Chittorgarh Fort (Hindi/Rajasthani: चित्तौड दुर्ग Chittorgarh Durg) is the largest fort in India and the grandest in the state of Rajasthan. It is a World Heritage Site. The fort, plainly known as Chittor, was the capital of Mewar and is today situated several kilometres south of Bhilwara. It was initially ruled by Guhilot and later by Sisodias, the Suryavanshi clans of Chattari Rajputs, from the 7th century, until it was finally abandoned in 1568 after the siege by Emperor Akbar in 1567. It sprawls majestically over a hill 180 m in height spread over an area of 280 ha above the plains of the valley drained by the Berach River. The fort precinct with an evocative history is studded with a series of historical palaces, gates, temples and two prominent commemoration towers. These monumental ruins have inspired the imagination of tourists and writers for centuries.

 

The fort was sacked three times between the 15th and 16th centuries; in 1303 Allauddin Khilji defeated Rana Ratan Singh, in 1535 Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat defeated Bikramjeet Singh and in 1567 Emperor Akbar defeated Maharana Udai Singh II who left the fort and founded Udaipur. Each time the men fought bravely rushing out of the fort walls charging the enemy but lost every time. Following these defeats, Jauhar was committed thrice by more than 13,000 ladies and children of the Rajput heroes who laid their lives in battles at Chittorgarh Fort, first led by Rani Padmini wife of Rana Rattan Singh who was killed in the battle in 1303, and later by Rani Karnavati in 1537 AD.

 

Thus, the fort represents the quintessence of tribute to the nationalism, courage, medieval chivalry and sacrifice exhibited by the Mewar rulers of Sisodia and their kinsmen and women and children, between the 7th and 16th centuries. The rulers, their soldiers, the women folk of royalty and the commoners considered death as a better option than dishonor in the face of surrender to the foreign invading armies.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Chittorgarh, located in the southern part of the state of Rajasthan, 233 km from Ajmer, midway between Delhi and Mumbai on the National Highway 8 (India) in the road network of Golden Quadrilateral. Chittorgarh is situated where National Highways No. 76 & 79 intersect.

 

The fort rises abruptly above the surrounding plains and is spread over an area of 2.8 km2. The highest elevation at the fort is 1,075 m. It is situated on the left bank of the Berach river (a tributary of the Banas River) and is linked to the new town of Chittorgarh (known as the 'Lower Town') developed in the plains after 1568 AD when the fort was deserted in light of introduction of artillery in the 16th century, and therefore the capital was shifted to more secure Udaipur, located on the eastern flank of Aravalli hill range. Mughal Emperor Akbar attacked and sacked this fort which was but one of the 84 forts of Mewar,but the capital was shifted to Aravalli hills where heavy artillery & cavalry were not effective. A winding hill road of more than 1 km length from the new town leads to the west end main gate, called Ram Pol, of the fort. Within the fort, a circular road provides access to all the gates and monuments located within the fort walls.

 

The fort that once boasted of 84 water bodies has only 22 of them now. These water bodies are fed by natural catchment and rainfall, and have a combined storage of 4 billion litres that could meet the water needs of an army of 50,000. The supply could last for four years. These water bodies are in the form of ponds, wells and step wells.

 

HISTORY

Chittorgarh Fort is considered to be the largest fort of India in terms of area. It is stated that the fort was constructed by the Mauryans during the 7th century AD and hence derives its name after the Mauryan ruler, Chitrangada Mori, as inscribed on coins of the period. Historical records show Chittorgarh fort as the capital of Mewar for 834 years. It was established in 734 AD by Bappa Rawal, founder ruler in the hierarchy of the Sisodia rulers of Mewar. It is also said that the fort was gifted to Bappa Rawal as part of Solanki princess’s dowry in the 8th century. The fort was looted and destroyed at the hands of Emperor Akbar in 1568 AD and subsequently never resettled but only refurbished in 1905 AD. Three important battles were fought for control of the fort; in 1303, Ala-ud-din Khilji besieged the fort; in 1535, Sultan of Gujarat Bahadur Shah besieged the fort; and in 1568, Mughal Emperor Akbar attacked the fort. Not that there were only defeats at the fort. Excluding the periods of siege, the fort had always remained in possession of the Sisodias of the Guhilot (or Gehlot/Guhila) clan of Rajputs, who descended from Bappa Rawal. There were also success stories of establishment of the fort and its reconstruction after every siege, before it was finally abandoned in 1568, all of which are narrated.

 

Chittor is cited in the Mahabharat epic. It is said that Bhima, the second of the Pandava brothers of Epic Mahabaharata fame, known for his mighty strength gave a powerful hit with his fist to the ground that resulted in water springing up to form a large reservoir. It is called Bhimlat kund, an artificial tank named after Bhima. Folk legend also mentions that Bhima started building the fort.

 

BAPPA RAWAL

The earliest history linked to the Bappa Rawal's fort is that of the Huna Kingdom of Sialkot (of Mihir Kula 515-540 AD) that was destroyed by Yashodharman. This was subsequently seized by a new dynasty of kshatriyas called Tak or Taxaka. According to historians, the Taxak Mori were the lords of Chittor from a very early period. After a few generations, the Guhilots supplanted them. From 725 to 735 AD, there were numerous defenders who appear to have considered the cause of Chittor their own, the Tak from Asirgarh. This race appears to have retained possession of Asirgarh for at least two centuries after this event and one of its chieftain Bappa Rawal was the most conspicuous leader in the lineage of Prithvi Raj. In the poems of Chandar he is called the "Standard, bearer, Tak of Asir."

 

SIEGE OF 1303

Ala ud din Khilji, Sultan of Delhi, rallied his forces against Mewar, in 1303 AD. The Chittorgarh fort was till then considered impregnable and grand, atop a natural hill. But his immediate reason for invading the fort was his obsessive desire to capture Rani Padmini, the unrivalled beautiful queen of Rana Ratan Singh and take her into his harem. The Rana, out of politeness, allowed the Khilji to view Padmini through a set of mirrors. But this viewing of Padmini further fired Khilji’s desire to possess her. After the viewing, as a gesture of courtesy, when the Rana accompanied the Sultan to the outer gate, he was treacherously captured. Khilji conveyed to the queen that the Rana would be released only if she agreed to join his harem. But the queen had other plans. She agreed to go to his camp if permitted to go in a Royal style with an entourage, in strict secrecy. Instead of her going, she sent 700 well armed soldiers disguised in litters and they rescued the Rana and took him to the fort. But Khilji chased them to the fort where a fierce battle ensued at the outer gate of the fort in which the Rajput soldiers were overpowered and the Rana was killed. Khilji won the battle on August 26, 1303. Soon thereafter, instead of surrendering to the Sultan, the royal Rajput ladies led by Rani Padmini preferred to die through the Rajput’s ultimate tragic rite of Jauhar (self immolation on a pyre). In revenge, Khilji killed thirty thousand Hindus. He entrusted the fort to his son Khizr Khan to rule and renamed the fort as 'Khizrabad'. He also showered gifts on his son by way of

 

a red canopy, a robe embroidered with gold and two standards one green and the other black and threw upon him rubies and emeralds.

 

He returned to Delhi after the fierce battle at the fort.

 

RANA HAMMIR & SUCCESSORS

Khizr Khan’s rule at the fort lasted till 1311 AD and due to the pressure of Rajputs he was forced to entrust power to the Sonigra chief Maldeva who held the fort for 7 years. Hammir Singh, usurped control of the fort from Maldeva by “treachery and intrigue” and Chittor once again regained its past glory. Hammir, before his death in 1364 AD, had converted Mewar into a fairly large and prosperous kingdom. The dynasty (and clan) fathered by him came to be known by the name Sisodia after the village where he was born. His son Ketra Singh succeeded him and ruled with honour and power. Ketra Singh’s son Lakha who ascended the throne in 1382 AD also won several wars. His famous grandson Rana Kumbha came to the throne in 1433 AD and by that time the Muslim rulers of Malwa and Gujarat had acquired considerable clout and were keen to usurp the powerful Mewar state.

 

RANA KUMBHA & CLAN

There was resurgence during the reign of Rana Kumbha in the 15th century. Rana Kumbha, also known as Maharana Kumbhakarna, son of Rana Mokal, ruled Mewar between 1433 AD and 1468 AD. He is credited with building up the Mewar kingdom assiduously as a force to reckon with. He built 32 forts (84 fortresses formed the defense of Mewar) including one in his own name, called Kumbalgarh. But his end came in 1468 AD at the hands of his own son Rana Udaysimha (Uday Singh I) who assassinated him to gain the throne of Mewar. This patricide was not appreciated by the people of Mewar and consequently his brother Rana Raimal assumed the reins of power in 1473. After his death in May 1509, Sangram Singh (also known as Rana Sanga), his youngest son, became the ruler of Mewar, which brought in a new phase in the history of Mewar. Rana Sanga, with support from Medini Rai (a Rajput chief of Alwar), fought a valiant battle against Mughal emperor Babar at Khanwa in 1527. He ushered in a period of prestige to Chittor by defeating the rulers of Gujarat and also effectively interfered in the matters of Idar. He also won small areas of the Delhi territory. In the ensuing battle with Ibrahim Lodi, Rana won and acquired some districts of Malwa. He also defeated the combined might of Sultan Muzaffar of Gujarat and the Sultan of Malwa. By 1525 AD, Rana Sanga had developed Chittor and Mewar, by virtue of great intellect, valour and his sword, into a formidable military state. But in a decisive battle that was fought against Babar on March 16, 1527, the Rajput army of Rana Sanga suffered a terrible defeat and Sanga escaped to one of his fortresses. But soon thereafter in another attack on the Chanderi fort the valiant Rana Sanga died and with his death the Rajput confederacy collapsed.

 

SIEGE OF 1534

Bahadur Shah who came to the throne in 1526 AD as the Sultan of Gujarat besieged the Chittorgarh fort in 1534. The fort was sacked and, once again the medieval dictates of chivalry determined the outcome. Following the defeat of the Rana, it is said 13,000 Rajput women committed jauhar (self immolation on the funeral pyre) and 3,200 Rajput warriors rushed out of the fort to fight and die.

 

SIEGE OF 1567

The final Siege of Chittorgarh came 33 years later, in 1567, when the Mughal Emperor Akbar invaded the fort. Akbar wanted to conquer Mewar, which was being ably ruled by Rana Uday Singh II, a fine prince of Mewar. To establish himself as the supreme lord of Northern India, he wanted to capture the renowned fortress of Chittor, as a precursor to conquering the whole of India. Shakti Singh, son of the Rana who had quarreled with his father, had run away and approached Akbar when the later had camped at Dholpur preparing to attack Malwa. During one of these meetings, in August 1567, Shakti Singh came to know from a remark made in jest by emperor Akbar that he was intending to wage war against Chittor. Akbar had told Shakti Singh in jest that since his father had not submitted himself before him like other princes and chieftains of the region he would attack him. Startled by this revelation, Shakti Singh quietly rushed back to Chittor and informed his father of the impending invasion by Akbar. Akbar was furious with the departure of Shakti Singh and decided to attack Mewar to humble the arrogance of the Ranas. In September 1567, the emperor left for Chittor, and on October 20, 1567, camped in the vast plains outside the fort. In the meantime, Rana Udai Singh, on the advice of his council of advisors, decided to go away from Chittor to the hills of Udaipur. Jaimal and Patta, two brave army chieftains of Mewar, were left behind to defend the fort along with 8,000 Rajput warriors under their command. Akbar laid siege to the fortress. The Rajput army fought valiantly and Akbar himself had narrowly escaped death. In this grave situation, Akbar had prayed for divine help for achieving victory and vowed to visit the shrine of the sufi saint Khwaja at Ajmer. The battle continued till February 23, 1568. On that day Jaymal was seriously wounded but he continued to fight with support from Patta. Jayamal ordered jauhar to be performed when many beautiful princesses of Mewar and noble matrons committed self-immolation at the funeral pyre. Next day the gates of the fort were opened and Rajput soldiers rushed out bravely to fight the enemies. Jayamal and Patta who fought bravely were at last killed in action. One figure estimates that 30,000 soldiers were killed in action. Akbar immediately repaired himself to Ajmer to perform his religious vow.

 

RETURN OF THE FORT TO MEWAR

But in 1616, Jehangir returned Chittor fort to the Rajputs, when Maharana Amar Singh was the chief of Mewar. However, the fort was not resettled though it was refurbished several centuries later in 1905 during British Raj.

 

PRECINCTS

The fort which is roughly in the shape of a fish has a circumference of 13 km with a maximum width of 3 km and it covers an area of 700 acres. The fort is approached through a zig zag and difficult ascent of more than 1 km from the plains, after crossing over a bridge made in limestone. The bridge spans the Gambhiri River and is supported by ten arches (one has a curved shape while the balance have pointed arches). Apart from the two tall towers, which dominate the majestic fortifications, the sprawling fort has a plethora of palaces and temples (many of them in ruins) within its precincts.

 

The 305 hectares component site, with a buffer zone of 427 hectares, encompasses the fortified stronghold of Chittorgarh, a spacious fort located on an isolated rocky plateau of approximately 2 km length and 155m width.

 

It is surrounded by a perimeter wall 4.5 kilometres long, beyond which a 45° hill slope makes it almost inaccessible to enemies. The ascent to the fort passes through seven gateways built by the Mewar ruler Rana Kumbha (1433- 1468) of the Sisodia clan. These gates are called, from the base to the hill top, the Paidal Pol, Bhairon Pol, Hanuman Pol, Ganesh Pol, Jorla Pol, Laxman Pol, and Ram Pol, the final and main gate.

 

The fort complex comprises 65 historic built structures, among them 4 palace complexes, 19 main temples, 4 memorials and 20 functional water bodies. These can be divided into two major construction phases. The first hill fort with one main entrance was established in the 5th century and successively fortified until the 12th century. Its remains are mostly visible on the western edges of the plateau. The second, more significant defence structure was constructed in the 15th century during the reign of the Sisodia Rajputs, when the royal entrance was relocated and fortified with seven gates, and the medieval fortification wall was built on an earlier wall construction from the 13th century.

 

Besides the palace complex, located on the highest and most secure terrain in the west of the fort, many of the other significant structures, such as the Kumbha Shyam Temple, the Mira Bai Temple, the Adi Varah Temple, the Shringar Chauri Temple, and the Vijay Stambh memorial were constructed in this second phase. Compared to the later additions of Sisodian rulers during the 19th and 20th centuries, the predominant construction phase illustrates a comparatively pure Rajput style combined with minimal eclecticism, such as the vaulted substructures which were borrowed from Sultanate architecture. The 4.5 km walls with integrated circular enforcements are constructed from dressed stone masonry in lime mortar and rise 500m above the plain. With the help of the seven massive stone gates, partly flanked by hexagonal or octagonal towers, the access to the fort is restricted to a narrow pathway which climbs up the steep hill through successive, ever narrower defence passages. The seventh and final gate leads directly into the palace area, which integrates a variety of residential and official structures. Rana Kumbha Mahal, the palace of Rana Kumbha, is a large Rajput domestic structure and now incorporates the Kanwar Pade Ka Mahal (the palace of the heir) and the later palace of the poetess Mira Bai (1498-1546). The palace area was further expanded in later centuries, when additional structures, such as the Ratan Singh Palace (1528–31) or the Fateh Prakash, also named Badal Mahal (1885-1930), were added. Although the majority of temple structures represent the Hindu faith, most prominently the Kalikamata Temple (8th century), the Kshemankari Temple (825-850) the Kumbha Shyam Temple (1448) or the Adbuthnath Temple (15th- 16th century), the hill fort also contains Jain temples, such as Shringar Chauri (1448) and Sat Bis Devri (mid-15th century) Also the two tower memorials, Kirti Stambh (13th-14th century) and Vijay Stambha (1433-1468), are Jain monuments. They stand out with their respective heights of 24m and 37m, which ensure their visibility from most locations of the fort complex. Finally, the fort compound is home to a contemporary municipal ward of approximately 3,000 inhabitants, which is located near Ratan Singh Tank at the northern end of the property.

 

GATES

The fort has total seven gates (in local language, gate is called Pol), namely the Padan Pol, Bhairon Pol, Hanuman Pol, Ganesh Pol, Jodla Pol, Laxman Pol and the main gate named the Ram Pol (Lord Rama's Gate). All the gateways to the fort have been built as massive stone structures with secure fortifications for military defense. The doors of the gates with pointed arches are reinforced to fend off elephants and cannon shots. The top of the gates have notched parapets for archers to shoot at the enemy army. A circular road within the fort links all the gates and provides access to the numerous monuments (ruined palaces and 130 temples) in the fort.

 

During the second siege, Prince Bagh Singh died at the Padan Pol in 1535 AD. Prince Jaimal of Badnore and his clansman Kalla were killed by Akbar at a location between the Bhairon Pol and Hanuman Pol in the last siege of the fort in 1567 (Kalla carried the wounded Jaimal out to fight). Chhatris, with the roof supported by corbeled arches, have been built to commemorate the spots of their sacrifice. Their statues have also been erected, at the orders of Emperor Akbar, to commemorate their valiant deaths. At each gate, cenotaphs of Jaimal (in the form of a statue of a Rajput warrior on horseback) and Patta have also been constructed. At Ram Pol, the entrance gate to the fort, a Chaatri was built in memory of the 15 year old Patta of Kelwa, who had lost his father in battle, and saw the sword yielding mother and wife on the battle field who fought valiantly and died at this gate. He led the saffron robed Rajput warriors, who all died fighting for Mewar’s honour. Suraj Pol (Sun Gate) provides entry to the eastern wall of the fort. On the right of Suraj Pol is the Darikhana or Sabha (council chamber) behind which lie a Ganesha temple and the zenana (living quarters for women). A massive water reservoir is located towards the left of Suraj Pol. There is also a peculiar gate, called the Jorla Pol (Joined Gate), which consists of two gates joined together. The upper arch of Jorla Pol is connected to the base of Lakshman Pol. It is said that this feature has not been noticed anywhere else in India. The Lokota Bari is the gate at the fort’s northern tip, while a small opening that was used to hurl criminals into the abyss is seen at the southern end.

