. He was, as he remarked after Harriet died in 1909, “finally bound to Canada by the happiest event of my life.”

 

The marriage, a personal healing of the unfortunate breach of 1776, was an extremely successful one. After years of transiency and a life seemingly limited to male friendships, Smith had found a perfect mate. His new wife was socially sophisticated and apparently utterly devoted to her austere husband who, in contrast to her first, spent his waking hours in reading, writing, and good talk. His circle of friends and visitors, the intellectual élite of the English-speaking world, joined local celebrities and politicians in the drawing-room of the Grange. “Here one is suddenly set down in an old English house,” Albert Venn Dicey wrote, “surrounded by grounds, with old four-post beds, old servants, all English, and English hosts . . . an English mansion in some English county.” For the remaining 35 years of his life, Smith lived in Canada, but he was never quite of it. From his “English mansion,” this talented and acerbic political and literary critic would hurl his jeremiads at a world that irritatingly deviated from the Manchester liberal faith in which he was steeped.

 

The move to Canada and marriage and domestic tranquillity did nothing to diminish Smith’s intellectual energy or his eagerness to improve public morality. Indeed, what he viewed as the underdeveloped, overly partisan state of Canadian public discussion spurred him on to greater effort. No sooner had he arrived in Toronto than he began reviewing for the Globe, but he quickly fell out with George Brown*, the paper’s proprietor, whose dogmatic righteousness brooked no competition. Smith soon turned to a series of attempts to establish independent organs, though independence usually meant agreement with Smith. First, he assisted Graeme Mercer Adam* in the founding of the Canadian Monthly and National Review (Toronto), where in February 1872 he adopted the nom de plume that would become his most characteristic signature, A Bystander. It was intended to imply that he was an outsider and therefore detached and analytical. In fact, it was soon obvious enough to readers that the author was a committed, often fierce, partisan, even if somewhat of an outsider. When the supporters of the Canada First movement launched the Nation in Toronto in 1874, Smith signed on as one of the principal contributors, both financially and as a writer. Then, in April 1876, he participated in a more ambitious project, the establishment, with John Ross Robertson* as publisher, of the Evening Telegram, a daily to compete with Brown’s Globe. It soon developed Conservative sympathies and Smith departed.

 

In June 1878 Smith returned to Toronto following an 18-month sojourn with Harriet in England more convinced than ever that the country needed the benefit of his intellectual guidance. Within a year he opened his own one-man show, the Bystander, subtitled “A monthly review of current events, Canadian and general.” The performance was a breathtaking one. For three years Smith’s outpourings filled its pages with brilliant, opinionated comment on virtually every political, cultural, and intellectual development in Europe and North America. He was determined to broaden the mental horizons of Canadians and by 1880 was pleased to admit that “the great questions of religious philosophy are beginning to engage a good many Canadian minds.” He expounded Adam Smith’s political economy, denounced women’s suffrage as a threat to the family, warned of the dangers of Herbert Spencer’s social Darwinism, castigated Bismarck, expatiated on the Eastern Question, and sniped at Disraeli. He even found space, when Sarah Bernhardt visited Canada in 1881, to agree with Bishop Édouard-Charles Fabre* and the Presbyterian (Montreal) in condemning her for her unsanctified liaisons. The Bystander’s suspicious eye frequently detected clerical power in Quebec and Ireland, and Jewish control over the European press. When Smith decided to give his active pen a rest in June 1881, he had established himself as a vigorous intellectual voice in Canada. A second series of the Bystander, this time published quarterly from January to October 1883, began after his return from another lengthy stay in England. The third and final series appeared between October 1889 and September 1890. In the interim he lent his support to another new journal, the Week, edited by Charles George Douglas Roberts*, which began publication in December 1883. Smith’s final venture in Canadian journalism came in 1896 when he acquired a controlling interest in the faltering Canada Farmers’ Sun (Toronto), a paper which, under George Weston Wrigley, had actively supported such radical causes as the political insurgency of the Patrons of Industry. The Bystander promptly put the paper back on orthodox rails by calling for free trade, retrenchment, and opposition to Canadian participation in the South African War. All of this activity still left time for a flood of articles in the international press: the Fortnightly Review, the Contemporary Review, and the Nineteenth Century, a Monthly Review in London, the Atlantic Monthly in Boston, and the Sun, the Nation, and the Forum in New York. Indeed, he published in any daily or monthly that would print his articles, reviews, and letters. His output was prodigious, the writing crisp and often epigrammatic.

 

Smith’s activities were not confined to intellectual labour. A public-spirited person, he devoted both money and energy to a variety of causes. Civic affairs especially concerned him for he believed that local governments should take greater responsibility for the welfare of citizens than was the case in Toronto. He chaired a citizens’ reform committee, advocated the commission system for city government, fought for the preservation and extension of parks for public recreation, campaigned for Sunday streetcars, and opposed free public lending libraries. (“A novel library,” he told Andrew Carnegie, “is to women mentally pretty much what the saloon is physically to men.”) He was distressed by problems of urban unemployment and poverty, and contributed generously to such charities and benevolent societies as the Associated City Charities of Toronto, which he founded, and the St Vincent de Paul Society. He also supported the building of a synagogue. For two decades he urged the appointment of a city welfare officer to supervise grants to social agencies, a cause that succeeded in 1893 only after Smith agreed to pay the officer’s salary for the first two years. Underlying these and other humanitarian endeavours was a philosophy of noblesse oblige, the Christian duty of the fortunate towards their weaker brethren. He feared that the failure of Christian voluntary charity would increase the popularity of those who advocated radical social programs. “Care for their own safety, then, as well as higher considerations, counsels the natural leaders of society to be at the post of duty,” Smith told a conference of the combined charities of Toronto in May 1889.

 

Education was another concern which Smith brought with him to Canada. In 1874 he was elected by Ontario teachers to represent them on the Council of Public Instruction and he was subsequently chosen president of the Ontario Teachers’ Association. But once again, university reform captured his deepest interest, and as in so many things, he advocated reforms that revealed his Oxford connections. Almost from the time of his arrival he proposed the federation of Ontario’s scattered universities on an Oxford model. He followed progress towards that federation in the 1880s and 1890s, regularly participating in University of Toronto functions and advocating university autonomy. In 1905 he accepted membership on, but not the chair of, a royal commission on the University of Toronto. One outcome was a new act in 1906 establishing a board of governors for the university, to which Smith was appointed. Among the many honorary degrees which Smith received from the great universities of the English-speaking world he must have particularly savoured the one conferred on him in 1902 by the University of Toronto; seven years earlier he had withdrawn his name from nomination for a degree in the face of the furious opposition of George Taylor Denison* and other imperial federationists who protested against the granting of the degree to a “traitor.”

 

For all of his breadth of knowledge and interest, Smith’s overriding concern was the contemporary world. His reputation rests on that collection of ideas which he regularly, and with remarkable consistency, applied to the issues of his time. Though he has most often been categorized as a “Victorian liberal,” it is not his liberal principles but rather his faith in the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization that is his most striking trait. That faith not only frequently contradicted his liberalism, but also, in its application to Canada, limited his ability to understand and sympathize with the aspirations of the people among whom he had chosen to take up residence.

 

Smith’s liberalism expressed itself most fulsomely in his commitment to free market economics, the secularization of public life, and opposition to empire. Though a firm believer in individualism and parliamentary government, Smith showed no special interest in civil liberties, except in his criticism of clericalism, and he favoured neither universal manhood nor women’s suffrage. He distrusted democracy and pronounced the French revolution (an event admired by most liberals) “of all the events in history, the most calamitous.” Inequality, he believed, was mankind’s permanent condition. While he repeatedly professed sympathy for labour and supported trade unions, he abhorred strikes and denounced as “chimeras” those reforms – single tax, currency inflation, public ownership, the regulation of hours of work – which labour radicals began to advocate in the late 19th century; progress he thought possible, but “there is no leaping into the millennium.” Although limited government intervention in the economy might sometimes be justified (he reluctantly supported Sir John A. Macdonald*’s arguments for a National Policy), collectivism and socialism were anathema He opposed income tax, old-age pensions, and even publicly financed education. In his introduction to Essays on questions of the day (1893), he summed up his social philosophy by confessing that “the opinions of the present writer are those of a Liberal of the old school as yet unconverted to State Socialism, who looks for further improvement not to an increase of the authority of government, but to the same agencies, moral, intellectual, and economical, which have brought us thus far, and one of which, science, is now operating with immensely increased power.” Clearly, it was not just “state socialism” that had failed to convert the master of the Grange; the new social liberalism of Thomas Hill Green and Leonard Trelawney Hobhouse was equally heretical to him. Indeed, by the late Victorian era one of Smith’s own adages could reasonably be applied to its author: “There is no reactionary,” the Bystander informed the readers of the Week in 1884, “like the exhausted Reformer.”

 

Had Smith’s social philosophy become threadbare merely as a result of the passage of time, then he might none the less rank as a significant liberal, if only of the “old school.” But the limits of his liberalism are even more evident when placed in the context of his nationalism – his belief in Anglo-Saxon superiority. In common with most 19th-century political thinkers, especially liberals, Smith believed that “nations” were “an ordinance of nature, and a natural bond.” Like John Stuart Mill, and in contrast to Lord Acton, he defined a nation in terms of the concept of cultural homogeneity. And although he opposed imperialism, he was nevertheless utterly at one with those imperialists who believed that the Anglo-Saxon cultural community, centred in Great Britain with branches around the world, was a superior civilization. Its political institutions, economic system, morality, and culture were all signs of its primacy in a world of diverse nations. In his first, and most famous, critique of the empire, he gave voice to his own form of nationalism, one which verged on cultural imperialism. “I am no more against Colonies than I am against the solar system,” he wrote in The empire. “I am against dependencies, when nations are fit to be independent. If Canada were made an independent nation she would still be a Colony of England, and England would still be her Mother Country in the full sense in which those names have been given to the most famous examples of Colonization in history. Our race and language, our laws and liberties, will be hers.”

 

For Smith the great failure, even tragedy, of Anglo-Saxon history was the American revolution. “Before their unhappy schism they were one people,” and the healing of that schism through the “moral, diplomatic and commercial union of the whole English-speaking race throughout the world” became the goal to which all else was secondary. He shared that goal with those Canadians who advocated imperial federation – Denison, George Monro Grant, George Robert Parkin* – but because his chosen route began with the annexation of Canada to the United States he found himself in permanent head-to-head combat with those same men.

 

Smith’s convictions about the superiority of Anglo-Saxon values are most strikingly illustrated in his attitude towards “lesser breeds without the Law.” His advocacy of colonial freedom was limited to those colonies which had English majorities. India, a conquered territory, was exempt; for Britain to relinquish what he called this “splendid curse” would be to abdicate its responsibility and leave the subcontinent to certain anarchy. If India troubled Smith, Ireland infuriated him. He mistrusted Roman Catholicism everywhere; in Ireland he despised it. As an ethnic group the Irish were an “amiable but thriftless, uncommercial, saint-worshipping, priest-ridden race.” He fought Home Rule as though his very life depended upon its defeat. “Statesmen might as well provide the Irish people with Canadian snowshoes,” he declaimed sarcastically, “as extend to them the Canadian Constitution.” His one-time associate William Ewart Gladstone was denounced as “an unspeakable old man” when he took up the Irish cause.

 

Other non-Anglo-Saxon groups fared little better. Though Smith occasionally expressed sympathy for “the wild-stocks of humanity” – the people of Africa, for example – he saw no reason to lament the oppressed state of the native North American. The doomed state of the native people was not the fault of the British who “had always treated [them] with humanity and justice”; with their disappearance, “little will be lost by humanity,” he concluded callously.

 

For the Jewish people, Smith reserved a special place in his catalogue of “undesirables.” The critical problem with the Jews was what Smith saw as their stubborn unwillingness to assimilate, to give up their religious beliefs and cultural practices, to become “civilized.” He regularly stereotyped them as “tribal,” “usurious,” “plutopolitans,” incapable of loyalty to their country of residence. The Talmud, the Bystander affirmed, “is a code of casuistical legalism . . . of all reactionary productions the most debased, arid, and wretched.” If the Jews would not assimilate they should be returned to their homeland. In a sentence that reeked with racist arrogance he declared that “two greater calamities perhaps have never befallen mankind than the transportation of the negro and the dispersion of the Jews.” Smith’s extreme ethnocentricity in the case of the Jewish people, as Gerald Tulchinsky has shown, can only be described as anti-Semitism.

 

Smith’s belief in Anglo-Saxon superiority and the importance that he attached to the reunification of the “race” provided him with both his questions and his answers when he analysed “Canada and the Canadian question.” On his arrival in Toronto Smith had discovered a nascent nationalist movement. He threw his support behind this amorphous group of young men whose platform was set out in William Alexander Foster*’s pamphlet Canada First; or, our new nationality: an address (Toronto, 1871), which called for the promotion of a national sentiment and the clarification of Canada’s status in the empire as well as for a number of political reforms. While Smith believed that the movement would promote Canadian independence, others favoured some form of equal partnership with the other members of the empire. For a time the movement attracted the sympathy of the prominent Liberal party intellectual Edward Blake*, but by the mid 1870s it had disintegrated, and its organ, the Nation, disappeared in 1876. This brief experience apparently convinced Smith that Canada could never become a genuine nation and that its destiny lay in union with the United States. In 1877 he set out these conclusions in an article for the Fortnightly Review and then in the Canadian Monthly, conclusions which he would repeat over the remainder of his life and which found their most famous expression in his Canada and the Canadian question in 1891. At the heart of his case was the claim that Canada could not be a nation because it lacked cultural homogeneity. The principal obstacle to nationhood was Quebec, composed as it was of an “unprogressive, religious, submissive, courteous, and, though poor, not unhappy people. . . . They are governed by the priest, with the occasional assistance of the notary. . . . The French-Canadians . . . retain their exclusive national character.” Confederation had failed to meld the competing “races” and regions into a single community and only political corruption, bribes to the regions, and the vested interests which benefited from the protective tariff kept this artificial country from collapsing. “Sectionalism,” he had written in 1878, “still reigns in everything, from the composition of a Cabinet down to that of a Wimbledon Rifle team.” In Smith’s mind the natural geographical and economic forces of North America worked against the unnatural political and sentimental opinions of Canadians. Like the United States, Canada was a North American nation and once this fact was recognized the two communities would achieve their destiny in unity. “The more one sees of society in the New World, the more convinced one is that its structure essentially differs from that of society in the Old World, and that the feudal element has been eliminated completely and forever.” Everything pointed towards “an equal and honorable alliance like that of Scotland and England” between Canada and her southern neighbour, “Canadian nationality being a lost cause.”

 

Over the years Smith’s conviction about Canada’s destiny intensified, his observation of French Canada hardening his hostility to that community. By 1891 he was willing to state emphatically that one of the principal benefits of union with the United States would be the final solution of the French Canadian problem. “Either the conquest of Quebec was utterly fatuous or it is to be desired that the American Continent should belong to the English tongue and to Anglo-Saxon civilisation.” Though the opposition of French Canadians to the South African War moderated these sentiments somewhat – Smith even considered joining forces with Henri Bourassa* in an anti-imperialist movement – he continued to fear, as he told Bourassa in 1905, “the connexion of your national aspirations with those of an ambitious and aggressive priesthood.” His ideal of cultural homogeneity left no room for a political nationality based on cultural diversity, the cornerstone of confederation. For him the call of race was irresistible: “In blood and character, language, religion, institutions, laws and interests, the two portions of the Anglo-Saxon race on this continent are one people.”

 

In all of his pronouncements on politics, economics, and Canada’s destiny, Smith seemed a self-confident, even dogmatic, pundit. But underneath that confidence was a profoundly uneasy man. The unease arose not only from Smith’s personal religious uncertainty but even more from his anxiety about the future of society in an age of religious scepticism. Though Smith does not seem to have experienced that typical Victorian “crisis of faith,” Darwinism and the higher criticism of the Bible certainly left him with little more than a thin deism and a vague humanism founded on Christian ethics. Throughout his life he struggled with religious questions, and his inconclusive answers were recorded in his Guesses at the riddle of existence (1897). But it was always to the social implications of the decline of faith that he returned. In an essay entitled “The prospect of a moral interregnum,” published in 1879, he observed: “That which prevails as Agnosticism among philosophers and the highly educated prevails as secularism among mechanics, and in that form is likely soon to breed mutinous questionings about the present social order among those who get the poorer share, and who can no longer be appeased by promises of compensation in another world.” For 30 years he repeated this gloomy theme, revealing his forebodings about the decline and fall of practically everything he accepted as eternal verities. Everywhere “prophets of unrest” loomed – Karl Marx, Henry George, Edward Bellamy, assorted socialists and anarchists, and the leaders of “the revolt of women” – questioning the established order, no longer satisfied by the opiate of religion. His increasingly shrill polemics signified his alienation from a world that had passed him by. He was simply too set in his ways to admit, as he was urged to do by Alphonse Desjardins*, the leader of the Quebec cooperative movement, “that improvements can be got by recognizing that the old liberal school of Political Economy has not discovered everything.”

 

Harriet Smith died at the Grange on 9 Sept. 1909. The following March the old man slipped and broke his thigh. He died on 7 June 1910 and was buried in St James cemetery. The Grange, which remained his wife’s property, was willed by her to the city of Toronto to serve as a public art gallery. The £20,000 Smith had inherited from his father had grown to more than $830,000 by the time of his death. He left his excellent library to the University of Toronto. Most of his fortune and his private papers went to Cornell University as a mark, Smith’s will revealingly declared, of his “attachment as an Englishman to the union of the two branches of our race on this continent with each other, and with their common mother.”

The Keck Center of the National Academies located at 500 5th Street NW in the Judiciary Square neighborhood of Washington, D.C. Built in 2002 to the designs of architectural firm KCF-SHG, Inc., the postmodern building houses the Marian Koshland Science Museum and National Academy of Sciences headquarters. The building incorporates early 20th century commercial buildings on its E Street side and residential buildings constructed in 1886 on its 5th Street side. These older buildings are designated contributing properties to the Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site, established in 1965.

 

This is one of my older photos I originally uploaded to Wikimedia Commons.

Hong Kong (香港; "Fragrant Harbour"), officially Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the southern coast of China at the Pearl River Estuary and the South China Sea. Hong Kong is known for its skyline and deep natural harbour. It has an area of 1104 km2 and shares its northern border with the Guangdong Province of Mainland China. With around 7.2 million Hongkongers of various nationalities, Hong Kong is one of the world's most densely populated metropolises.

 

After the First Opium War (1839–42), Hong Kong became a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island, followed by Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong remained under British control for about a century until the Second World War, when Japan occupied the colony from December 1941 to August 1945. After the Surrender of Japan, the British resumed control. In the 1980s, negotiations between the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China resulted in the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, which provided for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong on 30 June 1997. The territory became a special administrative region of China with a high degree of autonomy on 1 July 1997 under the principle of one country, two systems. Disputes over the perceived misapplication of this principle have contributed to popular protests, including the 2014 Umbrella Revolution.

 

In the late 1970s, Hong Kong became a major entrepôt in Asia-Pacific. The territory has developed into a major global trade hub and financial centre. The 44th-largest economy in the world, Hong Kong ranks top 10 in GDP (PPP) per capita, but also has the most severe income inequality among advanced economies. Hong Kong is one of the three most important financial centres alongside New York and London, and the world's number one tourist destination city. The territory has been named the freest market economy. The service economy, characterised by free trade and low taxation, has been regarded as one of the world's most laissez-faire economic policies, and the currency, the Hong Kong dollar, is the 13th most traded currency in the world.

 

The Hong Kong Basic Law empowers the region to develop relations and make agreements directly with foreign states and regions, as well as international organizations, in a broad range of appropriate fields. It is an independent member of APEC, the IMF, WTO, FIFA and International Olympic Committee among others.

 

Limited land created a dense infrastructure and the territory became a centre of modern architecture, and one of the world's most vertical cities. Hong Kong has a highly developed public transportation network covering 90 per cent of the population, the highest in the world, and relies on mass transit by road or rail. Air pollution remains a serious problem. Loose emissions standards have resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates. Nevertheless, Hongkongers enjoy the world's longest or second longest life expectancies.

 

NAME

It is not known who was responsible for the Romanisation of the name "Hong Kong" but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation of the spoken Cantonese or Hakka name 香港, meaning "Fragrant Harbour". Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour (香港仔, Sidney Lau: heung1gong2 jai2, Jyutping: hoeng1gong2 zai2, or Hiong1gong3 zai3 in a form of Hakka, literally means "Little Hong Kong")—between Aberdeen Island and the south side of Hong Kong Island, which was one of the first points of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. As those early contacts are likely to have been with Hong Kong's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上人), it is equally probable that the early Romanisation was a faithful execution of their speech, i.e. hong1, not heung1. Detailed and accurate Romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time.

 

The reference to fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River, or to the incense from factories, lining the coast to the north of Kowloon, which was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before the development of the Victoria Harbour.

 

In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking was signed and the name, Hong Kong, was first recorded on official documents to encompass the entirety of the island.

 

The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926. Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.

 

The full official name, after 1997, is "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government's website; however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted.

 

Hong Kong has carried many nicknames: the most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive night-view of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia's World City".

 

HISTORY

PRE-BRITISH

Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.

 

Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue (Viets) to Hong Kong. Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang dynasty in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.

 

ANCIENT CHINA

In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the territory into imperial China for the first time. Modern Hong Kong was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern Nanhai District), near the commandery's capital city Panyu. In Qin dynasty, the territory was ruled by Panyu County(番禺縣) up till Jin Dynasty.

 

The area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the kingdom of Nanyue (Southern Viet), founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC after the collapse of the short-lived Qin dynasty. When the kingdom of Nanyue was conquered by the Han Dynasty in 111 BC, Hong Kong was assigned to the Jiaozhi commandery. Archaeological evidence indicates that the population increased and early salt production flourished in this time period. Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built during the Han dynasty.

 

IMPERIAL CHINA

Started from Jin dynasty to early period of Tang dynasty, the territory that now comprises Hong Kong was governed by Bao'an County (寶安縣). In Tang dynasty, the Guangdong region flourished as an international trading center. The Tuen Mun region in what is now Hong Kong's New Territories served as a port, naval base, salt production centre and later, base for the exploitation of pearls. Lantau Island was also a salt production centre, where the salt smugglers riots broke out against the government.

 

Under the Tang dynasty, the Guangdong (Canton) region flourished as a regional trading centre. In 736 AD, the first Emperor of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun in western Hong Kong to defend the coastal area of the region. The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in the modern-day New Territories under the Northern Song dynasty. After their defeat by the Mongols, the Southern Song court briefly moved to modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site), before its final defeat at the Battle of Yamen.

 

From the mid-Tang dynasty to early Ming dynasty, the territory that now comprises Hong Kong was governed by Dongguan County (東莞縣/ 東官縣). In Ming dynasty, the area was governed by Xin'an County (新安縣) before it was colonized by the British government. The indigenous inhabitants of what is now Hong Kong are identified with several ethnicities, including Punti, Hakka, Tanka) and Hoklo.

 

The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer who arrived in 1513. Having founded an establishment in Macau by 1557, Portuguese merchants began trading in southern China. However, subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from the rest of China.

 

In the mid-16th century, the Haijin order (closed-door, isolation policy) was enforced and it strictly forbade all maritime activities in order to prevent contact from foreigners by sea. From 1661 to 1669, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance of the Kangxi Emperor, who required the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong. About 16,000 people from Hong Kong and Bao'an County were forced to emigrate inland; 1,648 of those who evacuated were said to have returned after the evacuation was rescinded in 1669.

 

BRITSH CROWN COLONY 1842–1941

In 1839, the refusal of Qing authorities to support opium imports caused the outbreak of the First Opium War between the British Empire and the Qing Empire. Qing's defeat resulted in the occupation of Hong Kong Island by British forces on 20 January 1841. It was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpee, as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. While a dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries led to the failure of the treaty's ratification, on 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking. The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.

 

The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.

 

Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.

 

In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of the Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands.

 

Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe alike. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas, such as the Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. There were, however, a small number of Chinese elites whom the British governors relied on, such as Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as communicators and mediators between the government and local population.

 

Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's oldest higher education institute. While there was an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained peaceful. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.

 

In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under his tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone.

 

JAPANESE OCCUPATION 1941–45

As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong on 8 December 1941. The Battle of Hong Kong ended with the British and Canadian defenders surrendering control of Hong Kong to Japan on 25 December 1941 in what was regarded by locals as Black Christmas.

 

During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong Dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong Dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when Britain resumed control of the colony on 30 August 1945.

 

ECONOMY

As one of the world's leading international financial centres, Hong Kong has a major capitalist service economy characterised by low taxation and free trade. The currency, Hong Kong dollar, is the eighth most traded currency in the world as of 2010. Hong Kong was once described by Milton Friedman as the world's greatest experiment in laissez-faire capitalism, but has since instituted a regime of regulations including a minimum wage. It maintains a highly developed capitalist economy, ranked the freest in the world by the Index of Economic Freedom every year since 1995. It is an important centre for international finance and trade, with one of the greatest concentrations of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region, and is known as one of the Four Asian Tigers for its high growth rates and rapid development from the 1960s to the 1990s. Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong's gross domestic product grew 180 times while per-capita GDP increased 87 times over.

 

The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the seventh largest in the world and has a market capitalisation of US$2.3 trillion as of December 2009. In that year, Hong Kong raised 22 percent of worldwide initial public offering (IPO) capital, making it the largest centre of IPOs in the world and the easiest place to raise capital. The Hong Kong dollar has been pegged to the US dollar since 1983.

 

The Hong Kong Government has traditionally played a mostly passive role in the economy, with little by way of industrial policy and almost no import or export controls. Market forces and the private sector were allowed to determine practical development. Under the official policy of "positive non-interventionism", Hong Kong is often cited as an example of laissez-faire capitalism. Following the Second World War, Hong Kong industrialised rapidly as a manufacturing centre driven by exports, and then underwent a rapid transition to a service-based economy in the 1980s. Since then, it has grown to become a leading centre for management, financial, IT, business consultation and professional services.

 

Hong Kong matured to become a financial centre in the 1990s, but was greatly affected by the Asian financial crisis in 1998, and again in 2003 by the SARS outbreak. A revival of external and domestic demand has led to a strong recovery, as cost decreases strengthened the competitiveness of Hong Kong exports and a long deflationary period ended. Government intervention, initiated by the later colonial governments and continued since 1997, has steadily increased, with the introduction of export credit guarantees, a compulsory pension scheme, a minimum wage, anti-discrimination laws, and a state mortgage backer.

 

The territory has little arable land and few natural resources, so it imports most of its food and raw materials. Imports account for more than 90% of Hong Kong's food supply, including nearly all of the meat and rice available there. Agricultural activity - relatively unimportant to Hong Kong's economy and contributing just 0.1% of its GDP - primarily consists of growing premium food and flower varieties. Hong Kong is the world's eleventh largest trading entity, with the total value of imports and exports exceeding its gross domestic product. It is the world's largest re-export centre. Much of Hong Kong's exports consist of re-exports, which are products made outside of the territory, especially in mainland China, and distributed via Hong Kong. Its physical location has allowed the city to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure that includes the world's second busiest container port and the world's busiest airport for international cargo. Even before the transfer of sovereignty, Hong Kong had established extensive trade and investment ties with the mainland, which now enable it to serve as a point of entry for investment flowing into the mainland. At the end of 2007, there were 3.46 million people employed full-time, with the unemployment rate averaging 4.1% for the fourth straight year of decline. Hong Kong's economy is dominated by the service sector, which accounts for over 90% of its GDP, while industry constitutes 9%. Inflation was at 2.5% in 2007. Hong Kong's largest export markets are mainland China, the United States, and Japan.