 

VIJAY STAMBHA

The Vijay Stambha (Tower of Victory) or Jaya Stambha, called the symbol of Chittor and a particularly bold expression of triumph, was erected by Rana Kumbha between 1458 and 1468 to commemorate his victory over Mahmud Shah I Khalji, the Sultan of Malwa, in 1440 AD. Built over a period of ten years, it raises 37.2 metres over a 4.4 m2 base in nine stories accessed through a narrow circular staircase of 157 steps (the interior is also carved) up to the 8th floor, from where there is good view of the plains and the new town of Chittor. The dome, which was a later addition, was damaged by lightning and repaired during the 19th century. The Stamba is now illuminated during the evenings and gives a beautiful view of Chittor from the top.

 

KIRTI STAMBHA

Kirti Stambha (Tower of Fame) is a 22 metres high tower built on a 9.1 m base with 4.6 m at the top, is adorned with Jain sculptures on the outside and is older (probably 12th century) and smaller than the Victory Tower. Built by a Bagherwal Jain merchant Jijaji Rathod, it is dedicated to Adinath, the first Jain tirthankar (revered Jain teacher). In the lowest floor of the tower, figures of the various tirthankars of the Jain pantheon are seen in special niches formed to house them. These are digambara monuments. A narrow stairway with 54 steps leads through the six storeys to the top. The top pavilion that was added in the 15th century has 12 columns.

 

RANA KUMBHA PALACE

At the entrance gate near the Vijaya Stamba, Rana Kumbha's palace (in ruins), the oldest monument, is located. The palace included elephant and horse stables and a temple to Lord Shiva. Maharana Udai Singh, the founder of Udaipur, was born here; the popular folk lore linked to his birth is that his maid Panna DaiPanna Dhai saved him by substituting her son in his place as a decoy, which resulted in her son getting killed by Banbir. The prince was spirited away in a fruit basket. The palace is built with plastered stone. The remarkable feature of the palace is its splendid series of canopied balconies. Entry to the palace is through Suraj Pol that leads into a courtyard. Rani Meera, the famous poetess saint, also lived in this palace. This is also the palace where Rani Padmini, consigned herself to the funeral pyre in one of the underground cellars, as an act of jauhar along with many other women. The Nau Lakha Bandar (literal meaning: nine lakh treasury) building, the royal treasury of Chittor was also located close by. Now, across from the palace is a museum and archeological office. The Singa Chowri temple is also nearby.

 

FATEH PRAKASH PALACE

Located near Rana Khumba palace, built by Rana Fateh Singh, the precincts have modern houses and a small museum. A school for local children (about 5,000 villagers live within the fort) is also nearby.

 

GAUMUKH RESERVOIR

A spring feeds the tank from a carved cow’s mouth in the cliff. This pool was the main source of water at the fort during the numerous sieges.

 

PADMINI´S PALACE

Padmini's Palace or Rani Padmini's Palace is a white building and a three storied structure (a 19th-century reconstruction of the original). It is located in the southern part of the fort. Chhatris (pavilions) crown the palace roofs and a water moat surrounds the palace. This style of palace became the forerunner of other palaces built in the state with the concept of Jal Mahal (palace surrounded by water). It is at this Palace where Alauddin was permitted to glimpse the mirror image of Rani Padmini, wife of Maharana Rattan Singh. It is widely believed that this glimpse of Padmini's beauty besotted him and convinced him to destroy Chittor in order to possess her. Maharana Rattan Singh was killed and Rani Padmini committed Jauhar. Rani Padmini's beauty has been compared to that of Cleopatra and her life story is an eternal legend in the history of Chittor. The bronze gates to this pavilion were removed and transported to Agra by Akbar.

 

OTHER SIGHTS

Close to Kirti Sthamba is the Meera Temple, or the Meerabai Temple. Rana Khumba built it in an ornate Indo–Aryan architectural style. It is associated with the mystic saint-poet Mirabai who was an ardent devotee of Lord Krishna and dedicated her entire life to His worship. She composed and sang lyrical bhajans called Meera Bhajans. The popular legend associated with her is that with blessings of Krishna, she survived after consuming poison sent to her by her evil brother-in-law. The larger temple in the same compound is the Kumbha Shyam Temple (Varaha Temple). The pinnacle of the temple is in pyramid shape. A picture of Meerabai praying before Krishna has now been installed in the temple.

 

Across from Padmini’s Palace is the Kalika Mata Temple. Originally, a Sun Temple dated to the 8th century dedicated to Surya (the Sun God) was destroyed in the 14th century. It was rebuilt as a Kali temple.

 

Another temple on the west side of the fort is the ancient Goddess Tulja Bhavani Temple built to worship Goddess Tulja Bhavani is considered sacred. The Tope Khana (cannon foundry) is located next to this temple in a courtyard, where a few old cannons are still seen.

 

JAUHAR MELA

The fort and the city of Chittorgarh host the biggest Rajput festival called the "Jauhar Mela". It takes place annually on the anniversary of one of the jauhars, but no specific name has been given to it. It is generally believed that it commemorates Padmini’s jauhar, which is most famous. This festival is held primarily to commemorate the bravery of Rajput ancestors and all three jauhars which happened at Chittorgarh Fort. A huge number of Rajputs, which include the descendants of most of the princely families, hold a procession to celebrate the Jauhar. It has also become a forum to air one's views on the current political situation in the country.

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela IPA: [xolíɬaɬa mandéːla] (born 18 July 1918) is a former President of South Africa, the first to be elected in fully representative democratic elections. Before his presidency, Mandela was an anti-apartheid activist and leader of the African National Congress and its armed wing Umkhonto we Sizwe. He spent 27 years in prison, much of it in a cell on Robben Island, on convictions for crimes that included sabotage committed while he spearheaded the struggle against apartheid.

 

Among opponents of apartheid in South Africa and internationally, he became a symbol of freedom and equality, while the apartheid government and nations sympathetic to it condemned him and the ANC as communists and terrorists.

 

Following his release from prison in 1990, his switch to a policy of reconciliation and negotiation helped lead the transition to multi-racial democracy in South Africa. Since the end of apartheid, he has been widely praised, even by former opponents.

 

Mandela has received more than one hundred awards over four decades, most notably the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. He is currently a celebrated elder statesman who continues to voice his opinion on topical issues. In South Africa he is often known as Madiba, an honorary title adopted by elders of Mandela's clan. The title has come to be synonymous with Nelson Mandela.

    

Early life

 

Mandela belongs to a cadet branch of the Thembu dynasty which (nominally) reigns in the Transkeian Territories of the Union of South Africa's Cape Province. He was born in the small village of Mvezo in the district of Umtata, the Transkei capital. His great-grandfather was Ngubengcuka (died 1832), the Inkosi Enkhulu or King of the Thembu people, who were eventually subjected to British colonial rule. One of the king's sons, named Mandela, became Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname. However, being only the Inkosi's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan (the so-called "Left-Hand House"), the descendants of his branch of the royal family were not eligible to succeed to the Thembu throne.[1] His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa (1880–1928), was nonetheless designated chief of the town of Mvezo. Upon alienating the colonial authorities, however, he was deprived of his position, and moved his family to Qunu.[1] Gadla remained, however, a member of the Inkosi's Privy Council, and was instrumental in the ascension to the Thembu throne of Jongintaba Dalindyebo, who would later return this favour by informally adopting Mandela upon Gadla's death. Mandela's father had four wives, with whom he fathered a total of thirteen children (four boys and nine girls). Mandela was born to Gadla's third wife ('third' by a complex royal ranking system), Nosekeni Fanny, daughter of Nkedama of the Mpemvu Xhosa clan, the dynastic Right Hand House, in whose umzi or homestead Mandela spent much of his childhood.[1] His given name Rolihlahla means "to pull a branch of a tree", or more colloquially, "troublemaker".[2]

 

Education

 

At seven years of age, Rolihlahla Mandela became the first member of his family to attend a school, where he was given the name "Nelson," after the British admiral Horatio Nelson, by a Methodist teacher who found his native name difficult to pronounce.[citation needed]

 

His father died of tuberculosis when Rolihlahla was nine, and the Regent, Jongintaba, became his guardian. Mandela attended a Wesleyan mission school next door to the palace of the Regent. Following Thembu custom, he was initiated at age sixteen, and attended Clarkebury Boarding Institute. He completed his Junior Certificate in two years, instead of the usual three. Destined to inherit his father's position as a privy councillor, in 1937 Mandela moved to Healdtown, the Wesleyan college in Fort Beaufort which most Thembu royalty attended. Aged nineteen, he took an interest in boxing and running.[1]

 

After matriculating, he started to study for a B.A. at the Fort Hare University, where he met Oliver Tambo, and the two became lifelong friends and colleagues. He also became close friends with his kinsman, Kaiser ("K.D.") Matanzima who, however, as royal scion of the Thembu Right Hand House, was destined for the throne of Transkei, a role that later led him to embrace Bantustan policies which made him and Mandela political enemies.[1] At the end of Nelson's first year, he became involved in a boycott by the Students' Representative Council against the university policies, and was asked to leave Fort Hare.

 

Later, while imprisoned, Mandela studied for a Bachelor of Laws from the University of London External Programme (see below).

 

Move to Johannesburg

 

Shortly after leaving Fort Hare, Jongintaba announced to Mandela and Justice (the Regent's own son and heir to the throne) that he had arranged marriages for both of them. Both young men were displeased by this and rather than marry, they elected to flee the comforts of the Regent's estate to go to Johannesburg. Upon his arrival, Mandela initially found employment as a guard at a mine. However, this was quickly terminated after the employer learned that Mandela was the Regent's runaway adopted son. He later started work as an articled clerk at a law firm thanks to connections with his friend, lawyer Walter Sisulu. While working there, he completed his B.A. degree at the University of South Africa via correspondence, after which he started with his law studies at the University of Witwatersrand. During this time Mandela lived in Alexandra township, north of Johannesburg.

 

Political activity

 

After the 1948 election victory of the Afrikaner-dominated National Party with its apartheid policy of racial segregation, Mandela was prominent in the ANC's 1952 Defiance Campaign and the 1955 Congress of the People, whose adoption of the Freedom Charter provided the fundamental program of the anti-apartheid cause. During this time, Mandela and fellow lawyer Oliver Tambo operated the law firm of Mandela and Tambo, providing free or low-cost legal counsel to many blacks who would otherwise have been without representation.

 

Mandela's approach was influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, who inspired him and succeeding generations of South African anti-apartheid activists.[3][4] Indeed, Mandela took part in the 29 January – 30 January 2007 conference in New Delhi which marked the 100th anniversary of Gandhi's introduction of satyagraha in South Africa.[5]

 

Initially committed to non-violent mass struggle, Mandela was arrested with 150 others on 5 December 1956 and charged with treason. The marathon Treason Trial of 1956–61 followed, and all were acquitted.[citation needed] From 1952–59 the ANC experienced disruption as a new class of Black activists (Africanists) emerged in the townships demanding more drastic steps against the National Party regime. The ANC leadership of Albert Luthuli, Oliver Tambo and Walter Sisulu felt not only that events were moving too fast, but also that their leadership was challenged. They consequently bolstered their position by alliances with small White, Coloured and Indian political parties in an attempt to appear to have a wider appeal than the Africanists. The 1955 Freedom Charter Kliptown Conference was ridiculed by the Africanists for allowing the 100,000-strong ANC to be relegated to a single vote in a Congress alliance, in which four secretaries-general of the five participating parties were members of the secretly reconstituted South African Communist Party (SACP), strongly adhering to the Moscow line.[citation needed]

 

In 1959 the ANC lost its most militant support when most of the Africanists, with financial support from Ghana and significant political support from the Transvaal-based Basotho, broke away to form the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) under Robert Sobukwe and Potlako Leballo.[citation needed]

 

Guerrilla activities

 

In 1961, Mandela became the leader of the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (translated as Spear of the Nation, also abbreviated as MK), which he co-founded. He coordinated a sabotage campaign against military and government targets, and made plans for a possible guerrilla war if sabotage failed to end apartheid. A few decades later, MK did wage a guerrilla war against the regime, especially during the 1980s, in which many civilians were killed. Mandela also raised funds for MK abroad, and arranged for paramilitary training, visiting various African governments.

 

Mandela explains the move to embark on armed struggle as a last resort, when increasing repression and violence from the state convinced him that many years of non-violent protest against apartheid had achieved nothing and could not succeed.[6][2]

 

Mandela later admitted that the ANC, in its struggle against apartheid, also violated human rights, and has sharply criticised attempts by parts of his party to remove statements supporting this fact from the reports of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.[7]

 

Arrest and Rivonia trial

 

Main article: Rivonia Trial

 

On 5 August 1962 Mandela was arrested after living on the run for seventeen months, and was imprisoned in the Johannesburg Fort. The arrest was made possible because the CIA tipped off the security police as to Mandela's whereabouts and disguise.[8][9][10] Three days later, the charges of leading workers to strike in 1961 and leaving the country illegally were read to him during a court appearance. On 25 October 1962, Mandela was sentenced to five years in prison. Two years later on 11 June 1964, a verdict had been reached concerning his previous engagement in the African National Congress (ANC).

 

While Mandela was imprisoned, police arrested prominent ANC leaders on 11 July 1963, at Liliesleaf Farm, Rivonia, north of Johannesburg. Mandela was brought in, and at the Rivonia Trial, Mandela, Ahmed Kathrada, Walter Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, Andrew Mlangeni, Raymond Mhlaba, Elias Motsoaledi, Walter Mkwayi (who escaped during trial), Arthur Goldreich (who escaped from prison before trial), Denis Goldberg and Lionel "Rusty" Bernstein were charged by the chief prosecutor Dr. Percy Yutar, the deputy attorney-general of the Transvaal, with the capital crimes of sabotage (which Mandela admitted) and crimes which were equivalent to treason, but easier for the government to prove. The second charge accused the defendants of plotting a foreign invasion of South Africa, which Mandela denied.

 

In his statement from the dock at the opening of the defence case in the trial on 20 April 1964 at Pretoria Supreme Court, Mandela laid out the clarity of reasoning in the ANC's choice to use violence as a tactic. His statement revealed how the ANC had used peaceful means to resist apartheid for years until the Sharpeville Massacre. That event coupled with the referendum establishing the Republic of South Africa and the declaration of a state of emergency along with the banning of the ANC made it clear that their only choice was to resist through acts of sabotage. Doing otherwise would have been tantamount to unconditional surrender. Mandela went on to explain how they developed the Manifesto of Umkhonto we Sizwe on 16 December 1961 intent on exposing the failure of the National Party's policies after the economy would be threatened by foreigners' unwillingness to risk investing in the country.[11] He closed his statement with these words:

“ During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to the struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.[6] ”

 

Bram Fischer, Vernon Berrange, Harry Schwarz, Joel Joffe, Arthur Chaskalson and George Bizos were part of the defence team that represented the accused. Harold Hanson was brought in at the end of the case to plead mitigation. All except Rusty Bernstein were found guilty, but they escaped the gallows and were sentenced to life imprisonment on 12 June 1964. Charges included involvement in planning armed action, in particular four charges of sabotage, which Mandela admitted to, and a conspiracy to help other countries invade South Africa, which Mandela denied.

 

Imprisonment

 

Nelson Mandela was imprisoned on Robben Island where he remained for the next eighteen of his twenty-seven years in prison. On the island, he and others performed hard labour in a lime quarry. Prison conditions were very basic. Prisoners were segregated by race, with black prisoners receiving the fewest rations. Political prisoners were kept separate from ordinary criminals and received fewer privileges. Mandela describes how, as a D-group prisoner (the lowest classification) he was allowed one visitor and one letter every six months. Letters, when they came, were often delayed for long periods and made unreadable by the prison censors.[2]

 

Whilst in prison Mandela undertook study with the University of London by correspondence through its External Programme and received the degree of Bachelor of Laws. He was subsequently nominated for the position of Chancellor of the University of London in the 1981 election, but lost to Princess Anne.

 

In his 1981 memoir Inside BOSS[12] secret agent Gordon Winter describes his involvement in a plot to rescue Mandela from prison in 1969: this plot was infiltrated by Winter on behalf of South African intelligence, who wanted Mandela to escape so as to be able to shoot him during recapture. The plot was foiled by British Intelligence[13].

 

In March 1982 Mandela was transferred from Robben Island to Pollsmoor Prison, along with other senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada and Raymond Mhlaba. It was speculated that this was to remove the influence of these senior leaders on the new generation of young black activists imprisoned on Robben Island, the so-called "Mandela University". However, National Party minister Kobie Coetzee says that the move was to enable discreet contact between them and the South African government.[citation needed]

 

In February 1985 President P.W. Botha offered Mandela conditional release in return for renouncing armed struggle. Coetzee and other ministers had advised Botha against this, saying that Mandela would never commit his organisation to giving up the armed struggle in exchange for personal freedom. Mandela indeed spurned the offer, releasing a statement via his daughter Zindzi saying "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."[14]

 

The first meeting between Mandela and the National Party government came in November 1985 when Kobie Coetzee met Mandela in Volks Hospital in Cape Town where Mandela was being treated for prostate surgery. Over the next four years, a series of tentative meetings took place, laying the groundwork for further contact and future negotiations, but little real progress was made.[14]

 

Throughout Mandela's imprisonment, local and international pressure mounted on the South African government to release him, under the resounding slogan Free Nelson Mandela! In 1989, South Africa reached a crossroads when Botha suffered a stroke and was replaced as president by Frederik Willem de Klerk. De Klerk announced Mandela's release in February 1990.

 

Release

 

On 2 February 1990, State President F.W. de Klerk reversed the ban on the ANC and other anti-apartheid organisations, and announced that Mandela would shortly be released from prison. Mandela was released from Victor Verster Prison in Paarl on 11 February 1990. The event was broadcast live all over the world.

 

On the day of his release, Mandela made a speech to the nation. He declared his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the country's white minority, but made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not yet over:

“ Our resort to the armed struggle in 1960 with the formation of the military wing of the ANC (Umkhonto we Sizwe) was a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid. The factors which necessitated the armed struggle still exist today. We have no option but to continue. We express the hope that a climate conducive to a negotiated settlement would be created soon, so that there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle. ”

 

He also said his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in both national and local elections.

 

Negotiations

 

Main article: Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa

 

Following his release from prison, Mandela returned to the leadership of the ANC and, between 1990 and 1994, led the party in the multi-party negotiations that led to the country's first multi-racial elections.

 

In 1991, the ANC held its first national conference in South Africa after its unbanning, electing Mandela as President of the organisation. His old friend and colleague Oliver Tambo, who had led the organisation in exile during Mandela's imprisonment, became National Chairperson.[15]

 

Mandela's leadership through the negotiations, as well as his relationship with President F.W. de Klerk, was recognised when they were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. However, the relationship was sometimes strained, particularly so in a sharp exchange in 1991 when he furiously referred to De Klerk as the head of "an illegitimate, discredited, minority regime". The talks broke down following the Boipatong massacre in June 1992 when Mandela took the ANC out of the negotiations, accusing De Klerk's government of complicity in the killings.[16] However, talks resumed following the Bisho massacre in September 1992, when the spectre of violent confrontation made it clear that negotiations were the only way forward.[2]

 

Following the assassination of senior ANC leader Chris Hani in April 1993, there were renewed fears that the country would erupt in violence. Mandela addressed the nation appealing for calm, in a speech regarded as 'presidential' even though he was not yet president of the country at that time:

“ Tonight I am reaching out to every single South African, black and white, from the very depths of my being. A white man, full of prejudice and hate, came to our country and committed a deed so foul that our whole nation now teeters on the brink of disaster. A white woman, of Afrikaner origin, risked her life so that we may know, and bring to justice, this assassin. The cold-blooded murder of Chris Hani has sent shock waves throughout the country and the world. …Now is the time for all South Africans to stand together against those who, from any quarter, wish to destroy what Chris Hani gave his life for – the freedom of all of us. ”

 

While some riots did follow the assassination, the negotiators were galvanised into action, and soon agreed that democratic elections should take place on 27 April 1994, just over a year after Hani's assassination.[14]

Autobiography

 

Mandela's autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, was published in 1994. Mandela had begun work on it secretly while in prison. In that book Mandela did not reveal anything about the alleged complicity of F.W. de Klerk in the violence of the eighties and nineties, or the role of his ex-wife Winnie Mandela in that bloodshed. However, he later co-operated with his friend the journalist Anthony Sampson who discussed those issues in Mandela: The Authorised Biography. Another detail that Mandela omitted was the allegedly fraudulent book, Goodbye Bafana. Its author, Robben Island warder James Gregory, claimed to have been Mandela's confidante in prison and published details of the prisoner's family affairs. Sampson maintained that Mandela had not known Gregory well, but that Gregory censored the letters sent to the future president and thus discovered the details of Mandela's personal life. Sampson also averred that other warders suspected Gregory of spying for the government and that Mandela considered suing Gregory.[17]

 

Presidency of South Africa

 

South Africa's first democratic elections in which full enfranchisement was granted were held on 27 April 1994. The ANC won 62% of the votes in the election, and Mandela, as leader of the ANC, was inaugurated on 10 May 1994 as the country's first black President, with the National Party's de Klerk as his first deputy and Thabo Mbeki as the second in the Government of National Unity.[18]

 

Policy of reconciliation

 

As President from May 1994 until June 1999, Mandela presided over the transition from minority rule and apartheid, winning international respect for his advocacy of national and international reconciliation.

 

Mandela encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated Springboks (the South African national rugby team) as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. After the Springboks won an epic final over New Zealand, Mandela, wearing a Springbok shirt, presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans.[citation needed]

 

After assuming the presidency, one of Mandela's trademarks was his use of Batik shirts, known as "Madiba shirts", even on formal occasions.

 

Invasion of Lesotho

 

In South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation, Mandela ordered troops into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili. This came after a disputed election prompted fierce opposition threatening the unstable government.[19]

 

Criticism of AIDS response

 

Commentators and critics including AIDS activists such as Edwin Cameron have criticised Mandela for his government's ineffectiveness in stemming the AIDS crisis.[20][21] After his retirement, Mandela admitted that he may have failed his country by not paying more attention to the HIV/AIDS epidemic.[22][23] He has since taken many opportunities to highlight this South African and international tragedy.

 

Lockerbie trial

 

President Mandela took a particular interest in helping to resolve the long-running dispute between Gaddafi's Libya, on the one hand, and the United States and Britain on the other, over bringing to trial the two Libyans who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103, which crashed at the Scottish town of Lockerbie on 21 December 1988, with the loss of 270 lives. As early as 1992, Mandela informally approached President George Bush with a proposal to have the two indicted Libyans tried in a third country. Bush reacted favourably to the proposal, as did President Mitterrand of France and King Juan Carlos of Spain. In November 1994 – six months after his election as president – Mandela formally proposed that South Africa should be the venue for the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial.[24]

 

However, British Prime Minister, John Major, flatly rejected the idea saying the British government did not have confidence in foreign courts[25]. A further three years elapsed until Mandela's offer was repeated to Major's successor, Tony Blair, when the president visited London in July 1997. Later the same year, at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) at Edinburgh in October 1997, Mandela warned:

 

"No one nation should be complainant, prosecutor and judge."

 

President Mandela negotiated with Muammar Gaddafi the hand-over of two accused Libyans to stand trial

President Mandela negotiated with Muammar Gaddafi the hand-over of two accused Libyans to stand trial

 

A compromise solution was then agreed for a trial to be held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands, governed by Scots law, and President Mandela began negotiations with Colonel Gaddafi for the handover of the two accused (Megrahi and Fhimah) in April 1999.[26] At the end of their nine-month trial, the verdict was announced on 31 January 2001. Fhimah was acquitted but Megrahi was convicted and sentenced to 27 years in a Scottish jail. Megrahi's initial appeal was turned down in March 2002, and former president Mandela went to visit him in Barlinnie prison on 10 June 2002.

 

"Megrahi is all alone", Mandela told a packed press conference in the prison's visitors room. "He has nobody he can talk to. It is psychological persecution that a man must stay for the length of his long sentence all alone. It would be fair if he were transferred to a Muslim country — and there are Muslim countries which are trusted by the West. It will make it easier for his family to visit him if he is in a place like the kingdom of Morocco, Tunisia or Egypt."[27]

 

Megrahi was subsequently moved to Greenock jail and is no longer in solitary confinement. On June 28, 2007, the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission concluded its three-year review of Megrahi's conviction and, believing that a miscarriage of justice may have occurred, referred the case to the Court of Criminal Appeal for a second appeal.[28]

 

Marriage and family

 

Mandela has been married three times, has fathered six children, has twenty grandchildren, and a growing number of great-grandchildren. His grandson is Chief Mandla Mandela.[29]

 

First marriage

 

Mandela's first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase who, like Mandela, was also from what later became the Transkei area of South Africa, although they actually met in Johannesburg. The couple had two sons, Madiba Thembekile (Thembi) (born 1946) and Makgatho (born 1950), and two daughters, both named Makaziwe (known as Maki; born 1947 and 1953). Their first daughter died aged nine months, and they named their second daughter in her honor. The couple broke up in 1957 after 13 years, divorcing under the multiple strains of his constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion which requires political neutrality. Thembi was killed in a car crash in 1969 at the age of 25, while Mandela was imprisoned on Robben Island. All their children were educated at the Waterford Kamhlaba. Evelyn Mase died in 2004.

 

Second marriage

 

Mandela's second wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, also came from the Transkei area, although they, too, met in Johannesburg, where she was the city's first black social worker. They had two daughters, Zenani (Zeni), born 4 February 1958, and Zindziswa (Zindzi), born 1960. Later, Winnie would be deeply torn by family discord which mirrored the country's political strife; while her husband was serving a life sentence on the Robben Island prison, her father became the agriculture minister in the Transkei. The marriage ended in separation (April 1992) and divorce (March 1996), fuelled by political estrangement.

 

Mandela still languished in prison when his daughter Zenani was married to Prince Thumbumuzi Dlamini in 1973, elder brother of King Mswati III of Swaziland. As a member by marriage of a reigning foreign dynasty, she was able to visit her father during his South African imprisonment while other family members were denied access. The Dlamini couple live and run a business in Boston. One of their sons, Prince Cedza Dlamini (born 1976), educated in the United States, has followed in his grandfather's footsteps as an international advocate for human rights and humanitarian aid. Thumbumuzi and Mswati's sister, Princess Mantfombi Dlamini, is the chief consort to King Goodwill Zwelithini of KwaZulu-Natal, who "reigns but does not rule" over South Africa's largest ethnic group under the auspices of South Africa's government. One of Queen Mantfombi's sons is expected to eventually succeed Goodwill as monarch of the Zulus, whose Inkatha Party leader, Mangosuthu Buthelezi, was the rival of Mandela during much of his presidency.

 

Third marriage

 

Mandela himself was re-married in 1998, on his 80th birthday, to Graça Machel née Simbine, widow of Samora Machel, the former Mozambican president and ANC ally killed in an air crash 12 years earlier. The wedding followed months of international negotiations to set the unprecedented bride-price remitted to her clan, which were conducted on Mandela's behalf by his traditional sovereign, King Buyelekhaya Zwelibanzi Dalindyebo, born 1964. Ironically, it was this paramount chief's grandfather, the Regent Jongintaba, whose selection of a bride for him prompted Mandela to flee to Johannesburg as a young man.

 

Mandela still maintains a home at Qunu in the realm of his royal nephew (second cousin thrice-removed in Western reckoning), whose university expenses he defrayed and whose privy councillor he remains.[30]

 

Retirement

 

Mandela became the oldest elected President of South Africa when he took office at the age of 77 in 1994. He decided not to stand for a second term as President, and instead retired in 1999, to be succeeded by Thabo Mbeki.

 

Health

 

In July 2001 Mandela was diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer. He was treated with a seven week course of radiation.[31] In June 2004, at age 85, Mandela announced that he would be retiring from public life. His health had been declining, and he wanted to enjoy more time with his family. Mandela said that he did not intend to hide away totally from the public, but wanted to be in a position "of calling you to ask whether I would be welcome, rather than being called upon to do things and participate in events. My appeal therefore is: Don't call me, I will call you"[32]. Since 2003, he has appeared in public less often and has been less vocal on topical issues.[33] In his late 80s, he is white haired and walks slowly with the support of a stick.

 

In 2003 Mandela's death was incorrectly announced by CNN when his pre-written obituary (along with those of several other famous figures) was inadvertently published on CNN's web site due to a fault in password protection.[34] In 2007 a fringe right-wing group distributed hoax emails and SMSs claiming that the authorities had covered up Mandela's death and that white South Africans would be massacred after his funeral. Mandela was on holiday in Mozambique at the time.[35]

  

THE JUDGMENT OF BABYLON

 

Revelation 17:1-6, "And there came one of the seven angels which had the seven vials, and talked with me, saying unto me, Come hither; I will shew unto thee the judgement of the great whore that sitteth upon many waters: With whom the kings of the earth have committed fornication, and the inhabitants of the earth have been made drunk with the wine of her fornication. So he carried me away in the spirit into the wilderness: and I saw a woman sit upon a scarlet coloured beast, full of names of blasphemy, having seven heads and ten horns. And the woman was arrayed in purple and scarlet colour, and decked with gold and precious stones and pearls, having a golden cup in her hand full of abominations and filthiness of her fornication: And upon her forehead was a name written, MYSTERY, BABYLON THE GREAT, THE MOTHER OF HARLOTS AND ABOMINATIONS OF THE EARTH. And I saw the woman drunken with the blood of the saints, and with the blood of the martyrs of Jesus: and when I saw her, I wondered with great admiration."

 

The plague angel now explains the vision of the Scarlet Beast and the woman as well as their relationship one to the other. The angel first begins by describing the meanings associated with the vision of the Scarlet Beast.

 

The Beast from the Sea and the Scarlet Beast on which Babylon the mother of harlots sits are the very same beast. They are almost completely alike. We must take great care to note that there are some very important differences between the two descriptions given for the Beast from the Sea. These differences indicate that the Beast from the Sea will go through a drastic change after the Abyss is opened during the fifth trumpet warning.

 

Both descriptions say that the Beast from the Sea has seven heads, ten horns. This is where the similarities diverge.

 

Both descriptions say that the Beast from the Sea has blasphemous titles, but prior to the Abyss being opened the blasphemous titles are only on the heads of the Beast from the Sea.

 

Revelation 13:1, "And I stood upon the sand of the sea, and saw a beast rise up out of the sea, having seven heads and ten horns, and upon his horns ten crowns, and upon his heads the name of blasphemy."

 

This indicates that only the supreme leaders of the Beast from the Sea are Godless. The rest of the population is ignorant of the ultimate desire of the architects of this New World Order. After the Abyss is opened there is an indication that many more people have turned from the truth. Revelation 17:3, "So he carried me away in the spirit into the wilderness: and I saw a woman sit upon a scarlet coloured beast, full of names of blasphemy, having seven heads and ten horns."

 

Prior to the opening of the Abyss the Beast from the Sea has three distinct characteristics. It was like a leopard, which represents the Grecian Empire. Its feet were like a bear indicating the Medo-Persian Empire and it had a mouth like a lion, which represents the Babylonian Empire. After the Abyss is opened the Beast from the Sea will become scarlet. The only other use of scarlet or red to describe a prophetic image is with the dragon mentioned in Revelation 12:3. Now the dragon as we have already discussed represented Rome as well as Satan. This suggests that at some point after the opening of the Abyss the Beast from the Sea will change to be much more like Rome.

 

Prior to the opening of the Abyss the whole earth wonders after the Beast from the Sea.

 

Revelation 13:3, "And I saw one of his heads as it were wounded to death; and his deadly wound was healed: and all the world wondered after the beast."

 

After the opening of the Abyss the same statement is made with a modifier.

 

Revelation 17:8, "The beast that thou sawest was, and is not; and shall ascend out of the bottomless pit, and go into perdition: and they that dwell on the earth shall wonder, whose names were not written in the book of life from the foundation of the world, when they behold the beast that was, and is not, and yet is."

 

Why is it that the entire world wonders at the Beast from the Sea prior to the change and only those not written in the Lamb's book of life wonder after the Beast from the Sea after it changes? The answer is simple. The Abyss is opened at the fifth trumpet blast. All of those found written in the Lamb's book of life minus the 144,000 Jews were taken prior to the trumpet warnings. The 144,000 Jews and the tribulation saints know for a certainty the evil climax of the kingdom of the Beast from the Sea.

 

Prior to the opening of the Abyss the Beast from the Sea has ten crowns on its ten horns. After the Abyss is opened the horns hold no crowns. Notice what happens to the crowns in the following verse.

 

Revelation 17:12-13, "And the ten horns which thou sawest are ten kings, which have received no kingdom as yet; but receive power as kings one hour with the beast. These have one mind, and shall give their power and strength unto the beast."

 

The ten kings whom the horns represent will give their power and strength to the Beast from the Sea. The crown is an emblem of power and strength.

 

Even the prophet Daniel stated that there would be a drastic change to this New World Order at the three and a half-year point of the great tribulation. In his vision of the seventy sevens of years Daniel states the following.

 

Daniel 9:27, "And he shall confirm the covenant with many for one week: and in the midst of the week he shall cause the sacrifice and the oblation to cease, and for the overspreading of abominations he shall make it desolate, even until the consummation, and that determined shall be poured upon the desolate."

 

Daniel refers to the people (of the prince that shall come) destroying the temple in Daniel 9:27. The prince that shall come refers to the Beast from the Sea. The people that destroyed the temple were Romans. This infers that the Beast from the Sea has a great connection with Rome. Indeed the Beast from the Sea will become the Roman Empire reborn when the Abyss is opened.

 

The initial statement that the angel makes is that the beast with the seven heads and ten horns once was, and is not and shall ascend out of the bottomless pit and go into perdition. This beast is the Roman Empire reborn as we have discussed. The Roman Empire flourished and then faded from the world scene but it will return once again for a short time before the Lord returns and utterly destroys it. The word perdition means "utter destruction".

 

The angel goes on to explain that the seven heads represent seven mountains (or hills as the word can also translate). Again this statement unquestionably connects the Scarlet Beast with Rome. Rome, from antiquity, has been known as the city of the seven hills.

 

The angel also states that the seven heads also represent seven kings or kingdoms as the word can also be translated. Remember that in prophetic imagery a head can represent a seat of power or kingdom whereas a horn represents a king.

 

These kingdoms which are the seven heads of the Scarlet Beast are those kingdoms that have been enemies to Israel in the past. The angel goes on to explain that five of these kingdoms have fallen. These would be Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Medo-Persia and Greece. These great Empires were part of the history books at the time of John's Revelation. The angel then says that one kingdom still exists which would be the Roman Empire of John's day. Finally the angel states that one kingdom hasn't arrived yet but would only stay for a short time. This is the Beast from the Sea prior to the opening of the Abyss. The angel also explains that the Scarlet Beast itself is another eighth kingdom. Remember that the Beast from the Sea will change into the Scarlet Beast after the opening of the Abyss and become the Roman Empire reborn.