 

As of 2010 Hong Kong is the eighth most expensive city for expatriates, falling from fifth position in the previous year. Hong Kong is ranked fourth in terms of the highest percentage of millionaire households, behind Switzerland, Qatar, and Singapore with 8.5 percent of all households owning at least one million US dollars. Hong Kong is also ranked second in the world by the most billionaires per capita (one per 132,075 people), behind Monaco. In 2011, Hong Kong was ranked second in the Ease of Doing Business Index, behind Singapore.

 

Hong Kong is ranked No. 1 in the world in the Crony Capitalism Index by the Economist.

 

In 2014, Hong Kong was the eleventh most popular destination for international tourists among countries and territories worldwide, with a total of 27.8 million visitors contributing a total of US$38,376 million in international tourism receipts. Hong Kong is also the most popular city for tourists, nearly two times of its nearest competitor Macau.

  

DEMOGRAPHICS

The territory's population in mid-2015 is 7.30 million, with an average annual growth rate of 0.8% over the previous 5 years. The current population of Hong Kong comprises 91% ethnic Chinese. A major part of Hong Kong's Cantonese-speaking majority originated from the neighbouring Guangdong province, from where many fled during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Civil War, and the communist rule in China.

 

Residents of the Mainland do not automatically receive the Right of Abode, and many may not enter the territory freely. Like other non-natives, they may apply for the Right of Abode after seven years of continuous residency. Some of the rights may also be acquired by marriage (e.g., the right to work), but these do not include the right to vote or stand for office. However, the influx of immigrants from mainland China, approximating 45,000 per year, is a significant contributor to its population growth – a daily quota of 150 Mainland Chinese with family ties in Hong Kong are granted a "one way permit". Life expectancy in Hong Kong is 81.2 years for males and 86.9 years for females as of 2014, making it the highest life expectancy in the world.

 

About 91% of the people of Hong Kong are of Chinese descent, the majority of whom are Taishanese, Chiu Chow, other Cantonese people, and Hakka. Hong Kong's Han majority originate mainly from the Guangzhou and Taishan regions in Guangdong province. The remaining 6.9% of the population is composed of non-ethnic Chinese. There is a South Asian population of Indians, Pakistanis and Nepalese; some Vietnamese refugees have become permanent residents of Hong Kong. There are also Britons, Americans, Canadians, Japanese, and Koreans working in the city's commercial and financial sector. In 2011, 133,377 foreign domestic helpers from Indonesia and 132,935 from the Philippines were working in Hong Kong.

 

Hong Kong's de facto official language is Cantonese, a variety of Chinese originating from Guangdong province to the north of Hong Kong. English is also an official language, and according to a 1996 by-census is spoken by 3.1 percent of the population as an everyday language and by 34.9 percent of the population as a second language. Signs displaying both Chinese and English are common throughout the territory. Since the 1997 Handover, an increase in immigrants from communist China and greater interaction with the mainland's economy have brought an increasing number of Mandarin speakers to Hong Kong.

 

RELIGION

A majority of residents of Hong Kong have no religious affiliation, professing a form of agnosticism or atheism. According to the US Department of State 43 percent of the population practices some form of religion. Some figures put it higher, according to a Gallup poll, 64% of Hong Kong residents do not believe in any religion, and possibly 80% of Hong Kong claim no religion. In Hong Kong teaching evolution won out in curriculum dispute about whether to teach other explanations, and that creationism and intelligent design will form no part of the senior secondary biology curriculum.

 

Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of religious freedom, guaranteed by the Basic Law. Hong Kong's main religions are Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism; a local religious scholar in contact with major denominations estimates there are approximately 1.5 million Buddhists and Taoists. A Christian community of around 833,000 forms about 11.7% of the total population; Protestants forms a larger number than Roman Catholics at a rate of 4:3, although smaller Christian communities exist, including the Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses. The Anglican and Roman Catholic churches each freely appoint their own bishops, unlike in mainland China. There are also Sikh, Muslim, Jewish, Hindu and Bahá'í communities. The practice of Falun Gong is tolerated.

 

PERSONAL INCOME

Statistically Hong Kong's income gap is the greatest in Asia Pacific. According to a report by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme in 2008, Hong Kong's Gini coefficient, at 0.53, was the highest in Asia and "relatively high by international standards". However, the government has stressed that income disparity does not equate to worsening of the poverty situation, and that the Gini coefficient is not strictly comparable between regions. The government has named economic restructuring, changes in household sizes, and the increase of high-income jobs as factors that have skewed the Gini coefficient.

 

WIKIPEDIA

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LENS TEST: Asahi Opt. Cp. Super-Takumar 150mm f4 (Early Model - Version II).

 

One more foundling. Actually I was after one of the same early type of the previous I reviewed and sold last week. But it is OK: this will contribute to completing my personal survey of all the models of this series.

 

Again, the barrel shows some wear due to a sloppy handling by previous users. But you really have to run them over with a tank to compromise Takumar series seriously. The first two lenses had some light fungus, which cleaned away smoothly (probably also thanks to the fact that they were not multi-coated).

 

As mentioned for the previous model, this unusual focal length series was produced in a modest number of copies between 1965 and 1967 and it can be considered a sort of collectible; just like the 120mm f2.8. This appears to be 'version II" of the early type. You can clearly verify that from the engraved 43741 factory number inscribed under the manual/auto switch tab. The previous 'early type' instead had no numbers and it is said to have 5 lenses in 4 groups against 5 to 5 as this one (unfortunately I forgot to check that before selling the other model). The extra half-stop between f=5.6 and f=4 of the previous version is gone - it will reappear in the SMC version. Light seal on the back is said to be screwed instead of glued (couldn't check it on the other one). No 'LENS MADE IN JAPAN' engraved on the back of the black barrel, above the aperture ring, and 'AUTO' instead of 'A' as indication on the manual/auto switch. Others specs should be similar to the reviewed one: six blades; min. focus distance of +/- 180 cm.

 

Same solid build quality and feel, with a long silky focus movement and quite sharp and vivid already from f4. The bokeh, not as creamy as for the 85mm, is IMO extremely pleasant, with evanescent lines and small cat-eyes popping up from time to time; very fit for lines and shapes background patterns or also for portraits. Just a touch of bluish CA on contacts with whites. Classic natural color canvas, with relatively good colors and a slightly blu cast. Not sure if it was because of the light/weather or the hour of the test (or predominant colors of the location), but the impression is that this second 'improved' version needed less attention to WB/highlight-shadows/color tuning as the other one. Shots are almost straight out of camera.

Contributed by Sharilyn Wright - lovelydesign.com

Biennalist

Biennalist is an Art Format commenting on active biennials and managed cultural events through artworks.Biennalist takes the thematics of the biennales and similar events like festivals and conferences seriously, questioning the established structures of the staged art events in order to contribute to the debate, which they wish to generate.

  

About artist Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thierry_Geoffroy

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Room_(art)

  

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

  

www.colonel.dk/

  

Biennalist :

Biennalist is an Art Format commenting on active biennials and managed cultural events through artworks.Biennalist takes the thematics of the biennales and similar events like festivals and conferences seriously, questioning the established structures of the staged art events in order to contribute to the debate, which they wish to generate.

-------------------------------------------

links about Biennalist :

 

Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thierry_Geoffroy

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Room_(art)

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

 

www.colonel.dk/

 

—--Biennale from wikipedia —--

 

The Venice International Film Festival is part of the Venice Biennale. The famous Golden Lion is awarded to the best film screening at the competition.

Biennale (Italian: [bi.enˈnaːle]), Italian for "biennial" or "every other year", is any event that happens every two years. It is most commonly used within the art world to describe large-scale international contemporary art exhibitions. As such the term was popularised by Venice Biennale, which was first held in 1895. Since the 1990s, the terms "biennale" and "biennial" have been interchangeably used in a more generic way - to signify a large-scale international survey show of contemporary art that recurs at regular intervals but not necessarily biannual (such as triennials, Documenta, Skulptur Projekte Münster).[1] The phrase has also been used for other artistic events, such as the "Biennale de Paris", "Kochi-Muziris Biennale", Berlinale (for the Berlin International Film Festival) and Viennale (for Vienna's international film festival).

Characteristics[edit]

According to author Federica Martini, what is at stake in contemporary biennales is the diplomatic/international relations potential as well as urban regeneration plans. Besides being mainly focused on the present (the “here and now” where the cultural event takes place and their effect of "spectacularisation of the everyday"), because of their site-specificity cultural events may refer back to,[who?] produce or frame the history of the site and communities' collective memory.[2]

 

The Great Exhibition in The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, in 1851, the first attempt to condense the representation of the world within a unitary exhibition space.

A strong and influent symbol of biennales and of large-scale international exhibitions in general is the Crystal Palace, the gigantic and futuristic London architecture that hosted the Great Exhibition in 1851. According to philosopher Peter Sloterdijk,[3][page needed] the Crystal Palace is the first attempt to condense the representation of the world in a unitary exhibition space, where the main exhibit is society itself in an a-historical, spectacular condition. The Crystal Palace main motives were the affirmation of British economic and national leadership and the creation of moments of spectacle. In this respect, 19th century World fairs provided a visual crystallization of colonial culture and were, at the same time, forerunners of contemporary theme parks.

The Venice Biennale as an archetype[edit]

 

The structure of the Venice Biennale in 2005 with an international exhibition and the national pavilions.

The Venice Biennale, a periodical large-scale cultural event founded in 1895, served as an archetype of the biennales. Meant to become a World Fair focused on contemporary art, the Venice Biennale used as a pretext the wedding anniversary of the Italian king and followed up to several national exhibitions organised after Italy unification in 1861. The Biennale immediately put forth issues of city marketing, cultural tourism and urban regeneration, as it was meant to reposition Venice on the international cultural map after the crisis due to the end of the Grand Tour model and the weakening of the Venetian school of painting. Furthermore, the Gardens where the Biennale takes place were an abandoned city area that needed to be re-functionalised. In cultural terms, the Biennale was meant to provide on a biennial basis a platform for discussing contemporary art practices that were not represented in fine arts museums at the time. The early Biennale model already included some key points that are still constitutive of large-scale international art exhibitions today: a mix of city marketing, internationalism, gentrification issues and destination culture, and the spectacular, large scale of the event.

Biennials after the 1990s[edit]

The situation of biennials has changed in the contemporary context: while at its origin in 1895 Venice was a unique cultural event, but since the 1990s hundreds of biennials have been organized across the globe. Given the ephemeral and irregular nature of some biennials, there is little consensus on the exact number of biennials in existence at any given time.[citation needed] Furthermore, while Venice was a unique agent in the presentation of contemporary art, since the 1960s several museums devoted to contemporary art are exhibiting the contemporary scene on a regular basis. Another point of difference concerns 19th century internationalism in the arts, that was brought into question by post-colonial debates and criticism of the contemporary art “ethnic marketing”, and also challenged the Venetian and World Fair’s national representation system. As a consequence of this, Eurocentric tendency to implode the whole word in an exhibition space, which characterises both the Crystal Palace and the Venice Biennale, is affected by the expansion of the artistic geographical map to scenes traditionally considered as marginal. The birth of the Havana Biennial in 1984 is widely considered an important counterpoint to the Venetian model for its prioritization of artists working in the Global South and curatorial rejection of the national pavilion model.

International biennales[edit]

In the term's most commonly used context of major recurrent art exhibitions:

Adelaide Biennial of Australian Art, South Australia

Asian Art Biennale, in Taichung, Taiwan (National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts)

Athens Biennale, in Athens, Greece

Bienal de Arte Paiz, in Guatemala City, Guatemala[4]

Arts in Marrakech (AiM) International Biennale (Arts in Marrakech Festival)

Bamako Encounters, a biennale of photography in Mali

Bat-Yam International Biennale of Landscape Urbanism

Beijing Biennale

Berlin Biennale (contemporary art biennale, to be distinguished from Berlinale, which is a film festival)

Bergen Assembly (triennial for contemporary art in Bergen, Norway)www.bergenassembly.no

Bi-City Biennale of Urbanism\Architecture, in Shenzhen and Hong Kong, China

Bienal de Arte de Ponce in Ponce, Puerto Rico

Biënnale van België, Biennial of Belgium, Belgium

BiennaleOnline Online biennial exhibition of contemporary art from the most promising emerging artists.

Biennial of Hawaii Artists

Biennale de la Biche, the smallest biennale in the world held at deserted island near Guadeloupe, French overseas region[5][6]

Biwako Biennale [ja], in Shiga, Japan

La Biennale de Montreal

Biennale of Luanda : Pan-African Forum for the Culture of Peace,[7] Angola

Boom Festival, international music and culture festival in Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal

Bucharest Biennale in Bucharest, Romania

Bushwick Biennial, in Bushwick, Brooklyn, New York

Canakkale Biennial, in Canakkale, Turkey

Cerveira International Art Biennial, Vila Nova de Cerveira, Portugal [8]

Changwon Sculpture Biennale in Changwon, South Korea

Dakar Biennale, also called Dak'Art, biennale in Dakar, Senegal

Documenta, contemporary art exhibition held every five years in Kassel, Germany

Estuaire (biennale), biennale in Nantes and Saint-Nazaire, France

EVA International, biennial in Limerick, Republic of Ireland

Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art, in Gothenburg, Sweden[9]

Greater Taipei Contemporary Art Biennial, in Taipei, Taiwan

Gwangju Biennale, Asia's first and most prestigious contemporary art biennale

Havana biennial, in Havana, Cuba

Helsinki Biennial, in Helsinki, Finland

Herzliya Biennial For Contemporary Art, in Herzliya, Israel

Incheon Women Artists' Biennale, in Incheon, South Korea

Iowa Biennial, in Iowa, USA

Istanbul Biennial, in Istanbul, Turkey

International Roaming Biennial of Tehran, in Tehran and Istanbul

Jakarta Biennale, in Jakarta, Indonesia

Jerusalem Biennale, in Jerusalem, Israel

Jogja Biennale, in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Karachi Biennale, in Karachi, Pakistan

Keelung Harbor Biennale, in Keelung, Taiwan

Kochi-Muziris Biennale, largest art exhibition in India, in Kochi, Kerala, India

Kortrijk Design Biennale Interieur, in Kortrijk, Belgium

Kobe Biennale, in Japan

Kuandu Biennale, in Taipei, Taiwan

Lagos Biennial, in Lagos, Nigeria[10]

Light Art Biennale Austria, in Austria

Liverpool Biennial, in Liverpool, UK

Lofoten International Art Festival [no] (LIAF), on the Lofoten archipelago, Norway[11]

Manifesta, European Biennale of contemporary art in different European cities

Mediations Biennale, in Poznań, Poland

Melbourne International Biennial 1999

Mediterranean Biennale in Sakhnin 2013

MOMENTA Biennale de l'image [fr] (formerly known as Le Mois de la Photo à Montréal), in Montreal, Canada

MOMENTUM [no], in Moss, Norway[12]

Moscow Biennale, in Moscow, Russia

Munich Biennale, new opera and music-theatre in even-numbered years

Mykonos Biennale

Nakanojo Biennale[13]

NGV Triennial, contemporary art exhibition held every three years at the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia

October Salon – Belgrade Biennale [sr], organised by the Cultural Center of Belgrade [sr], in Belgrade, Serbia[14]

OSTEN Biennial of Drawing Skopje, North Macedonia[15]

Biennale de Paris

Riga International Biennial of Contemporary Art (RIBOCA), in Riga, Latvia[16]

São Paulo Art Biennial, in São Paulo, Brazil

SCAPE Public Art Christchurch Biennial in Christchurch, New Zealand[17]

Prospect New Orleans

Seoul Biennale of Architecture and Urbanism

Sequences, in Reykjavík, Iceland[18]

Shanghai Biennale

Sharjah Biennale, in Sharjah, UAE

Singapore Biennale, held in various locations across the city-state island of Singapore

Screen City Biennial, in Stavanger, Norway

Biennale of Sydney

Taipei Biennale, in Taipei, Taiwan

Taiwan Arts Biennale, in Taichung, Taiwan (National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts)

Taiwan Film Biennale, in Hammer Museum, Los Angeles, U.S.A.

Thessaloniki Biennale of Contemporary Art [el], in Thessaloniki, Greece[19]

Dream city, produced by ART Rue Association in Tunisia

Vancouver Biennale

Visayas Islands Visual Arts Exhibition and Conference (VIVA ExCon) in the Philippines [20]

Venice Biennale, in Venice, Italy, which includes:

Venice Biennale of Contemporary Art

Venice Biennale of Architecture

Venice Film Festival

Vladivostok biennale of Visual Arts, in Vladivostok, Russia

Whitney Biennial, hosted by the Whitney Museum of American Art, in New York City, NY, USA

Web Biennial, produced with teams from Athens, Berlin and Istanbul.

West Africa Architecture Biennale,[21] Virtual in Lagos, Nigeria.

WRO Biennale, in Wrocław, Poland[22]

Music Biennale Zagreb

[SHIFT:ibpcpa] The International Biennale of Performance, Collaborative and Participatory Arts, Nomadic, International, Scotland, UK.

 

—---Venice Biennale from wikipedia —

 

The Venice Biennale (/ˌbiːɛˈnɑːleɪ, -li/; Italian: La Biennale di Venezia) is an international cultural exhibition hosted annually in Venice, Italy by the Biennale Foundation.[2][3][4] The biennale has been organised every year since 1895, which makes it the oldest of its kind. The main exhibition held in Castello, in the halls of the Arsenale and Biennale Gardens, alternates between art and architecture (hence the name biennale; biennial).[5][6][7] The other events hosted by the Foundation—spanning theatre, music, and dance—are held annually in various parts of Venice, whereas the Venice Film Festival takes place at the Lido.[8]

Organization[edit]

Art Biennale

Art Biennale

International Art Exhibition

1895

Even-numbered years (since 2022)

Venice Biennale of Architecture

International Architecture Exhibition

1980

Odd-numbered years (since 2021)

Biennale Musica

International Festival of Contemporary Music

1930

Annually (Sep/Oct)

Biennale Teatro

International Theatre Festival

1934

Annually (Jul/Aug)

Venice Film Festival

Venice International Film Festival

1932

Annually (Aug/Sep)

Venice Dance Biennale

International Festival of Contemporary Dance

1999

Annually (June; biennially 2010–16)

  

International Kids' Carnival

2009

Annually (during Carnevale)

  

History

1895–1947

On April 19, 1893, the Venetian City Council passed a resolution to set up an biennial exhibition of Italian Art ("Esposizione biennale artistica nazionale") to celebrate the silver anniversary of King Umberto I and Margherita of Savoy.[11]

A year later, the council decreed "to adopt a 'by invitation' system; to reserve a section of the Exhibition for foreign artists too; to admit works by uninvited Italian artists, as selected by a jury."[12]

The first Biennale, "I Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte della Città di Venezia (1st International Art Exhibition of the City of Venice)" (although originally scheduled for April 22, 1894) was opened on April 30, 1895, by the Italian King and Queen, Umberto I and Margherita di Savoia. The first exhibition was seen by 224,000 visitors.

The event became increasingly international in the first decades of the 20th century: from 1907 on, several countries installed national pavilions at the exhibition, with the first being from Belgium. In 1910 the first internationally well-known artists were displayed: a room dedicated to Gustav Klimt, a one-man show for Renoir, a retrospective of Courbet. A work by Picasso "Family of Saltimbanques" was removed from the Spanish salon in the central Palazzo because it was feared that its novelty might shock the public. By 1914 seven pavilions had been established: Belgium (1907), Hungary (1909), Germany (1909), Great Britain (1909), France (1912), and Russia (1914).

During World War I, the 1916 and 1918 events were cancelled.[13] In 1920 the post of mayor of Venice and president of the Biennale was split. The new secretary general, Vittorio Pica brought about the first presence of avant-garde art, notably Impressionists and Post-Impressionists.

1922 saw an exhibition of sculpture by African artists. Between the two World Wars, many important modern artists had their work exhibited there. In 1928 the Istituto Storico d'Arte Contemporanea (Historical Institute of Contemporary Art) opened, which was the first nucleus of archival collections of the Biennale. In 1930 its name was changed into Historical Archive of Contemporary Art.

In 1930, the Biennale was transformed into an Ente Autonomo (Autonomous Board) by Royal Decree with law no. 33 of 13-1-1930. Subsequently, the control of the Biennale passed from the Venice city council to the national Fascist government under Benito Mussolini. This brought on a restructuring, an associated financial boost, as well as a new president, Count Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata. Three entirely new events were established, including the Biennale Musica in 1930, also referred to as International Festival of Contemporary Music; the Venice Film Festival in 1932, which they claim as the first film festival in history,[14] also referred to as Venice International Film Festival; and the Biennale Theatro in 1934, also referred to as International Theatre Festival.

In 1933 the Biennale organized an exhibition of Italian art abroad. From 1938, Grand Prizes were awarded in the art exhibition section.

During World War II, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted: 1942 saw the last edition of the events. The Film Festival restarted in 1946, the Music and Theatre festivals were resumed in 1947, and the Art Exhibition in 1948.[15]

1948–1973[edit]

The Art Biennale was resumed in 1948 with a major exhibition of a recapitulatory nature. The Secretary General, art historian Rodolfo Pallucchini, started with the Impressionists and many protagonists of contemporary art including Chagall, Klee, Braque, Delvaux, Ensor, and Magritte, as well as a retrospective of Picasso's work. Peggy Guggenheim was invited to exhibit her collection, later to be permanently housed at Ca' Venier dei Leoni.

1949 saw the beginning of renewed attention to avant-garde movements in European—and later worldwide—movements in contemporary art. Abstract expressionism was introduced in the 1950s, and the Biennale is credited with importing Pop Art into the canon of art history by awarding the top prize to Robert Rauschenberg in 1964.[16] From 1948 to 1972, Italian architect Carlo Scarpa did a series of remarkable interventions in the Biennale's exhibition spaces.

In 1954 the island San Giorgio Maggiore provided the venue for the first Japanese Noh theatre shows in Europe. 1956 saw the selection of films following an artistic selection and no longer based upon the designation of the participating country. The 1957 Golden Lion went to Satyajit Ray's Aparajito which introduced Indian cinema to the West.

1962 included Arte Informale at the Art Exhibition with Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Emilio Vedova, and Pietro Consagra. The 1964 Art Exhibition introduced continental Europe to Pop Art (The Independent Group had been founded in Britain in 1952). The American Robert Rauschenberg was the first American artist to win the Gran Premio, and the youngest to date.

The student protests of 1968 also marked a crisis for the Biennale. Student protests hindered the opening of the Biennale. A resulting period of institutional changes opened and ending with a new Statute in 1973. In 1969, following the protests, the Grand Prizes were abandoned. These resumed in 1980 for the Mostra del Cinema and in 1986 for the Art Exhibition.[17]

In 1972, for the first time, a theme was adopted by the Biennale, called "Opera o comportamento" ("Work or Behaviour").

Starting from 1973 the Music Festival was no longer held annually. During the year in which the Mostra del Cinema was not held, there was a series of "Giornate del cinema italiano" (Days of Italian Cinema) promoted by sectorial bodies in campo Santa Margherita, in Venice.[18]

1974–1998[edit]

1974 saw the start of the four-year presidency of Carlo Ripa di Meana. The International Art Exhibition was not held (until it was resumed in 1976). Theatre and cinema events were held in October 1974 and 1975 under the title Libertà per il Cile (Freedom for Chile)—a major cultural protest against the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.

On 15 November 1977, the so-called Dissident Biennale (in reference to the dissident movement in the USSR) opened. Because of the ensuing controversies within the Italian left wing parties, president Ripa di Meana resigned at the end of the year.[19]

In 1979 the new presidency of Giuseppe Galasso (1979-1982) began. The principle was laid down whereby each of the artistic sectors was to have a permanent director to organise its activity.

In 1980, the Architecture section of the Biennale was set up. The director, Paolo Portoghesi, opened the Corderie dell'Arsenale to the public for the first time. At the Mostra del Cinema, the awards were brought back into being (between 1969 and 1979, the editions were non-competitive). In 1980, Achille Bonito Oliva and Harald Szeemann introduced "Aperto", a section of the exhibition designed to explore emerging art. Italian art historian Giovanni Carandente directed the 1988 and 1990 editions. A three-year gap was left afterwards to make sure that the 1995 edition would coincide with the 100th anniversary of the Biennale.[13]

The 1993 edition was directed by Achille Bonito Oliva. In 1995, Jean Clair was appointed to be the Biennale's first non-Italian director of visual arts[20] while Germano Celant served as director in 1997.

For the Centenary in 1995, the Biennale promoted events in every sector of its activity: the 34th Festival del Teatro, the 46th art exhibition, the 46th Festival di Musica, the 52nd Mostra del Cinema.[21]

1999–present[edit]

In 1999 and 2001, Harald Szeemann directed two editions in a row (48th & 49th) bringing in a larger representation of artists from Asia and Eastern Europe and more young artists than usual and expanded the show into several newly restored spaces of the Arsenale.

In 1999 a new sector was created for live shows: DMT (Dance Music Theatre).

The 50th edition, 2003, directed by Francesco Bonami, had a record number of seven co-curators involved, including Hans Ulrich Obrist, Catherine David, Igor Zabel, Hou Hanru and Massimiliano Gioni.

The 51st edition of the Biennale opened in June 2005, curated, for the first time by two women, Maria de Corral and Rosa Martinez. De Corral organized "The Experience of Art" which included 41 artists, from past masters to younger figures. Rosa Martinez took over the Arsenale with "Always a Little Further." Drawing on "the myth of the romantic traveler" her exhibition involved 49 artists, ranging from the elegant to the profane.

In 2007, Robert Storr became the first director from the United States to curate the Biennale (the 52nd), with a show entitled Think with the Senses – Feel with the Mind. Art in the Present Tense.

Swedish curator Daniel Birnbaum was artistic director of the 2009 edition entitled "Fare Mondi // Making Worlds".

The 2011 edition was curated by Swiss curator Bice Curiger entitled "ILLUMInazioni – ILLUMInations".

The Biennale in 2013 was curated by the Italian Massimiliano Gioni. His title and theme, Il Palazzo Enciclopedico / The Encyclopedic Palace, was adopted from an architectural model by the self-taught Italian-American artist Marino Auriti. Auriti's work, The Encyclopedic Palace of the World was lent by the American Folk Art Museum and exhibited in the first room of the Arsenale for the duration of the biennale. For Gioni, Auriti's work, "meant to house all worldly knowledge, bringing together the greatest discoveries of the human race, from the wheel to the satellite," provided an analogous figure for the "biennale model itself...based on the impossible desire to concentrate the infinite worlds of contemporary art in a single place: a task that now seems as dizzyingly absurd as Auriti's dream."[22]

Curator Okwui Enwezor was responsible for the 2015 edition.[23] He was the first African-born curator of the biennial. As a catalyst for imagining different ways of imagining multiple desires and futures Enwezor commissioned special projects and programs throughout the Biennale in the Giardini. This included a Creative Time Summit, e-flux journal's SUPERCOMMUNITY, Gulf Labor Coalition, The Invisible Borders Trans-African Project and Abounaddara.[24][25]

The 2017 Biennale, titled Viva Arte Viva, was directed by French curator Christine Macel who called it an "exhibition inspired by humanism".[26] German artist Franz Erhard Walter won the Golden Lion for best artist, while Carolee Schneemann was awarded a posthumous Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement.[27]

The 2019 Biennale, titled May You Live In Interesting Times, was directed by American-born curator Ralph Rugoff.[28]

The 2022 edition was curated by Italian curator Cecilia Alemani entitled "The Milk of Dreams" after a book by British-born Mexican surrealist painter Leonora Carrington.[29]

The Biennale has an attendance today of over 500,000 visitors.[30][31][32]

Role in the art market[edit]

When the Venice Biennale was founded in 1895, one of its main goals was to establish a new market for contemporary art. Between 1942 and 1968 a sales office assisted artists in finding clients and selling their work,[33] a service for which it charged 10% commission. Sales remained an intrinsic part of the biennale until 1968, when a sales ban was enacted. An important practical reason why the focus on non-commodities has failed to decouple Venice from the market is that the biennale itself lacks the funds to produce, ship and install these large-scale works. Therefore, the financial involvement of dealers is widely regarded as indispensable;[16] as they regularly front the funding for production of ambitious projects.[34] Furthermore, every other year the Venice Biennale coincides with nearby Art Basel, the world's prime commercial fair for modern and contemporary art. Numerous galleries with artists on show in Venice usually bring work by the same artists to Basel.[35]

Central Pavilion and Arsenale[edit]

The formal Biennale is based at a park, the Giardini. The Giardini includes a large exhibition hall that houses a themed exhibition curated by the Biennale's director.