 

The angel states that the ten horns represent ten kings. These kings have no kingdom yet but will receive power for a short time with the Scarlet Beast. The word kingdom used here according to the Strong's concordance is not to be confused with an actual kingdom but rather the right or authority to rule over a kingdom. They will receive power or as it is defined in the Greek, the "ability" to rule as kings for one hour with the Scarlet Beast. These ten kings will give their power and strength to the Beast. This is the reason that the Scarlet Beast has no crowns on its horns. Crowns are emblems of power and strength. After the Abyss is opened the ten kings will give their power and strength to the Scarlet Beast which is the Roman Empire reborn.

 

The demons that come out of the mouths of the Dragon, the Beast from the Sea and the False Prophet in Revelation 16:13-14 will go to deceive these same ten kings. These ten kings who together have rule over all the earth will come to a place called Armageddon and fight against the Lord. Notice the description of the Lord in the above passage. Revelation 17:14, "These shall make war with the Lamb, and the Lamb shall overcome them: for he is Lord of lords, and King of kings: and they that are with him are called, and chosen, and faithful." The name given to Jesus as the Lord of lords and the King of kings indisputably refers to the day of the Lord when Jesus returns with all the Saints with Him.

 

Now the angel turns his attention away for the Scarlet Beast and back to Babylon the harlot. The angel clarifies that the waters upon which Babylon sits are indeed peoples, multitudes, nations and tongues. This tells us that the scope of Babylon's power is worldwide.

 

We must realize that even though Babylon sits upon the Scarlet Beast she is not in reality a part of the Scarlet Beast. The Scarlet Beast represents a political system whereas Babylon represents an apostate, idolatrous, religious system.

 

The ten kings of the Roman Empire reborn will hate this religious system and although they needed this religious system in order to come to power once they have attained power and no longer need her, they will turn on Babylon. This is the special judgement that God held in reserve for Babylon. Those who once pretended to be her friends would turn on her and ruthlessly destroy her. The next chapter goes into detail about the destruction of Babylon the great the mother of Harlots.

 

The angel makes one last clarification by stating that the woman (Babylon) is that great city which reigneth over the kings of the earth. What other city could this be other than Rome herself the seat of Mystery Babylon. — at www.apocalypsetheunveiling.com.

Be devoured for the sins committed, is a scary, common Romanesque motif.

Church of Saint-Martin-de Fontaines d'Ozillac.

Church of the XII century damaged during the wars of religion. It is notable for its Romanesque arches decorated with three monsters, birds, angels and knights

Attached to the abbey church of Baignes, classified as a historical monument, by order of August 5, 1988, having undergone several phases of restoration since the mid-1990s, before the facade, you soon realize, that a Romanesque church came to add a Renaissance nave with a nice door 1542 (lettering in about ten centimeters long, indicating the age of the side door). The Romanesque church was rectangular. You can still see the remains of the triplet is his bedside. The major advantage is that the facade must date from the first half of the twelfth century. His scheme, with a portal flanked by two blind arcades and arcade room, is widespread in Saintonge but the work is of high quality. The archivolt portal juxtaposes the outside to the inside: six virtues fighting against the vices of men and beasts in foliage, angels bearing the Lamb, accompanied by two saints (probably apostles). On a basket, a Christ seated in glory. The style evokes the art of the major projects of the twelfth century Saintes, Corme-Lock and group Marignac-Colombiers. Corbels with harpist, acrobats, animals ...

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Honeywell is committed to developing cutting edge technologies and products for its commercial, defense and business aviation products, so they invested in a new Boeing 757 aircraft test platform for developing new engines and APUs, avionics, flight controls and radar technologies. By utilizing a 757 especially configured as a flying testbed, Honeywell is flight testing a tool chest of new technologies for future use and retrofit opportunities to better serve their global customers.

 

1983 - Delivered to Eastern Airlines (N504EA)

 

1991 - Withdrawn from use and stored at McCarran Field, Las Vegas, Nevada

 

1994 - Bought by Airfleet Credit Corporation

 

1995 - Leased to Airtours

 

1995 - Registered to Airtours International (G-JALC)

 

1997 - During climb after take-off from London/Gatwick the left main gear hydraulic downlock hose failed and the left system fluid was lost. The aircraft returned to the airport for an overweight landing. An inadequate briefing was conducted for the approach, and on touchdown the left dump spoilers did not deploy automatically and were not manually deployed. Inadequate rudder was applied to keep the aircraft straight on the runway, and it veered off the right side onto the grass. After stopping smoke was seen from the left main wheels (hydraulic fluid deposited on brake units). The aircraft was evacuated, on board nine crew and 184 passengers.

 

1999 - Aborted take-off at Glasgow while operating flight AIH975 to Tenerife due to engine problems, towed back to stand for investigation while the brakes cooled off.

 

2005 - Registered to Parkhead Leasing & Sales Ltd.

 

2005 - Bought by Honeywell International Inc. (N757HW)

 

2008 - Arrived in Phoenix with red cheatline and small 'Honeywell' titles

 

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St. Joseph (Memmingen)

Parish Church of St. Joseph in Memmingen

St. Joseph is a Roman Catholic parish church in Upper Swabia Memmingen and was built in the years 1927-1929. It is the main church of the deanery of Memmingen. Its patronage is the feast of St. Joseph on March 19.

Location

The church with the address Saint Joseph Church Square 5 stands about 100 meters west of the old town of Memmingen. To the north the church is bordered by St. Joseph's Church Square, to the west, the Hopfenstraße is an adjoining street. To the east are the Elsbethen and the Bismarck school, south of the church is the church garden.

History

After the Reformation in the 16th century lived with the exception of the monks and nuns almost no more catholics in the imperial city of Memmingen. This changed with the Bayerischwerdung (when the city became a Bavarian one) of the city in 1803 by influx from outside. About 500 Catholics lived in 1803 in the city. Until 1871, the number increased to 1487 and about 19 years later the number had nearly doubled to 2800. In 1900, lived 4200 Catholics in the city and 1910 5500. As a consequence the parish church of St. John the Baptist had become too small and a larger new church building was taken into consideration. 25 men founded in 1907 a team to build a new Catholic church in Memmingen, whose chairmanship the then parish priest Max Rippler took over. Yet two years later they tendered a competition for the new building. 1916 the community possessed over 4.5 Tagwerk (Bavarian square measure, 3408 m²) building ground and 100,000 gold marks. The number of Catholics in the city also increased during this period, which is why the design of architect Heinrich Hauberrisser from Regensburg, which had been shortlisted was rejected because his proposed new construction would have been too small. During the inflationary period only the building ground could be maintained. Josef Schmid, since 1921 parish priest, resurrected the plans for a new church in 1925. The Court of Arbitration for new architectural competition consisted of Professor Dr. Baron von Schmidt, Privy Councillor Dr. Theodor Fischer, Privy Councillor Dr. Grässl and Monsignor Richard Hoffmann. The first two places took architect Wiederanders from Munich and the native of Augsburg architects Professor Michael Kurz and Thomas Wechs. On 14 April 1926, was settled for the plans of the latter two. The first cut of the spade of the new building was carried out by canon Deller on August 9, 1927. Memminger construction company Josef Hebel took over the construction works, construction management had Konrad Mayer from Augsburg. The church was executed in concrete with a brick cladding.

On May 7, 1928 the topping-out-ceremony could be celebrated. 1929, the floor of Solnhofer panels was laid and set up the choir stalls. The consecration of the five new bells took place on 12 October 1929. On 20 October, the church of suffragan bishop Karl Reth was consecrated. As celebration preacher was Monsignor Dr. Hartmann present. The organ was consecrated at Christmas 1929 before the Midnight Mass. Despite its size, St. Joseph is the largest church building in Germany between the First and Second World War, remained St. Johann in the old town the parish church. Only as at 1 December 1956, the previous daughter church of St. Joseph was raised to the status of a parish church and a city parish church. The confessionals and the high altar were set up in 1930. Two years later, the pulpit was installed. In the memorial chapel for soldiers in 1960 was erected a monument. The on May 7, 1970 opened parish hall was created in 1969 from the around the choir on the north and east side vacant rooms. The crypt of the church was rebuilt in 1975 as a parish center and connected by a staircase with the parish hall. The sculptor John Dumanski from Tannberg took over the design of the crypt. Reinhold Grübl planned the equipment for the Josefstüble (very small room). Government master builder Karlheinz Pasman was an architect for those measures. The Church Foundation and the City of Memmingen concluded in 1973 a contract by which the City of Memmingen committed itself to open up the spaces on the east, north and west side of the church for public transport and to shoulder design, care and maintenance of green areas. Simultaneously, a sculpture of mother and child by Diether Kunerth was erected in the west in front of the church. Between 1978 and 1980, the church was restored, an altar-island with a main altar in the nave integrated and installed a new organ. The heating system and the electrical systems were renewed. The latter were improved in 1987. In the same year, a new loudspeaker system was put into operation. The Lady chapel in the west of the church was rebuilt by Reinhold Grübl into a prayer and meditation room.

Specifications

The church consists of an enclosed, long rectangular room that has twelve yokes. The nave is flanked by each a side aisle. The openings from the nave to aisles are trapezoidal. Overall, the 73-meter-long nave has seven entrances. Each entrance a triangular porch is built onto the outside. The nave is 16 meters, the aisles are each 3.8 meters wide. The adjacent to the east, indented choir is 24 meters long and 11 meters wide. In front of it are built the parish hall and the sacristy. The choir is flanked by two in floor plan star-shaped steeples. In the west a transept in the same height as the nave is added. It serves as an abutment. In it, the entrance hall and laterally each a chapel is installed. On the upper floor there are side rooms. In front of the transept is the west gallery and this one serves as organ loft. The circular baptistery is left, the spiral staircase leading to the loft and the adjoining rooms of the transept, is located to the right.

The facade of the church consists of exposed brick, inside the concrete walls evoke a sober impression. The ceilings are covered with wood.

Organ

In 1980, the organ was built by Georg Jann as Opus 47. It has 53 stops, spread over four manuals and pedal. The various mechanisms stand in plain, open to the front boxes. The key action is mechanical, the key action electric. Josef Maier (Hergensweiler) changed the disposition in 2000.

Several sound recording media, recored by Gerhard Weinberger, Winfried Bönig and Christian Weiherer, document the sound of the organ.

Disposition

I Rückpositiv C-a3

Praestant 8'

Reed pipe 8'

Octave 4'

Spitzgedackt 4'

Field pipe 2'

Quinte 11/3'

Sesquialtera II 22/3' + 13/5'

Scharff V 1'

Dulcian 16'

Schalmey 8'

Vox Humana 8'

Tremulant

II principal work C-a3

Praestant 16'

Octave 8'

Copula 8'

Salizional 8'

Octave 4'

Recorder 4'

Quinte 22/3'

Octave 2'

11/3 mixture VI'

Trumpet 8'

III Swell C-a3

Bourdon 16'

HolzprinzipalFlauto 8'

Gamba 8'

Beat 8'

Principal 4'

Coupling Flute 4'

Viola 4'

Nasat 22/3'

Nachthorn 2'

Third 13/5'

None 8/9'

Fourniture VI 2'

Bassoon 16'

Harmonique Trompette 8'

Oboe 8'

Sill

Tremulant

IV. Chamadewerk C-a3

Cornet V (from g0)

Chamade 16'

Chamade 8'

Chamade 4'

Pedal C-f1

Subbass 32'

Principal 16'

Subbass 16'

Quinte 102/3'

Octavbass 8'

Bass tube 8'

Octave 4'

Bauer Flute 4'

Hintersatz V 22/3'

Bombard 16'

Trumpet 8'

Field Trumpet 4'

Cornett 2'

Pairing: I / II, III / I, III / II, IV / II, IV / P, I / P II / P III / P.

Game Aids: 16 coasters combinations crescendo roll tutti passage.

Minor remodeling by Josef Maier in 2000

Community

The parish of St. Joseph to 1975 consisted of the entire West town of Memmingen. The area encompassed the city center to the city limits, including the communities in the districts of Dickenreishausen and Ferthofen. In 1975, the parish of Christ Resurreciton was founded, whereby about 4000 believers switched to this one. From 1986, when the branch parish of St. Anton was incorporated into Ferthofen, the territory comprises the western city, with the exception of the western part of Berlin's freedom (Berliner Freiheit), as well as the districts Hart, Dickenreishausen, Ferthofen and Volkratshofen. In 2012, the parish of St. Joseph became a member of the parish community of St. Joseph-Christ's Resurrection.

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Josef_%28Memmingen%29

Committed to Safety

Marilyn Monroe was a legend when she committed suicide in August of 1962, but in retrospect her life seems a gradual martyrdom to the media and to her public. After her death, Warhol based many works on the same photograph of her, a publicity still for the 1953 movie Niagara. He would paint the canvas with a single color—turquoise, green, blue, lemon yellow—then silkscreen Monroe's face on top, sometimes alone, sometimes doubled, sometimes multiplied in a grid. As the surround for a face, the golden field in Gold Marilyn Monroe (the only one of Warhol's Marilyns to use this color) recalls the religious icons of Christian art history—a resonance, however, that the work suffuses with a morbid allure.

 

In reduplicating this photograph of a heroine shared by millions, Warhol denied the sense of the uniqueness of the artist's personality that had been implicit in the painting of the 1950s.

 

He also used a commercial technique— silkscreening—that gives the picture a crisp, artificial look; even as Warhol canonizes Monroe, he reveals her public image as a carefully structured illusion.

 

Redolent of 1950s glamour, the face in Gold Marilyn Monroe is much like the star herself—high gloss, yet transient; bold, yet vulnerable; compelling, yet elusive. Surrounded by a void, it is like the fadeout at the end of a movie.

  

Publication excerpt

The Museum of Modern Art, (MoMA) Highlights, New York: The Museum of Modern Art, revised 2004, originally published 1999, p. 241

 

St Baldricks Brevard at The Avenue Viera by commercial photographer Rich Johnson of Spectacle Photo. Dedicated to the St. Baldrick's Foundation Events on the Space Coast of FL and raising awareness for Childhood Cancer. The St. Baldrick's Foundation is a volunteer-driven charity committed to funding the most promising research to find cures for childhood cancers and give survivors long and healthy lives.

  

The town of Towitta was surveyed in 1876 on a former Travelling Stock Route with a good water supply. It was proclaimed in 1876 but some farmers took up their land from 1868 as the Hundred of Jellico( originally North Rhine) was declared in 1851 although surveying of land did not start on the Murray Flats part of this Hundred until the 1860s. Many of those who took up land here were Wends or Sorbs including Matthes Schippan. Towitta had a few houses, a creek, its church and cemetery and a school. The school opened in 1880 and finally closed in 1957. A new state school and teacher’s residence was built in the town in 1922. Despite the German and Wendish background of many settlers the only church built in Towitta was a Wesleyan Methodist Church built in 1874. It closed in 1897 and was purchased by the Congregational Church and used by them until 1963.

 

Most people had not heard of Towitta until 1 January 1902 when a famous and puzzling murder took place there. Mary Schippan, 24 years of age, was charged with the murder of her sister Bertha Schippan who was 14 years old. On the night of the murder the Schippan parents were away visiting relatives in Eden Valley. Mary said she was awoken in the night by a man in their bedroom but she managed to escape. Her brothers sleeping away from the house in an outbuilding were called for help and came to Mary’s assistance. The three siblings, without going back into the family home, then walked to a neighbour’s house for help but could find no one to assist. When they returned to their own home they called out for Bertha but there was no answer. Presumably fearing the worst the three then walked to the nearest constable for help. When the constable returned with the three siblings they found the battered body of sister Bertha with her throat slashed five times. The murder was a gruesome one and Bertha’s body, which was quickly buried the next morning by the Schippan family in the Sedan cemetery, was later exhumed twice for further investigations. 30 policemen were assigned to the case to find answers about the murder but the evidence was lost in dust and heat and time. There were tales and rumours of an illicit romance by Mary but the Wendish community generally but not entirely sympathised with and supported Mary Schippan and her family. The theory put forward by some was that Mary was having an illicit romantic affair with a neighbour Gustav Nitschke and that her younger sister Bertha had found out. Had Bertha told her father he would have furious and there would have been repercussions for Mary. This theory was not proved although many years later relatives of Gustav Nitschke claimed that Mary’s father committed the murder because he had been told of the affair. But in the trial in Court the lack of evidence and Mary’s clear love for her sister led to her eventually acquittal. But the rumours persisted and the family left Towitta in 1908 for a property at Lights Pass near Nuriootpa. Mary never married and lived with her mother most of her life. She died at the early age of 41 years at Bower near Eudunda.

 

The Baymont Inn & Suites is committed to providing you with top notch lodging at amazing prices. Beautiful rooms. Beautiful prices. For beautiful people like you. Start your visit to Des Moines the right way by checking into the Baymont Inn and Suites of Des Moines! Your stay is welcomed by an immaculate lobby for you and your guests, followed by exceptional customer service by our hosts. Post check-in, you may be interested in relaxing at the wonderful indoor pool that also features a great hot tub and fitness facility. Towels are always made available for you and your guests located inside the pool area!

      

Within the vicinity, there are several restaurants for you to enjoy. Iowa Beef Steakhouse is only a half mile from the hotel. This restaurant was voted #1 for the Finest Steak House In Des Moines in 2005. The other restaurants near the hotel are: Bonanza Buffet, Plaza Mexico, Country Kitchen, and Village Inn.

 

Venues such as the Civic Center, Hoyt Sherman Auditorium, Wells Fargo Arena, and Des Moines playhouse are all within 7 miles of this hotel. You can view all upcoming events by going to www.eventful.com!!!

 

"Great King Sized Jacuzzi Suite"

 

Jackie W. - Past Guest

 

"Best Continental Breakfast"

 

Past Guest

   

Amenities

 

•Complimentary HOT deluxe breakfast

•Complimentary USA Today

•Complimentary Wireless Internet

•Free Local Calls

•Business Services - Fax, Print, Email

•ATM

•Vending Machine

•Indoor Pool

•Hot Tub

•Exercise Room

•In Room Microwave

•In Room Refrigerator

•In Room Hairdryer

•In Room Iron and Board

•In Room Coffee Pot

•Large Work Desks

•Cable Television With Premium Channels

Meeting Facilities

 

•Two Large Meeting Facilities

•Meeting Room Can Accommodate 130 People

•On Site Catering Service/Garden Courtyard/Hospitality Room Available/Audio & Visual Equipment Included

Check out the beautiful jacuzzi suites while you are here! These are for 21 and up. Anyone under 21 must be accompanied by parent or guardian.

 

Baymont Inn presents eight different Jacuzzi Suites for guest enjoyment. During Valentine's weekend, the suites start to book from December. The guest may choose from 8 different styles. As of March 2009, the following styles are available:

 

•Luxury

•Japanese

•Canopy Bed

•Floral

Each suite features a 2-person hot tub with power jets. You will also find in-room amenities such as coffee pot, iron, microwave, refrigerator, and hairdryer! In the morning, please enjoy complimentary hot breakfast served from 6-9 am. We look forward to meeting you!

 

4685 Northeast 14th Street, Des Moines, IA 50313

Phone (515) 265-4777

Fax (515) 262-7469

 

In 1890, she was once again committed to Seacliff. Her insanity was now categorised as ‘religious mania’, probably because her favourite topic was biblical scripture. In particular, she was reported to be quoting from marriage service passages frequently.

 

It was during this stay at Seacliff, that the well-known photo of her was taken. Seacliff’s Superintendent at the time, Truby King, noted that when he took a picture of her, she said:

 

‘I suppose you want a picture of a madwoman. I’d better stick some straw in my hair and make faces.’

 

Apparently Truby found Johanna to be interesting, and enjoyed her witticisms.

  

Archives New Zealand Reference: Seacliff Mental Hospital Statutory Admission Papers DAHI 19956 D264/42/2/ R6670152

collections.archives.govt.nz/web/arena/search#/?q=6670152

 

For more information email dunedin.archives@dia.govt.nz

Material from Archives New Zealand

and see also:

Brookes, Barbara & Jane Thomson (eds.). 'Unfortunate Folk' Essays on Mental Health Treatment, 1863-1992. Eds. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2001.

and:

Barbara Brookes ‘The asylum lens: photographs in the Seacliff Asylum case files’’ in Angela Wanhalla and Erika Wolf, ‘Early New Zealand Photography: Images and Essays (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2011), pp. 98-103.

 

Rudolf Hess "The Last Man in Spandau" committed suicide in Spandau Prison 17 Aug 87 (or see various conspiracy theories!). He was conveyed to the British Military Hospital in Berlin, fortuitously opposite my flat. While he was in the BMH there was of course intense press interest and equally, a huge security operation. I had to take the photos covertly as "rubbernecking" was definitely frowned upon. His body was moved out of the BMH to be flown out of the city in a big operation involving a dummy convoy to fool the paparazzi. Here, RMP are manning a BMH ambulance in preparation for the move of Hess' body.

An entire floor of the BMH was dedicated to Rudolf Hess on the off chance he would need treatment. This meant that pressing the button for the second floor in the lift was futile, it would not stop there.

The British in Berlin had been waiting for years for Hess to die, not out of any malice, but because Spandau Prison was, after his death, always going to be demolished and a smart NAAFI and leisure centre built there. By the time of his death however, plans were scaled down and the leisure centre never materialised. We did get a smart new shopping mall though, the Britannia Centre. A competition was organised to pick the name, but by the second week, it was announced that no more entries for "Hessco's" were going to be accepted, and it was definitely NOT going to be picked!

PRESIDIO OF MONTEREY, Calif. -- The COVID-19 pandemic has created many operational challenges for the military. However, service members, DoD civilians and military families across the globe have adapted to overcome the challenges to stay ready and support the whole-of-government response.

 

While many service members and DoD civilians who work at the Presidio of Monterey and Defense Language Institute are teleworking – essential employees report to work daily to carry on the mission. Employees are strictly following CDC and DoD guidance of social distancing and face coverings to protect themselves and those around them.

 

The health and safety of all employees, regardless if they are essential employees or teleworking, is the command’s highest priority.

 

Our service members and DoD civilians are committed to mission success and remain trained and ready to defend the nation.

  

Photo by Joseph Kumzak, Presidio of Monterey Public Affairs

  

Party for the Planet @ Potter Park Zoo today & GollyGforce (G) being a Docent today with an Armadillo.

The Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) presents the 5th annual Party for the Planet, featuring environmental education activities and animal encounters with a focus on conservation. Potter Park Zoo is joining more than 120 zoos and aquariums across North America in observing Earth Day.

 

“It’s very important to us here at Potter Park Zoo to protect the Earth whenever possible. As committed as we are to the preservation of animals, we must be to environmental conservation as well,” says Potter Park Zoo Director Gerry Brady.

 

Enrichment items were given to animals on Saturday, April 23 in the afternoon. Enrichment activities are a unique outlet for zoo animals to express their natural behaviors. Items can be anything from paper bags to children’s toys, and hidden treats inside challenge animals to use creative methods to retrieve them. Many of the enrichment pieces that will be given to animals this Saturday are made by Potter Park Zoo’s BIG Zoo Lesson kids as part of their classes.

 

In addition to enrichment, Party for the Planet will exhibit conservation demonstrations throughout the zoo, and collect old cell phones and athletic shoes for recycling purposes. For more information on this event, visit www.potterparkzoo.org

 

Potter Park Zoo is located at 1301 S. Pennsylvania Ave. within Potter Park along the Red Cedar River in Lansing, Michigan.

www.potterparkzoo.org/

We live in a nation where we talk about women empowerment and women equality, while there are still thousands of crimes being committed against them. While crimes like these keep happening, there are debates happening around on possible reasons and causes for these crimes. One has to agree that it’s impossible to be locked in doors to prevent crimes and the only possible solution to be safe is learning to defend oneself. Parents of young girls should be taught the importance of teaching their girls self-defense.

 

Braingroom is the most sought after platform used by parents to engage their kids in extra-curricular activities. The platform provides wide range of classes and activities not only for kids but for all age groups. Braingroom is a reliable platform that connects parents who wants to enroll their kids in self-defense programs with tutors in the neighborhood.

 

Even in this modern era, Indian parents are still skeptical about enrolling their kids for self-defense programs as they are bestowed upon with an image that martial arts are meant only for men and the fear of UN acceptance by the society. Self defence does not make a girl manly but is only a giant step closer to protecting oneself. One need not be heavy built or hefty to defend oneself. Martial arts like boxing, kung fu, judo, taekwondo; karate ranks the top when it comes to self defence. Besides self defence there are also other benefits of practicing martial arts like street awareness, increased self-confidence, learning something new, toned muscles, overall fitness, balance, self-discipline, social skills and fighter's reflex

 

Martial Arts for Women

 

Nothing really feels better than learning to protect you during hard times. Today, women out there are given the chance to learn what’s out of the box and improve their skills, both physically and mentally. Therefore, martial arts for women are never deemed unmanly! In fact, in recent times, martial arts training for women are trending and even online marketplaces like Braingroom hold connections that help seekers connect with trainers!

 

Some of the different martial arts trainers that you can find in Braingroom for women are -

 

Karate - Balance is one of the most important entity of Karate. Predominantly, karate as a self-defense teaches you how to focus on your target while you control your body. Without any balance, fighting through is always impossible. Thus, by gaining control over your body and imbibing balance, the art prepares you to protect yourself, both mentally and physically.

 

Aikido - A modern japanese martial art, this theory of self-defense teaches to major things: 1. Defending yourself against an intruder and 2. Tackling the attacker and also projecting him from injury! This art has gained recognition worldwide and today, we see it been practised worldwide without any gender bias!

 

Jiu Jitsu - An extremely challenging but a fun art, Jiu Jitsu is a martial art form that was originated from Japan. Predominantly, this art form teaches you to manipulate your opponents force against him/her and tackling.

 

Tae Kwon Do - Taekwondo is one of the best self-defense a woman could train herself in. The sport isn’t just about kicking, but is about courtesy, integrity, self-control and protection. With Taekwondo, you don’t just learn to kick but also to punch, wrestle and use a bow staff!

 

Kung Fu - Thanks to Kung Fu Panda’s animation series - Kung Fu is one of the most traditional forms of self-defense that has been held in great heights for centuries! Kung Fu is a collection of 400 - 800 myriads of self-defense art and is the most efficient form of martial art that could be learnt by women.

 

As mentioned above, self-defense is not just about protecting you but is also about fitness and also grooms a person both mentally and physically. Henceforth, there is nothing manly about self-defense. Braingroom provides with best tutors and classes for skills any woman can adorn herself with!

  

Today, 4 February 2021, the Trial Chamber IX of the International Criminal Court (“ICC” or “Court”) found Dominic Ongwen guilty for a total of 61 comprising crimes against humanity and war crimes, committed in Northern Uganda between 1 July 2002 and 31 December 2005. The verdict may be appealed by either party to the proceedings within 30 days after the notification of the Judgment.

Yui / 唯 is a Luts KDF Summery.

I was a model for Amanda Grandfield for the Sullivan Goss Exhibit "Committed To Ink" It was a fun experience and I'm glad I was able to participate. You can have a look at the rest of the show at www.sullivangoss.com/exhibits/tit_for_tat.asp

Again I am called to photograph these people in concert. As an experiment I used my Canon 50 mm f 1.8. For part of the concert I used a flash, for the rest no flash. Any comments welcome and appreciated!

we are a company committed to quality service and personalized with our customers, so we have a team specialized in adventure. Our priority is a responsible and sustainable company with communities of Cusco. We invite you to live and discover the wonderful culture of the Incas through the Andes, we offer traditional and alternative tours and selected treks such as the classic Inca Trail, Salkantay, Lares trek, Inca jungle, machupicchu full adventure, choquequirao and others. We are different from other companies for programs such as: cultural immersion program, ayni and Andean social projects. www.lifexpeditionsicom

4x4 MOTORBIKE MORAY / SALINERAS ADVENTURE

•From: Pick up at Hostel

•To: Sacred Valley, Maras, Moray, Salineras / Surroundings Cusco

•Departure time: 07:15-13:00hrs & 13:00 – 18:00hrs (Confirm at Agency´s Office)

•Pickup: [Confirm hostel]

  

We will start at 07:00am and we will head to Cruz Pata, an old town where we will begin our adventure. Moray will be our first spot to visit. These circular crop terraces will amaze you in every sense. Connect to “la pachamama” and the andeans culture natural architecture. Continue then to the “Salineras”, the salt mines. Feel the adrenaline of having ttal control of a 4x4 motorbike. Deal with mud splashes and cross hidden rivers. Feel the silence of the mountains and breath the freshness of andean wind. Fill your longs with landscapes. Head back to Cruz Pata through mountains, rivers, sun, land and sky and finally end up at Cusco.

 

Includes:

•-Hotel Pick-up and hotel drop-off

•-4x4 ATV equipment

•-Professional guide

•-Gasoline

•-Full transportation

 

Not included:

•-Entrance fee to Moray archaeological site (70 soles)

•-Entrance fee to Salt mines (10 soles)

•-Lunch

•-Tips

•-Extras

  

Kamera: Nikon FM

Linse: Nikkor-S Auto 55mm f1.2 (1970)

Film: Rollei P&R 640 @ box speed

Kjemi: Rodinal (1:25 / 13:30 min. @ 20°C)

 

-Friday 23 February 2024: Even more countries speaking on the legality of Israel’s occupation of Palestine in the International Court of Justice in Den Haag today. Namibia, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Indonesia, Qatar, United Kingdom, Slovenia, Sudan, Switzerland, Syria and Tunisia.

 

I have to say, the UK’s presentation was just abhorrent.

 

Instead of focusing on that, today I would like to highlight and remark on the supreme eloquence of Pakistan and also the strong and morally impressive presentation by Namibia.

 

I also want to share a personal note. If you did not see yesterday’s presentations in Den Haag, then you should see - and feel - the most emotional address to the court by Ali Ahmad Ebraheem S. Al-Dafiri of Kuwait.

 

Yesterday, I too held a lecture but for international students; touching on the german occupation of Norway. As I was lecturing, even I could feel it when I was mentioning that during the 5 years of nazi occupion that we had to endure, Norway suffered ’only’ 12.000 war-related deaths - 600 of whom were jews. Compare that to the 57 years Palestine has endured Israeli occupation and the 30.000 Palestinians that Israel has killed in Gaza in the last 4 months alone.

I was really struggling to keep my composure at this point.

  

International Court of Justice: Day 5 hearing on the legal consequences of Israel's occupation of Palestinian territories (publ. 23 February 2024) [Video]

  

International Court of Justice: Legal Consequences arising from the Policies and Practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem [Transcripts and Documents]

  

Mr AL-DAFIRI: [KUWAIT] (22 February 2024)

 

I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

 

1. Mr President, honourable Members of the Court, it is a great honour to appear before you as the Agent of the State of Kuwait in these proceedings. Kuwait deeply appreciates the extraordinary efforts taken by the Court to allow this hearing to proceed smoothly, in light of the great number of participants. The current advisory proceedings are of extreme importance to the Palestinian people, Kuwait, the international legal order and the international community as a whole.

 

2. Kuwait has always advocated that peace fosters the observance of law and vice versa. Adherence to the UnitedNations Charter is an indispensable prerequisite for the definitive establishment of international peace. Indeed, peaceful relations are founded on accepted rules and as such, peaceful relations among States are based on the provisions of the United Nations Charter. These include, notably, the principle of non-use of force and the peaceful settlement of disputes. These rules apply to all States. Respect for these fundamental rules contributes to the consolidation of international peace.

 

3. Regrettably, the above-mentioned foundational rules have not been upheld in the case of Palestine. The conflict between Palestine and Israel, hereafter referred to as the “occupying Power”, is an illegal occupation conflict, involving on one side an occupying Power equipped with all military means, and on the other side an occupied nation without defensive capabilities, facing daily expulsion, human rights violations and all sufferings associated with any occupation situation.

 

4. Over the past decades, the situation between the Palestinians and the occupying Power has been extremely tense, resulting in serious human rights law and humanitarian law violations committed by the latter. Various intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations have documented these violations by publishing comprehensive reports. This climate of violence compromises any possibility of reasonably discussing the issues at stake. This is further exacerbated by the recent developments in Gaza. The occupying Power has waged an illegitimate war on the Palestinians in Gaza characterized by numerous international law violations. The ongoing flagrant violations have been highlighted in a series of statements issued, amongst others, by the United Nations Secretary-General, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Special Procedures of the United Nations Human Rights Council.

 

5. The unprecedented violence in Gaza is a result of 57 years of illegal occupation of the Palestinian territories and it must stop.

 

The late Emir of the State of Kuwait, His Highness Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (1929-2020) summarized this situation in 2018 by stating:

 

“We ask the whole world, why the Palestinian people plight continues? Why do we ignore and do not implement Security Council resolutions? Why is the international community incapable of resolving this cause? Why does the victim continue to be portrayed as the killer according to Israel’s norms? Why does Israel always escape punishment? Why have all these souls been lost amid absence of the world conscience?”

 

6. Mr President, distinguished Members of the Court, it is in this context that Kuwait appears for the first time before the Court, following the adoption by the United Nations General Assembly of resolution 77/247, requesting the Court to deliver an advisory opinion on two legal questions. The first question asks the Court to evaluate the legality of the occupying Power’s specific policies and actions within its occupation of the Palestinian territories, while seeking the Court’s determination of the corresponding legal ramifications. The second question addresses a core issue: has the occupation become illegal? Kuwait will demonstrate the illegality of this occupation, underscoring the necessity of its cessation.

 

7. Mr President, honourable Members of the Court, my distinguished colleagues will now address these issues in greater depth.

 

[…]

  

The PRESIDENT: I shall now give the floor to the representative of Namibia, Honourable Ms Yvonne Dausab. You have the floor, Madam.

 

Ms DAUSAB: [NAMIBIA] (23 February 2024)

 

1. Mr President, Madam Vice-President, Members of the Court, it is a special honour to appear before you today on behalf of the Republic of Namibia.

 

2. With your kind indulgence, I wish to first pay tribute to our late president Dr Hage Geingob (1941-2024), who passed away on 4 February 2024 and will be laid to rest this weekend. President Geingob was a key figure in our struggle for independence. He was a committed anti-apartheid and anti-colonial freedom fighter, who stood up against injustice and oppression wherever it occurred. It is therefore fitting that, in one of his last public statements, he said that “[n]o peace-loving human being can ignore the carnage . . . waged against Palestinians in Gaza”.

 

3. President Geingob was the representative of the South West Africa People’s Organisation (SWAPO) and its petitioner to the United Nations from 1964 to 1971. It was during this period that the General Assembly condemned and declared “the policies of apartheid and racial discrimination” as a “crime against humanity”. Consequently, the General Assembly also appropriately terminated the Mandate in South West Africa.

 

4. Mr President, Members of the Court, I stand before you as a representative of a country where Germany brutally carried out the first genocide of the twentieth century against the Herero and the Nama peoples. A country that has known only too well the pain and suffering of occupation, colonialism, systematic discrimination, apartheid, and their entrenched consequences. It is because of this history that Namibia considers it a moral duty and sacred responsibility to appear before this Court on the question of the indefensible occupation of Palestine by Israel.