Initiated in 1980, the Aperto began as a fringe event for younger artists and artists of a national origin not represented by the permanent national pavilions. This is usually staged in the Arsenale and has become part of the formal biennale programme. In 1995 there was no Aperto so a number of participating countries hired venues to show exhibitions of emerging artists. From 1999, both the international exhibition and the Aperto were held as one exhibition, held both at the Central Pavilion and the Arsenale. Also in 1999, a $1 million renovation transformed the Arsenale area into a cluster of renovated shipyards, sheds and warehouses, more than doubling the Arsenale's exhibition space of previous years.[36]

A special edition of the 54th Biennale was held at Padiglione Italia of Torino Esposizioni – Sala Nervi (December 2011 – February 2012) for the 150th Anniversary of Italian Unification. The event was directed by Vittorio Sgarbi

 

The cross: Vanda Darre's Golden Heritage x Ascda Anant Gold

 

Ascocenda is a man-made genus that was established in 1949 by crossing Ascocentrum and Vanda. Among other attributes, the former contributed color and compactness while the latter larger flower size.

 

They love plenty of light, warm temperatures and lots of humidity. As with Cymbidiums, leaf color that is bright apple green is a good indicator of proper light levels. These orchids are also heavy feeders and should be fed weekly with a 1/4 strength liquid fertilizer. They are difficult to grow well without the aid of a greenhouse.

 

These Vandaceous orchids are among my favorites for they are relativity easy to care for and can bloom several times are year. The flowers are also long lasting which is an added bonus. They are native to Thailand, India, Myanmar and the Philippines which means they are well suited for my warm climate.

  

Blooming in my greenhouse 2012.

The building that housed the Hotel Fox was constructed in 1906. The building is the oldest building in the Brady Historic District listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a contributing property.

 

  

Kevin and Brandon at the Southsea Carnival 2010.

 

© All rights reserved. My images are posted here for viewing only. Please contact me through Flickr if you are interested in using one of my images.

 

The Renwick Gallery, a branch of the Smithsonian American Art Museum, located at 1661 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in downtown Washington, D.C. Construction of the Second Empire style art gallery was completed in 1874 to the designs of noted architect James Renwick, Jr.. From its opening in 1874 to 1897, the building housed the Corcoran Gallery of Art, now located one block south. From 1899 to 1965, the building housed the U.S. Court of Claims. Following several years of renovations, the Renwick Gallery opened in 1972, displaying the Smithsonian American Art Museum's craft and decorative art program.

 

The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1969 and is also a contributing property to the Lafayette Square Historic District, a National Historic Landmark District designated in 1970.

 

----------

 

This is one of my older photos I originally uploaded to Wikimedia Commons.

Dutch postcard, no. 550. Photo: Warner Bros.

 

American film star Bette Davis (1908-1989) was one of the greatest actors in world cinema history. She dared to play unsympathetic, sardonic characters and was reputed for her performances in a range of film genres, from contemporary crime melodramas to historical and period films and occasional comedies. Her greatest successes were her roles in romantic dramas.

 

After appearing in Broadway plays, Davis moved to Hollywood in 1930. Her early films for Universal were unsuccessful or she only had a small role, such as in James Whale's Waterloo Bridge (1931). Davis was preparing to return to New York when actor George Arliss chose Davis for the female lead in the Warner Brothers picture The Man Who Played God (John G. Adolfi, 1932), which would be her 'break' in Hollywood. Warner Bros. signed her a five-year contract. The role of the vicious and slatternly Mildred Rogers inOf Human Bondage (John Cromwell, 1934) earned Davis her first major critical acclaim. She established her career with several other critically acclaimed performances. For her role as a troubled actress in Dangerous (Alfred E. Green, 1935), she won her first Oscar. In 1937, she attempted to free herself from her contract and although she lost a well-publicized legal case, it marked the beginning of the most successful period of her career. In Marked Woman (Lloyd Bacon, 1937), she played a prostitute in a contemporary gangster drama inspired by the case of Lucky Luciano. For her role she was awarded the Volpi Cup at the 1937 Venice Film Festival. Her next picture was Jezebel (William Wyler, 1938), and during production Davis entered a relationship with director William Wyler. The film was a success, and Davis' performance as a spoiled Southern belle earned her a second Academy Award. Dark Victory (Edmund Goulding, 1939) became one of the highest grossing films of the year, and the role of Judith Traherne brought her an Academy Award nomination. The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex (Michael Curtiz, 1939) with Errol Flynn, was her first colour film. To play the elderly Elizabeth I of England, Davis shaved her hairline and eyebrows. Davis was now Warner Bros.' most profitable star, and she was given the most important of their female leading roles. Her image was considered with care; she was often filmed in close-ups that emphasized her distinctive eyes.

 

Until the late 1940s, Bette Davis was one of American cinema's most celebrated leading ladies, known for her forceful and intense style. Davis gained a reputation as a perfectionist who could be highly combative, and confrontations with studio executives, film directors and co-stars were often reported. After The Letter (William Wyler, 1940), William Wyler directed Davis for the third time in Lillian Hellman's The Little Foxes (1941), but they clashed over the character of Regina Giddens. Taking a role originally played on stage by Tallulah Bankhead, Davis felt Bankhead's original interpretation was appropriate and followed Hellman's intent, but Wyler wanted her to soften the character. Davis refused to compromise. Her forthright manner, clipped vocal style and ubiquitous cigarette contributed to a public persona which has often been imitated and satirized. In 1941, she became the first female president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and a year later, she was the co-founder of the Hollywood Canteen. Her best films include the women's picture Now Voyager (Irving Rapper, 1942) and Watch on the Rhine (Herman Shumlin, 1943). In 1947, at the age of 39, Davis gave birth to a daughter, Barbara Davis Sherry (known as B.D.) At the end of the 1940s, her box office appeal had noticeably dropped and she was labelled 'Box Office Poison'. Then producer Darryl F. Zanuck offered her the role of the aging theatrical actress Margo Channing in All About Eve (Joseph L. Mankiewicz, 1950). During production, she had a romantic relationship with her leading man, Gary Merrill, which led to marriage. Her career went through several of such periods of eclipse, and she admitted that her success had often been at the expense of her personal relationships. Married four times, she was once widowed and thrice divorced, and raised her children as a single parent. Later successes include the Grand Guignol horror film What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (Robert Aldrich, 1962) with Joan Crawford, and the follow-up Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte (Robert Aldrich, 1964) with Olivia de Havilland. Her final years were marred by a long period of ill health, but she continued acting until shortly before her death from breast cancer, with more than 100 films, television and theatre roles to her credit. She was the first person to accrue 10 Academy Award nominations for acting, and in 1977, she was the first woman to receive a Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute. One of her last films was Lindsay Anderson's film The Whales of August (1987), in which she played the blind sister of Lillian Gish.

 

Source: Wikipedia.

The Gibraltar condominium located at 2305 18th Street NW in the Adams Morgan neighborhood of Washington, D.C. Built in 1909 to the designs of architect Dan B. Miller, the Classical Revival style former apartment building is designated a contributing property to the Washington Heights Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006. Here's a photo of the buildings in the background.

 

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This is one of my older photos I originally uploaded to Wikimedia Commons.

Biennalist :

Biennalist is an Art Format commenting on active biennials and managed cultural events through artworks.Biennalist takes the thematics of the biennales and similar events like festivals and conferences seriously, questioning the established structures of the staged art events in order to contribute to the debate, which they wish to generate.

-------------------------------------------

links about Biennalist :

 

Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thierry_Geoffroy

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Room_(art)

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

 

www.colonel.dk/

 

—--Biennale from wikipedia —--

 

The Venice International Film Festival is part of the Venice Biennale. The famous Golden Lion is awarded to the best film screening at the competition.

Biennale (Italian: [bi.enˈnaːle]), Italian for "biennial" or "every other year", is any event that happens every two years. It is most commonly used within the art world to describe large-scale international contemporary art exhibitions. As such the term was popularised by Venice Biennale, which was first held in 1895. Since the 1990s, the terms "biennale" and "biennial" have been interchangeably used in a more generic way - to signify a large-scale international survey show of contemporary art that recurs at regular intervals but not necessarily biannual (such as triennials, Documenta, Skulptur Projekte Münster).[1] The phrase has also been used for other artistic events, such as the "Biennale de Paris", "Kochi-Muziris Biennale", Berlinale (for the Berlin International Film Festival) and Viennale (for Vienna's international film festival).

Characteristics[edit]

According to author Federica Martini, what is at stake in contemporary biennales is the diplomatic/international relations potential as well as urban regeneration plans. Besides being mainly focused on the present (the “here and now” where the cultural event takes place and their effect of "spectacularisation of the everyday"), because of their site-specificity cultural events may refer back to,[who?] produce or frame the history of the site and communities' collective memory.[2]

 

The Great Exhibition in The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, in 1851, the first attempt to condense the representation of the world within a unitary exhibition space.

A strong and influent symbol of biennales and of large-scale international exhibitions in general is the Crystal Palace, the gigantic and futuristic London architecture that hosted the Great Exhibition in 1851. According to philosopher Peter Sloterdijk,[3][page needed] the Crystal Palace is the first attempt to condense the representation of the world in a unitary exhibition space, where the main exhibit is society itself in an a-historical, spectacular condition. The Crystal Palace main motives were the affirmation of British economic and national leadership and the creation of moments of spectacle. In this respect, 19th century World fairs provided a visual crystallization of colonial culture and were, at the same time, forerunners of contemporary theme parks.

The Venice Biennale as an archetype[edit]

 

The structure of the Venice Biennale in 2005 with an international exhibition and the national pavilions.

The Venice Biennale, a periodical large-scale cultural event founded in 1895, served as an archetype of the biennales. Meant to become a World Fair focused on contemporary art, the Venice Biennale used as a pretext the wedding anniversary of the Italian king and followed up to several national exhibitions organised after Italy unification in 1861. The Biennale immediately put forth issues of city marketing, cultural tourism and urban regeneration, as it was meant to reposition Venice on the international cultural map after the crisis due to the end of the Grand Tour model and the weakening of the Venetian school of painting. Furthermore, the Gardens where the Biennale takes place were an abandoned city area that needed to be re-functionalised. In cultural terms, the Biennale was meant to provide on a biennial basis a platform for discussing contemporary art practices that were not represented in fine arts museums at the time. The early Biennale model already included some key points that are still constitutive of large-scale international art exhibitions today: a mix of city marketing, internationalism, gentrification issues and destination culture, and the spectacular, large scale of the event.

Biennials after the 1990s[edit]

The situation of biennials has changed in the contemporary context: while at its origin in 1895 Venice was a unique cultural event, but since the 1990s hundreds of biennials have been organized across the globe. Given the ephemeral and irregular nature of some biennials, there is little consensus on the exact number of biennials in existence at any given time.[citation needed] Furthermore, while Venice was a unique agent in the presentation of contemporary art, since the 1960s several museums devoted to contemporary art are exhibiting the contemporary scene on a regular basis. Another point of difference concerns 19th century internationalism in the arts, that was brought into question by post-colonial debates and criticism of the contemporary art “ethnic marketing”, and also challenged the Venetian and World Fair’s national representation system. As a consequence of this, Eurocentric tendency to implode the whole word in an exhibition space, which characterises both the Crystal Palace and the Venice Biennale, is affected by the expansion of the artistic geographical map to scenes traditionally considered as marginal. The birth of the Havana Biennial in 1984 is widely considered an important counterpoint to the Venetian model for its prioritization of artists working in the Global South and curatorial rejection of the national pavilion model.

International biennales[edit]

In the term's most commonly used context of major recurrent art exhibitions:

Adelaide Biennial of Australian Art, South Australia

Asian Art Biennale, in Taichung, Taiwan (National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts)

Athens Biennale, in Athens, Greece

Bienal de Arte Paiz, in Guatemala City, Guatemala[4]

Arts in Marrakech (AiM) International Biennale (Arts in Marrakech Festival)

Bamako Encounters, a biennale of photography in Mali

Bat-Yam International Biennale of Landscape Urbanism

Beijing Biennale

Berlin Biennale (contemporary art biennale, to be distinguished from Berlinale, which is a film festival)

Bergen Assembly (triennial for contemporary art in Bergen, Norway)www.bergenassembly.no

Bi-City Biennale of Urbanism\Architecture, in Shenzhen and Hong Kong, China

Bienal de Arte de Ponce in Ponce, Puerto Rico

Biënnale van België, Biennial of Belgium, Belgium

BiennaleOnline Online biennial exhibition of contemporary art from the most promising emerging artists.

Biennial of Hawaii Artists

Biennale de la Biche, the smallest biennale in the world held at deserted island near Guadeloupe, French overseas region[5][6]

Biwako Biennale [ja], in Shiga, Japan

La Biennale de Montreal

Biennale of Luanda : Pan-African Forum for the Culture of Peace,[7] Angola

Boom Festival, international music and culture festival in Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal

Bucharest Biennale in Bucharest, Romania

Bushwick Biennial, in Bushwick, Brooklyn, New York

Canakkale Biennial, in Canakkale, Turkey

Cerveira International Art Biennial, Vila Nova de Cerveira, Portugal [8]

Changwon Sculpture Biennale in Changwon, South Korea

Dakar Biennale, also called Dak'Art, biennale in Dakar, Senegal

Documenta, contemporary art exhibition held every five years in Kassel, Germany

Estuaire (biennale), biennale in Nantes and Saint-Nazaire, France

EVA International, biennial in Limerick, Republic of Ireland

Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art, in Gothenburg, Sweden[9]

Greater Taipei Contemporary Art Biennial, in Taipei, Taiwan

Gwangju Biennale, Asia's first and most prestigious contemporary art biennale

Havana biennial, in Havana, Cuba

Helsinki Biennial, in Helsinki, Finland

Herzliya Biennial For Contemporary Art, in Herzliya, Israel

Incheon Women Artists' Biennale, in Incheon, South Korea

Iowa Biennial, in Iowa, USA

Istanbul Biennial, in Istanbul, Turkey

International Roaming Biennial of Tehran, in Tehran and Istanbul

Jakarta Biennale, in Jakarta, Indonesia

Jerusalem Biennale, in Jerusalem, Israel

Jogja Biennale, in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Karachi Biennale, in Karachi, Pakistan

Keelung Harbor Biennale, in Keelung, Taiwan

Kochi-Muziris Biennale, largest art exhibition in India, in Kochi, Kerala, India

Kortrijk Design Biennale Interieur, in Kortrijk, Belgium

Kobe Biennale, in Japan

Kuandu Biennale, in Taipei, Taiwan

Lagos Biennial, in Lagos, Nigeria[10]

Light Art Biennale Austria, in Austria

Liverpool Biennial, in Liverpool, UK

Lofoten International Art Festival [no] (LIAF), on the Lofoten archipelago, Norway[11]

Manifesta, European Biennale of contemporary art in different European cities

Mediations Biennale, in Poznań, Poland

Melbourne International Biennial 1999

Mediterranean Biennale in Sakhnin 2013

MOMENTA Biennale de l'image [fr] (formerly known as Le Mois de la Photo à Montréal), in Montreal, Canada

MOMENTUM [no], in Moss, Norway[12]

Moscow Biennale, in Moscow, Russia

Munich Biennale, new opera and music-theatre in even-numbered years

Mykonos Biennale

Nakanojo Biennale[13]

NGV Triennial, contemporary art exhibition held every three years at the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia

October Salon – Belgrade Biennale [sr], organised by the Cultural Center of Belgrade [sr], in Belgrade, Serbia[14]

OSTEN Biennial of Drawing Skopje, North Macedonia[15]

Biennale de Paris

Riga International Biennial of Contemporary Art (RIBOCA), in Riga, Latvia[16]

São Paulo Art Biennial, in São Paulo, Brazil

SCAPE Public Art Christchurch Biennial in Christchurch, New Zealand[17]

Prospect New Orleans

Seoul Biennale of Architecture and Urbanism

Sequences, in Reykjavík, Iceland[18]

Shanghai Biennale

Sharjah Biennale, in Sharjah, UAE

Singapore Biennale, held in various locations across the city-state island of Singapore

Screen City Biennial, in Stavanger, Norway

Biennale of Sydney

Taipei Biennale, in Taipei, Taiwan

Taiwan Arts Biennale, in Taichung, Taiwan (National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts)

Taiwan Film Biennale, in Hammer Museum, Los Angeles, U.S.A.

Thessaloniki Biennale of Contemporary Art [el], in Thessaloniki, Greece[19]

Dream city, produced by ART Rue Association in Tunisia

Vancouver Biennale

Visayas Islands Visual Arts Exhibition and Conference (VIVA ExCon) in the Philippines [20]

Venice Biennale, in Venice, Italy, which includes:

Venice Biennale of Contemporary Art

Venice Biennale of Architecture

Venice Film Festival

Vladivostok biennale of Visual Arts, in Vladivostok, Russia

Whitney Biennial, hosted by the Whitney Museum of American Art, in New York City, NY, USA

Web Biennial, produced with teams from Athens, Berlin and Istanbul.

West Africa Architecture Biennale,[21] Virtual in Lagos, Nigeria.

WRO Biennale, in Wrocław, Poland[22]

Music Biennale Zagreb

[SHIFT:ibpcpa] The International Biennale of Performance, Collaborative and Participatory Arts, Nomadic, International, Scotland, UK.

 

—---Venice Biennale from wikipedia —

 

The Venice Biennale (/ˌbiːɛˈnɑːleɪ, -li/; Italian: La Biennale di Venezia) is an international cultural exhibition hosted annually in Venice, Italy by the Biennale Foundation.[2][3][4] The biennale has been organised every year since 1895, which makes it the oldest of its kind. The main exhibition held in Castello, in the halls of the Arsenale and Biennale Gardens, alternates between art and architecture (hence the name biennale; biennial).[5][6][7] The other events hosted by the Foundation—spanning theatre, music, and dance—are held annually in various parts of Venice, whereas the Venice Film Festival takes place at the Lido.[8]

Organization[edit]

Art Biennale

Art Biennale

International Art Exhibition

1895

Even-numbered years (since 2022)

Venice Biennale of Architecture

International Architecture Exhibition

1980

Odd-numbered years (since 2021)

Biennale Musica

International Festival of Contemporary Music

1930

Annually (Sep/Oct)

Biennale Teatro

International Theatre Festival

1934

Annually (Jul/Aug)

Venice Film Festival

Venice International Film Festival

1932

Annually (Aug/Sep)

Venice Dance Biennale

International Festival of Contemporary Dance

1999

Annually (June; biennially 2010–16)

  

International Kids' Carnival

2009

Annually (during Carnevale)

  

History

1895–1947

On April 19, 1893, the Venetian City Council passed a resolution to set up an biennial exhibition of Italian Art ("Esposizione biennale artistica nazionale") to celebrate the silver anniversary of King Umberto I and Margherita of Savoy.[11]

A year later, the council decreed "to adopt a 'by invitation' system; to reserve a section of the Exhibition for foreign artists too; to admit works by uninvited Italian artists, as selected by a jury."[12]

The first Biennale, "I Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte della Città di Venezia (1st International Art Exhibition of the City of Venice)" (although originally scheduled for April 22, 1894) was opened on April 30, 1895, by the Italian King and Queen, Umberto I and Margherita di Savoia. The first exhibition was seen by 224,000 visitors.

The event became increasingly international in the first decades of the 20th century: from 1907 on, several countries installed national pavilions at the exhibition, with the first being from Belgium. In 1910 the first internationally well-known artists were displayed: a room dedicated to Gustav Klimt, a one-man show for Renoir, a retrospective of Courbet. A work by Picasso "Family of Saltimbanques" was removed from the Spanish salon in the central Palazzo because it was feared that its novelty might shock the public. By 1914 seven pavilions had been established: Belgium (1907), Hungary (1909), Germany (1909), Great Britain (1909), France (1912), and Russia (1914).

During World War I, the 1916 and 1918 events were cancelled.[13] In 1920 the post of mayor of Venice and president of the Biennale was split. The new secretary general, Vittorio Pica brought about the first presence of avant-garde art, notably Impressionists and Post-Impressionists.

1922 saw an exhibition of sculpture by African artists. Between the two World Wars, many important modern artists had their work exhibited there. In 1928 the Istituto Storico d'Arte Contemporanea (Historical Institute of Contemporary Art) opened, which was the first nucleus of archival collections of the Biennale. In 1930 its name was changed into Historical Archive of Contemporary Art.

In 1930, the Biennale was transformed into an Ente Autonomo (Autonomous Board) by Royal Decree with law no. 33 of 13-1-1930. Subsequently, the control of the Biennale passed from the Venice city council to the national Fascist government under Benito Mussolini. This brought on a restructuring, an associated financial boost, as well as a new president, Count Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata. Three entirely new events were established, including the Biennale Musica in 1930, also referred to as International Festival of Contemporary Music; the Venice Film Festival in 1932, which they claim as the first film festival in history,[14] also referred to as Venice International Film Festival; and the Biennale Theatro in 1934, also referred to as International Theatre Festival.

In 1933 the Biennale organized an exhibition of Italian art abroad. From 1938, Grand Prizes were awarded in the art exhibition section.

During World War II, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted: 1942 saw the last edition of the events. The Film Festival restarted in 1946, the Music and Theatre festivals were resumed in 1947, and the Art Exhibition in 1948.[15]

1948–1973[edit]

The Art Biennale was resumed in 1948 with a major exhibition of a recapitulatory nature. The Secretary General, art historian Rodolfo Pallucchini, started with the Impressionists and many protagonists of contemporary art including Chagall, Klee, Braque, Delvaux, Ensor, and Magritte, as well as a retrospective of Picasso's work. Peggy Guggenheim was invited to exhibit her collection, later to be permanently housed at Ca' Venier dei Leoni.

1949 saw the beginning of renewed attention to avant-garde movements in European—and later worldwide—movements in contemporary art. Abstract expressionism was introduced in the 1950s, and the Biennale is credited with importing Pop Art into the canon of art history by awarding the top prize to Robert Rauschenberg in 1964.[16] From 1948 to 1972, Italian architect Carlo Scarpa did a series of remarkable interventions in the Biennale's exhibition spaces.

In 1954 the island San Giorgio Maggiore provided the venue for the first Japanese Noh theatre shows in Europe. 1956 saw the selection of films following an artistic selection and no longer based upon the designation of the participating country. The 1957 Golden Lion went to Satyajit Ray's Aparajito which introduced Indian cinema to the West.

1962 included Arte Informale at the Art Exhibition with Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Emilio Vedova, and Pietro Consagra. The 1964 Art Exhibition introduced continental Europe to Pop Art (The Independent Group had been founded in Britain in 1952). The American Robert Rauschenberg was the first American artist to win the Gran Premio, and the youngest to date.

The student protests of 1968 also marked a crisis for the Biennale. Student protests hindered the opening of the Biennale. A resulting period of institutional changes opened and ending with a new Statute in 1973. In 1969, following the protests, the Grand Prizes were abandoned. These resumed in 1980 for the Mostra del Cinema and in 1986 for the Art Exhibition.[17]

In 1972, for the first time, a theme was adopted by the Biennale, called "Opera o comportamento" ("Work or Behaviour").

Starting from 1973 the Music Festival was no longer held annually. During the year in which the Mostra del Cinema was not held, there was a series of "Giornate del cinema italiano" (Days of Italian Cinema) promoted by sectorial bodies in campo Santa Margherita, in Venice.[18]

1974–1998[edit]

1974 saw the start of the four-year presidency of Carlo Ripa di Meana. The International Art Exhibition was not held (until it was resumed in 1976). Theatre and cinema events were held in October 1974 and 1975 under the title Libertà per il Cile (Freedom for Chile)—a major cultural protest against the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.

On 15 November 1977, the so-called Dissident Biennale (in reference to the dissident movement in the USSR) opened. Because of the ensuing controversies within the Italian left wing parties, president Ripa di Meana resigned at the end of the year.[19]

In 1979 the new presidency of Giuseppe Galasso (1979-1982) began. The principle was laid down whereby each of the artistic sectors was to have a permanent director to organise its activity.

In 1980, the Architecture section of the Biennale was set up. The director, Paolo Portoghesi, opened the Corderie dell'Arsenale to the public for the first time. At the Mostra del Cinema, the awards were brought back into being (between 1969 and 1979, the editions were non-competitive). In 1980, Achille Bonito Oliva and Harald Szeemann introduced "Aperto", a section of the exhibition designed to explore emerging art. Italian art historian Giovanni Carandente directed the 1988 and 1990 editions. A three-year gap was left afterwards to make sure that the 1995 edition would coincide with the 100th anniversary of the Biennale.[13]

The 1993 edition was directed by Achille Bonito Oliva. In 1995, Jean Clair was appointed to be the Biennale's first non-Italian director of visual arts[20] while Germano Celant served as director in 1997.

For the Centenary in 1995, the Biennale promoted events in every sector of its activity: the 34th Festival del Teatro, the 46th art exhibition, the 46th Festival di Musica, the 52nd Mostra del Cinema.[21]

1999–present[edit]

In 1999 and 2001, Harald Szeemann directed two editions in a row (48th & 49th) bringing in a larger representation of artists from Asia and Eastern Europe and more young artists than usual and expanded the show into several newly restored spaces of the Arsenale.

In 1999 a new sector was created for live shows: DMT (Dance Music Theatre).

The 50th edition, 2003, directed by Francesco Bonami, had a record number of seven co-curators involved, including Hans Ulrich Obrist, Catherine David, Igor Zabel, Hou Hanru and Massimiliano Gioni.

The 51st edition of the Biennale opened in June 2005, curated, for the first time by two women, Maria de Corral and Rosa Martinez. De Corral organized "The Experience of Art" which included 41 artists, from past masters to younger figures. Rosa Martinez took over the Arsenale with "Always a Little Further." Drawing on "the myth of the romantic traveler" her exhibition involved 49 artists, ranging from the elegant to the profane.

In 2007, Robert Storr became the first director from the United States to curate the Biennale (the 52nd), with a show entitled Think with the Senses – Feel with the Mind. Art in the Present Tense.

Swedish curator Daniel Birnbaum was artistic director of the 2009 edition entitled "Fare Mondi // Making Worlds".

The 2011 edition was curated by Swiss curator Bice Curiger entitled "ILLUMInazioni – ILLUMInations".

The Biennale in 2013 was curated by the Italian Massimiliano Gioni. His title and theme, Il Palazzo Enciclopedico / The Encyclopedic Palace, was adopted from an architectural model by the self-taught Italian-American artist Marino Auriti. Auriti's work, The Encyclopedic Palace of the World was lent by the American Folk Art Museum and exhibited in the first room of the Arsenale for the duration of the biennale. For Gioni, Auriti's work, "meant to house all worldly knowledge, bringing together the greatest discoveries of the human race, from the wheel to the satellite," provided an analogous figure for the "biennale model itself...based on the impossible desire to concentrate the infinite worlds of contemporary art in a single place: a task that now seems as dizzyingly absurd as Auriti's dream."[22]

Curator Okwui Enwezor was responsible for the 2015 edition.[23] He was the first African-born curator of the biennial. As a catalyst for imagining different ways of imagining multiple desires and futures Enwezor commissioned special projects and programs throughout the Biennale in the Giardini. This included a Creative Time Summit, e-flux journal's SUPERCOMMUNITY, Gulf Labor Coalition, The Invisible Borders Trans-African Project and Abounaddara.[24][25]

The 2017 Biennale, titled Viva Arte Viva, was directed by French curator Christine Macel who called it an "exhibition inspired by humanism".[26] German artist Franz Erhard Walter won the Golden Lion for best artist, while Carolee Schneemann was awarded a posthumous Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement.[27]

The 2019 Biennale, titled May You Live In Interesting Times, was directed by American-born curator Ralph Rugoff.[28]

The 2022 edition was curated by Italian curator Cecilia Alemani entitled "The Milk of Dreams" after a book by British-born Mexican surrealist painter Leonora Carrington.[29]

The Biennale has an attendance today of over 500,000 visitors.[30][31][32]

Role in the art market[edit]

When the Venice Biennale was founded in 1895, one of its main goals was to establish a new market for contemporary art. Between 1942 and 1968 a sales office assisted artists in finding clients and selling their work,[33] a service for which it charged 10% commission. Sales remained an intrinsic part of the biennale until 1968, when a sales ban was enacted. An important practical reason why the focus on non-commodities has failed to decouple Venice from the market is that the biennale itself lacks the funds to produce, ship and install these large-scale works. Therefore, the financial involvement of dealers is widely regarded as indispensable;[16] as they regularly front the funding for production of ambitious projects.[34] Furthermore, every other year the Venice Biennale coincides with nearby Art Basel, the world's prime commercial fair for modern and contemporary art. Numerous galleries with artists on show in Venice usually bring work by the same artists to Basel.[35]

Central Pavilion and Arsenale[edit]

The formal Biennale is based at a park, the Giardini. The Giardini includes a large exhibition hall that houses a themed exhibition curated by the Biennale's director.

Initiated in 1980, the Aperto began as a fringe event for younger artists and artists of a national origin not represented by the permanent national pavilions. This is usually staged in the Arsenale and has become part of the formal biennale programme. In 1995 there was no Aperto so a number of participating countries hired venues to show exhibitions of emerging artists. From 1999, both the international exhibition and the Aperto were held as one exhibition, held both at the Central Pavilion and the Arsenale. Also in 1999, a $1 million renovation transformed the Arsenale area into a cluster of renovated shipyards, sheds and warehouses, more than doubling the Arsenale's exhibition space of previous years.[36]

A special edition of the 54th Biennale was held at Padiglione Italia of Torino Esposizioni – Sala Nervi (December 2011 – February 2012) for the 150th Anniversary of Italian Unification. The event was directed by Vittorio Sgarbi.[37]

National pavilions[edit]

Main article: National pavilions at the Venice Biennale

The Giardini houses 30 permanent national pavilions.[13] Alongside the Central Pavilion, built in 1894 and later restructured and extended several times, the Giardini are occupied by a further 29 pavilions built at different periods by the various countries participating in the Biennale. The first nation to build a pavilion was Belgium in 1907, followed by Germany, Britain and Hungary in 1909.[13] The pavilions are the property of the individual countries and are managed by their ministries of culture.[38]

Countries not owning a pavilion in the Giardini are exhibited in other venues across Venice. The number of countries represented is still growing. In 2005, China was showing for the first time, followed by the African Pavilion and Mexico (2007), the United Arab Emirates (2009), and India (2011).[39]

The assignment of the permanent pavilions was largely dictated by the international politics of the 1930s and the Cold War. There is no single format to how each country manages their pavilion, established and emerging countries represented at the biennial maintain and fund their pavilions in different ways.[38] While pavilions are usually government-funded, private money plays an increasingly large role; in 2015, the pavilions of Iraq, Ukraine and Syria were completely privately funded.[40] The pavilion for Great Britain is always managed by the British Council[41] while the United States assigns the responsibility to a public gallery chosen by the Department of State which, since 1985, has been the Peggy Guggenheim Collection.[42] The countries at the Arsenale that request a temporary exhibition space pay a hire fee per square meter.[38]

In 2011, the countries were Albania, Andorra, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Congo, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czechia and Slovakia, Denmark, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Haiti, Hungary, Iceland, India, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Mexico, Moldova, Montenegro, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela, Wales and Zimbabwe. In addition to this there are two collective pavilions: Central Asia Pavilion and Istituto Italo-Latino Americano. In 2013, eleven new participant countries developed national pavilions for the Biennale: Angola, Bosnia and Herzegowina, the Bahamas, Bahrain, the Ivory Coast, Kosovo, Kuwait, the Maldives, Paraguay, Tuvalu, and the Holy See. In 2015, five new participant countries developed pavilions for the Biennale: Grenada,[43] Republic of Mozambique, Republic of Seychelles, Mauritius and Mongolia. In 2017, three countries participated in the Art Biennale for the first time: Antigua & Barbuda, Kiribati, and Nigeria.[44] In 2019, four countries participated in the Art Biennale for the first time: Ghana, Madagascar, Malaysia, and Pakistan.[45]

As well as the national pavilions there are countless "unofficial pavilions"[46] that spring up every year. In 2009 there were pavilions such as the Gabon Pavilion and a Peckham pavilion. In 2017 The Diaspora Pavilion bought together 19 artists from complex, multinational backgrounds to challenge the prevalence of the nation state at the Biennale.[47]

The Internet Pavilion (Italian: Padiglione Internet) was founded in 2009 as a platform for activists and artists working in new media.[48][49][50] Subsequent editions were held since,[51] 2013,[51] in conjunction with the biennale.[52]

-----

وینسVenetsiya

art umjetnost umění kunst taideτέχνη művészetList ealaínarte māksla menasartiKunst sztuka artăumenie umetnost konstcelfקונסטարվեստincəsənətশিল্প艺术(yìshù)藝術 (yìshù)ხელოვნებაकलाkos duabアートಕಲೆសិល្បៈ미(misul)ສິນລະປະകലकलाအတတ်ပညာकलाකලාවகலைఆర్ట్ศิลปะ آرٹsan'atnghệ thuậtفن (fan)אומנותهنرsanat artist

venice biennale Venezia Venedig biennalen Bienal_de_Venecia Venise Venecia Bienalo Bienal Biënnale Venetië Veneza Μπιενάλε της Βενετίας ヴェネツィ ア・ビエンナーレ 威尼斯双年展 Venedik Bienali Venetsian biennaali Wenecji biennial #venicebiennale #venicebiennial biennalism

Veneziako Venecija Venècia Venetië Veneetsia Venetsia VenedigΒ ενετία Velence Feneyjar Venice Venēcija Venezja Venezia Wenecja VenezaVeneția Venetsiya Benátky Benetke Fenisוועניס Վենետիկ ভেনি স威尼斯 威尼斯 ვენეციისવે નિસवेनिसヴ ェネツィアವೆನಿಸ್베니스வெனிஸ்వెనిస్เวนิซوینس Venetsiya Italy italia

 

--------key words

headband protest fashion protestfashion artistic intervention performance artformat action installation critical critic critique institutional critic choregraphy scenography

#venicebiennale #biennalist #artformat #biennale #artbiennale #biennial

#BiennaleArte2024 #artformat

Biennalist :

Biennalist is an Art Format commenting on active biennials and managed cultural events through artworks.Biennalist takes the thematics of the biennales and similar events like festivals and conferences seriously, questioning the established structures of the staged art events in order to contribute to the debate, which they wish to generate.

-------------------------------------------

links about Biennalist :

 

Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thierry_Geoffroy

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Room_(art)

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

 

www.colonel.dk/

 

—--Biennale from wikipedia —--

 

The Venice International Film Festival is part of the Venice Biennale. The famous Golden Lion is awarded to the best film screening at the competition.

Biennale (Italian: [bi.enˈnaːle]), Italian for "biennial" or "every other year", is any event that happens every two years. It is most commonly used within the art world to describe large-scale international contemporary art exhibitions. As such the term was popularised by Venice Biennale, which was first held in 1895. Since the 1990s, the terms "biennale" and "biennial" have been interchangeably used in a more generic way - to signify a large-scale international survey show of contemporary art that recurs at regular intervals but not necessarily biannual (such as triennials, Documenta, Skulptur Projekte Münster).[1] The phrase has also been used for other artistic events, such as the "Biennale de Paris", "Kochi-Muziris Biennale", Berlinale (for the Berlin International Film Festival) and Viennale (for Vienna's international film festival).

Characteristics[edit]

According to author Federica Martini, what is at stake in contemporary biennales is the diplomatic/international relations potential as well as urban regeneration plans. Besides being mainly focused on the present (the “here and now” where the cultural event takes place and their effect of "spectacularisation of the everyday"), because of their site-specificity cultural events may refer back to,[who?] produce or frame the history of the site and communities' collective memory.[2]

 

The Great Exhibition in The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, in 1851, the first attempt to condense the representation of the world within a unitary exhibition space.

A strong and influent symbol of biennales and of large-scale international exhibitions in general is the Crystal Palace, the gigantic and futuristic London architecture that hosted the Great Exhibition in 1851. According to philosopher Peter Sloterdijk,[3][page needed] the Crystal Palace is the first attempt to condense the representation of the world in a unitary exhibition space, where the main exhibit is society itself in an a-historical, spectacular condition. The Crystal Palace main motives were the affirmation of British economic and national leadership and the creation of moments of spectacle. In this respect, 19th century World fairs provided a visual crystallization of colonial culture and were, at the same time, forerunners of contemporary theme parks.

The Venice Biennale as an archetype[edit]

 

The structure of the Venice Biennale in 2005 with an international exhibition and the national pavilions.

The Venice Biennale, a periodical large-scale cultural event founded in 1895, served as an archetype of the biennales. Meant to become a World Fair focused on contemporary art, the Venice Biennale used as a pretext the wedding anniversary of the Italian king and followed up to several national exhibitions organised after Italy unification in 1861. The Biennale immediately put forth issues of city marketing, cultural tourism and urban regeneration, as it was meant to reposition Venice on the international cultural map after the crisis due to the end of the Grand Tour model and the weakening of the Venetian school of painting. Furthermore, the Gardens where the Biennale takes place were an abandoned city area that needed to be re-functionalised. In cultural terms, the Biennale was meant to provide on a biennial basis a platform for discussing contemporary art practices that were not represented in fine arts museums at the time. The early Biennale model already included some key points that are still constitutive of large-scale international art exhibitions today: a mix of city marketing, internationalism, gentrification issues and destination culture, and the spectacular, large scale of the event.

Biennials after the 1990s[edit]

The situation of biennials has changed in the contemporary context: while at its origin in 1895 Venice was a unique cultural event, but since the 1990s hundreds of biennials have been organized across the globe. Given the ephemeral and irregular nature of some biennials, there is little consensus on the exact number of biennials in existence at any given time.[citation needed] Furthermore, while Venice was a unique agent in the presentation of contemporary art, since the 1960s several museums devoted to contemporary art are exhibiting the contemporary scene on a regular basis. Another point of difference concerns 19th century internationalism in the arts, that was brought into question by post-colonial debates and criticism of the contemporary art “ethnic marketing”, and also challenged the Venetian and World Fair’s national representation system. As a consequence of this, Eurocentric tendency to implode the whole word in an exhibition space, which characterises both the Crystal Palace and the Venice Biennale, is affected by the expansion of the artistic geographical map to scenes traditionally considered as marginal. The birth of the Havana Biennial in 1984 is widely considered an important counterpoint to the Venetian model for its prioritization of artists working in the Global South and curatorial rejection of the national pavilion model.

International biennales[edit]

In the term's most commonly used context of major recurrent art exhibitions:

Adelaide Biennial of Australian Art, South Australia

Asian Art Biennale, in Taichung, Taiwan (National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts)

Athens Biennale, in Athens, Greece

Bienal de Arte Paiz, in Guatemala City, Guatemala[4]

Arts in Marrakech (AiM) International Biennale (Arts in Marrakech Festival)

Bamako Encounters, a biennale of photography in Mali

Bat-Yam International Biennale of Landscape Urbanism

Beijing Biennale

Berlin Biennale (contemporary art biennale, to be distinguished from Berlinale, which is a film festival)

Bergen Assembly (triennial for contemporary art in Bergen, Norway)www.bergenassembly.no

Bi-City Biennale of Urbanism\Architecture, in Shenzhen and Hong Kong, China

Bienal de Arte de Ponce in Ponce, Puerto Rico

Biënnale van België, Biennial of Belgium, Belgium

BiennaleOnline Online biennial exhibition of contemporary art from the most promising emerging artists.

Biennial of Hawaii Artists

Biennale de la Biche, the smallest biennale in the world held at deserted island near Guadeloupe, French overseas region[5][6]

Biwako Biennale [ja], in Shiga, Japan

La Biennale de Montreal

Biennale of Luanda : Pan-African Forum for the Culture of Peace,[7] Angola

Boom Festival, international music and culture festival in Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal

Bucharest Biennale in Bucharest, Romania

Bushwick Biennial, in Bushwick, Brooklyn, New York

Canakkale Biennial, in Canakkale, Turkey

Cerveira International Art Biennial, Vila Nova de Cerveira, Portugal [8]

Changwon Sculpture Biennale in Changwon, South Korea

Dakar Biennale, also called Dak'Art, biennale in Dakar, Senegal

Documenta, contemporary art exhibition held every five years in Kassel, Germany

Estuaire (biennale), biennale in Nantes and Saint-Nazaire, France

EVA International, biennial in Limerick, Republic of Ireland

Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art, in Gothenburg, Sweden[9]

Greater Taipei Contemporary Art Biennial, in Taipei, Taiwan

Gwangju Biennale, Asia's first and most prestigious contemporary art biennale

Havana biennial, in Havana, Cuba

Helsinki Biennial, in Helsinki, Finland

Herzliya Biennial For Contemporary Art, in Herzliya, Israel

Incheon Women Artists' Biennale, in Incheon, South Korea

Iowa Biennial, in Iowa, USA

Istanbul Biennial, in Istanbul, Turkey

International Roaming Biennial of Tehran, in Tehran and Istanbul

Jakarta Biennale, in Jakarta, Indonesia

Jerusalem Biennale, in Jerusalem, Israel

Jogja Biennale, in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Karachi Biennale, in Karachi, Pakistan

Keelung Harbor Biennale, in Keelung, Taiwan

Kochi-Muziris Biennale, largest art exhibition in India, in Kochi, Kerala, India

Kortrijk Design Biennale Interieur, in Kortrijk, Belgium

Kobe Biennale, in Japan

Kuandu Biennale, in Taipei, Taiwan

Lagos Biennial, in Lagos, Nigeria[10]

Light Art Biennale Austria, in Austria

Liverpool Biennial, in Liverpool, UK

Lofoten International Art Festival [no] (LIAF), on the Lofoten archipelago, Norway[11]

Manifesta, European Biennale of contemporary art in different European cities

Mediations Biennale, in Poznań, Poland

Melbourne International Biennial 1999

Mediterranean Biennale in Sakhnin 2013

MOMENTA Biennale de l'image [fr] (formerly known as Le Mois de la Photo à Montréal), in Montreal, Canada

MOMENTUM [no], in Moss, Norway[12]

Moscow Biennale, in Moscow, Russia

Munich Biennale, new opera and music-theatre in even-numbered years

Mykonos Biennale

Nakanojo Biennale[13]

NGV Triennial, contemporary art exhibition held every three years at the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia

October Salon – Belgrade Biennale [sr], organised by the Cultural Center of Belgrade [sr], in Belgrade, Serbia[14]

OSTEN Biennial of Drawing Skopje, North Macedonia[15]

Biennale de Paris

Riga International Biennial of Contemporary Art (RIBOCA), in Riga, Latvia[16]

São Paulo Art Biennial, in São Paulo, Brazil

SCAPE Public Art Christchurch Biennial in Christchurch, New Zealand[17]

Prospect New Orleans

Seoul Biennale of Architecture and Urbanism

Sequences, in Reykjavík, Iceland[18]

Shanghai Biennale

Sharjah Biennale, in Sharjah, UAE

Singapore Biennale, held in various locations across the city-state island of Singapore

Screen City Biennial, in Stavanger, Norway

Biennale of Sydney

Taipei Biennale, in Taipei, Taiwan

Taiwan Arts Biennale, in Taichung, Taiwan (National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts)

Taiwan Film Biennale, in Hammer Museum, Los Angeles, U.S.A.

Thessaloniki Biennale of Contemporary Art [el], in Thessaloniki, Greece[19]

Dream city, produced by ART Rue Association in Tunisia

Vancouver Biennale

Visayas Islands Visual Arts Exhibition and Conference (VIVA ExCon) in the Philippines [20]

Venice Biennale, in Venice, Italy, which includes:

Venice Biennale of Contemporary Art

Venice Biennale of Architecture

Venice Film Festival

Vladivostok biennale of Visual Arts, in Vladivostok, Russia

Whitney Biennial, hosted by the Whitney Museum of American Art, in New York City, NY, USA

Web Biennial, produced with teams from Athens, Berlin and Istanbul.

West Africa Architecture Biennale,[21] Virtual in Lagos, Nigeria.

WRO Biennale, in Wrocław, Poland[22]

Music Biennale Zagreb

[SHIFT:ibpcpa] The International Biennale of Performance, Collaborative and Participatory Arts, Nomadic, International, Scotland, UK.

 

—---Venice Biennale from wikipedia —

 

The Venice Biennale (/ˌbiːɛˈnɑːleɪ, -li/; Italian: La Biennale di Venezia) is an international cultural exhibition hosted annually in Venice, Italy by the Biennale Foundation.[2][3][4] The biennale has been organised every year since 1895, which makes it the oldest of its kind. The main exhibition held in Castello, in the halls of the Arsenale and Biennale Gardens, alternates between art and architecture (hence the name biennale; biennial).[5][6][7] The other events hosted by the Foundation—spanning theatre, music, and dance—are held annually in various parts of Venice, whereas the Venice Film Festival takes place at the Lido.[8]

Organization[edit]

Art Biennale

Art Biennale

International Art Exhibition

1895

Even-numbered years (since 2022)

Venice Biennale of Architecture

International Architecture Exhibition

1980

Odd-numbered years (since 2021)

Biennale Musica

International Festival of Contemporary Music

1930

Annually (Sep/Oct)

Biennale Teatro

International Theatre Festival

1934

Annually (Jul/Aug)

Venice Film Festival

Venice International Film Festival

1932

Annually (Aug/Sep)

Venice Dance Biennale

International Festival of Contemporary Dance

1999

Annually (June; biennially 2010–16)

  

International Kids' Carnival

2009

Annually (during Carnevale)

  

History

1895–1947

On April 19, 1893, the Venetian City Council passed a resolution to set up an biennial exhibition of Italian Art ("Esposizione biennale artistica nazionale") to celebrate the silver anniversary of King Umberto I and Margherita of Savoy.[11]

A year later, the council decreed "to adopt a 'by invitation' system; to reserve a section of the Exhibition for foreign artists too; to admit works by uninvited Italian artists, as selected by a jury."[12]

The first Biennale, "I Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte della Città di Venezia (1st International Art Exhibition of the City of Venice)" (although originally scheduled for April 22, 1894) was opened on April 30, 1895, by the Italian King and Queen, Umberto I and Margherita di Savoia. The first exhibition was seen by 224,000 visitors.

The event became increasingly international in the first decades of the 20th century: from 1907 on, several countries installed national pavilions at the exhibition, with the first being from Belgium. In 1910 the first internationally well-known artists were displayed: a room dedicated to Gustav Klimt, a one-man show for Renoir, a retrospective of Courbet. A work by Picasso "Family of Saltimbanques" was removed from the Spanish salon in the central Palazzo because it was feared that its novelty might shock the public. By 1914 seven pavilions had been established: Belgium (1907), Hungary (1909), Germany (1909), Great Britain (1909), France (1912), and Russia (1914).

During World War I, the 1916 and 1918 events were cancelled.[13] In 1920 the post of mayor of Venice and president of the Biennale was split. The new secretary general, Vittorio Pica brought about the first presence of avant-garde art, notably Impressionists and Post-Impressionists.

1922 saw an exhibition of sculpture by African artists. Between the two World Wars, many important modern artists had their work exhibited there. In 1928 the Istituto Storico d'Arte Contemporanea (Historical Institute of Contemporary Art) opened, which was the first nucleus of archival collections of the Biennale. In 1930 its name was changed into Historical Archive of Contemporary Art.

In 1930, the Biennale was transformed into an Ente Autonomo (Autonomous Board) by Royal Decree with law no. 33 of 13-1-1930. Subsequently, the control of the Biennale passed from the Venice city council to the national Fascist government under Benito Mussolini. This brought on a restructuring, an associated financial boost, as well as a new president, Count Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata. Three entirely new events were established, including the Biennale Musica in 1930, also referred to as International Festival of Contemporary Music; the Venice Film Festival in 1932, which they claim as the first film festival in history,[14] also referred to as Venice International Film Festival; and the Biennale Theatro in 1934, also referred to as International Theatre Festival.

In 1933 the Biennale organized an exhibition of Italian art abroad. From 1938, Grand Prizes were awarded in the art exhibition section.

During World War II, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted: 1942 saw the last edition of the events. The Film Festival restarted in 1946, the Music and Theatre festivals were resumed in 1947, and the Art Exhibition in 1948.[15]

1948–1973[edit]

The Art Biennale was resumed in 1948 with a major exhibition of a recapitulatory nature. The Secretary General, art historian Rodolfo Pallucchini, started with the Impressionists and many protagonists of contemporary art including Chagall, Klee, Braque, Delvaux, Ensor, and Magritte, as well as a retrospective of Picasso's work. Peggy Guggenheim was invited to exhibit her collection, later to be permanently housed at Ca' Venier dei Leoni.

1949 saw the beginning of renewed attention to avant-garde movements in European—and later worldwide—movements in contemporary art. Abstract expressionism was introduced in the 1950s, and the Biennale is credited with importing Pop Art into the canon of art history by awarding the top prize to Robert Rauschenberg in 1964.[16] From 1948 to 1972, Italian architect Carlo Scarpa did a series of remarkable interventions in the Biennale's exhibition spaces.

In 1954 the island San Giorgio Maggiore provided the venue for the first Japanese Noh theatre shows in Europe. 1956 saw the selection of films following an artistic selection and no longer based upon the designation of the participating country. The 1957 Golden Lion went to Satyajit Ray's Aparajito which introduced Indian cinema to the West.

1962 included Arte Informale at the Art Exhibition with Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Emilio Vedova, and Pietro Consagra. The 1964 Art Exhibition introduced continental Europe to Pop Art (The Independent Group had been founded in Britain in 1952). The American Robert Rauschenberg was the first American artist to win the Gran Premio, and the youngest to date.

The student protests of 1968 also marked a crisis for the Biennale. Student protests hindered the opening of the Biennale. A resulting period of institutional changes opened and ending with a new Statute in 1973. In 1969, following the protests, the Grand Prizes were abandoned. These resumed in 1980 for the Mostra del Cinema and in 1986 for the Art Exhibition.[17]

In 1972, for the first time, a theme was adopted by the Biennale, called "Opera o comportamento" ("Work or Behaviour").

Starting from 1973 the Music Festival was no longer held annually. During the year in which the Mostra del Cinema was not held, there was a series of "Giornate del cinema italiano" (Days of Italian Cinema) promoted by sectorial bodies in campo Santa Margherita, in Venice.[18]

1974–1998[edit]

1974 saw the start of the four-year presidency of Carlo Ripa di Meana. The International Art Exhibition was not held (until it was resumed in 1976). Theatre and cinema events were held in October 1974 and 1975 under the title Libertà per il Cile (Freedom for Chile)—a major cultural protest against the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.

On 15 November 1977, the so-called Dissident Biennale (in reference to the dissident movement in the USSR) opened. Because of the ensuing controversies within the Italian left wing parties, president Ripa di Meana resigned at the end of the year.[19]

In 1979 the new presidency of Giuseppe Galasso (1979-1982) began. The principle was laid down whereby each of the artistic sectors was to have a permanent director to organise its activity.

In 1980, the Architecture section of the Biennale was set up. The director, Paolo Portoghesi, opened the Corderie dell'Arsenale to the public for the first time. At the Mostra del Cinema, the awards were brought back into being (between 1969 and 1979, the editions were non-competitive). In 1980, Achille Bonito Oliva and Harald Szeemann introduced "Aperto", a section of the exhibition designed to explore emerging art. Italian art historian Giovanni Carandente directed the 1988 and 1990 editions. A three-year gap was left afterwards to make sure that the 1995 edition would coincide with the 100th anniversary of the Biennale.[13]

The 1993 edition was directed by Achille Bonito Oliva. In 1995, Jean Clair was appointed to be the Biennale's first non-Italian director of visual arts[20] while Germano Celant served as director in 1997.

For the Centenary in 1995, the Biennale promoted events in every sector of its activity: the 34th Festival del Teatro, the 46th art exhibition, the 46th Festival di Musica, the 52nd Mostra del Cinema.[21]

1999–present[edit]

In 1999 and 2001, Harald Szeemann directed two editions in a row (48th & 49th) bringing in a larger representation of artists from Asia and Eastern Europe and more young artists than usual and expanded the show into several newly restored spaces of the Arsenale.

In 1999 a new sector was created for live shows: DMT (Dance Music Theatre).

The 50th edition, 2003, directed by Francesco Bonami, had a record number of seven co-curators involved, including Hans Ulrich Obrist, Catherine David, Igor Zabel, Hou Hanru and Massimiliano Gioni.

The 51st edition of the Biennale opened in June 2005, curated, for the first time by two women, Maria de Corral and Rosa Martinez. De Corral organized "The Experience of Art" which included 41 artists, from past masters to younger figures. Rosa Martinez took over the Arsenale with "Always a Little Further." Drawing on "the myth of the romantic traveler" her exhibition involved 49 artists, ranging from the elegant to the profane.

In 2007, Robert Storr became the first director from the United States to curate the Biennale (the 52nd), with a show entitled Think with the Senses – Feel with the Mind. Art in the Present Tense.

Swedish curator Daniel Birnbaum was artistic director of the 2009 edition entitled "Fare Mondi // Making Worlds".

The 2011 edition was curated by Swiss curator Bice Curiger entitled "ILLUMInazioni – ILLUMInations".

The Biennale in 2013 was curated by the Italian Massimiliano Gioni. His title and theme, Il Palazzo Enciclopedico / The Encyclopedic Palace, was adopted from an architectural model by the self-taught Italian-American artist Marino Auriti. Auriti's work, The Encyclopedic Palace of the World was lent by the American Folk Art Museum and exhibited in the first room of the Arsenale for the duration of the biennale. For Gioni, Auriti's work, "meant to house all worldly knowledge, bringing together the greatest discoveries of the human race, from the wheel to the satellite," provided an analogous figure for the "biennale model itself...based on the impossible desire to concentrate the infinite worlds of contemporary art in a single place: a task that now seems as dizzyingly absurd as Auriti's dream."[22]

Curator Okwui Enwezor was responsible for the 2015 edition.[23] He was the first African-born curator of the biennial. As a catalyst for imagining different ways of imagining multiple desires and futures Enwezor commissioned special projects and programs throughout the Biennale in the Giardini. This included a Creative Time Summit, e-flux journal's SUPERCOMMUNITY, Gulf Labor Coalition, The Invisible Borders Trans-African Project and Abounaddara.[24][25]

The 2017 Biennale, titled Viva Arte Viva, was directed by French curator Christine Macel who called it an "exhibition inspired by humanism".[26] German artist Franz Erhard Walter won the Golden Lion for best artist, while Carolee Schneemann was awarded a posthumous Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement.[27]

The 2019 Biennale, titled May You Live In Interesting Times, was directed by American-born curator Ralph Rugoff.[28]

The 2022 edition was curated by Italian curator Cecilia Alemani entitled "The Milk of Dreams" after a book by British-born Mexican surrealist painter Leonora Carrington.[29]

The Biennale has an attendance today of over 500,000 visitors.[30][31][32]

Role in the art market[edit]

When the Venice Biennale was founded in 1895, one of its main goals was to establish a new market for contemporary art. Between 1942 and 1968 a sales office assisted artists in finding clients and selling their work,[33] a service for which it charged 10% commission. Sales remained an intrinsic part of the biennale until 1968, when a sales ban was enacted. An important practical reason why the focus on non-commodities has failed to decouple Venice from the market is that the biennale itself lacks the funds to produce, ship and install these large-scale works. Therefore, the financial involvement of dealers is widely regarded as indispensable;[16] as they regularly front the funding for production of ambitious projects.[34] Furthermore, every other year the Venice Biennale coincides with nearby Art Basel, the world's prime commercial fair for modern and contemporary art. Numerous galleries with artists on show in Venice usually bring work by the same artists to Basel.[35]

Central Pavilion and Arsenale[edit]

The formal Biennale is based at a park, the Giardini. The Giardini includes a large exhibition hall that houses a themed exhibition curated by the Biennale's director.