 

5. The parallels between Namibia and Palestine are striking and painful. Both were integral parts of the mandate system established after World War I. And in both cases, the so-called “sacred trust of civilisation”, which aimed to guide these nations towards self-determination and independence, was utterly betrayed. Instead of achieving self-government, both Namibians and Palestinians suffered the loss of human dignity, life, liberty and the outright theft of their land and natural resources. Hundreds of thousands of their people were violently expelled from their homes or forced into exile, joining the ranks of the world’s refugees.

 

6. Upon the dissolution of the League of Nations in 1946, the white minority South African régime refused to place Namibia (then South West Africa) under the United Nations Trusteeship and sought to illegally annex our territory as a fifth province, implementing racist homeland policies and apartheid laws targeting Black Africans.

 

7. Today, Palestinians have had to endure the seizure of their land and property, illegal settlements, unlawful killings, forced displacement, drastic movement restrictions, the denial of refugees’ right to return and of equal nationality and citizenship. The lived reality of the people of Palestine evokes painful memories for many Namibians of my generation. Namibians still experience the entrenched and structural impact of inequality, as a direct consequence of colonialism and the prolonged unlawful occupation.

 

8. Mr President, Members of the Court, this Court’s four Advisory Opinions on South West Africa played a vital role in our liberation struggle. In its 1971 Opinion, the Court confirmed the right of self-determination as a legal imperative with decisive consequences for States, paving the way for our independence 19 years later in 1990.

 

9. It is because of Namibia’s experience with apartheid and its long fight for self-determination that we cannot look the other way in the face of the brutal atrocities committed against the Palestinian people.

 

10. Mr President, Members of the Court, we ask you not to look away, either. Rather, we appeal to you: once again, end a historic and ongoing injustice by upholding the fundamental rights of a dispossessed people who have endured 57 years of a suffocating occupation. Today, Palestinians are enduring collective punishment in the besieged Gaza Strip, with civilians being killed in continuous and indiscriminate bombardments at a scale that is unprecedented in recent history. This state of affairs — this “hell on earth” — represents a stain on the collective conscience of the world.

 

11. Civilized nations cannot, and must not, accept images of children covered in blood with gaping wounds; of men and women crying in despair because of the helplessness they feel.

 

12. However, in the midst of the ongoing tragedy, I wish to say the following to the people of Palestine: this advisory opinion is an important moment in your long fight for independence. And I leave you with the words of our Founding President and Father of the Namibian Nation, Dr Sam Nujoma (b. 1929): “a people united, striving to achieve a common good for all members of society will always emerge victorious.”

 

13. Mr President, Members of the Court, I thank you, and I now respectfully ask that Professor Phoebe Okowa be called to address the legal questions before the Court.

 

The PRESIDENT: I thank Ms Dausab. I now give the floor to Professor Phoebe Okowa. You have the floor, Professor.

 

Ms OKOWA: [NAMIBIA] (23 February 2024)

 

I. INTRODUCTION

 

1. Mr President, Madam Vice-President, Members of the Court, it is a great honour for me to appear before you in these proceedings, and a special privilege to do so on behalf of the Republic of Namibia. Our presentation is in three parts.

 

2. First, I will make two general observations on why the Court should answer the request in its entirety, and why Israel’s occupation is illegal.

 

3. Then, I will focus on Israel’s policies and practices in the Occupied Palestinian Territory that grossly violate its obligations under international law, specifically the prohibition of apartheid and racial discrimination, and the principle of self-determination.

 

4. Finally, I will address the legal consequences that arise for Israel, for third States and for the United Nations on account of these violations.

 

A. The Court can and should answer the request in its entirety

 

5. As a threshold matter, Namibia reiterates, as do the overwhelming majority of States in these proceedings, that the Court has jurisdiction to render the requested advisory opinion, and that there are no compelling reasons for the Court to decline the request.

 

B. Israel’s occupation is illegal under international law

 

6. Namibia notes that there is also wide consensus among the participants on “the legal status of the occupation”. Namibia makes only four brief observations.

 

7. First, in so far as the law of occupation envisages any belligerent occupation as a temporary measure, immediately following military operations, Israel’s prolonged— or permanent— occupation breaches the law of occupation. It is a de facto annexation in all but name.

 

8. Second, Israel’s occupation, in and of itself, is unlawful under general international law. This is because it violates the Charter of the United Nations and peremptory norms; specifically, the prohibition on territorial acquisitions through illegal use of force, the principle of self-determination, and the prohibition of apartheid.

 

10. Finally, the continuation of the illegal occupation does not absolve Israel of its obligations and responsibilities under international law. This is consistent with your own conclusions in the Namibia Advisory Opinion that “[p]hysical control of a territory, and not sovereignty or legitimacy of title, is the basis of State liability for acts affecting other States”.

 

II. ISRAEL’S POLICIES AND PRACTICES IN THE OCCUPIED PALESTINIAN TERRITORY VIOLATE THE PROHIBITION OF APARTHEID AND THE PRINCIPLE OF SELF-DETERMINATION

 

A. Israel is bound by the prohibition of apartheid under international law

 

11. In both its written and oral submissions, Namibia focuses on the prohibition of apartheid and of racial discrimination. This is, in part, on account of Namibia’s history, as one of the few countries that were subjected to this egregious form of systematic and institutionalized racial discrimination.

 

12. We also do so on account of the fundamental importance of the Court’s 1971 Namibia Opinion, where this Court declared that the policies of apartheid “constitute a denial of fundamental human rights” and are “a flagrant violation of the purposes and principles of the [United Nations] Charter”.

 

13. But above all, we do this because, notwithstanding the egregious nature of apartheid — as a State delict, as a violation of a peremptory norm and as a crime — it has received virtually no clarification beyond the specific circumstances of southern Africa. An advisory opinion on threshold questions of apartheid will therefore assist the General Assembly in respect of its own action, in identifying the key elements of the illegality and in formulating appropriate responses to Israel’s discriminatory practices in the Occupied Palestinian Territory.

 

14. Specifically, we invite the Court to clarify three aspects of the obligation.

 

15. First, we respectfully ask the Court to make it clear that the prohibition of apartheid is not limited to southern Africa in the last century. It extends to Israel’s policies in the Occupied Palestinian Territory today. Article 3 of CERD places all States parties, including Israel, under an obligation to prevent, prohibit and eradicate apartheid “in territories under their jurisdiction”. This is also the conclusion of the CERD Committee. The 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, negotiated after the end of apartheid in South Africa, also recognized apartheid as a crime against humanity without temporal or geographical restriction16.

 

16. Second, the Court should also confirm that the prohibition of apartheid binds all States as a peremptory norm. In your decision in the case under CERD brought by Qatar against United Arab Emirates, you acknowledged the “universal character [of CERD] is confirmed by the fact that 182 States are parties to it”. The International Law Commission and its Special Rapporteur on jus cogens (as Judge Tladi then was) have also expressly recognized the peremptory character of the prohibition of apartheid.

 

17. Finally, Namibia invites the Court to clarify the definition of apartheid. Namibia aligns itself with other participants that the definition in Article 2 of the Apartheid Convention incorporates the three key elements of the delict under international law.

 

18. First, the State must engage in one or more “inhuman acts”. Crucially, these take the form of violations of fundamental human rights within an institutionalized framework of systematic oppression and domination.

 

19. Second, these inhuman acts must be directed against a “racial group” or its members.

 

20. Finally, the State must commit these inhuman acts “for the purpose of establishing and maintaining domination” by one racial group over the other and “systematically oppressing them”.

 

B. Israel’s policies and practices constitute apartheid

 

21. Other participants have already made extensive statements on the discriminatory and inhuman acts carried out against the Palestinians as a racial group. These policies and practices are too many to enumerate in the time available. They include laws that discriminate in matters of citizenship, ownership and transfer of property, and freedom of movement. The systematic and excessive use of force against Palestinian civilians, the arbitrary killings and mass incarceration of Palestinians, including children; the illegal settlements; the discriminatory residency regulations; and, crucially, the denial of a Palestinian identity by refusing to recognize them as a people with a right to determine their own political destiny and to pursue social, economic and cultural development.

 

22. Namibia’s submission will focus on the final requirement: the purpose of establishing, maintaining domination and systematic oppression.

 

First, the term “domination” signifies a pervasive, all-encompassing, serious form of control over a group.

 

Second, “oppression” implies prolonged cruelty, reflecting a sustained violation of human rights.

 

Third, “systematic” implies the organized nature of violent acts and the improbability of their random occurrence.

 

23. Namibia shares the view of other participants that Israel’s policies and practices meet the evidentiary standard for establishing the State delict of apartheid. The Israeli Government’s openly articulated aim is to ensure Jewish Israeli control of all facets of Palestinian life, as evidenced by legislation affirming Israel as the nation State of the Jewish people, with unique self-determination rights reserved for Jewish individuals only.

 

24. It is clear from all the available evidence that these discriminatory practices are not accidental or fortuitous but are designed for the specific purpose of privileging Jewish Israelis over Palestinians. The fact that the practices in question may have other collateral objectives, such as maintaining security, is irrelevant. It will suffice if the primary motive is discriminatory, even if it also serves ancillary purposes.

 

C. Israel’s apartheid practices violate the Palestinian people’s right to self-determination

 

25. It follows in Namibia’s submission that Israel’s policies and practices are inconsistent with the prohibition of apartheid as a State delict under international law. Furthermore, these discriminatory practices, in the context of prolonged occupation of the Palestinian territories, violate the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination.

 

26. As other Participants have highlighted, these discriminatory policies and practices are directed at fragmenting the Palestinian people. These elaborate systems of administrative controls undermine group cohesiveness by dividing the Palestinian people into a number of administrative “domains” or groups, with varying degrees of rights. This strategic fragmentation of the Occupied Palestinian Territory into Bantustans makes Palestinian life burdensome and in many cases unbearable, forcing them to leave their homes.

 

27. Perhaps the epitome of discriminatory laws negating the Palestinian right of self-determination is the 2018 Basic Law, passed with constitutional status, which boldly declares that Israel is the nation of the Jewish people and that Jewish settlement is a national value.

 

III. LEGAL CONSEQUENCES OF ISRAEL’S VIOLATIONS OF ITS OBLIGATIONS UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW

 

28. I will now turn to the final part of my submission. I will first examine the legal consequences of Israel’s violations, irrespective of the status of the occupation. Second, I will examine the legal consequences arising out of the illegal status of the occupation.

 

A. Legal consequences of Israel’s violations of its obligations under international law

 

29. First, Israel must bear consequences for its violations. This is the most elementary requirement of the law on State responsibility. As others in these proceedings have highlighted, this includes the obligations of cessation and the duty to make reparation for more than five decades of harms inflicted on the Palestinian people.

 

30. The Government of Israel has a legal duty to dismantle all the vestiges of systematic racial discrimination and oppression that permeates all aspects of Palestinian life in the occupied territories.

 

31. As the State of Palestine itself said on Monday, Israel must bring to an end the annexation of Palestinian land, dismantle existing settlements and recognize the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination in a viable State of their own.

 

32. Second, States are under an obligation not to recognize Israel’s breaches of peremptory norms of general international law vis-à-vis the Palestinian people. At the same time, the obligation of non-recognition is matched by a parallel and positive duty of recognition — of the Palestinian people’s right to self-determination realized through a viable and independent State of Palestine.

 

33. Here we ask the Court to pay particular attention to the historical context of these proceedings. Admission to the United Nations, unlike the League of Nations, was not automatic. It was conditioned on the State accepting to uphold the values and principles contained in the Charter, including self-determination. The admission of Israel was no exception.

 

34. In the Wall Opinion, you observed that when Israel proclaimed its independence, it did so “on the strength of” the partition plan resolution of the General Assembly. As is well known, that plan envisaged two States, one Arab and one Jewish. The Israeli Declaration of Independence makes this plain, by recognizing “the natural right of the Jewish people to be masters of their own fate, like all other nations, in their own sovereign State”. If that logic applied to the self-determination and statehood of the Jewish people, it must by the same token also apply to the self-determination and statehood of the Palestinian people.

 

35. We further ask the Court to consider whether there may be circumstances where political discretion in matters of recognition gives way to a positive duty of recognition, especially when it is necessary to safeguard a peremptory norm. And here, Namibia aligns itself with Jordan’s Written Submission that all States are also under an obligation to recognize the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination, including by exercising that right within a viable and independent State of Palestine.

 

B. Legal consequences of Israel’s illegal occupation

 

36. Since Israel’s policies and practices violate peremptory norms of international law, the occupation itself is unlawful. This entails consequences for Israel, for third States and, for the United Nations.

 

37. In the Namibia Opinion, you already set out the legal consequences of unlawful occupation. There, you said that, once the Court is faced with an illegal situation, “it would be failing in the discharge of its judicial functions if it did not declare that there is an obligation, especially upon Members of the United Nations, to bring that situation to an end.”

 

38. In that Opinion, you recognized the clear obligation on South Africa to put an end to the illegal occupation and withdraw its administration from the territory. The same consequences must of necessity attach to the illegal occupation by Israel of the Palestinian territories.

 

39. Cessation cannot be contingent on external factors such as the successful outcome of negotiations, as pointed out by some participants in these proceedings. A withdrawal contingent on the outcome of political negotiations effectively gives Israel a veto over the future of the Palestinian people.

 

40. Namibia invites the Court to set a strict time-limit within which Israel must be asked by the General Assembly to bring the occupation to an end, without conditions. Failure to set a strict time-limit has the perverse effect of being treated as acquiescence in the present occupation, and permission for it to continue indefinitely.

 

41. Of course, Israel has defied this Court and ultimatums issued by the United Nations organs many times. But it is precisely for this kind of egregious violations of peremptory norms that a régime of countermeasures was contemplated in the now widely accepted International Law Commission’s draft Articles on State Responsibility. Equality before the law is a cardinal principle of the Charter of the United Nations. No State — not Israel — should be exempt from the comprehensive régime of sanctions.

 

42. Moreover, Namibia reaffirms the position held by the majority of participants that all States are under an obligation not to recognize, assist, support, or contribute to the continuation of the unlawful occupation. This is also in line with your own settled jurisprudence.

 

43. In the Wall Opinion, you confirmed that the obligations of third States include the “obligation not to render aid or assistance in maintaining the [illegal] situation”. That all States must refrain from all forms of assistance, including transfer of arms, and political support that de facto perpetuates the occupation.

 

44. In Namibia’s view, this means, in particular, that all States are under an obligation to ensure that companies under their jurisdiction or control do not trade in Israeli goods or with Israeli companies originating from or linked to Israel’s illegal occupation.

 

45. Mr President, Members of the Court, I thank you for your kind attention. This concludes Namibia’s oral submissions. Thank you.

 

[…]

 

The Court adjourned from 11.20 a.m. to 11.40 a.m.

 

The PRESIDENT: Please be seated. The sitting is resumed. I now call upon the delegation of Pakistan to address the Court and invite His Excellency Mr Ahmed Irfan Aslam to take the floor.

 

Mr ASLAM: [PAKISTAN] (23 February 2024)

 

PART I

 

1. INTRODUCTION

 

1. Mr President, Members of the Court, it is an honour to appear before you on behalf of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan in these most important of proceedings. These proceedings take place as a whole people struggle to survive through relentless bombardment, the very people who have endured daily persecution for over half a century. And yet, these proceedings inspire hope. They inspire hope because they present an opportunity. They afford this Court an opportunity to develop jurisprudence to advance essential principles of international law that preserves and advances the very basic human right of liberty and dignity.

 

2. Pakistan has always been a defender of the Palestinian people and their right to self-determination. It was Pakistan that proposed the General Assembly’s first resolution, on the first day of the Six-Day War, relating to Israel’s invasion of Jerusalem and the measures taken by Israel to change the status of the city. Since then, Pakistan has continued to engage on these important questions of international justice and it remains committed to contribute and play its part.

 

3. Against this background, I will deal initially with five points and then make some technical legal arguments that Pakistan considers to be of particular importance in these proceedings. First, the question of self-determination. Second, the question of occupation and annexation. Third, systematic racial discrimination and apartheid. Fourth, the question of the City of Jerusalem and its holy places, and finally, the two-State solution.

 

2. SELF-DETERMINATION

 

4. Mr President, Members of the Court, I come to my first point. The Palestinian people have, as the Court itself has recognized, the right to self-determination. This right, which is codified in the two United Nations Human Rights Conventions, is “one of the essential principles of contemporary international law”. All States have a legal interest in protecting that right, which has the status of jus cogens. Israeli measures that severely impede the exercise by the Palestinian people of the right to self-determination are in breach of Israel’s obligations to respect that right. Pakistan strongly believes in the inherent right of people to live freely and in the justice of struggle for freedom from alien subjugation under the right of self-determination.

 

3. OCCUPATION AND ANNEXATION

 

5. I turn to my second point: the question of Israel’s occupation and annexation. It has always been the position of the United Nations that it “cannot condone a change in the status juris resulting from military action contrary to the provisions of the Charter. The Organization must, therefore, maintain that the status juris existing prior to such military action be re-established by a withdrawal of troops, and by the relinquishment or nullification of rights asserted in territories covered by the military action”.

 

6. Thus, after the Six-Day War, the Security Council determined in resolution 242 (1967) that Israel must withdraw its armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict. In resolution 476 (1980), the Security Council reaffirmed “the overriding necessity for ending the prolonged occupation of Arab territories occupied by Israel since 1967”.

 

7. Israel’s occupation is no longer, if it ever was, a military occupation; it is annexation. In East Jerusalem, the annexation is de jure; in the rest of the territory, it is de facto. But the formal characterization matters little. To use the words of the Court in the Wall case, the occupation is today, “notwithstanding the formal characterization . . . tantamount to de facto annexation”. This now applies to the entire territory. This may have been the intention all along. Prime Minister Ben-Gurion affirmed in 1950 that “the Israeli Empire must comprise all the territories between the Nile and the Euphrates”, and this was to be achieved as much by invasion as by diplomacy. More recently, Prime Minister Netanyahu has declared that his Government will be “applying Israeli sovereignty over all the communities formed through the transfer of Israeli settlers and not one residential community will be uprooted”.