Initiated in 1980, the Aperto began as a fringe event for younger artists and artists of a national origin not represented by the permanent national pavilions. This is usually staged in the Arsenale and has become part of the formal biennale programme. In 1995 there was no Aperto so a number of participating countries hired venues to show exhibitions of emerging artists. From 1999, both the international exhibition and the Aperto were held as one exhibition, held both at the Central Pavilion and the Arsenale. Also in 1999, a $1 million renovation transformed the Arsenale area into a cluster of renovated shipyards, sheds and warehouses, more than doubling the Arsenale's exhibition space of previous years.[36]

A special edition of the 54th Biennale was held at Padiglione Italia of Torino Esposizioni – Sala Nervi (December 2011 – February 2012) for the 150th Anniversary of Italian Unification. The event was directed by Vittorio Sgarbi.[37]

National pavilions[edit]

Main article: National pavilions at the Venice Biennale

The Giardini houses 30 permanent national pavilions.[13] Alongside the Central Pavilion, built in 1894 and later restructured and extended several times, the Giardini are occupied by a further 29 pavilions built at different periods by the various countries participating in the Biennale. The first nation to build a pavilion was Belgium in 1907, followed by Germany, Britain and Hungary in 1909.[13] The pavilions are the property of the individual countries and are managed by their ministries of culture.[38]

Countries not owning a pavilion in the Giardini are exhibited in other venues across Venice. The number of countries represented is still growing. In 2005, China was showing for the first time, followed by the African Pavilion and Mexico (2007), the United Arab Emirates (2009), and India (2011).[39]

The assignment of the permanent pavilions was largely dictated by the international politics of the 1930s and the Cold War. There is no single format to how each country manages their pavilion, established and emerging countries represented at the biennial maintain and fund their pavilions in different ways.[38] While pavilions are usually government-funded, private money plays an increasingly large role; in 2015, the pavilions of Iraq, Ukraine and Syria were completely privately funded.[40] The pavilion for Great Britain is always managed by the British Council[41] while the United States assigns the responsibility to a public gallery chosen by the Department of State which, since 1985, has been the Peggy Guggenheim Collection.[42] The countries at the Arsenale that request a temporary exhibition space pay a hire fee per square meter.[38]

In 2011, the countries were Albania, Andorra, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Congo, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czechia and Slovakia, Denmark, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Haiti, Hungary, Iceland, India, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Mexico, Moldova, Montenegro, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela, Wales and Zimbabwe. In addition to this there are two collective pavilions: Central Asia Pavilion and Istituto Italo-Latino Americano. In 2013, eleven new participant countries developed national pavilions for the Biennale: Angola, Bosnia and Herzegowina, the Bahamas, Bahrain, the Ivory Coast, Kosovo, Kuwait, the Maldives, Paraguay, Tuvalu, and the Holy See. In 2015, five new participant countries developed pavilions for the Biennale: Grenada,[43] Republic of Mozambique, Republic of Seychelles, Mauritius and Mongolia. In 2017, three countries participated in the Art Biennale for the first time: Antigua & Barbuda, Kiribati, and Nigeria.[44] In 2019, four countries participated in the Art Biennale for the first time: Ghana, Madagascar, Malaysia, and Pakistan.[45]

As well as the national pavilions there are countless "unofficial pavilions"[46] that spring up every year. In 2009 there were pavilions such as the Gabon Pavilion and a Peckham pavilion. In 2017 The Diaspora Pavilion bought together 19 artists from complex, multinational backgrounds to challenge the prevalence of the nation state at the Biennale.[47]

The Internet Pavilion (Italian: Padiglione Internet) was founded in 2009 as a platform for activists and artists working in new media.[48][49][50] Subsequent editions were held since,[51] 2013,[51] in conjunction with the biennale.[52]

-----

وینسVenetsiya

art umjetnost umění kunst taideτέχνη művészetList ealaínarte māksla menasartiKunst sztuka artăumenie umetnost konstcelfקונסטարվեստincəsənətশিল্প艺术(yìshù)藝術 (yìshù)ხელოვნებაकलाkos duabアートಕಲೆសិល្បៈ미(misul)ສິນລະປະകലकलाအတတ်ပညာकलाකලාවகலைఆర్ట్ศิลปะ آرٹsan'atnghệ thuậtفن (fan)אומנותهنرsanat artist

venice biennale Venezia Venedig biennalen Bienal_de_Venecia Venise Venecia Bienalo Bienal Biënnale Venetië Veneza Μπιενάλε της Βενετίας ヴェネツィ ア・ビエンナーレ 威尼斯双年展 Venedik Bienali Venetsian biennaali Wenecji biennial #venicebiennale #venicebiennial biennalism

Veneziako Venecija Venècia Venetië Veneetsia Venetsia VenedigΒ ενετία Velence Feneyjar Venice Venēcija Venezja Venezia Wenecja VenezaVeneția Venetsiya Benátky Benetke Fenisוועניס Վենետիկ ভেনি স威尼斯 威尼斯 ვენეციისવે નિસवेनिसヴ ェネツィアವೆನಿಸ್베니스வெனிஸ்వెనిస్เวนิซوینس Venetsiya Italy italia

 

--------key words

headband protest fashion protestfashion artistic intervention performance artformat action installation critical critic critique institutional critic choregraphy scenography

#venicebiennale #biennalist #artformat #biennale #artbiennale #biennial

#BiennaleArte2024 #artformat

© Earl C. Leatherberry, Do Not Use Without Written Consent

 

The story-and-a-half structure, a 1870s dwelling known as the Small Keeper's House, was moved by barge across Currituck Sound from the Long Point Lighthouse Station in 1920 to the lighthouse property. The structure was the second, and smaller keeper's house at the lighthouse. The T-shaped building exhibits traits of Victorian Gothic and Eastern Stick styles including its elaborate vergeboard and scalloped upper-story board-and batten covering, steeply pitched gable roof, cross gables, roof rafters, brackets, and a large porch whose shed roof is supported by plain structural posts. After falling into disrepair, the building was restored between 1990 and 1993. The Currituck Beach Lighthouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Small Keeper's House is a contributing property.

 

According to the National Park Service, Lomaki means "Beautiful House" in the Hopi language. Lomaki Pueblo has nine rooms constructed from local limestone and sandstone in the last decade of the 1100s by people we call Ancestral Puebloans. Remnants of the stone dwelling rise from the bedrock distinguish by corners and straight lines. The Ancestral Puebloans did not stay long- by 1250 they were gone. The remaining portions the dwellings are special and sacred places to Indigenous people. Through the efforts of preservationists and the National Park Service, we can pause and gaze at those remaining marvelous creations of the Ancestral Puebloans.

 

The largest historical stabilization efforts of Lomaki Pueblo were conducted in 1941 and 1954. Several wood supports were installed in the first project but were no longer effective and were replaced by hidden metal supports in 1954.

 

Wupatki National Monument is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and Lomaki Pueblo is a contributing site.

The building in the photograph was used as the Post Headquarter and Administration Building. Built in 1902, it is one of the last remaining original buildings at Fort Mott. The building reflects the style of military construction that was prevalent during the period when Fort Mott was established. The U. S. Army often constructed buildings in the Greek Revival Style because of its simple, elegant lines and traditional form. Common Greek Revival Style elements featured in the house include the full length entry porch, box cornice end returns, two interior end chimneys, and palladian windows located in each gable end. The structure probably was built as senior officer quarters because its style and layout resembles that of officer quarters at other early 20th century forts. A period map of Fort Mott labels the structure as officer quarters, located on officers row the area where officers resided. The building is in the Fort Mott and Finns Point National Cemetery Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places and is a contributing property.

 

Fort Mott was part of a coastal defense complex, along with Forts DuPont and Delaware, near the entrance to the Delaware River. Soldiers were regularly stationed at Fort Mott from 1897 to 1922. The federal government maintained a caretaking detachment at the fort from 1922 to 1943. New Jersey acquired Fort Mott and designated it a state historic site and park in 1947.

 

The Sioux Falls Coliseum featuring Renaissance Revival elements was built in 1917 to host concerts, road shows, and other events and gatherings. In the 1930s an annex and Armory were added to the building. A fire in 1973 destroyed the additions and lead to discussions about tearing down the building. However, the original structure was preserved and restored, becoming home to the Multi-Cultural Center and continuing to host community gatherings and special events. The building is locate in the Old Courthouse and Warehouse Historic District listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a contributing property.

 

"editor-in-chief" James H.Marsh.

 

2nd edition, revised. Edmonton, Hurtig Publishers Limited, [december] 1988. ISBN o-8883o-326-2.

 

4 volumes in 9-1/16 12-1/16 x 6-1/4 cream linen-covered brown board slipbox, both sides printed gold foil letterpress:

 

1. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME I A - Edu..

ISBN o-8883o-327-o.

8-7/16 x 1o-7/8, 176 sheets white Rolland 5o Lb S.T. Encyclopedia Opaque folded to 22 signatures of 8 sheets each, sewn pearl white in 13 stitches & glued into white heavy bond endpapers & 8-3/4 x 11-5/16 red linen-covered boards with approx.1-5/16" yellow & red cloth applique head~ & tailbands, spine only printed gold foil letterpress, interiors all except 3 pp (versos of 3rd & 21st leaves, recto 19th) printed black offset with 3-colour process additions to 297 pp (393 black only); paginated i-xli/1-662;

 

2. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME II Edu - Min.

ISBN o-8883o-328-9.

as volume 1 but all printed with 3-colour process additions to 331 pp (368 black only); paginated 663-1364;

 

3. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME III Min - Sta.

ISBN o-8883o-329-7.

as volume 1 but all printed with 3-colour process additions to 358 pp (34o black only); paginated 1365-2o66;

 

4. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME IV Sta - Z.

ISBN o-8883o-33o-o.

as volume 1 but 168 sheets in 21 signatures with all except p.2364 printed, 3-colour process additions to 15o pp (34o black only); paginated 2o67-2736.

 

all volumes with uniform endpaper graphic by Michael J.Lee.

 

3174 contributors ID'd (note: 248 asterisked names contribute to all 4 volumes; questioned names appear in the index without their contribution(s) having been located):

Caroline Louise Abbott*, Irving Abella*, William Aberhart, Thomas S.Abler, Mark Abley, Baha R.Abu-Laban, George Ackerman, Donald F.Acton, Peter Adams, Jacqueline Adell, Peter A.Adie?, Catherine Ahearn, David E.Aiken, Jim Albert, Frederick A.Aldrich, Eric Aldwinckle, Peter Aliknak, Gratien Allaire, Jacques Allard, A.Richard Allen, Karyn Elizabeth Allen, Max Allen, Robert S.Allen*, Willard F.Allen, Marlene Michele Alt*, Patrick Altman, John Amatt, Laurent Amiot, Pierre Anctil, Bob Anderson, Donald W.Anderson, Doris H.Anderson, Duncan M.Anderson, Frank W.Anderson, Grace Merle Anderson, Peter S.Anderson*, Christopher A.Andreae, Bernard Andres, Sheila Andrew, Florence K.Andrews, Donald F.P.Andrus, Paul Anicef, Thomas H.Anstey, Louis Applebaum, Christon I.Archer*, David J.W.Archer, Clinton Archibald, Mary Archibald, Eugene Y.Arima, Allan Arlett, Leslie Armour, Pat Armstrong, William Armstrong, John T.Arnason, Georges Arsenault, Celine Arseneault*, Eric R.Arthur, Alan F.J.Artibise*, Michael I.Asch, Kenojuak Ashevak, Kiugak Ashoona, Athanasios Asimakopulos, Alain Asselin, Alan J.Asselstine, Barbara Astman, John Atchison, T.Atkinson, Margaret Atwood, Irene E.Aubrey, Alasi Audla, Eleanor E.Augusteijn, Karl Aun, Peter J.Austin-Smith, Helgi H.Austman, Donald H.Avery, Thomas Axworthy, William A.Ayer, Hugh D.Ayers, G.Burton Ayles, John Ayre, Maureen Aytenfisu, Douglas R.Babcock, Robert H.Babcock, Robert E.Babe, Leo Bachle, Morrell P.Bachynski, Margaret Baerwaldt, Harry Baglole, Kenneth Bagnell, David H.Bai, Margaret J.Baigent, Karen E.Bailey, Paul Bailey, Francis Baillairge, David M.Baird, Patricia A.Baird, Allan J.Baker, G.Blaine Baker, Melvin Baker, R.T.Baker, William M.Baker, Chalres S.Baldwin, Douglas O.Baldwin, John R.Baldwin, W.W.Baldwin, Gordon Bale, Georgiana G.Ball, Norman R.Ball, Robert J.Bandoni, Paul A.Banfield, Keith Gordon Banting, Alvin Baragar, Marilyn J.Barber, Douglas F.Barbour*, Clifford A.V.Barker, Jon C.Barlow, Jean Barman, David T.Barnard, John Barnes, Reg G.Barnes, Elinor Barr, John J.Barr, Remigio Germano Barradas, Robert F.Barratt*, Tony Barrett, Wayne R.Barrett, H.J.Barrie, John Barrington-Leigh, Ted Barris*, George S.Barry, David W.Bartlett, Donald R.Bartlett, William Henry Bartlett, James F.Basinger, Peter A.Baskerville, Marilyn J.Baszczynski, Alan H.Batten, Jean-Louis Baudouin, Carol Baum, John C.Bayfield, Jules Bazin, Bob Beal, Gladys Bean, Norma Bearcroft, William R.Beard, Jackson Beardy, Belinda A.Beaton*, Owen B.Beattie, Henri Beau, Gerald-A.Beaudoin*, Rejean Beaudoin, Jacqueline Beaudoin-Ross, Louise Beaudry, Benjamin Beaufoy, France Beauregard, Brian P

B.N.Beaven, Brian R.Bechtel, J.Murray Beck*, Margaret Beckman, John Beckwith, Roger Bedard, Michael Bedford, Dean Beeby, Don R.Beer, Michael D.Behiels*, Madeleine Beland, Mario Beland, Guy Belanger, Real Belanger, Rene Belanger, Roger Belanger, Jean Belisle, D.G.Bell, Norman Bell, Norman W.Bell, Ruben C.Bellan, Andre Belleau, Rene J.Belzile, Beverley Bendell, J.W.Bengough, Gerry Bennett, John Bennett, Edward Horton Bensley, Douglas Bentham, K.Bentham, D.M.R.Bentley, David J.Bercuson, William Berczy, John J.Bergen, Jeniva Berger, Thomas R.Berger, Claude Bergeron, A.T.Bergerud, Norbert Berkowitz, Andre Bernard, Frank R.Bernard, Jean-Paul Bernard, Jean-Thomas Bernard, Jacques Bernier, Marc Bernier, Elliott Bernshaw, Nicole Bernshaw, Jonathan Berry, Michael J.Berry, Ralph Berry, Pierre Berton, Neil Besner*, Diane E.Bessai, Carl Betke, John Michael Bewers, Onnig Beylerian, Bruce Bezaire, M.Vincent Bezeau, Reginald W.Bibby, Gilles Bibeau, Ivan B.Bickell, Julius Bigauskas, Petro B.T.Bilaniuk, Robert Billings, Ge4offrey Bilson, B.C.Binning, Carolyn J.Bir, Michael S.Bird, Richard M.Bird, Andrew Birrell, Carol Anne Bishop, Charles A.Bishop, Mary F.Bishop, Alastair Bissett-Johnson, Conrad M.Black, Joseph Laurence Black, Martha Louise Black, Meredith Jean Black, Naomi Black, Robert G.Blackadar, Robert H.Blackburn, John D.Blackwell, Eleanor M.Blain, Alex M.Blair, Robert Blair, Andre Blais, Phyllis R.Blakeley, J.Sherman Bleakney, Bertram C.Blevis, Lawrence C.Bliss, Michael Bliss, E.D.Blodgett, Jean Blodgett, Hans Blohm, Ronald Bloor, Arthur W.Blue, A.Blyth, Robin W.Boadway, David A.Boag, Ruby Boardman, Douglas H.Bocking, Jack Boddington, Trevor Boddy, John M.Bodner, George J.Boer, James P.Bogart, Jean Sutherland Boggs, Tibor Bognar, Gilles Boileau, Aurelien Boivin, Bernard Boivin, Jean Boivin, Geoffrey Bokovany, Andre Bolduc, Yves Bolduc, Glen W.Boles*, Francis W.P.Bolger, Kenneth E.Bollinger, George Bonavia, Courtney C.J.Bond, Flint Bondurant, Joseph Bonenfant, Gayle Bonish, Roy Bonisteel, Rudy Boonstra, W.Hanson Boorne, Rodney M.Booth, Paul M.Boothe, Paul-Emil Borduas, Robert Bothwell*, Robert D.Bott, Randy Bouchard, Michel A.Boucher, Gilles Boulet, Roger H.Boulet, Doug Boult, Andre G.Bourassa, Nicole Bourbonnais, Pierre L.Bourgault, John Brian Bourne, Patricia E.Bovey, A.J.Bowen, Lynne E.Bowen, Wilbur Fee Bowker, Roy T.Bowles, Hartwell Bowsfield, Christine Boyanoski, Farrell M.Boyce, John Boyd, Oliver A.Bradt, William J.Brady, Chris Braiden, F.Gerald Brander, Guy R.Brassard, Ted J.Brasser, Bernard Brault, R.Matthew Bray*, J.A.Breck, David H.Breen*, Francois Bregha, Sidney Bregman, Willard Brehaut*, J.William Brennan, Paul W.Brennan, Raymond Breton, Roland Brideau, Harry John Bridgman, John E.C.Brierley*, Jean L.Briggs, David R.Brillinger, Jack Brink, Ralph O.Brinkhurst, Robert Brisebois, Aldo Brochet, Andre Brochu, Irwin M.Brodo, Somer Brodribb, Alan A.Brookes, Ian A.Brookes, Bill Brooks, David B.Brooks, Robert S.Broughton, Yvs Brousseau, Walt Browarny, D.P.Brown, David Brown, Desmond H.Brown*, E.Brown, Jennifer S.H.Brown*, Richard G.B.Brown*, Robert Craig Brown, Roy I.Brown, Thomas E.Brown, Don R.Brownell, Lorne D.Bruce, Fred Bruemmer, John H.Brumley, Alan G.Brunger, Reinhart A.Brust, Rorke Bardon Bryan, Giles Bradley Bryant, Thomas A.Brzustowki, [--?--] Buache, Norman Buchignani, Ruth Matheson Buck, Phillip A.Buckner*, Geoff Budden, Susan Buggey, Lise Buisson, Paul Buitenhuis, John Bullen, J.M.Bumsted*, Jim Burant, Patricvk H.Burden, Joan Burke, Robert D.Burke, Jean Burnet, David Burnett*, Marilyn Schiff Burnett*, Dorothy K.Burnham, Eedson Louis Millard Burns, Michael Burns, Robert J.Burns, Robin Burns, Ian Burton, Jack Bush, Paul Buteux, Frank Taylor Butler, K.Jack Butler, Margaret Butschler, Edward Butts, Robert E.Butts, Marcel Cadotte, Gordon F.Callahan, John C.Callaghan, John W.Callahan, June Callwood, Lorraine Camerlain, Bill Cameron, Christina Cameron, Duncan Cameron, Elspeth Cameron, James M.Cameron, Wendy Cameron*, A.Barrie Campbell, Beverly Campbell, Douglas F.Campbell, Gordon Campbell, Ian A.Campbell, J.Milton Campbell, Jack J.R.Campbell, Neil John Campbell, Percy I.Campbell, Sandra Campbell, Richard Campion, William T.Cannon, Pierre Cantin, Usher Caplan, Emily F.Carasco, Clifton F.Carbin, Douglas Cardinal, Patrick R.T.Cardy, Thomas H.Carefoot, J.M.S.Careless*, Gilles Carle, Jock Alan Carlisle, Franklin Carmichael, Derek Caron, Laurent G.Caron, Carole H.Carpenter, Ken Carpenter, Emily Carr, Gaston Carriere, Carman V.Carroll, Jock Carroll, Brian G.Carter, George E.Carter, Margaret Carter, Richard J.Cashin, Ian Casselman, Maureen Cassidy, George Catlin, Michel Cauchon, Paul B.Cavers*, Richard Chabot, Roland Chagnon, Jim Chalmers, Roger Chamberland, Edward J.Chambers, Francis J.Chambers, James K.Chambers, Robert D.Chambers, D.H.Champ(?), Guy Champagne, Michel Champagne*, James K.Chapman, John D.Chapman, Louis Charbonneau, John Charles, Murray N.Charlton, L.Margaret Chartrand, Luc Chatrand, Rene Chartrand, Brian D.E.Chatterton, Gilles Chausse, Rick Checkland, Michel Vincent Cheff, Nancy Miller Chenier, Anselme Chiasson, Zeonon Chiasson, Walter R.Childers, Peter D.Chimbos, Blair Ching, Alexander J.Chisholm, Elspeth Chisholm, Robert Choquette, Catherine D.Chorniawy, Diana Chown, Jean Chretien, Timothy J.Christian, William E.Christian, Carl A.Christie, G.L.Christie, Innis Christie, Jim Christopher, B.Bert Chubey, Charles Stephen Churcher*, Janet Chute, S.Donald C.Chutter, Jacques Cinq-Mars, V.Claerhout, John J.Clague, Michael Thomas Clandinin, A.McFadyen Clark, Howard C.Clark, Lovell C.Clark*, Paraskeva Clark, Robert H.Clark, Andrew Clark, Howard C.Clark, Kenneth R.Clark, Lovell C.Clark, Paraskeva Clark, Robert H.Clark, T.Alan Clark, Thomas H.Clark, Wesley J.Clark, R.Allyn Clarke, Stephen Clarkson, Wallace Clement, Nathalie Clerk*, Norman Clermont, Yves W.Clermont, Howard Clifford, William L.Clink, Richard T.Clippingdae, W.J.Clouston, Nicole Cloutier, Gigi Clowes, Brian W.Coad, John P.Coakley, Donna Coates, Kenneth S.Coates, Bente Roed Cochran, James P.Cockburn, C.Cockroft, William James Cody, Dale R.Cogswell, Fred Cogswell, Stanley A.Cohen, Bruce Cohoon, Susan G.Cole, James Coleman, Patricia H.Coleman, Elizabeth Collard, Paulette Collet, Malcolm M.C.Collins, Helen Fabia Collinson, John Robert Colombo*, Charles Comfort, Alan Conboy, Odette Condemine, David R.Conn, M.Patricia Connelly, James T.H.Connor, Leonard W.Conolly, Robert J.Conover*, Margaret Conrad, A.Brandon Conron, Brian E.Conway, F.Graham Cooch, Eung-Do Cook, Francis R.Cook, Kennon Cooke, O.A.Cooke, Owen Cooke, Heather Cooper, Gordon William Cope, Murray J.Copeland, Brent Copley, John R.D.Copley, Pierre Corbeil, Frank Corcoran, J.Clement Cormier, Paul Grant Cornell, Peter M.Cornell, Vincenzo Coronelli, Frank Cosentino*, Ronald L.Cosper, Francoise Cote, Jean G.Cote, Mark Cote, Jacques Cotnam, Rebecca Priegert Coulter, Robert T.Coupland, Thomas J.Courchene, John J.Courtney, Sally Coutts, John J.Cove, Jeff G.Cowan, Harold G.Coward, Bruce Cox, Diane Wilson Cox, Michael F.Crabb*, Laurence Harold Cragg, George Craig, Mary M.Craig*, Terrence L.Craig, Ian K.Crain, Brian A.Crane, David Crane, John L.Cranmer-Byng, Donald A.Cranstone, David L.Craven, Roy D.Crawford, Judith Crawley, Tim Creery, Philippe Crine, Harold Crookell, John Crosby*, Michael S.Cross, Diane Crossley, E.J.Crossman, Omer Croteau, A.David Crowe, Jean Margaret Crowe, Keith Jeffray Crowe, Ronald B.Crowe, David M.Cruden, David A.Cruickshank, Ken Cruickshank, Paul E.Crunican, Rudolf P.Cujes, Maurice Cullen, Bruce Gordon Cumming, Carman W.Cumming, Leslie Merrill Cumming, Doug Curran, Philip J.Currie, Raymond F.Currie, Walter A.Curtin*, Christopher G.Curtis*, Edward S.Curtis, James E.Curtis, Leonard J.Cusack, Maurice Cutler, Jerome S.Cybulski, Michael Czubokal, Joachim B.Czypionka, Anne Innis Dagg, Lorraine G.D'Agincourt, Edward H.Dahl, Hallvard Dahlie, Moshie E.Dahms, Hugh Monro Dale, Ralph Dale, John H.Dales, Micheline D'Allaire, F.Dally, D.Daly, Eric W.Daly, Nathaniel Dance, Pierre Dansereau, Ruth Danys, Regna Darnell, Hugh A.Daubeny, Paul Davenport, Frank Davey, Gilbert David, Helene David, Peter P.David, William A.B.Davidson, Adriana A.Davies, Gwendolyn Davies, Jim Davies, John A.Davies, Ken Davies, Thomas Davies, Ann Davis, Chuck Davis, Richard C.Davis, Vicki L.Davis, James D.Davison, Michael J.Dawe, John M.Day, Lawrence Day, Barbara K.Deans, Philip Dearden, Chris DeBresson, Theod De Bry, Malcolm Graeme Decarie, Samuel De Champlain, Bart F.Deeg, Ronald K.Deeprose, James V.DeFelice, Nicolas De Fer, C.G.Van Zyll De Jong, Nicolas J.De Jong*, Norman C.Delarue, J.De Lavoye, Vincent M.Del Buono, Guillaume Del'Isle, L.Denis Delorme, Hugh A.Dempsey, L.James Dempsey, Michael R.Dence, David Dendy, John D.Dennison, A.A.Den Otter, Dora De Pedery-Hunt, Honor De Pencier, D.De Richeterre, Jacques F.Derome, Duncan R.Derry, Ramsay Derry, Peter Desbarats, Joseph F.W.DesBarres, Pierre Desceliers, Donald Deschenes, Jean-Luc DesGranges, Andree Desilets*, Yvon Desloges, G.J.DeSorcy, Marie Jose Des Rivieres, Marquis De Tracy, MacDonald Dettwiler, John DeVisser*, Philip M.Dewan, John Dewhirst*, Lyle Dick, Lloyd Merlin Dickie, John A.Dickinson, William Trevor Dickinson, Nigel Dickson, Gera Dillon, Larry Dillon, Milan V.Dimic, Gerard Dion, Raoul Dionne, Rene Dionne, Gerald E.Dirks, Patricia G.Dirks, Richard J.Diubaldo, Murray Dobbin, Mike Dobel, A.Rodney Dobell, Diane Dodd, Donald Andrew Dodman, Audrey D.Doerr, G.C.Dohler, Allen Doiron, Claude Ernest Dolman, Louise Dompierre, Mairi Donaldson, Sue Ann Donaldson, Margaret Mary Donnelly, John Donner, Andre Donneur, Penelope B.R.Doob*, Peter K.Doody, Joyce Doolittle, Anthony H.J.Dorsey, Yvon Dore, Gilles Dorian, John B.Dossetor, Lydia Dotto, Roger A.Doucet, Leonard A.Doucette, Charles Dougall, Jane L.Dougan, Charles Douglas, David H.Douglas, W.A.B.Douglas, Marguerite R.Dow, William F.Dowbiggin, R.Keith Downey, Arthur T.Doyle*, Denzil J.Doyle, James Doyle, Richard J.Doyle, Pierre Doyon, Sharon Drache, Derek C.Drager, Bronwyn Drainie, Wilhelmina M.Drake, D.Wayne Draper, James A.Draper, Nandor Fred Dreisziger, Leo Driedger, Kenneth F.Drinkwater, Bernadette Driscoll, Jean-Pierre Drolet, Glenn Drover, Ian M.Drummond, R.Norman Drummond, Jean E.Dryden, Patrick D.Drysdale, Jean-Marie M.Dubois*, James R.Dubro, Leo Ducharme, Raymond Duchesne*, Francois Duchesneau, Jean-Marcel Duciaume, Madeleine Ducrocq-Poirier, Dennis Duffy, Claude Duflos, Walter W.Duley, Gaston Dulong, Francois Dumont, Micheline Dumont, M.J.Dunbar, Graham W.Duncan, Neil J.Duncan, Robert H.Dunham, Marilyn E.Dunlop, Brian Leigh Dunnigan, A.Davidson Dunton, Jean R.Duperreault, Jean-Claude Dupont, Serge Marc Durflinger, Rene Durocher, Gabriel Dussault, Charles Dutoit, O.P.Dwived, Noel Dyck, Charles C.Dyer, James G.Dykes, John A.Eager, William A.Eager, John A.Eagle, Peter R.Eakins, Ross A.Eaman, Harry C.Eastman, Colin Eatock, Dorothy Harley Eber, William John Eccles*, Christine Eddie, E.V.Eddie, Charles Edenshaw, Arnold Edinborough, Oliver Edward Edwards, Peggy Edwards, Roger B.Ehrhardt, Margrit Eichler, Neil Einarson, Wilfred L.Eisnor, R.Bruce Elder, Jean Elford, Peter Douglas Elias, E.Elice, Michael Elie, C.W.J.Eliot, Bruce S.Elliott, David R.Elliott, James A.Elliott, Marie Elliott, David Ellis, Kosso Eloul, John A.Elson, George Emery, Donald W.Emmerson, Douglas B.Emmons, Maurice Emond, William F.Empey, Mike Emre, John R.English*, Murray W.Enkin, Philip C.Enros, Frank H.Epp, Isaac Erb, Robert Bruce Erb, Arthur Erickson, Glen E.Erikson, Anthony J.Erskine, Sorel Etrog, Brian L.Evans, David K.Evans*, John Evans, W.F.J.Evans, Ivan Eyre, William Faden, Joe Fafard, Curtis Fahey, Valerie J.Fall, A.Murray Fallis, Peter V.Fankboner, D.M.L.Farr*, Dorothy M.Farr, Fred Farrell, Giuseppe Fassio, George D.Fawcett, Alison Feder, Sergey Fedoroff, Margery Fee, Kevin O'Brien Fehr, William Feindel, Seth R.Feldman, Donald Fenna, William O.Fennell, M.Brock Fenton, Terry L.Fenton, Bob Ferguson, Howard L.Ferguson, Mary W.Ferguson*, J.D.Fernie, Jean Ferron, Douglas Fetherling*, Menno Fieguth, George Field, John L.Field, Richard Henning Field, Robert Field, Leonard M.Findlay, Judith Fingard, Howard R.Fink, Alvin Finkel, Maxwell Finklestein, Douglas A.Finlayson*, Gerard Finley, Gerard Finn, Christine Firth, Douglas J.Fisher, Richard S.Fisher, Robin Fisher, Stan C.Fisher, John Walter Fitsell, Lionel LeMoine FitzGerald, Patrick J.Fitzgerald, Tim Fitzharris*, David H.Flaherty, Thomas Flanagan, Allan R.Fleming, Elizabeth A.Fleming, R.B.Fleming, Robert J.Fleming, Sandford Fleming, David B.Flemming, Marilyn G.Flitton, Halle Flygare, Pieter A.Folkens, David G.Fong, Max L.Foran, Ernest R.Forbes, R.E.Forbes, William B.Forbes, Richard G.Forbis, Dennis P.Forcese, Anne Rochon Ford, Clifford Ford, Derek C.Ford, Gillian Ford, Susan Ford, Bertrand Forest, Ronald W.Forrester, Warren D.Forrester, Eugene Alfred Forsey, Frank R.Forsyth, Peter A.Forsyth, Claire-Andree Fortin, Gerald Fortin, Charles N.Forward, William F.Forward, Brian F.Foss, Franklin L.Foster, J.Bristol Foster, John Bellamy Foster, John E.Foster*, Michael K.Foster, Glenn B.Foulds, Nancy Brown Foulds, Edith M.Fowke, Marian Fowler, Charlie Fox, Paul W.Fox, Richard C.Fox, Rosemary J.Fox, Daniel Francis*, Diane Francis(?), David Frank, Julius F.Frank, Colin Athel Franklin, C.E.S.Franks, David Fransen, Robert T.Franson, Arman Frappier(?), Jorge Frascara, David Fraser, John A.Fraser, Kathleen D.J.Fraser, Robert Lochiel Fraser*, Pierre Frechette, Howard Townley Fredeen, Benjamin Freedman, Gordon Russel Freeman, Mac Freeman, Milton M.R.Freeman, Minnie Aodla Freeman, Roger D.Freeman, Walter H.P.Freitag, Carey French, Hugh M.French, Elizabeth Frey, James S.Frideres, Gerald Friesen, James D.Friesen, Jean M.Friesen, Jimmie Frise, Stanley Brice Frost, Adam G.Fuerstenberg, Robert Fulford, Anthony M.Fuller, George R.Fuller, William A.Fuller, Carol W.Fullerton, Douglas H.Fullerton, Ian F.Furniss, Richard W.Fyfe*, William S.Fyfe, Rene Robert Gadacz*, Chad Gaffield, David P.Gagan, Michel Gagne, Clarence Gagnon, Francois-Marc Gagnon, Victor Gaizauskas, Claude Galarneau, Peggy Gale, Gerald L.Gall, Daniel T.Gallacher, Paul Gallagher, Strome Galloway, John Alexander Galt, Natarajan Ganapathy, Herman Ganzevoort, Charles Gardet, David E.Gardner*, Eve Gardner, Norman Gardner, Ron Gardner, Ron Garnett, Christopher J.R.Garrett, John F.Garrett, Jane Gaskell, Alain Gautier, Lise Gauvin, M.J.Gauvin, Brian Gavriloff, Mary Louise Gay, Hugh J.Gayler, Douglas A.Geekie, John Grigsby Geiger, Valerius Geist*, John Gellner, Paul Gendreau, Ghislain Gendron, Julia Gersovitz, Trisha Gessler, Ian A.L.Getty, Elmer N.Ghostkeeper(?), Jacques R.Giard, Richard A.Gibb, Sandra Gibb, Kenneth M.Gibbons, Graeme Gibson, James A.Gibson, Lee Gibson, William C.Gibson, Perry James Giffen, Peter Giffen, Elizabeth Hollingsworth Gignac, Richard Giguere, C.W.Gilchrist, J.N.Giles, John Patrick Gillese, Beryl C.Gillespie, Bill Gillespie,Laurence J.P.Gillespie, John M.Gillett, Margaret Gillett, Robert Peter Gillis, Geraldine Gilliss, Alan M.Gillmor, Cedric Gillot, Norbert Gilmore, J.C.Gilson, Yves Gingras, Andre Girouard, J.Gleadah, Burton Glendenning, Michael Gnarowski, David J.Goa, Barbara J.T.Godard, Ensley A.Godby, W.Earl Godfrey, William G.Godfrey, R.Bruce Godwin, Cy Gonick, Cecilia A.Gonzales, Bryan N.S.Gooch, S.James Gooding, Jerry Goodis, John T.Goodman, R.G.Goold, Arthur S.Goos, Paul A.Goranson, Anne Gordon, Donald J.C.Gordon, Glenn Gordon, Stanley Gordon, Walter L.Gordon, Deborah Gorham, Harriet R.Gorham, Stanley W.Gorham, Calvin Carl Gotlieb, Daniel H.Gottesman, Barry Morton Gough, Joseph B.Gough, Judy Gouin, Allan M.Gould*, Henri Goulet(?), Benoit-Beaudry Gourd*, James Iain Gow, Alan Gowans, Linda Gowens-Crane, J.Wesley Graham, Jane E.Graham, John F.Graham, Katherine A.Graham, Roger Graham, E.H.Grainger, J.L.Granatstein*, Alix Granger, Luc Granger, Frank Grant, John A.G.Grant, John Webster Grant, Peter Grant*, Ted Grant, Barry Gray, Carolyn Elizabeth Gray, David F.Gray, David Robert Gray, Earle Gray*, G.Ronald Gray, James T.Gray, Stephen Grsay, D'Arcy M.Greaves, Harold V.Green, Janet Green, John Paul Green, Leslie C.Green, Melvyn Green, Richard Green, Reesa Greenberg, John P.Greene, Thomas B.Greenfield(?), Pauline Greenhill(?), Brereton Greenhous*, John Edward Ross Greenshields, Hugh J.Greenwood, Allan Greer, Arthur E.Gregg, E.David Gregory, Patrick T.Gregory, Robert W.Gregory, Julius H.Grey, Norman T.Gridgeman, Foster J.K.Griezic, Herbert Lawrence Griffin, John D.M.Griffin, Anthony J.F.Griffiths, Barry Griffiths, Derek Griffiths, Graham C.D.Griffiths, Naomi E.S.Griffiths, Sergio Grinstein, Yolande Grise(?), Deanna Groetzinger, Jack W.Grove, Robert G.Grubel, Patrick D.Gruber, Hans E.Gruen, Terry Guernsey, Dennis Guest, Hal J.Guest*, Tee Lamont Guidotti, Armand Guilmette, Bernadette Guilmette, H.Pearson Gundy, Kristjana Gunnars, S.W.Gunner, Harry Emmet Gunning, W.Gush, Allan Guy, Julian Gwyn, Richard J.Gwyn, Peter P.C.Haanappel, Erich Haber, Carlotta Hacker, Jim Hackler, Yvonne Y.Haddad, Michael L.Hadley, Keith D.Hage, J.Haigh, G.Brenton Haliburton, Anthony J.Hall, David J.Hall, Frederick A.Hall, Jim Hall, John W.Hall, Roger Hall, Mary E.Hallett, Hugh A.Halliday, Ian Halliday, Mary Halloran, Gerald Hallowell, Beryl M.Hallworth, Francess G.Halpenny, Marjorie M.Halpin, E.J.Hamacher, Vincent Carl Hamacher, George Frederick Hamann, Theophile Hamel, Louis-Edmond Hamelin, Donald G.Hamilton, J.Hamilton, Rolf Hamilton, S.W.Hamilton, Sally A.Hamilton, William B.Hamilton, Michael C.Hampson, Brent M.Hamre, Geoffrey Hancock, Lyn Hancock, Piers Handling, James Hanrahan, Asbjorn T.Hansen, John D.Harbron, Peter Harcourt, David F.Hardwick, Jean-Pierre Hardy, Rene Hardy, F.Kenneth Hare, Clara Hargittay, J.Anthony Hargreaves, Gordon Harland(?), Alex M.Harper, J.Russell Harper*, Richard Harrington, G.J.Harris, Gretchen L.H.Harris, James A.Harris, Lawren Harris, Peter Harris, Robert Cole Harris, Stephen Harris*, Stuart A.Harris, Walter E.Harris, William E.Harris, Lionel G.Harrison, Paul J.Harrison, Tom Harrison, Ted Hart, Peter J.Harte, Al Harvey, David D.Harvey, Fred J.Hatch, Wilbert O.Haufe, Lutz Haufschild, Jo Hauser, V.Tony Hauser, Ronald G.Haycock*, Michael Hayden, Florence C.Hayes, David M.Hayne, Robert H.Haynes, Carol Hayter, Henry F.Heald, Trevor D.Heaver, Harvey D.Hebb, Richard J.Hebda, Gerard Hebert, Louis-Philippe Hebert, Robert A.Hedlin, Conrad E.Heidenreich, Frederick M.Helleiner, Rudolph A.Helling, June Helm, Bruce S.Heming, Odile Henault, Alex Henderson, William B.Henderson, Tom Hendry, E.Henn, Ralph L.Hennessy, Jacques Henripin, A.S.Henry, Michael M.Henry, Yude M.Henteloff, Alec Herbert, Frank A.Herbert, George Heriot, Alex W.Herman, Harry Vjekoslav Herman, Craig Heron*, Don J.Herperger, Stephen M.Herrero, Robert Hesketh, Ingo Hessel, Phillip Hewett, Irving Hexham, Benedykt Heydenkorn, Edward S.Hickcox, Michael Hickman, Donald Higgins, David Higgs, Joseph Highmore, Dahn D.Higley, Walter Hildebrandt, Charles Christie Hill, Harry M.Hill, Tom Hill, James K.Hiller*, Anne Trowell Hillmer*, Norman Hillmer*, W.G.R.Hind, Ole Hindsgaul, Sherman Hines, Akira Hirose, Carolyn Hlus, Helen Hobbs, R.Gerald Hobbs, Gilles Hocquart, John Edwin Hodgett*, Bruce W.Hodgins, J.W.Hodgins, Judith F.M.Hoeniger, J.J.Hogan, Helen Sawyer Hogg, A.Holbrook, J.A.Holden, A.W.Holdstock, Gerald Holdsworth, K.Tony Hollihan, H.T.Holman, C.Janet Holmes, Jeffrey Holmes, John W.Holmes, W.Holmes, Eric J.Holmgren*, S.Homer, Alvin George Hong, Robert Hood, Frances Ann Hopkins, Robin Hopper, Peter Hopwood, Charles Horetzky, Michiel Horn, Arthur E.C.Horne, Stan W.Horrall, Alan S.Hourston, [--?--] Housden, C.Stuart Houston*, James Houston, J.G.Howard, Ross K.Howard, Victor M.Howard, Colin D.Howell, Julie O.Hrapko, Douglas P.Hube, Jayne Huddleston, Raymond Hudon, Douglas R.Hudson, Raymond J.A.Huel, Fred Huffman, Richard David Hughes, J.David Hulchanski, Elizabeth Hulse, William Humber*, Stephen Hume, Monte Hummel, Jack Humphrey, Charles W.Humphries, Edward William Humphrys, Robert F.Hunka, Geoffrey Hunt, John R.Hunt, Tony Hunt, Kenneth E.Hunter, Robert Hunter, Mel Hurtig, Mervyn J.Huston, Linda Hutcheon, Gerald M.Hutchinson, Roger C.Hutchinson, Richard J.Huyda, A.M.J.Hyatt, Doreen Marie Indra, Elizabeth Ingolfsrud, Avrom Isaacs, Colin F.W.Isaacs, Bill Ivy, David Jackel, Susan Jackel*, Sydney W.Jackman, A.Y.Jackson, Bernard S.Jackson, Graham Jackson, Harold Jackson, John D.Jackson, John James Jackson, John N.Jackson, Lionel E.Jackson, Robert J.Jackson, Roger C.Jackson, Stephen O.Jackson, Ronny Jacques, Cornelius J.Jaenen*, Donna James, Ellen S.James, Ross D.James*, Sheilagh S.Jameson, Margie Jamieson, Stuart M.Jamieson, Hudson N.Janisch, Christian T.L.Janssen, Lorraine L.Janus, Richard A.Jarrell, Marguerite Jean, Dennis W.Jeanes, Alan H.Jeeves, C.W.Jefferys, Thomas Jefferys, Robert Jekyll, Michael Jenkin, Phyllis Marie Jensen, Vickie D.Jensen, Jane Jenson(?), L.Martin Jerry, Alan M.Jessop, Dean Jobb, Louis Jobin, Jan C.Jofriet, Peter Johansen, Timothy Johns, Walter H.Johns, Dennis Johnson, J.K.Johnson, Peter Wade Johnson, Robert E.Johnson, W.O.Vic Johnson, Alex Johnston, C.Fred Johnston, Charles M.Johnston, Frances E.M.Johnston, Franz H.Johnston, Hugh Johnston, Richard Johnston, W.Stafford Johnston, William Johnston, Marcel Jomphe, Brian Jones, David C.Jones, David Phillip Jones, Elwood Hugh Jones, Gaynor G.Jones, Laura Jones, Raymond E.Jones, Richard A.Jones*, Alan V.Jopling, Frederic Waistfall Jopling, Colin Jose, Neal R.Jotham, Peter Jull, [--?--] Jurotsky, Claude Jutra, Nick Kach, Richard Kadulski, Joseph Kage, A.A.Kahil, Patricia Kaiser, Warren E.Kalbach, Henry Kalen, Stephan Felix Kaliski(?), Helmut Kallman, Karen Dazelle Kallweit, Harold D.Kalman, A.N.Kamal, Paul Kane, Joseph W.Kanuka, George Kapelos, Martha Kaplan, Ruth Kaplan, William Edward Kaplan, Isabel Kaprielian, Urjo Kareda, Malak Karsh, Yousuf Karsh, Peter Karsten, Elinor Mary Kartzmark, Naim Kattan, Anhrlica Kauffmann, Martin L.Kaufmann, Leslie S.Kawamura, Gregory S.Kealey*, David R.Keane, King S.Kearns, Michael J.Keen, David L.Keenlyside, Elaine Keillor, W.J.Keith, William Stirling Keizer*, Frances C.Kelley, Louis Gerard Kelly, David D.Kemp, Walter H.Kemp, Kay Kendall, John Edward Kendle, Dorothy Kennedy, J.E.Kennedy, John L.Kennedy*, Mark B.Kennedy, Elizabeth H.Kennell, Stephen A.Kent, John A.C.Kentfield, John P.B.Kenyon, Walter A.Kenyon, Kenneth Kernaghan, Lois Kathleen Kernaghan*, Adam J.Kerr, Gordon R.Kerr, Robert B.Kerr, Stephen R.Kerr, Andre Kertesz, Paula Kestelman, Jean-Pierre Kesteman, Wilfred H.Kesterton, Keith S.Ketchen, Douglas Keith McEwan Kevan, Peter G.Kevan(?), J.E.Michael Kew, John Keyes, Bruce Kidd, Thomas W.Kierans, Gerald Killan, Bill J.King, M.G.Kingshott, Ray A.Kingsmith, Colin Kirk, Stanislav J.Kirschbaum, John James Kirton, Eleanor M.Kish, Walter Klaassen, Murray S.Klamkin, Lewis N.Klar, Harold R.Klinck, Robert B.Klymasz, Richard W.Knapton, Judith Knelman, Alan R.Knight, David B.Knight, Dorothy Knowles, Robert Hugh Knowles, Stephen T.Knowles, Brian M.Knudsen, Eric Koch, Franz M.Koennecke, Wray E.Koepke, Lilly Koltun, Balthazar Korab, Paul M.Koroscil, J.Anthony Koslow, Myrna Anne Kostash, Tony Kot, Vladimir J.Krajina, Kate Kranck, Stephen J.Kraseman, Cheryl L.Krasnick, Peter V.Krats, J.A.Kraulis*, Charles J.Krebs, F.Henry Krenz, Erwin Kreutzweiser, Cornelius Krieghoff, Andrea Kristof, Arthur Kroker, Eva-Marie Kroller, Martin Krossel, Karol J.Krotki, Larry L.Kulisek, Walter O.Kupsch, William Kurelek, Eva M.Kushner, Ernie Kuyt*, David Kwavnick, C.Ian Kyar, Micheline Labelle, Danielle Laberge, Michele Lacombe*, [--?--] La Cosa, Estelle Lacoursiere*, Laurier Lacroix*, Michel Laferriere, Guy Lafrance, Raymond J.Lahey, William G.Laidlaw, Mabel H.Laine*, Dennis Laing, Gertrude M.Laing, Claude Lajeunesse, G.