 

8. Through its settlement policy, Israel has sought to create “irreversible facts on the ground”. It has aimed to create physical facts which in practical terms make it as difficult as possible to bring an end to its prolonged occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Notwithstanding, the Security Council has reaffirmed that the settlements constitute “a flagrant violation under international law”.

 

9. As this Court said in the Namibia case: “A binding determination made by a competent organ of the United Nations to the effect that a situation is illegal cannot remain without consequence.” As in that case, in answering the legal questions now referred to it, the Court is not concerned with the question of what practical steps would be required to cease the occupation.

 

10. It is worth recalling, however, that even greater practical issues have been overcome in other contexts, such as when the French Government withdrew a million settlers from Algeria in 1962. The French settlers were more numerous than the Israeli settlers in the West Bank and East Jerusalem taken together. France’s settlements in Algeria were not only more numerous: they were also “far older and better established than Israel’s West Bank colonies”.

 

4. SYSTEMATIC RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AND APARTHEID

 

11. I come to my third point, regarding systematic racial discrimination. Israel’s policies and practices amount to systematic racial discrimination and apartheid. Israel has imposed a system of racial discrimination against the Palestinian people since 1967. It is a system that distinguishes - deliberately and systematically — along ethnic and religious lines between the Palestinian population and Jewish Israeli settlers illegally transferred into the territory. The purpose of domination and oppression may be inferred from Israel’s pattern of conduct against the Palestinians.

  

5. THE HOLY CITY OF JERUSALEM AND ITS HOLY PLACES

 

12. I turn to my fourth point: Jerusalem and its holy places. The Holy City of Jerusalem is unique in that it is sacred to all three Abrahamic religions. Under the historic status quo, it is the right of Christian, Jewish and Muslim communities freely to access and worship at their holy places in the city. Ottoman decrees set out these rights in the nineteenth century. The régime was later confirmed in multilateral and bilateral instruments. The historic status quo has today developed into a so-called “objective régime”, which captures the point that it is characterized by a permanence which the instruments that established it do not themselves necessarily enjoy. Every State interested therefore has the right to insist upon compliance with this régime.

 

13. Under Israel’s prolonged occupation, Christians have not been free to access or worship in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Muslims have not been free to access or worship at Haram al-Sharif and in the Al Aqsa Mosque, to name only some prominent sites. The rights under the historic status quo must immediately be restored. This issue is of great importance to Pakistan, which is home to the second largest Muslim population in the world.

 

6. THE TWO-STATE SOLUTION

 

14. And now I come to my final point of the first part of my statement. Pakistan believes that the two-State solution must be the basis for peace. In the Wall case, this Court observed that the two-State solution was to be encouraged

 

“with a view to achieving as soon as possible, on the basis of international law, a negotiated solution to the outstanding problems and the establishment of a Palestinian State, existing side by side with Israel and its other neighbours, with peace and security for all in the region”.

 

Pakistan supports this call.

 

15. On 26 October 2023, Pakistan was pleased to vote in favour of the General Assembly resolution which reaffirmed that: “a just and lasting solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict can only be achieved . . . in accordance with international law, and on the basis of the two-State solution”. Two months later, on 22 December 2023, the Security Council reiterated its unwavering commitment to the vision of the two States, consistent with international law and relevant United Nations resolutions.

 

16. And these— and numerous other— resolutions by the political organs of the United Nations make clear, a two-State solution, and negotiations leading to it, must be consistent with international law. “Negotiations”, Judge Al-Khasawneh of this Court observed in the Wall case, “are a means to an end and cannot in themselves replace that end”. He continued to say that the discharge of fundamental international obligations cannot be made conditional upon negotiations.

 

17. In this regard, the Court’s advisory opinion in these proceedings will be most important. Far from impeding negotiations and the achievement of a just and lasting two States, the Court’s advisory opinion will further assist such efforts, by making it possible for the parties to make progress on the sound basis of international law and international legitimacy.

 

PART II

 

ISRAEL CANNOT BE ALLOWED TO BENEFIT FROM ITS OWN WRONGS

 

18. Mr President, Members of the Court, I now turn to more technical legal arguments of my submissions.

 

19. The Court has heard various competing submissions this week with respect to question (b) of the request, but there can be little doubt as to the central importance of three matters:

 

(a) First, the role of the rules on the use of force in governing the unlawfulness of a given occupation itself.

 

(b) Second, the series of General Assembly and Security Council resolutions that have consistently and expressly called for Israel’s withdrawal and referred to “the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war”, which is a corollary of those rules.

 

(c) Third, the Court’s Advisory Opinion on Namibia is a helpful reference point for the Court.

 

20. Pakistan hopes to assist the Court by suggesting a slightly different way of looking at things, which leads to the conclusion that Israel’s occupation is unlawful and unlawfulness must have consequences.

 

A. The principle that no State can profit from its own wrong

 

21. In this respect, Pakistan considers that a useful touchstone for the Court is the general principle that no State can benefit from its own wrong.

 

22. As Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice (1901-1982) explained:

 

“The general principle is that States cannot profit from their own wrong . . . and similarly that rights and benefits cannot be derived from wrong-doing. This admits of no doubt. It is a wide general principle having many diverse applications under international law . . . of course these principles apply not merely as regards treaty obligations but to general international law obligations also.”

 

23. Notably, in the Wall case, Israel accepted that this principle is “as relevant in advisory opinions as it is in contentious cases”. The principle is particularly important where, as here, the wrongs at issue are of the most serious kind.

 

B. The principle in the context of the applicable law

 

24. Second, the principle in the context of applicable law. This principle is one of the underpinnings of the prohibition on the acquisition of territory either by force or through the denial of self-determination. The wrongs are obvious and no benefit in terms of lawful possession or a legal entitlement to administer the territory could be derived.

 

25. As to this case, if the Court agrees with Pakistan and with many other States that Israel is in continued breach of these fundamental primary obligations, it cannot allow Israel to benefit from its own ongoing wrongs by somehow avoiding the natural consequences that must follow under this law of State responsibility. These include the obligations of cessation and non-repetition which require immediate and unconditional withdrawal, as well as the obligations of non-recognition and non-assistance for all other States.

 

26. As to the applicable primary rules, it is customary international law and the Charter that govern the illegality of a given occupation at any point in time. As a separate matter, international humanitarian law governs the conduct of an occupying Power with respect to the occupied population.

 

27. But if the occupation itself is unlawful, that carries legal consequences for Israel and for all States under the secondary rules of State responsibility. Those legal consequences are in no way displaced by separate consideration of the lawfulness under international humanitarian law of particular conduct in the course of the occupation, much less by hope for a negotiated solution. Any other approach would effectively permit Israel to benefit from its own wrongdoing.

 

28. For the same reason, there is no scope for an argument that other States, in their dealings with respect to Israel or the Occupied Palestinian Territory, could somehow put to one side the question of the unlawfulness of the occupation itself. They could not, for example, elect instead to focus exclusively on the different questions of whether specific Israeli measures were absolutely necessary to meet legitimate security requirements such that those measures are not unlawful under international humanitarian law.

 

C. The principle in the context of the Namibia Advisory Opinion

 

29. Mr President, Members of the Court, any conclusion could not be reconciled with the Court’s Opinion on Namibia. There are certain clear parallels with the present case. The General Assembly had condemned South Africa’s occupation of Namibia, characterizing this as an “occupation” that engaged the Geneva Conventions, and the Security Council had expressly called for South Africa’s withdrawal.

 

30. In a later resolution, after condemning South Africa’s non-compliance with the earlier resolutions, the Security Council had also declared that “the continued presence of the South African authorities in Namibia is illegal”. This is to be understood as a reference to illegality under the rules on the use of force. Notably, the United States voted in favour of this resolution. With respect to Palestine, however, it now appears to wish to limit those rules to governing the lawfulness of “the initial resort to force” “leading to an occupation” only. Of course, that could not be correct, including because it would allow an aggressor to benefit from an ongoing attempt to acquire territory through annexation.

 

31. Indeed, in its 1971 Advisory Opinion, the Court itself concluded that, “the continued presence of South Africa in Namibia [is] illegal”. The Court held that South Africa was under an obligation to withdraw immediately and that all States were under an obligation to recognize the illegality of the occupation.

 

32. In reaching this conclusion, the Court found that South Africa’s application of the apartheid régime to occupied territories amounted to disowning the Mandate. In this connection, the Court relied on a context specific expression of the general principle that no State can benefit from its own wrong, stating “[o]ne of the fundamental principles governing the international relationship thus established is that a party which disowns or does not fulfil its own obligations cannot be recognized as retaining the rights which it claims to derive from the relationship”.

 

33. South Africa had claimed it had an independent right to administer the territory by reason of its “long occupation”. Evidently, the Court disagreed. Three points follow from this.

 

34. First, the Court in Namibia case implicitly recognized that neither the fact of an occupation nor the law of occupation confer upon the occupying Power any legal entitlement to administer the territory. Any contrary view would allow an occupying Power to benefit from its unlawful use of force.

 

35. Second, the Court made a positive finding that South Africa’s occupation was unlawful. In Namibia, there was a binding Security Council decision to that effect. The Security Council has made no such Security Council decision with respect to Palestine. But this in no way displaces or impedes the Court’s judicial function in determining this legal question for itself.

 

36. Third, the Court plainly did not consider that South Africa’s continued status as an occupying Power made any difference.

 

37. As Judge Greenwood has explained, the basic position under the law of occupation is that an occupying Power has the “liberty to govern within certain limits without being guilty of a violation of the ius in bello”. The occupying Power is required to administer the territory as a temporary conservator or trustee for the benefit of the occupied population. Acting in that capacity, the occupying Power has certain liberties to take measures in good faith in the best interests of the occupied population or, where absolutely necessary, to meet its own legitimate security interests. This, of course, is a separate question to the unlawfulness of the occupation itself.

 

38. As to the position under the law of occupation, again, it is helpful to recall the Namibia case. The Court’s context specific expression of the principle was that “a party which disowns or does not fulfil its own obligations cannot be recognized as retaining the rights which it claims to derive from the relationship”. Pakistan considers that this has relevance when considering whether an occupying Power should be recognized as retaining liberties to administer the occupied territory. In this case, if one were to zoom in exclusively on Israel’s conduct as an occupying Power, the only conclusion could be that Israel has disowned its basic duties. Its policies and practices of occupation deny the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination and amount to systematic racial discrimination and serious violations of international humanitarian law and human rights. Plainly, they cannot be said to be absolutely necessary to meet Israel’s own security interests. They serve Israel’s other interests, including its goal of acquiring the territory.

 

D. Conclusion

 

40. Mr President, Members of the Court. I conclude. With the general principle that no State can be benefit from its own wrong firmly in mind, it cannot be right that, as some States have suggested, the Court should refrain from finding that the occupation itself is unlawful or that there is no obligation to withdraw. This would be to allow Israel to profit from its own continued grave wrongs. And, to adopt the Court’s words in Namibia, the Court “would be failing in the discharge of its judicial functions”. Such abdication of responsibility would not encourage or facilitate the achievement of a negotiated solution on the basis of international law. More generally, the Court would be sending out a clear signal to other States that they too might be allowed to benefit through the prolonged unlawful occupation of the territory of another State.

 

41. Mr President, Members of the Court, these proceedings are a great moment in law, they are a great moment in history. We all have a collective opportunity to develop jurisprudence in a way that advances the cause of humanity. I wish you good luck in your deliberations. Thank you.

 

The PRESIDENT: I thank the delegation of Pakistan for its presentation.

Nazi Deputy Mayor Ernst Kurt Lisso with family committed suicide to avoid capture by US troops

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Jaisalmer Fort is one of the largest fortifications in the world. It is situated in the city of Jaisalmer, in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is a World Heritage Site. It was built in 1156 AD by the Rajput ruler Rawal Jaisal (whose son was Shalivahan II. Manj & Bhati Rajputs are the descendants of him.), from whom it derives it name. The fort stands proudly amidst the golden stretches of the great Thar Desert, on Trikuta Hill, and has been the scene of many battles. Its massive yellow sandstone walls are a tawny lion colour during the day, fading to honey-gold as the sun sets, thereby camouflaging the fort in the yellow desert. For this reason, it is also known as the Sonar Quila or Golden Fort. The fort is located in the very heart the city, and is one of the most notable monuments in the locality.

 

HISTORY

During medieval times, the city played a major role in trade with Persia, Arabia, Egypt and Africa. The fort contains 3 layers of walls. The outer or the lower layer is made out of solid stone blocks and it reinforces the loose rubble of Trikuta Hill. The second, or middle, wall snakes around the fort. From the innermost, or third, wall, the Rajput warriors once hurled boiling oil and water as well as massive blocks of rock at their enemies, who would become entrapped between the second and third walls. This defences of the fort include 99 bastions, of which 92 were built between the period of 1633-47.

 

Ala-ud-din Khilji attacked and captured the fort in the 13th century and managed to hold it for 9 years. During the siege of the fort the Rajput women committed Jauhar. The second battle at the fort happened in 1541, when Mughal emperor Humayun attacked the fort city.

 

With the advent of British rule, the emergence of maritime trade and the growth of the port of Bombay led to the gradual economic decline of Jaisalmer. After independence and the Partition of India, the ancient trade route was totally closed, thus sealing the fate of the city. Nonetheless, the continued strategic importance of Jaisalmer was demonstrated during the 1965 and 1971 wars between India and Pakistan. Although at one point the entire population of Jaisalmer lived within the fort, it today has a resident population of about 4,000 people who are largely from the Brahmin and Daroga communities. They are mostly descendants of the workforce of the Bhati rulers of Jaisalmer which was permitted to reside within the fort's premises. With an increase in population, people gradually relocated to the foot of the Trikuta Hill and the town of Jaisalmer spread out from the fort.

 

MAJOR ATTRACTIONS

Raj Mahal (Royal palace)

Laxminath temple

4 massive gateways

Merchant Havelis. These are large houses often built by wealthy merchants in Rajasthani towns and cities in North India, with beautiful, ornate sandstone carvings. Some havelis are many hundreds of years old. In Jaisalmer there are many elaborate havelis carved from yellow sandstone. Some of these have many floors and countless rooms, with decorated windows, archways, doors and balconies. Some havelis are today museums but most in Jaisalmer are still lived in by the families that built them. Among these is the Vyas haveli which was built in the 15th century, which is still occupied by the descendants of the original builders. Another example is the Shree Nath Palace which was once inhabited by the prime minister of Jaisalmer. Some of the doors and ceilings are wonderful examples of old carved wood from many hundreds of years ago.

 

The fort has an ingenious drainage system called the ghut nali which allows for the easy drainage of rainwater away from the fort in all four directions of the fort. Over the years, haphazard construction activities and building of new roads has greatly reduced its effectiveness.

 

The fort has numerous eateries, including Italian, French, and native cuisines. The famous Indian film director Satyajit Ray wrote the Sonar Kella (The Golden Fortress), a detective novel, based on the fort and he later filmed it here. The film became a classic and a large number of tourists from Bengal and around the world visit the fort annually to experience for themselves the world that Ray portrayed in the movie.

 

THREATS TO THE FORT

The Jaisalmer Fort today faces manifold threats that are a result of the increasing population pressure on it. Water seepage, inadequate civic amenities, derelict houses and seismic activity around the Trikuta Hill are some of the major concerns impacting the Fort. Unlike most other forts, the Jaisalmer Fort has been built over a weak sedimentary rock foothill which makes its foundations especially vulnerable to seepage. Over the years this has led to the collapse of significant portions of the Fort such as the Queen’s Palace or Rani Ka Mahal and parts of the outer boundary wall and the lower pitching walls.

 

The World Monuments Fund included the Fort in its 1996 World Monuments Watch and again in the 1998 and 2000 reports due to the threats posed to it by an increase in its resident population and the increasing numbers of tourists who visit it every year. The Fort is one of Rajasthan's most popular tourist attractions with as many as five to six hundred thousand tourists visiting it annually. As a result, it is abuzz with commercial activities and has seen a phenomenal growth in both human and vehicular traffic.

 

Major restoration work has been undertaken by the World Monuments Fund and UK based charity Jaisalmer in Jeopardy. According to former INTACH chairman S.K. Misra, American Express has provided more than $1 million for the conservation of Jaisalmer Fort. The absence of coordinated action among the various government departments responsible for civic amenities, the local municipality and the Archaeological Survey that is responsible for the upkeep of the fort is a major impediment in its maintenance and restoration.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Chittorgarh Fort (Hindi/Rajasthani: चित्तौड दुर्ग Chittorgarh Durg) is the largest fort in India and the grandest in the state of Rajasthan. It is a World Heritage Site. The fort, plainly known as Chittor, was the capital of Mewar and is today situated several kilometres south of Bhilwara. It was initially ruled by Guhilot and later by Sisodias, the Suryavanshi clans of Chattari Rajputs, from the 7th century, until it was finally abandoned in 1568 after the siege by Emperor Akbar in 1567. It sprawls majestically over a hill 180 m in height spread over an area of 280 ha above the plains of the valley drained by the Berach River. The fort precinct with an evocative history is studded with a series of historical palaces, gates, temples and two prominent commemoration towers. These monumental ruins have inspired the imagination of tourists and writers for centuries.

 

The fort was sacked three times between the 15th and 16th centuries; in 1303 Allauddin Khilji defeated Rana Ratan Singh, in 1535 Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat defeated Bikramjeet Singh and in 1567 Emperor Akbar defeated Maharana Udai Singh II who left the fort and founded Udaipur. Each time the men fought bravely rushing out of the fort walls charging the enemy but lost every time. Following these defeats, Jauhar was committed thrice by more than 13,000 ladies and children of the Rajput heroes who laid their lives in battles at Chittorgarh Fort, first led by Rani Padmini wife of Rana Rattan Singh who was killed in the battle in 1303, and later by Rani Karnavati in 1537 AD.