-Raymond Laliberte, Andre N.Lalonde, Gerard L.Lalonde, W.Kaye Lamb, Geoffrey Lambert, H.Lambert, James H.Lambert, George E.Lammers, Yvan Lamonde, Marc Lamontagne, Peter Lancaster, R.Brian Land, Pierre Landreville, Kenneth Landry, John D.Landstreet, E.David Lane, Robert B.Lane, Robert P.Langlands, Carmen Langlois, Wayne Lankinen, Robert Lansdale, Karlis O.Lapins, Pierre Louis Lapointe, Eleanor R.Laquian, Peter Anthony Larkin, Jean B.D.Larmour, Emma D.LaRocque, George H.La Roi, Andre Larose, Serge Larose, Jeanette Larouche, Edward N.Larter, Pierre LaSalle, Daniel Latouche*, Viviane F.Launay, Gerard Laurence, Karen Laurence, Marc Laurendeau, Michael Lauzon, Omer Lavallee, Kathleen Laverty*, Kenneth R.Lavery, Marie Lavigne, Patricia Johnston Lavigueur(?), Leslie M.Lavkulich, Paul Lavoie, Pierre Lavoie, Charles Law, John Lawson, Don G.Law-West, Jim Laxer, Arleigh H.Laycock, David H.Laycock, Richard E.C.Layne, Marvin Lazerson, John R.N.Lazier, Fred Lebensold, Hugues LeBlanc, Charles P.Leblond, Paul H.LeBlond, Sylvio LeBlond, Antonio Lechasseur*, Donald J.Lecraw, Johanne Ledoux, Fernand Leduc, Laurence LeDuc, Ozias Leduc, Rene Leduc-Park, David Lee, John Alan Lee, Michael J.Lee, Robin Leech, John G.Leefe, Joseph Legare, Marthe Legault, Camille Legendre, Russel D.Legge, Robert F.Legget*, J.Mark Leier, Doug Leighton, Jean M.Leiper, Michel Lemaire, Jean-Paul Lemay, Clement Lemelin(?), Maurice Lemelin, Pierre H.Lemieux, Raymond U.Lemieux, Vincent Lemieux, Guy Lemire, Maurice Lemire, Robert Lemire, Dorothy A.Lenarsic, Jos L.Lennards, Frank Lennon, John Lennox, David W.Leonard, Yvan G.Lepage, Donald J.Le Roy, Rodney L.LeRoy, Peter M.Leslie, M.Claude Lessard, Barry H.Lesser, Carol Anne Letheren, Victor Levant, Trevor H.Levere, Bruce D.Levett, Malcolm Levin, Allan E.Levine, Gilbert Levine, Ron Levine, Joseph Levitt, Sheldon J.Levitt, Brian S.Lewis, Douglas L.Lewis, John B.Lewis, Joyce C.Lewis, Laurie Lewis, Sophie Lewis, Walter Lewis, Joel Lexchin, Elliott H.Leyton, James W.Lightbody, Norman R.Lightfoot, Jack N.Lightstone, Gary M.Lindberg, Ernest Lindner, Evert E.Lindquist, Peter L.Lindsay, Joseph D.Lindsey, Paul-Andre Linteau, Mary Jane Lipkin, Arthur Lismer, Marilyn Lister, Rota Herzberg Lister, John W.Y.Lit, Moe M.Litman, E.Livernois, Donna Livingstone, Douglas G.Lochhead, Carl J.Lochnan*, Anthony R.Lock, Jack L.Locke, Gulbrand Loken, D.Edwards Loney, Kathleen Lord, James Lorimer, Frances Loring, Marcel Lortie, Arthur Loughton, Laurence Dale Lovick, Raymond Nicholson Lowes, Peter J.M.Lown, W.Mark Lowry, Edward P.Lozowski*, Frere Luc, David Paul Lumsden, Harry G.Lumsden, Ian Gordon Lumsden, Chris Lund, John Lund, Manoly R.Lupul, Real Lussier, John M.Lyle, John Goodwin Lyman, Gerald Lynch, Wayne Lynch, Deborah Maryth Lyon*, G.F.Lyon, John David Lyon, William I.Macadam, J.Malcolm Macartney, Terence Macartney-Filgate, Hugh MacCallum, Ian MacCallum, Cathy Macdonald, G.Edward MacDonald, Heather MacDonald*, J.E.H.MacDonald, Les MacDonald, Martha MacDonald, R.H.Macdonald, R.St.J.MacDonald, Roderick A.Macdonald, Stewart D.MacDonald, Valerie Isabel Macdonald, Margaret MacDonnell(?), April J.MacDougall, Heather MacDougall, Laurel Sefton MacDowell, Thomas F.Mace, Grant MacEwan, Royce MacGillivray, James G.MacGregor, Joseph B.MacInnis, Tessa MacIntosh, Daniel S.C.Mackay, David Clark MacKenzie, Heather M.Mackenzie, Robert C.MacKenzie, Ross G.MacKenzie, William C.MacKenzie, William Francis Mackey, George O.Mackie, C.S.Mackinnon, Frank MacKinnon, William R.MacKinnon, Bruce B.MacLachlan, Roy MacLaren, Colin MacLean, Raymond A.MacLean, Gordon W.MacLennan, Kenneth Ogilvie MacLeod, Malcolm MacLeod, Pegi Nicol MacLeod, Roderick C.Macleod, Carrie MacMillan(?), David S.MacMillan, Keith MacMillan, Stuart R.MacMillan, Andrew H.Macpherson, Duncan Macpherson, Ian MacPherson*, Kay Macpherson, Roger W.Macqueen, Donald A.MacRae, Dennis Frank Keith Madill, Anthony A.Magnin,Roger Magnuson, Warren Magnuson, Gilles-D.Mailhiot, Laurent Mailhot*, Pierre Mailhot*, J.S.Maini, Lise Maisonneuve, Jean-Louis Major, Robert Major, Peter Malkin, David Malloch, Cedric R.Mann, Kenneth H.Mann, Martha Mann, John J.Mannion, Kate L.Mansell, J.R.Marchand, Anthony Mardiros, Leo Margolis, Salomon Marion, Shew-Kuey Mark, Philip De Lacey Markham, William E.Markham, William L.Marr, James H.Marsh*, John S.Marsh*, Roy Marsh, Douglas Marshall, J.Stewart Marshall, Victor W.Marshall, Horst Martin(?), J.Douglas Martin, Jean-Claude Martin, John E.H.Martin, Kathy M.Martin, Sandra Martin, Andre Martineau(?), May L.Maskow, Allan M.Maslove, R.W.Masswohl, Donald C.Masters, Perry Mastrovito, C.W.Mathers, John Ross Matheson, R.Neil Matheson, William A.Matheson, Robin D.Mathews, William G.Mathewson, Thomas Mathien, John R.Mathieson, Jacques Mathieu, Keith Matthews, John S.Matthiasson, David Mattison, Mary McDougall Maude*, Jean Mauger, Christopher J.Maule, A.R.Maurer, Valerie J.May, Valerie L.May, John Maybank*, Paul F.Maycock, Jack Maze, R.Ann McAfee, Don E.McAllister, William J.McAndrew, D.S.McBean, W.A.E.McBryde, Christina McCall, Douglas McCalla, Margaret Elizabeth McCallum, Lawrence D.McCann*, S.B.McCann, Bennett McCardle, Peter J.McCart, [--?--] McCarter, Michael J.McCarthy, Catharine McClellan, P.McCloskey, W.H.McConnell, A.Ross McCormack, Jane McCracken, Harvey A.McCue, James A.W.McCulloch, A.B.McCullough, Linda McDermott, Michael McDonald, Allan K.McDougall, Anne McDougall*, John N.McDougall, Robert L.McDougall, Duncan McDowall, Alec C.McEwen, Freeman L.McEwen, K.D.McFadden, Clark A.McFadyen(?), Jean McFall, Tom McFeat, Elizabeth W.McGahan, Harold Franklin McGee, Timothy J.McGee, Robert McGhee*, William B.McGill(?), Donald G.McGillivray, Roderick Alan McGinn, Janice Dickin McGinnis*, Margaret McGregor(?), Pauline McGregor, Peter T.McGuigan, Eric McGuinness, Dave McIntosh, W.John McIntyre, Alexander G.McKay, Gordon A.McKay, J.Alex McKeague, John McKee, Ruth McKendry, Barbara A.McKenna, Brian McKenna, Ruth McKenzie, Rita McKeough, A.Brian McKillop*, J.McLachlan, Angus McLaren, Ian A.McLaren, Norman McLaren, Kenneth M.McLaughlin, Catherine M.McLay, A.Anne McLellan, Cam McLeod(?), Doug McLeod, Elizabeth McLuhan, Gerald R.McMaster, Barclay McMillan*, Donald Burleigh McMillan, Michael McMordie*, Lorraine McMullen, Stanley E.McMullin, William C.McMurray, Debra A.McNabb*, Anne McNamara, Kenneth McNaught, Martin K.McNicholl*, Jean McNulty, Hugo A.McPherson, Sandra F.McRae, King G.McShane*, Ian McTaggart-Cowan*, G.S.McTavish, Peter B.E.McVetty, Edward Watson McWhinney, Ian R.McWhinney, Stanley R.Mealing, Sheva Medjuck, Harry Medovy, Sharon P.Meen, Benoit Melancon, William H.Melody*, James R.Melvin, Joan S.Melvin, [--?--] Menkes, Don H.Meredith, Philip E.Merilees, E.M.Merrick, Jim Merrithew*, Ann Messenger, George Metcalf, David R.Metcalfe, Janis Mezaks, T.H.Glynn Michael, Jacques Michon, F.W.Micklethwaite, Tom Middlebro', Ivan Mihaychuk, James Francis Verchere Millar, A.J.Miller, Carman Miller*, Elizabeth Russell Miller, J.R.Miller, John A.Miller, Judith N.Miller, Mark Miller*, Mary Jane Miller, Orlo Miller, Leslie Millin, Peter M.Millman, Thomas R.Millman, Charles A.Mills, David Mills*, Eric L.Mills, Isabel Margaret Mills, Brian Milne, David Milne, David A.Milne, William J.Milne, Marc Milner, David G.Milton, Janice Milton, Gordon Minnes, Dale Miquelon*, Edward D.Mitchell, Ken R.Mitchell, Thomas H.Mitchell, Wendy L.Mitchinson, Dennis L.Modry, Johann W.Mohr, John S.Moir*, George Dempster Molnar, Patrick M.Moncrieff, Jacques Monet*, Ian Montagnes, D.Wayne Moodie, Barry M.Moody, Peter N.Moogk*, Kathleen A.Mooney, Christopher Moore, James G.G.Moore, Keith L.Moore, Teresa Moore, George Moppet, Gordon Morash, Kenneth Morgan, Andrew J.Moriarty, E.Alan Morinis, Pierre Morisset, Yves-Marie Morissette, Raymond Moriyama, Richard E.Morlan, J.Terence Morley, Patricia A.Morley, J.W.Morrice, Cerise Morris, Peter Morris, David A.Morrison, George R.Morrison, Jack W.Morrison, Jean Morrison*, Kenneth L.Morrison*, Rod Morrison, W.Douglas Morrison, William R.Morrison*, Norval Morrisseau, Don Morrow, Patrick A.Morrow*, Verne Morse, Desmond Morton, John K.Morton, Allan Moscovitch, John Moss, Mary Jane Mossman, Roger Motut, Graeme S.Mount, Farley Mowat, Susanne Mowat, David S.Moyer, R.Gordon Moyles, Maria Muehlen, R.D.Muir, Del A.Muise, Francis C.Muldoon, Terry David Mulligan, Robert M.Mummery, Mohiudden Munawar, R.E.Munn, J.Ian Munro, Jean Murphy, Joan Murray*, Robert G.E.Murray, Brian T.P.Mutimer, Luba Mycio, John Myles, Robert Nadeau, Vincent Nadeau(?), K.Nagai, Josephine C.Naidoo, [--?--] Nairne, George Nakash, Agnes Nanogak, A.Nantel, Roald Nasgaard, David Nash, Roger P.Nason, Susan M.Nattrass, Francis P.D.Navin, Margaret Neal, Peter Neary, H.Blair Neatby, Leslie H.Neatby, Edwin H.Neave, A.W.H.Needler, George T.Needler, James M.Neelin, Robert F.Neill, V.P.Neimanis, H.Vivian Nelles, Bert A.E.Nelson, Joseph S.Nelson, Ron Nelson, Pierre Nepveu, David N.Nettleship, Edward Peter Neufeld, Ronald W.Newfeldt, Shirley Neuman, William H.New, Michael J.Newark, Dianne Newell, David L.Newlands, Peter C.Newman, Roy Nicholls, Norman L.Nicholson*, John S.Nicks, Murray William Nicolson, N.Ole Nielsen, Jorge E.Niosi*, Thomas Nisbet, Lawrence C.Nkendirim, William C.Noble, Ib L.Nonnecke, Kenneth H.Norrie, William Notman, Barbara Novak, J.Ralph Nursall, Jim Sutcliffe Nutt, V.Walter Nuttall, Allan O'Brien, John O'Brien, Lucius O'Brien, Serge Occhietti, Jean R.O'Clery, Shane O'Dea, Ronald K.O'Dor, Jillian M.Officer*, James A.Ogilvy*, Will Ogilvy, Jean O'Grady, Timothy R.Oke, Anita Olanick, Kim Patrick O'Leary, R.V.Oleson, John J.Oliphant, Earl Olsen, Daniel O'Neill, Patrick B.O'Neill, Mario Onyszchuk, Jessie Oonark, L.D.O'Quinn, Robert R.Orford, Mark M.Orkin, Lionel Orlikow, Margaret A.Ormsby, Brian Stuart Osborne, Andre Ouellet, Fernand Ouellet, Henri Ouellet, Real Ouellet, John N.Owens*, D.R.Owram, Andrew Oxenham, Charles Pachter, John G.Packer(?), Donald M.Page, Garnet T.Page, James E.Page, Malcolm Page, Lee Paikin, Sandra Paikowsky*, Howard Pain, Michael F.Painter, Jean Palardy, Murray S.Palay, Bryan D.Palmer, Howard Palmer, Tamara Jeppson Palmer, Khayyam Zev Paltiel, Leo Panitch, Frits Pannekoek*, Gerald Ernest Panting, Jean-Marc Paradis, Jean Pariseau, Seth Park, George L.Parker, Graham E.Parker, James M.Parker, Lewis Parker, John B.Parkin, Tom W.Parkin, [Joy?] Parr, Keith Parry, John Parsons, Timothy R.Parsons, Ralph T.Pastore, Thomas H.Patching, Donald G.Paterson, Peter Paterson, W.Stan B.Paterson, E.P.Patterson, Freeman Patterson, G.James Patterson, Graeme H.Patterson, Robert S.Pattersn, Diane Paulette Payment, John G.Peacey*, Gordon B.Peacock, Frank A.Peake, Robert E.Peary, Jane H.Pease, William H.Pease, Diana Pedersen, Susan Pedwell, Bruce Peel, Frank W.Peers, Alfred Pellan, Gerard Pelletier, Jacques Pelletier, Rejean Pelletier, W.Richard Peltier, Terence Penelhum, Norman Penner, M.James Penton, R.James Penton, Michael B.Percy, William Perehudoff, William T.Perks*, R.I.Perla, Trivedi V.N.Persaud, Clayton O.Person, Erik J.Peters*, Robert Henry Peters, Jeannie Peterson, R.L.Peterson, Thomas E.Peterson, Jaroslav Petryshyn, Louis-Philippe Phaneuf, Peter P.Phelan, Edward Phelps, Jeffrey Philips, Carol A.Phillips, David W.Phillips, Paul Phillips, Roy A.Phillips, Ruth Bliss Phillips, Truman P.Phillips, Donald J.C.Phillipson*, Fred Phipps, Ellen I.Picard, Victor Piche, George L.Pickard, Richard A.Pierce, Thomas W.Pierce, Claudine Pierre-Deschenes*, Ruth Roach Pierson, Juri Pill, Mike Pinder, K.A.Pirozynski, David G.Pitt, Janet E.Miller Pitt*, Robert D.Pitt*, Joseph Pivato, Antoine Plamondon, Rejean Plamondon, Richard L.Plant, Jozinus Ploeg, Helene Plouffe*, T.J.Plunkett, Thomas K.Poiker, Mario Polese, H.Pollard, Frank Polnaszek, J.Rick Ponting, Annelies M.Pool*, Kananginak Pootoogook, Carol Ann Pope, Hugh A.Porteous, Arthur Porter, John R.Porter, Marion Porter, Bruce D.Posgate, Michael Posluns, Victor Post, Bernard Pothier, Gilles C.M.Potvin, Gabrielle Poulin, Andreas Poulsson, Deborah J.Powell, James V.Powell, Margaret E.Prang, Christopher Pratt, Larry R.Pratt, Mary Pratt, Norman E.P.Pressman, Richard A.Prestion, Richard A.Preston, Richard J.Preston, Hugh Preston-Thomas, Bruce Price, John A.Price, Alexander D.Pringle, Gordon Pritchard, James Pritchard, John Pritchard, C.J.Pritchet, John T.A.Proctor, A.Paul Pross, Michel Proulx, Pudlo Pudlat, Garth Charles Pugh, Nancy Pukingrnak, Terrence M.Punch, James Purcell, Arnold L.Purdon, Eric D.Putt, Zenon W.Pylyshyn, Terence H.Qualter, Harvey A.Quamme, D.B.Quayle, Frank Quinn, Karl-Heinz Raach, Ian Radford, Bruce Rains, H.Keith Ralston, Victor J.Ramraj, Donald A.Ramsay, Peter G.Ramsden, R.Keith Raney, John Rapkin, Egon Rapp, John Rasmussen, Mark A.Rasmussen*, Anthony W.Rasporich, Beverly J.Rasporich, George A.Rawlyk, Arthur J.Ray, Alan Rayburn, David R.Raynor, J.Edgar Rea, John H.Read, Magdalene Redekop, Ron Redfern, Walter Redinger, Gerald Redmond*, Austin Reed, F.Leslie C.Reed, John Reeves, Randall R.Reeves, Ellen M.Regan, T.D.Regehr*, Alison M.Reid, Bill Reid, David C.Reid, George Agnew Reid, Ian A.Reid, John G.Reid*, M.H.Reid, Monty Reid, Richard Reid, Robert G.B.Reid, J.Nolan Reilly, Sharon Reilly, Henry M.Reiswig, Gil Remillard, A.Jim Rennie, Donald Andrews Rennie, Peter Reshitnyk, Viljo Revell, Joshua Reynolds, Francois Ricard, Pierre Richard, John Richards, William D.Richards, Eric Harvey Richardson, Keith W.Richardson, W.George Richardson, Alex Richman, Roger R.Rickwood, Laurie Ricou, W.Craig Riddell, Peter E.Rider*, William Rider-Rider, Robin Ridington, Walter E.Riedel, Paul W.Riegert, Roger E.Riendeau, Bert Riggs, Nelson A.Riis, Peter Rindisbacher, Jean-Paul Riopelle, J.C.Ritchie, S.Andrew Robb, [--?--] Robe, Guy Robert, Jean-Claude Robert*, Lucie Robert, Veronique Robert, Eugene Roberto, Goodridge Roberts, Ian Ross Robertson*, J.A.L.Robertson, Marion Robertson, Raleigh John Robertson, Rejean Robidoux, Denise Robillard, Bart T.Robinson, J.Lewis Robinson, Sinclair Robinson, Tom W.Robson, Yves Roby, Douglas Roche, Guy Rocher, Tibor Roder, William Rodney , Russell G.A.Rodrigo, Juan Rodriguez, Robert C.Roeder, Jacob Rogers*, Robert J.Rogerson*, H.R.Rokeby-Thomas, Charles G.Roland, Eugene W.Romaniuk, Joseph R.Romanow, Barbara Romanowski, David Rome, George Romney, Paul Romney, Keith Ronald, William Ronald, Donna Yavorsky Ronish, Constance Rooke, Edward Roper, Albert Rose, Phyllis Rose, Earl Rosen(?), Ann C.Rosenberg, Alexander Ross, Alexander M.Ross, Catherine Sheldrick Ross, David I.Ross, David P.Ross, Henry U.Ross, Gordon Rostoker, Gordon Oliver Rothney, George A.Rothrock, Samuel Rothstein, Abraham Rotstein, Leonard R.Roueche, Jacques Rouillard*, Guildo Rousseau, Henri-Paul Rousseau, Adolphe-Basile Routhier, Marie Routledge, Donald Cameron Rowat, R.Geoffrey Rowberry, Frederick W.Rowe, John Stanley Rowe, Kenneth Rowe, Percy A.Rowe, Gordon G.Rowland, Diana Rowley, Harry C.Rowsell, David J.Roy, Fernande Roy, Muriel K.Roy, Patricia E.Roy, Reginald H.Roy, Kenneth Roy Rozee, Lorne Rubenstein*, Ken Rubin, Leon J.Rubin, Gerald J.Rubio, Mary H.Rubio, David-Thierry Ruddel, Leonard Lee Rue, Norman J.Ruff, Wilson Ruiz, Norman A.Rukavina, Oliver John Clyve Runnalls, Robert John Rupert, Karl M.Ruppenthal, Roger Rushdy, Dale A.Russell, Hilary Russell, Loris S.Russell*, Peter A.Russell, Victor L.Russell, Paul Frederick William Rutherford, R.W.Rutherford, Nathaniel W.Rutter, Douglas E.Ryan, James T.Ryan, John Ryan, Joseph Ryan, Judith Hoegg Ryan, Shannon Ryan, June M.Ryder, Robert A.Ryerson, Oiva W.Saarinen, Ann P.Sabina, Dimo Safari, Moshe Safdie, Eric W.Sager(?), Marc Saint-Hilaire*, Bernard Saint-Jacques, Gaston J.Saint Laurent, B.Saladin-D'Anglure, Arnaud Sales, Richard F.Salisbury, Jeffrey Sallot, Liora Salter, Douglas D.Sameoto, J.Samuel, G.M.Sanders, Marie E.Sanderson, Margaret J.Sandison, Leonard Sandler, Joan Sangster, [A.B?] Sanson, Joy L.Santink, Allen Sapp, Sonia Sarfati, A.Margaret Sarjeant, William A.S.Sarjeant, Roger Sarty*, David J.Sauchyn, John S.Saul, Pierre Sauriol, Harry Savage, Pierre Savard, D.B.O.Savile, Joel S.Savishinsky, Ronald Savitt, Rodney J.Sawatsky, Ronald G.Sawatsky, Lorne William Sawula, Deborah C.Sawyer*, Robert J.Sawyer, John T.Saywell, Christopher M.Scarfe, M.H.Scargill, Otto Schaefer, Barbara Ann Schau, David Scheffel, Harold I.Schiff, Sidney S.Schipper, Peter Schledermann, Benjamin Schlesinger, Wilhelm Schmidt, Nancy Schmitz*, Don Schneider, Norbert Schoenauer, Barbara Schrodt*, George A.Schultz, Joan M.Schwartz, Elizabeth J.Schweizer, Karl Schweizer, Charles Schwier, Stephen Scobie*, G.Scorras, David S.Scott, John Scott(?), Marianne Scott, MaryLynn Scott, Peter J.Scott, Robert Scott, Stephen A.Scott, W.Beverly Scott*, J.Scrimgeour, Geoffrey G.E.Scudder, Allen Seager*, D.Bruce Sealey, Gary Sealey(?), Spencer G.Sealey, Louis M.Sebert, Kent Sedgwick, Norman Seeff, Harold N.Segall, Martin Segger, Norman Seguin, Alec H.Sehon, H.John Selwoood, Neil A.Semple*, Yoshio Senda, Elinor Kyte Senior, Hereward Senior, Robert Allan Serne, John Sewell, Christopher M.Seymour, Patrick D.Seymour, Aqjangajuk Shaa, Doris Shadbolt, Douglas Shadbolt, Ed Shaffer, Fouad E.Shaker, Elizabeth E.Shannon, Bernard J.Shapiro, Frances M.Shaver, Gordon C.Shaw, L.Shaw, Murray C.Shaw*, Clifford D.Shearing, Carol Sheehan, Nancy M.Sheehan, Harry Sheffer, Edward Sheffield, Rose Sheinen, B-Z.Shek, Jaroslaw W.Shelest, Ian Shelton, Roy J.Shephard, R.Ronald Sheppard, Robert Sheppard, Robert G.Sherrin, Ellen Shifrin, Chang-Tai Shih, Ernest Shipman, Rosemary Shipton, Richard Short, Kiyomi Shoyama, Thomas K.Shoyama, Orville J.W.Shugg, Ken R.Shultz, William L.H.Shuter, Patricia A.Sibbald, Nicholas Sidor, Arthur Siegel, David P.Silcox, Lennard Sillanpaa, A.I.Silver, Elaine Leslau Silverman, C.Ross Silversides, Richard Simeon*, Steve Simon, C.J.Simpson, Tom Sinclair-Faulkner, Antoine Sirois, Rebecca Sisler, O.F.G.Sitwell, Alan Edward Skeoch, Grace Skogstad, Peter Slater, Yar Slavutych, H.Olav Slaymaker, Alfred E.Slinkard, William A.Sloan*, D.Scott Slocombe, Charles E.Slonecker, Peter Gerent Sly, Patricia Smart, Al Smith(?), Andre Smith, Andrea Barbara Smith, Barry L.Smith, Bill Smith, David B.Smith, David E.Smith, Denis Smith*, Derek G.Smith, Donald A.Smith, Donald B.Smith*, Douglas A.Smith, Frances K.Smith, James G.E.Smith, James N.M.Smith, Jim Smith, Kenneth V.Smith, Maurice V.Smith, Peter C.Smith*, Peter J.Smith, Shirlee Anne Smith, T.Bradbrooke Smith, William Young Smith(?), D.Laureen Snider, Dean R.Snow, Michael Snow, James D.Snowdon, Thomas P.Socknat, Omond M.Solandt, Margaret A.Somerville, Karl Sommerer, James Herbert Soper, John R.Sorfleet, Pierre Sormany(?), Pierre Soulard, Mary E.Southcott, Jack G.Souther, David A.E.Spalding, Roman Spalek, William Bray Spaulding, Stephen A.Speisman, Andrew N.Spencer, Deirdre Spencer, Don Spencer, Frank Spencer(?), John F.T.Spencer, John H.Spencer, Glay Sperling, Douglas O.Spettigue, Godfrey L.Spragge, D.N.Sprague*, William A.Spray, Eric A.Sprenger, Robetrt A.Sproule, Irene M.Spry, C.P.Stacey, Robert Stacey, W.R.Stadelman, David A.T.Stafford, John K.Stager, Ronald J.Stagg, Elvira Stahl, Denis Stairs, Douglas G.Stairs, Robert M.Stamp*, W.T.Stanbury, Daniel Stang, David M.Stanley, Della M.M.Stanley*, George F.G.Stanley, Laurie C.C.Stanley, Charles R.Stanton, Gail Starr, Michael Staveley, Margaret M.Stayner, Gordon W.Stead, James Steele, Taylor A.Steeves, Baldur R.Stefansson, Janet R.Stein, Michael B.Stein, Gilbert A.Stelter, Philip C.Stenning, Philip H.R.Stepney, Howard A.Steppler, Theodor D.Sterling, H.H.Stern, Gail Stevens, Peter Stevens, Charlotte Stevenson, Garth Stevenson*, John T.Stevenson, J.Douglas Stewart, John B.Stewart*, John R.Stewart*, Kenneth W.Stewart, Lillian D.Stewart*, Michael E.Stiles, John R.Stocking, Jennifer Stoddart, Boris Peter Stoicheff, Henry R.Syoker, Kay F.Stone, Donald H.Stonehouse, Anna K.Storgaard, Gerald J.Stortz, George Morley Story, Dennis L.Stossel, Jon C.Stott, Grant Strate, Otto P.Strausz, Elwood W.Stringham, Veronica Strong-Boag, Richard A.Stroppel, J.R.Tim Struthers, James Struthers, Edrward Struzik, Graeme Stuart, Richard Stuart, Ross Stuart, Konrad W.Studnicki-Gizbert, Franc Sturino, Peter Stursberg, Richard Stursberg, Brian E.Sullivan, Kevin Sullivan, William F.Summers, M.Ann Sunahara, Shan-Ching Sung, David A.Sutherland, Maxwell Sutherland, Neil Sutherland, P.Sutherland, Sharon L.Sutherland, Stuart R.J.Sutherland*, Maia-Mari Sutnik, David Takayoshi Suzuki, Donald Swainson, Neil A.Swainson, Robert H.Swanson, Robert S.Sward, Alastair Sweeny, Catherine Swift, George Swinton, Katherine E.Swinton, William Elgin Swinton, Jan D.Switzer, K.D.Switzer-Howse, Frances A.Swyripa, Philippe Sylvain*, Guy Sylvestre, Rodney Symington, E.Leigh Syms, Emoke J.E.Szathmary, Gerald Tailfeathers, James J.Talman, Adrian Tanner, Robert S.Tarnopolski, Walter Surma Tarnopolsky, Leslie K.Tarr, Sylvie Taschereau, Jeremy B.Tatum, Thomas E.Tausky, C.J.Taylor*, Charles Taylor, Christopher Edward Taylor, F.Taylor, J.Garth Taylor, J.Mary Taylor, James A.Toylor, Jeff Taylor, John H.Taylor(?), John Leonard Taylor, M.Brook Taylor, Philip S.Taylor, Roy Lewis Taylor, Sylvia Taylor, William Clyne Taylor, William E.Taylor, Ghassem Tehrani, Robert G.Telewiak, R.John Templin, Paul Tennant, Brian D.Tennyson, Lorne Tepperman, Jaan Terasmae, Yves Tessier, Pierre Theberge, Leon Theriault, Michel Theriault, Sharon Thesen*, J.Laurent Thibault, George J.Thiessen, Stuart A.Thiesson, Marise Thivierge, Nicole Thivierge, Ann W.Thomas, Clara Thomas, Eileen Mitchell Thomas, Gerald Arthur Thomas, Gregory Thomas, Morley K.Thomas, Paul G.Thomas, Andrew Royden Thompson, Dixon A.R.Thompson, Ian S.Thompson, John Herd Thompson, John R.Thompson, Margaret W.Thompson, Teresa Thompson, William Paul Thompson, Alex J.Thomson, Colin A.Thomson, Duane Thomson, Malcolm M.Thomson, Reginald George Thomson*, Stanley Thomson, Tom Thomson, Hugh G.Thorburn, Frederick J.Thorpe, Catherine M.V.Thuro, John L.Tiedje, Herman Tiessen, Seha M.Tinic, Maria Tippett, Mary Tivy, Ewen C.D.Todd, James M.Toguri, George S.Tomkins, Vladislav A.Tomovic, Peter M.Toner, W.J.Topley, Pierre Tousignant(?), Harold B.Town*, Joan B.Townsend, Richard G.Townsend, Charlotte Townsend-Gault,Tak Toyota, Lynn E.H.Trainer, Anthony A.Travill, Claire Tremblay*, Gaetan Tremblay, Jean-Noel Tremblay, Jean-Yves Tremblay, Marc-Adelard Tremblay, Cecyle Trepanier, Pierre Trepanier, Stanley G.Triggs, Susan Mann Trofimenkoff, Harold Troper, Elizabeth A.Trott*, Barry D.Truax, Pierre E.Trudeau, Marc J.Trudel, Marcel Trudel, Mark E.H.Trueman, James A.Tuck*, Albert V.Tucker, Jaap J.Tuinman, Gerald J.J.Tulchinsky, Judith E.Tulloch, Verena J.Tunnicliffe, Archie L.W.Tuomi, Allan Tupper, Gael Turnbull, H.E.Turner, Michael A.H.Turner, Nancy J.Turner*, William J.Turnock, Katherine Tweedie, Christopher D.Tyler, Edward W.Tyrchniewicz, M.C.Urquhart, Auguste Vachon, G.Oliver Vagt, A.J.R.Vaillancourt, Gail C.Valaskakis, Frank G.Vallee, Marc Vallieres, Andre Vanasse, S.Van Den Bergh, Rosamond M.Vanderburgh, Mies Van Der Rohe, Cornelius H.Vanderwolf, Robert O.Van Everdingen, Blanche Lemco Van Ginkel,Hans Van Leeuwen, Francoise Van Roey-Roux, Charles E.Van Wagner, Alice Van Wart, Christine Van Zwamen, Christopher Varley*, Frederick Horsman Varley, Joan M.Vastokas, Frederick Vaughan, Edmund W.Vaz, Bill Vazan, Richard Veatch, Michele M.Veeman, Terrence S.Veeman, P.Susan Verdier, Arjen Verkaik, Andre Vermeirre, F.A.Verner, Pierre Veronneau, Claude Vezina, Raymond Vezina, Roger Vick*, Bernard L.Vigod*, Gisele Villeneuve, Aubrey R.Vincent, Thomas B.Vincent, Louis P.Visentin(?), Kati Vita, Vadim D.Vladykov, Douglas Voice, Nive Voisine*, George M.Volkoff, Michael Vollmer, Edwinna Von Baeyer, Paul Von Baich, C.Haehling Von Lanzenauer, Roger D.Voyer, Richard Vroom*, Pamela S.Wachna, Stephen M.Waddams(?), Susan Wagg, Anton Wagner*, J.A.Wainwright, W.A.Waiser, P.B.Waite*, Thomas W.Wakeling, Michael John Walcroft, David B.Walden, Deward E.Walker, James W.St.G.Walker, John P.Walker, Karen Walker, Roger G.Walker, Susan Walker, Thomas Walkom, Birgitta Linderoth Wallace, Carl M.Wallace*, Hugh N.Wallace, Jan Wallace, P.R.Wallace, Jean-Pierre Wallot, J.A.Walper, Susan Walsh, J.Grant Wanzel, Norman Ward, Philip R.Ward, W.Peter Ward, Tracy Ware, Wesley K.Wark, John Warkentin, John Anson Warner,Peter D.A.Warwick, Jerry Wasserman, A.M.C.Waterman, Janice Waters, Elizabeth Waterston, Mel Watkins, D.Scott Watson, Homer Watson, Lorne Watson, William G.Watson, Robert D.Watt, Ron Watts Douglas Waugh, Earle H.Waugh, Morris Wayman, Christopher Weait, John C.Weaver, James L.Webb, John Webber, Anna Weber, Roland Weber, D.B.Webster, Douglas R.Webster, Gloria Cranmer Webster, Helen R.Webster, William G.Wegenast, Tom Wein, Peter H.Weinrich, Robert Stanley Weir, Thomas R.Weir, Merrily Weisbord, G.Vernon Wellburn, Harry L.Welsh, Carl J.Wenaas, Leo H.Werner, Douglas Wertheimer, D.V.Chip Weseloh, Benjamin West, J.Thomas West*, Roxroy West, D.W.S.Westlake, Marla L.Weston, Donald G.Wetherell, Robert Reginald Whale, Linda D.Whalen, Bruce A.Wheatcroft, C.F.J.Whebell, John O.Wheeler, Reginald Whitaker, Clinton Oliver White, John White, M.Lillian White, Margaret Mary Whitehead, Alan Whitehorn, Leon Whiteson, James R.Whiteway, Gordon Francis Whitmore, Donald R.Whyte, Edgar B.Wickberg, Joyce Wieland, Thomas Wien, Ernest J.Wiggins, Darlene Wight, Thomas W.Wilby, Betty Wilcox, Norman J.Wilimovsky, Karen Wilkin, Bruce William Wilkinson, J.A.Wilkinson, Robert C.Willey, Al Williams, David Ricardo Williams, Glyndwr Williams, Maureen C.Williams, Patricia Lynn Williams, Penny Williams, Richard M.Williams, Ridgeley Williams, Sydney B.Williams, W.M.Williams, Mary F.Williamson, Moncrieff Williamson, Christopher J.Willis, Norman M.Willis, Rod Willmot, Bruce G.Wilson, Donald R.Wilson, Harold E.Wilson, Ian E.Wilson, J.Donald Wilson, J.Tuzo Wilson, Jean Wilson*, Helmut K.Wimmer, Leland Windreich(?), Elizabeth Windsor, Brent Windwick, Robin W.Winks, Gregory Wirick, Ronald G.Wirick, S.F.Wise, William J.Withrow, Henry Wittenberg(?), Leonhard S.Wolfe, William C.Wonders, Peter Wons, Bernard Wood, George Woodcock*, M.Emerson Woodruff, Robert James Woods, John Elliott Woolford, Glenn T.Wright, Harold E.Wright, J.F.C.Wright, J.V.Wright, Janet Wright, Kenneth O.Wright, Roy A.Wright*, Paul Wyczynski, Jan Wyers, F.E.Wyman, Max Wyman, Graeme Wynn, Leo Yaffe, Maxwell F.Yalden, Don Yee, Derek York, A.J.Sandy Young, Bill Young(?), C.Maureen Young, David A.Young, Gayle Young, Jane Young, Jeffery D.Young, John H.Young, Roland S.Young, Walter D.Young, Manuel Zack, Jas Zagon, R.Perry Zavitz, Eberhard Heinrich Zeidler, Suzanne E.Zeller, Jarold K.Zeman, Joyce Zemans*, Norman W.Zepp, [--?--] Zerafa, Jacob S.Ziegel, Bruce H.Ziff, Frank D.Zingrone, Stephen C.Zoltai*, Louise Zuk, David Zuszman.

 

includes:

i) Dudek, Louis, by Michael Gnarowski (vol.1/pp.631-632; prose with passing reference to bpNichol)

ii) Humorous Writing in English, by Stephen Scobie (vol.2/pp.1o26-1o27; prose, with a halfparagraph on Nichol's the martyrology)

iii) Modern and Contemporary Periods, by Geoffrey Hancock (vol.2/pp.1219-122o; part 2 of Literary Magazines in English, with reference to Nichol & grOnk)

iv) Literature in English, by W.H.New (vol.2/pp.1223-1226; prose in 4 parts includes part

--4. History (in 6 parts includes part

----f. 1959-80s (with passing reference to Nichol)))

v) Martyrology, The, by Step[hen Scobie (vol.2/p.1311; on books 1-4 with quote by Frank Davey from bpNichol)

vi) Nichol, Barrie Phillip, by Douglas Barbour (vol.3/p.1498; revised from its appearance in the 1st edition)

vii) Novel in English, 1959-1980s, by Linda Hutcheon (vol.3/pp.1537-1539; passing reference to Nichol)

viii) Ondaatje, Michael, by Sharon Thesen (vol.3/p.1566; prose, passing reference to Nichol/sons of captain poetry)

ix) Oral Literature in English, by Barbara Godard (vol.3/pp.1581-1582; with passing references to Nichol/Four Horsemen)

x) Poetry in English, 1960-1980s, by Douglas Barbour (vol.3/pp.1697-1699; with references to Nichol & Four Horsemen))

xi) Scobie, Stephen, by Shirley Neuman (vol.3/p.1959; with reference to Scobie's bpNichol: What History Teaches)

xii) Short Fiction in English, by J.R.Tim Struthers (vol.3/pp.1996-1997; in 9 parts, includes part

--6. Experimental Writing (with passing reference to Nichol's Craft Dinner))

xiii) INDEX, by Eve Gardner & Ron Gardner (vol.4/pp.2336-2736; entries on Nichol, Four Horsemen & select book titles only)

___________________________

 

- 1st edition, 1985

Biennalist

Biennalist is an Art Format commenting on active biennials and managed cultural events through artworks.Biennalist takes the thematics of the biennales and similar events like festivals and conferences seriously, questioning the established structures of the staged art events in order to contribute to the debate, which they wish to generate.

  

About artist Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thierry_Geoffroy

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Room_(art)

  

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

  

www.colonel.dk/

  

Biennalist :

Biennalist is an Art Format commenting on active biennials and managed cultural events through artworks.Biennalist takes the thematics of the biennales and similar events like festivals and conferences seriously, questioning the established structures of the staged art events in order to contribute to the debate, which they wish to generate.

-------------------------------------------

links about Biennalist :

 

Thierry Geoffroy/Colonel:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thierry_Geoffroy

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Room_(art)

 

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

 

www.colonel.dk/

 

—--Biennale from wikipedia —--

 

The Venice International Film Festival is part of the Venice Biennale. The famous Golden Lion is awarded to the best film screening at the competition.

Biennale (Italian: [bi.enˈnaːle]), Italian for "biennial" or "every other year", is any event that happens every two years. It is most commonly used within the art world to describe large-scale international contemporary art exhibitions. As such the term was popularised by Venice Biennale, which was first held in 1895. Since the 1990s, the terms "biennale" and "biennial" have been interchangeably used in a more generic way - to signify a large-scale international survey show of contemporary art that recurs at regular intervals but not necessarily biannual (such as triennials, Documenta, Skulptur Projekte Münster).[1] The phrase has also been used for other artistic events, such as the "Biennale de Paris", "Kochi-Muziris Biennale", Berlinale (for the Berlin International Film Festival) and Viennale (for Vienna's international film festival).

Characteristics[edit]

According to author Federica Martini, what is at stake in contemporary biennales is the diplomatic/international relations potential as well as urban regeneration plans. Besides being mainly focused on the present (the “here and now” where the cultural event takes place and their effect of "spectacularisation of the everyday"), because of their site-specificity cultural events may refer back to,[who?] produce or frame the history of the site and communities' collective memory.[2]

 

The Great Exhibition in The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, in 1851, the first attempt to condense the representation of the world within a unitary exhibition space.

A strong and influent symbol of biennales and of large-scale international exhibitions in general is the Crystal Palace, the gigantic and futuristic London architecture that hosted the Great Exhibition in 1851. According to philosopher Peter Sloterdijk,[3][page needed] the Crystal Palace is the first attempt to condense the representation of the world in a unitary exhibition space, where the main exhibit is society itself in an a-historical, spectacular condition. The Crystal Palace main motives were the affirmation of British economic and national leadership and the creation of moments of spectacle. In this respect, 19th century World fairs provided a visual crystallization of colonial culture and were, at the same time, forerunners of contemporary theme parks.

The Venice Biennale as an archetype[edit]

 

The structure of the Venice Biennale in 2005 with an international exhibition and the national pavilions.

The Venice Biennale, a periodical large-scale cultural event founded in 1895, served as an archetype of the biennales. Meant to become a World Fair focused on contemporary art, the Venice Biennale used as a pretext the wedding anniversary of the Italian king and followed up to several national exhibitions organised after Italy unification in 1861. The Biennale immediately put forth issues of city marketing, cultural tourism and urban regeneration, as it was meant to reposition Venice on the international cultural map after the crisis due to the end of the Grand Tour model and the weakening of the Venetian school of painting. Furthermore, the Gardens where the Biennale takes place were an abandoned city area that needed to be re-functionalised. In cultural terms, the Biennale was meant to provide on a biennial basis a platform for discussing contemporary art practices that were not represented in fine arts museums at the time. The early Biennale model already included some key points that are still constitutive of large-scale international art exhibitions today: a mix of city marketing, internationalism, gentrification issues and destination culture, and the spectacular, large scale of the event.

Biennials after the 1990s[edit]

The situation of biennials has changed in the contemporary context: while at its origin in 1895 Venice was a unique cultural event, but since the 1990s hundreds of biennials have been organized across the globe. Given the ephemeral and irregular nature of some biennials, there is little consensus on the exact number of biennials in existence at any given time.[citation needed] Furthermore, while Venice was a unique agent in the presentation of contemporary art, since the 1960s several museums devoted to contemporary art are exhibiting the contemporary scene on a regular basis. Another point of difference concerns 19th century internationalism in the arts, that was brought into question by post-colonial debates and criticism of the contemporary art “ethnic marketing”, and also challenged the Venetian and World Fair’s national representation system. As a consequence of this, Eurocentric tendency to implode the whole word in an exhibition space, which characterises both the Crystal Palace and the Venice Biennale, is affected by the expansion of the artistic geographical map to scenes traditionally considered as marginal. The birth of the Havana Biennial in 1984 is widely considered an important counterpoint to the Venetian model for its prioritization of artists working in the Global South and curatorial rejection of the national pavilion model.

International biennales[edit]

In the term's most commonly used context of major recurrent art exhibitions:

Adelaide Biennial of Australian Art, South Australia

Asian Art Biennale, in Taichung, Taiwan (National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts)

Athens Biennale, in Athens, Greece

Bienal de Arte Paiz, in Guatemala City, Guatemala[4]

Arts in Marrakech (AiM) International Biennale (Arts in Marrakech Festival)

Bamako Encounters, a biennale of photography in Mali

Bat-Yam International Biennale of Landscape Urbanism

Beijing Biennale

Berlin Biennale (contemporary art biennale, to be distinguished from Berlinale, which is a film festival)

Bergen Assembly (triennial for contemporary art in Bergen, Norway)www.bergenassembly.no

Bi-City Biennale of Urbanism\Architecture, in Shenzhen and Hong Kong, China

Bienal de Arte de Ponce in Ponce, Puerto Rico

Biënnale van België, Biennial of Belgium, Belgium

BiennaleOnline Online biennial exhibition of contemporary art from the most promising emerging artists.

Biennial of Hawaii Artists

Biennale de la Biche, the smallest biennale in the world held at deserted island near Guadeloupe, French overseas region[5][6]

Biwako Biennale [ja], in Shiga, Japan

La Biennale de Montreal

Biennale of Luanda : Pan-African Forum for the Culture of Peace,[7] Angola

Boom Festival, international music and culture festival in Idanha-a-Nova, Portugal

Bucharest Biennale in Bucharest, Romania

Bushwick Biennial, in Bushwick, Brooklyn, New York

Canakkale Biennial, in Canakkale, Turkey

Cerveira International Art Biennial, Vila Nova de Cerveira, Portugal [8]

Changwon Sculpture Biennale in Changwon, South Korea

Dakar Biennale, also called Dak'Art, biennale in Dakar, Senegal

Documenta, contemporary art exhibition held every five years in Kassel, Germany

Estuaire (biennale), biennale in Nantes and Saint-Nazaire, France

EVA International, biennial in Limerick, Republic of Ireland

Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art, in Gothenburg, Sweden[9]

Greater Taipei Contemporary Art Biennial, in Taipei, Taiwan

Gwangju Biennale, Asia's first and most prestigious contemporary art biennale

Havana biennial, in Havana, Cuba

Helsinki Biennial, in Helsinki, Finland

Herzliya Biennial For Contemporary Art, in Herzliya, Israel

Incheon Women Artists' Biennale, in Incheon, South Korea

Iowa Biennial, in Iowa, USA

Istanbul Biennial, in Istanbul, Turkey

International Roaming Biennial of Tehran, in Tehran and Istanbul

Jakarta Biennale, in Jakarta, Indonesia

Jerusalem Biennale, in Jerusalem, Israel

Jogja Biennale, in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Karachi Biennale, in Karachi, Pakistan

Keelung Harbor Biennale, in Keelung, Taiwan

Kochi-Muziris Biennale, largest art exhibition in India, in Kochi, Kerala, India

Kortrijk Design Biennale Interieur, in Kortrijk, Belgium

Kobe Biennale, in Japan

Kuandu Biennale, in Taipei, Taiwan

Lagos Biennial, in Lagos, Nigeria[10]

Light Art Biennale Austria, in Austria

Liverpool Biennial, in Liverpool, UK

Lofoten International Art Festival [no] (LIAF), on the Lofoten archipelago, Norway[11]

Manifesta, European Biennale of contemporary art in different European cities

Mediations Biennale, in Poznań, Poland

Melbourne International Biennial 1999

Mediterranean Biennale in Sakhnin 2013

MOMENTA Biennale de l'image [fr] (formerly known as Le Mois de la Photo à Montréal), in Montreal, Canada

MOMENTUM [no], in Moss, Norway[12]

Moscow Biennale, in Moscow, Russia

Munich Biennale, new opera and music-theatre in even-numbered years

Mykonos Biennale

Nakanojo Biennale[13]

NGV Triennial, contemporary art exhibition held every three years at the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia

October Salon – Belgrade Biennale [sr], organised by the Cultural Center of Belgrade [sr], in Belgrade, Serbia[14]

OSTEN Biennial of Drawing Skopje, North Macedonia[15]

Biennale de Paris

Riga International Biennial of Contemporary Art (RIBOCA), in Riga, Latvia[16]

São Paulo Art Biennial, in São Paulo, Brazil

SCAPE Public Art Christchurch Biennial in Christchurch, New Zealand[17]

Prospect New Orleans

Seoul Biennale of Architecture and Urbanism

Sequences, in Reykjavík, Iceland[18]

Shanghai Biennale

Sharjah Biennale, in Sharjah, UAE

Singapore Biennale, held in various locations across the city-state island of Singapore

Screen City Biennial, in Stavanger, Norway

Biennale of Sydney

Taipei Biennale, in Taipei, Taiwan

Taiwan Arts Biennale, in Taichung, Taiwan (National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts)

Taiwan Film Biennale, in Hammer Museum, Los Angeles, U.S.A.

Thessaloniki Biennale of Contemporary Art [el], in Thessaloniki, Greece[19]

Dream city, produced by ART Rue Association in Tunisia

Vancouver Biennale

Visayas Islands Visual Arts Exhibition and Conference (VIVA ExCon) in the Philippines [20]

Venice Biennale, in Venice, Italy, which includes:

Venice Biennale of Contemporary Art

Venice Biennale of Architecture

Venice Film Festival

Vladivostok biennale of Visual Arts, in Vladivostok, Russia

Whitney Biennial, hosted by the Whitney Museum of American Art, in New York City, NY, USA

Web Biennial, produced with teams from Athens, Berlin and Istanbul.

West Africa Architecture Biennale,[21] Virtual in Lagos, Nigeria.

WRO Biennale, in Wrocław, Poland[22]

Music Biennale Zagreb

[SHIFT:ibpcpa] The International Biennale of Performance, Collaborative and Participatory Arts, Nomadic, International, Scotland, UK.

 

—---Venice Biennale from wikipedia —

 

The Venice Biennale (/ˌbiːɛˈnɑːleɪ, -li/; Italian: La Biennale di Venezia) is an international cultural exhibition hosted annually in Venice, Italy by the Biennale Foundation.[2][3][4] The biennale has been organised every year since 1895, which makes it the oldest of its kind. The main exhibition held in Castello, in the halls of the Arsenale and Biennale Gardens, alternates between art and architecture (hence the name biennale; biennial).[5][6][7] The other events hosted by the Foundation—spanning theatre, music, and dance—are held annually in various parts of Venice, whereas the Venice Film Festival takes place at the Lido.[8]

Organization[edit]

Art Biennale

Art Biennale

International Art Exhibition

1895

Even-numbered years (since 2022)

Venice Biennale of Architecture

International Architecture Exhibition

1980

Odd-numbered years (since 2021)

Biennale Musica

International Festival of Contemporary Music

1930

Annually (Sep/Oct)

Biennale Teatro

International Theatre Festival

1934

Annually (Jul/Aug)

Venice Film Festival

Venice International Film Festival

1932

Annually (Aug/Sep)

Venice Dance Biennale

International Festival of Contemporary Dance

1999

Annually (June; biennially 2010–16)

  

International Kids' Carnival

2009

Annually (during Carnevale)

  

History

1895–1947

On April 19, 1893, the Venetian City Council passed a resolution to set up an biennial exhibition of Italian Art ("Esposizione biennale artistica nazionale") to celebrate the silver anniversary of King Umberto I and Margherita of Savoy.[11]

A year later, the council decreed "to adopt a 'by invitation' system; to reserve a section of the Exhibition for foreign artists too; to admit works by uninvited Italian artists, as selected by a jury."[12]

The first Biennale, "I Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte della Città di Venezia (1st International Art Exhibition of the City of Venice)" (although originally scheduled for April 22, 1894) was opened on April 30, 1895, by the Italian King and Queen, Umberto I and Margherita di Savoia. The first exhibition was seen by 224,000 visitors.

The event became increasingly international in the first decades of the 20th century: from 1907 on, several countries installed national pavilions at the exhibition, with the first being from Belgium. In 1910 the first internationally well-known artists were displayed: a room dedicated to Gustav Klimt, a one-man show for Renoir, a retrospective of Courbet. A work by Picasso "Family of Saltimbanques" was removed from the Spanish salon in the central Palazzo because it was feared that its novelty might shock the public. By 1914 seven pavilions had been established: Belgium (1907), Hungary (1909), Germany (1909), Great Britain (1909), France (1912), and Russia (1914).

During World War I, the 1916 and 1918 events were cancelled.[13] In 1920 the post of mayor of Venice and president of the Biennale was split. The new secretary general, Vittorio Pica brought about the first presence of avant-garde art, notably Impressionists and Post-Impressionists.

1922 saw an exhibition of sculpture by African artists. Between the two World Wars, many important modern artists had their work exhibited there. In 1928 the Istituto Storico d'Arte Contemporanea (Historical Institute of Contemporary Art) opened, which was the first nucleus of archival collections of the Biennale. In 1930 its name was changed into Historical Archive of Contemporary Art.

In 1930, the Biennale was transformed into an Ente Autonomo (Autonomous Board) by Royal Decree with law no. 33 of 13-1-1930. Subsequently, the control of the Biennale passed from the Venice city council to the national Fascist government under Benito Mussolini. This brought on a restructuring, an associated financial boost, as well as a new president, Count Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata. Three entirely new events were established, including the Biennale Musica in 1930, also referred to as International Festival of Contemporary Music; the Venice Film Festival in 1932, which they claim as the first film festival in history,[14] also referred to as Venice International Film Festival; and the Biennale Theatro in 1934, also referred to as International Theatre Festival.

In 1933 the Biennale organized an exhibition of Italian art abroad. From 1938, Grand Prizes were awarded in the art exhibition section.

During World War II, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted: 1942 saw the last edition of the events. The Film Festival restarted in 1946, the Music and Theatre festivals were resumed in 1947, and the Art Exhibition in 1948.[15]

1948–1973[edit]

The Art Biennale was resumed in 1948 with a major exhibition of a recapitulatory nature. The Secretary General, art historian Rodolfo Pallucchini, started with the Impressionists and many protagonists of contemporary art including Chagall, Klee, Braque, Delvaux, Ensor, and Magritte, as well as a retrospective of Picasso's work. Peggy Guggenheim was invited to exhibit her collection, later to be permanently housed at Ca' Venier dei Leoni.

1949 saw the beginning of renewed attention to avant-garde movements in European—and later worldwide—movements in contemporary art. Abstract expressionism was introduced in the 1950s, and the Biennale is credited with importing Pop Art into the canon of art history by awarding the top prize to Robert Rauschenberg in 1964.[16] From 1948 to 1972, Italian architect Carlo Scarpa did a series of remarkable interventions in the Biennale's exhibition spaces.

In 1954 the island San Giorgio Maggiore provided the venue for the first Japanese Noh theatre shows in Europe. 1956 saw the selection of films following an artistic selection and no longer based upon the designation of the participating country. The 1957 Golden Lion went to Satyajit Ray's Aparajito which introduced Indian cinema to the West.

1962 included Arte Informale at the Art Exhibition with Jean Fautrier, Hans Hartung, Emilio Vedova, and Pietro Consagra. The 1964 Art Exhibition introduced continental Europe to Pop Art (The Independent Group had been founded in Britain in 1952). The American Robert Rauschenberg was the first American artist to win the Gran Premio, and the youngest to date.

The student protests of 1968 also marked a crisis for the Biennale. Student protests hindered the opening of the Biennale. A resulting period of institutional changes opened and ending with a new Statute in 1973. In 1969, following the protests, the Grand Prizes were abandoned. These resumed in 1980 for the Mostra del Cinema and in 1986 for the Art Exhibition.[17]

In 1972, for the first time, a theme was adopted by the Biennale, called "Opera o comportamento" ("Work or Behaviour").

Starting from 1973 the Music Festival was no longer held annually. During the year in which the Mostra del Cinema was not held, there was a series of "Giornate del cinema italiano" (Days of Italian Cinema) promoted by sectorial bodies in campo Santa Margherita, in Venice.[18]

1974–1998[edit]

1974 saw the start of the four-year presidency of Carlo Ripa di Meana. The International Art Exhibition was not held (until it was resumed in 1976). Theatre and cinema events were held in October 1974 and 1975 under the title Libertà per il Cile (Freedom for Chile)—a major cultural protest against the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.

On 15 November 1977, the so-called Dissident Biennale (in reference to the dissident movement in the USSR) opened. Because of the ensuing controversies within the Italian left wing parties, president Ripa di Meana resigned at the end of the year.[19]

In 1979 the new presidency of Giuseppe Galasso (1979-1982) began. The principle was laid down whereby each of the artistic sectors was to have a permanent director to organise its activity.

In 1980, the Architecture section of the Biennale was set up. The director, Paolo Portoghesi, opened the Corderie dell'Arsenale to the public for the first time. At the Mostra del Cinema, the awards were brought back into being (between 1969 and 1979, the editions were non-competitive). In 1980, Achille Bonito Oliva and Harald Szeemann introduced "Aperto", a section of the exhibition designed to explore emerging art. Italian art historian Giovanni Carandente directed the 1988 and 1990 editions. A three-year gap was left afterwards to make sure that the 1995 edition would coincide with the 100th anniversary of the Biennale.[13]

The 1993 edition was directed by Achille Bonito Oliva. In 1995, Jean Clair was appointed to be the Biennale's first non-Italian director of visual arts[20] while Germano Celant served as director in 1997.

For the Centenary in 1995, the Biennale promoted events in every sector of its activity: the 34th Festival del Teatro, the 46th art exhibition, the 46th Festival di Musica, the 52nd Mostra del Cinema.[21]

1999–present[edit]

In 1999 and 2001, Harald Szeemann directed two editions in a row (48th & 49th) bringing in a larger representation of artists from Asia and Eastern Europe and more young artists than usual and expanded the show into several newly restored spaces of the Arsenale.

In 1999 a new sector was created for live shows: DMT (Dance Music Theatre).

The 50th edition, 2003, directed by Francesco Bonami, had a record number of seven co-curators involved, including Hans Ulrich Obrist, Catherine David, Igor Zabel, Hou Hanru and Massimiliano Gioni.

The 51st edition of the Biennale opened in June 2005, curated, for the first time by two women, Maria de Corral and Rosa Martinez. De Corral organized "The Experience of Art" which included 41 artists, from past masters to younger figures. Rosa Martinez took over the Arsenale with "Always a Little Further." Drawing on "the myth of the romantic traveler" her exhibition involved 49 artists, ranging from the elegant to the profane.

In 2007, Robert Storr became the first director from the United States to curate the Biennale (the 52nd), with a show entitled Think with the Senses – Feel with the Mind. Art in the Present Tense.

Swedish curator Daniel Birnbaum was artistic director of the 2009 edition entitled "Fare Mondi // Making Worlds".

The 2011 edition was curated by Swiss curator Bice Curiger entitled "ILLUMInazioni – ILLUMInations".

The Biennale in 2013 was curated by the Italian Massimiliano Gioni. His title and theme, Il Palazzo Enciclopedico / The Encyclopedic Palace, was adopted from an architectural model by the self-taught Italian-American artist Marino Auriti. Auriti's work, The Encyclopedic Palace of the World was lent by the American Folk Art Museum and exhibited in the first room of the Arsenale for the duration of the biennale. For Gioni, Auriti's work, "meant to house all worldly knowledge, bringing together the greatest discoveries of the human race, from the wheel to the satellite," provided an analogous figure for the "biennale model itself...based on the impossible desire to concentrate the infinite worlds of contemporary art in a single place: a task that now seems as dizzyingly absurd as Auriti's dream."[22]

Curator Okwui Enwezor was responsible for the 2015 edition.[23] He was the first African-born curator of the biennial. As a catalyst for imagining different ways of imagining multiple desires and futures Enwezor commissioned special projects and programs throughout the Biennale in the Giardini. This included a Creative Time Summit, e-flux journal's SUPERCOMMUNITY, Gulf Labor Coalition, The Invisible Borders Trans-African Project and Abounaddara.[24][25]

The 2017 Biennale, titled Viva Arte Viva, was directed by French curator Christine Macel who called it an "exhibition inspired by humanism".[26] German artist Franz Erhard Walter won the Golden Lion for best artist, while Carolee Schneemann was awarded a posthumous Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement.[27]

The 2019 Biennale, titled May You Live In Interesting Times, was directed by American-born curator Ralph Rugoff.[28]

The 2022 edition was curated by Italian curator Cecilia Alemani entitled "The Milk of Dreams" after a book by British-born Mexican surrealist painter Leonora Carrington.[29]

The Biennale has an attendance today of over 500,000 visitors.[30][31][32]

Role in the art market[edit]

When the Venice Biennale was founded in 1895, one of its main goals was to establish a new market for contemporary art. Between 1942 and 1968 a sales office assisted artists in finding clients and selling their work,[33] a service for which it charged 10% commission. Sales remained an intrinsic part of the biennale until 1968, when a sales ban was enacted. An important practical reason why the focus on non-commodities has failed to decouple Venice from the market is that the biennale itself lacks the funds to produce, ship and install these large-scale works. Therefore, the financial involvement of dealers is widely regarded as indispensable;[16] as they regularly front the funding for production of ambitious projects.[34] Furthermore, every other year the Venice Biennale coincides with nearby Art Basel, the world's prime commercial fair for modern and contemporary art. Numerous galleries with artists on show in Venice usually bring work by the same artists to Basel.[35]

Central Pavilion and Arsenale[edit]

The formal Biennale is based at a park, the Giardini. The Giardini includes a large exhibition hall that houses a themed exhibition curated by the Biennale's director.

Initiated in 1980, the Aperto began as a fringe event for younger artists and artists of a national origin not represented by the permanent national pavilions. This is usually staged in the Arsenale and has become part of the formal biennale programme. In 1995 there was no Aperto so a number of participating countries hired venues to show exhibitions of emerging artists. From 1999, both the international exhibition and the Aperto were held as one exhibition, held both at the Central Pavilion and the Arsenale. Also in 1999, a $1 million renovation transformed the Arsenale area into a cluster of renovated shipyards, sheds and warehouses, more than doubling the Arsenale's exhibition space of previous years.[36]

A special edition of the 54th Biennale was held at Padiglione Italia of Torino Esposizioni – Sala Nervi (December 2011 – February 2012) for the 150th Anniversary of Italian Unification. The event was directed by Vittorio Sgarbi

 

A doctor see patients in a clinic in Mukono. International Development Association (IDA) support has contributed to improved health for Ugandans with targeted supports to the Ugandan health sector. Uganda has pioneered 'citizen report cards' at the community level in health care. Uganda. Photo: Arne Hoel / World Bank

 

Photo ID: Hoel_030312_P3121213