 

Thus, the fort represents the quintessence of tribute to the nationalism, courage, medieval chivalry and sacrifice exhibited by the Mewar rulers of Sisodia and their kinsmen and women and children, between the 7th and 16th centuries. The rulers, their soldiers, the women folk of royalty and the commoners considered death as a better option than dishonor in the face of surrender to the foreign invading armies.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Chittorgarh, located in the southern part of the state of Rajasthan, 233 km from Ajmer, midway between Delhi and Mumbai on the National Highway 8 (India) in the road network of Golden Quadrilateral. Chittorgarh is situated where National Highways No. 76 & 79 intersect.

 

The fort rises abruptly above the surrounding plains and is spread over an area of 2.8 km2. The highest elevation at the fort is 1,075 m. It is situated on the left bank of the Berach river (a tributary of the Banas River) and is linked to the new town of Chittorgarh (known as the 'Lower Town') developed in the plains after 1568 AD when the fort was deserted in light of introduction of artillery in the 16th century, and therefore the capital was shifted to more secure Udaipur, located on the eastern flank of Aravalli hill range. Mughal Emperor Akbar attacked and sacked this fort which was but one of the 84 forts of Mewar,but the capital was shifted to Aravalli hills where heavy artillery & cavalry were not effective. A winding hill road of more than 1 km length from the new town leads to the west end main gate, called Ram Pol, of the fort. Within the fort, a circular road provides access to all the gates and monuments located within the fort walls.

 

The fort that once boasted of 84 water bodies has only 22 of them now. These water bodies are fed by natural catchment and rainfall, and have a combined storage of 4 billion litres that could meet the water needs of an army of 50,000. The supply could last for four years. These water bodies are in the form of ponds, wells and step wells.

 

HISTORY

Chittorgarh Fort is considered to be the largest fort of India in terms of area. It is stated that the fort was constructed by the Mauryans during the 7th century AD and hence derives its name after the Mauryan ruler, Chitrangada Mori, as inscribed on coins of the period. Historical records show Chittorgarh fort as the capital of Mewar for 834 years. It was established in 734 AD by Bappa Rawal, founder ruler in the hierarchy of the Sisodia rulers of Mewar. It is also said that the fort was gifted to Bappa Rawal as part of Solanki princess’s dowry in the 8th century. The fort was looted and destroyed at the hands of Emperor Akbar in 1568 AD and subsequently never resettled but only refurbished in 1905 AD. Three important battles were fought for control of the fort; in 1303, Ala-ud-din Khilji besieged the fort; in 1535, Sultan of Gujarat Bahadur Shah besieged the fort; and in 1568, Mughal Emperor Akbar attacked the fort. Not that there were only defeats at the fort. Excluding the periods of siege, the fort had always remained in possession of the Sisodias of the Guhilot (or Gehlot/Guhila) clan of Rajputs, who descended from Bappa Rawal. There were also success stories of establishment of the fort and its reconstruction after every siege, before it was finally abandoned in 1568, all of which are narrated.

 

Chittor is cited in the Mahabharat epic. It is said that Bhima, the second of the Pandava brothers of Epic Mahabaharata fame, known for his mighty strength gave a powerful hit with his fist to the ground that resulted in water springing up to form a large reservoir. It is called Bhimlat kund, an artificial tank named after Bhima. Folk legend also mentions that Bhima started building the fort.

 

BAPPA RAWAL

The earliest history linked to the Bappa Rawal's fort is that of the Huna Kingdom of Sialkot (of Mihir Kula 515-540 AD) that was destroyed by Yashodharman. This was subsequently seized by a new dynasty of kshatriyas called Tak or Taxaka. According to historians, the Taxak Mori were the lords of Chittor from a very early period. After a few generations, the Guhilots supplanted them. From 725 to 735 AD, there were numerous defenders who appear to have considered the cause of Chittor their own, the Tak from Asirgarh. This race appears to have retained possession of Asirgarh for at least two centuries after this event and one of its chieftain Bappa Rawal was the most conspicuous leader in the lineage of Prithvi Raj. In the poems of Chandar he is called the "Standard, bearer, Tak of Asir."

 

SIEGE OF 1303

Ala ud din Khilji, Sultan of Delhi, rallied his forces against Mewar, in 1303 AD. The Chittorgarh fort was till then considered impregnable and grand, atop a natural hill. But his immediate reason for invading the fort was his obsessive desire to capture Rani Padmini, the unrivalled beautiful queen of Rana Ratan Singh and take her into his harem. The Rana, out of politeness, allowed the Khilji to view Padmini through a set of mirrors. But this viewing of Padmini further fired Khilji’s desire to possess her. After the viewing, as a gesture of courtesy, when the Rana accompanied the Sultan to the outer gate, he was treacherously captured. Khilji conveyed to the queen that the Rana would be released only if she agreed to join his harem. But the queen had other plans. She agreed to go to his camp if permitted to go in a Royal style with an entourage, in strict secrecy. Instead of her going, she sent 700 well armed soldiers disguised in litters and they rescued the Rana and took him to the fort. But Khilji chased them to the fort where a fierce battle ensued at the outer gate of the fort in which the Rajput soldiers were overpowered and the Rana was killed. Khilji won the battle on August 26, 1303. Soon thereafter, instead of surrendering to the Sultan, the royal Rajput ladies led by Rani Padmini preferred to die through the Rajput’s ultimate tragic rite of Jauhar (self immolation on a pyre). In revenge, Khilji killed thirty thousand Hindus. He entrusted the fort to his son Khizr Khan to rule and renamed the fort as 'Khizrabad'. He also showered gifts on his son by way of

 

a red canopy, a robe embroidered with gold and two standards one green and the other black and threw upon him rubies and emeralds.

 

He returned to Delhi after the fierce battle at the fort.

 

RANA HAMMIR & SUCCESSORS

Khizr Khan’s rule at the fort lasted till 1311 AD and due to the pressure of Rajputs he was forced to entrust power to the Sonigra chief Maldeva who held the fort for 7 years. Hammir Singh, usurped control of the fort from Maldeva by “treachery and intrigue” and Chittor once again regained its past glory. Hammir, before his death in 1364 AD, had converted Mewar into a fairly large and prosperous kingdom. The dynasty (and clan) fathered by him came to be known by the name Sisodia after the village where he was born. His son Ketra Singh succeeded him and ruled with honour and power. Ketra Singh’s son Lakha who ascended the throne in 1382 AD also won several wars. His famous grandson Rana Kumbha came to the throne in 1433 AD and by that time the Muslim rulers of Malwa and Gujarat had acquired considerable clout and were keen to usurp the powerful Mewar state.

 

RANA KUMBHA & CLAN

There was resurgence during the reign of Rana Kumbha in the 15th century. Rana Kumbha, also known as Maharana Kumbhakarna, son of Rana Mokal, ruled Mewar between 1433 AD and 1468 AD. He is credited with building up the Mewar kingdom assiduously as a force to reckon with. He built 32 forts (84 fortresses formed the defense of Mewar) including one in his own name, called Kumbalgarh. But his end came in 1468 AD at the hands of his own son Rana Udaysimha (Uday Singh I) who assassinated him to gain the throne of Mewar. This patricide was not appreciated by the people of Mewar and consequently his brother Rana Raimal assumed the reins of power in 1473. After his death in May 1509, Sangram Singh (also known as Rana Sanga), his youngest son, became the ruler of Mewar, which brought in a new phase in the history of Mewar. Rana Sanga, with support from Medini Rai (a Rajput chief of Alwar), fought a valiant battle against Mughal emperor Babar at Khanwa in 1527. He ushered in a period of prestige to Chittor by defeating the rulers of Gujarat and also effectively interfered in the matters of Idar. He also won small areas of the Delhi territory. In the ensuing battle with Ibrahim Lodi, Rana won and acquired some districts of Malwa. He also defeated the combined might of Sultan Muzaffar of Gujarat and the Sultan of Malwa. By 1525 AD, Rana Sanga had developed Chittor and Mewar, by virtue of great intellect, valour and his sword, into a formidable military state. But in a decisive battle that was fought against Babar on March 16, 1527, the Rajput army of Rana Sanga suffered a terrible defeat and Sanga escaped to one of his fortresses. But soon thereafter in another attack on the Chanderi fort the valiant Rana Sanga died and with his death the Rajput confederacy collapsed.

 

SIEGE OF 1534

Bahadur Shah who came to the throne in 1526 AD as the Sultan of Gujarat besieged the Chittorgarh fort in 1534. The fort was sacked and, once again the medieval dictates of chivalry determined the outcome. Following the defeat of the Rana, it is said 13,000 Rajput women committed jauhar (self immolation on the funeral pyre) and 3,200 Rajput warriors rushed out of the fort to fight and die.

 

SIEGE OF 1567

The final Siege of Chittorgarh came 33 years later, in 1567, when the Mughal Emperor Akbar invaded the fort. Akbar wanted to conquer Mewar, which was being ably ruled by Rana Uday Singh II, a fine prince of Mewar. To establish himself as the supreme lord of Northern India, he wanted to capture the renowned fortress of Chittor, as a precursor to conquering the whole of India. Shakti Singh, son of the Rana who had quarreled with his father, had run away and approached Akbar when the later had camped at Dholpur preparing to attack Malwa. During one of these meetings, in August 1567, Shakti Singh came to know from a remark made in jest by emperor Akbar that he was intending to wage war against Chittor. Akbar had told Shakti Singh in jest that since his father had not submitted himself before him like other princes and chieftains of the region he would attack him. Startled by this revelation, Shakti Singh quietly rushed back to Chittor and informed his father of the impending invasion by Akbar. Akbar was furious with the departure of Shakti Singh and decided to attack Mewar to humble the arrogance of the Ranas. In September 1567, the emperor left for Chittor, and on October 20, 1567, camped in the vast plains outside the fort. In the meantime, Rana Udai Singh, on the advice of his council of advisors, decided to go away from Chittor to the hills of Udaipur. Jaimal and Patta, two brave army chieftains of Mewar, were left behind to defend the fort along with 8,000 Rajput warriors under their command. Akbar laid siege to the fortress. The Rajput army fought valiantly and Akbar himself had narrowly escaped death. In this grave situation, Akbar had prayed for divine help for achieving victory and vowed to visit the shrine of the sufi saint Khwaja at Ajmer. The battle continued till February 23, 1568. On that day Jaymal was seriously wounded but he continued to fight with support from Patta. Jayamal ordered jauhar to be performed when many beautiful princesses of Mewar and noble matrons committed self-immolation at the funeral pyre. Next day the gates of the fort were opened and Rajput soldiers rushed out bravely to fight the enemies. Jayamal and Patta who fought bravely were at last killed in action. One figure estimates that 30,000 soldiers were killed in action. Akbar immediately repaired himself to Ajmer to perform his religious vow.

 

RETURN OF THE FORT TO MEWAR

But in 1616, Jehangir returned Chittor fort to the Rajputs, when Maharana Amar Singh was the chief of Mewar. However, the fort was not resettled though it was refurbished several centuries later in 1905 during British Raj.

 

PRECINCTS

The fort which is roughly in the shape of a fish has a circumference of 13 km with a maximum width of 3 km and it covers an area of 700 acres. The fort is approached through a zig zag and difficult ascent of more than 1 km from the plains, after crossing over a bridge made in limestone. The bridge spans the Gambhiri River and is supported by ten arches (one has a curved shape while the balance have pointed arches). Apart from the two tall towers, which dominate the majestic fortifications, the sprawling fort has a plethora of palaces and temples (many of them in ruins) within its precincts.

 

The 305 hectares component site, with a buffer zone of 427 hectares, encompasses the fortified stronghold of Chittorgarh, a spacious fort located on an isolated rocky plateau of approximately 2 km length and 155m width.

 

It is surrounded by a perimeter wall 4.5 kilometres long, beyond which a 45° hill slope makes it almost inaccessible to enemies. The ascent to the fort passes through seven gateways built by the Mewar ruler Rana Kumbha (1433- 1468) of the Sisodia clan. These gates are called, from the base to the hill top, the Paidal Pol, Bhairon Pol, Hanuman Pol, Ganesh Pol, Jorla Pol, Laxman Pol, and Ram Pol, the final and main gate.

 

The fort complex comprises 65 historic built structures, among them 4 palace complexes, 19 main temples, 4 memorials and 20 functional water bodies. These can be divided into two major construction phases. The first hill fort with one main entrance was established in the 5th century and successively fortified until the 12th century. Its remains are mostly visible on the western edges of the plateau. The second, more significant defence structure was constructed in the 15th century during the reign of the Sisodia Rajputs, when the royal entrance was relocated and fortified with seven gates, and the medieval fortification wall was built on an earlier wall construction from the 13th century.

 

Besides the palace complex, located on the highest and most secure terrain in the west of the fort, many of the other significant structures, such as the Kumbha Shyam Temple, the Mira Bai Temple, the Adi Varah Temple, the Shringar Chauri Temple, and the Vijay Stambh memorial were constructed in this second phase. Compared to the later additions of Sisodian rulers during the 19th and 20th centuries, the predominant construction phase illustrates a comparatively pure Rajput style combined with minimal eclecticism, such as the vaulted substructures which were borrowed from Sultanate architecture. The 4.5 km walls with integrated circular enforcements are constructed from dressed stone masonry in lime mortar and rise 500m above the plain. With the help of the seven massive stone gates, partly flanked by hexagonal or octagonal towers, the access to the fort is restricted to a narrow pathway which climbs up the steep hill through successive, ever narrower defence passages. The seventh and final gate leads directly into the palace area, which integrates a variety of residential and official structures. Rana Kumbha Mahal, the palace of Rana Kumbha, is a large Rajput domestic structure and now incorporates the Kanwar Pade Ka Mahal (the palace of the heir) and the later palace of the poetess Mira Bai (1498-1546). The palace area was further expanded in later centuries, when additional structures, such as the Ratan Singh Palace (1528–31) or the Fateh Prakash, also named Badal Mahal (1885-1930), were added. Although the majority of temple structures represent the Hindu faith, most prominently the Kalikamata Temple (8th century), the Kshemankari Temple (825-850) the Kumbha Shyam Temple (1448) or the Adbuthnath Temple (15th- 16th century), the hill fort also contains Jain temples, such as Shringar Chauri (1448) and Sat Bis Devri (mid-15th century) Also the two tower memorials, Kirti Stambh (13th-14th century) and Vijay Stambha (1433-1468), are Jain monuments. They stand out with their respective heights of 24m and 37m, which ensure their visibility from most locations of the fort complex. Finally, the fort compound is home to a contemporary municipal ward of approximately 3,000 inhabitants, which is located near Ratan Singh Tank at the northern end of the property.

 

GATES

The fort has total seven gates (in local language, gate is called Pol), namely the Padan Pol, Bhairon Pol, Hanuman Pol, Ganesh Pol, Jodla Pol, Laxman Pol and the main gate named the Ram Pol (Lord Rama's Gate). All the gateways to the fort have been built as massive stone structures with secure fortifications for military defense. The doors of the gates with pointed arches are reinforced to fend off elephants and cannon shots. The top of the gates have notched parapets for archers to shoot at the enemy army. A circular road within the fort links all the gates and provides access to the numerous monuments (ruined palaces and 130 temples) in the fort.

 

During the second siege, Prince Bagh Singh died at the Padan Pol in 1535 AD. Prince Jaimal of Badnore and his clansman Kalla were killed by Akbar at a location between the Bhairon Pol and Hanuman Pol in the last siege of the fort in 1567 (Kalla carried the wounded Jaimal out to fight). Chhatris, with the roof supported by corbeled arches, have been built to commemorate the spots of their sacrifice. Their statues have also been erected, at the orders of Emperor Akbar, to commemorate their valiant deaths. At each gate, cenotaphs of Jaimal (in the form of a statue of a Rajput warrior on horseback) and Patta have also been constructed. At Ram Pol, the entrance gate to the fort, a Chaatri was built in memory of the 15 year old Patta of Kelwa, who had lost his father in battle, and saw the sword yielding mother and wife on the battle field who fought valiantly and died at this gate. He led the saffron robed Rajput warriors, who all died fighting for Mewar’s honour. Suraj Pol (Sun Gate) provides entry to the eastern wall of the fort. On the right of Suraj Pol is the Darikhana or Sabha (council chamber) behind which lie a Ganesha temple and the zenana (living quarters for women). A massive water reservoir is located towards the left of Suraj Pol. There is also a peculiar gate, called the Jorla Pol (Joined Gate), which consists of two gates joined together. The upper arch of Jorla Pol is connected to the base of Lakshman Pol. It is said that this feature has not been noticed anywhere else in India. The Lokota Bari is the gate at the fort’s northern tip, while a small opening that was used to hurl criminals into the abyss is seen at the southern end.

 

VIJAY STAMBHA

The Vijay Stambha (Tower of Victory) or Jaya Stambha, called the symbol of Chittor and a particularly bold expression of triumph, was erected by Rana Kumbha between 1458 and 1468 to commemorate his victory over Mahmud Shah I Khalji, the Sultan of Malwa, in 1440 AD. Built over a period of ten years, it raises 37.2 metres over a 4.4 m2 base in nine stories accessed through a narrow circular staircase of 157 steps (the interior is also carved) up to the 8th floor, from where there is good view of the plains and the new town of Chittor. The dome, which was a later addition, was damaged by lightning and repaired during the 19th century. The Stamba is now illuminated during the evenings and gives a beautiful view of Chittor from the top.

 

KIRTI STAMBHA

Kirti Stambha (Tower of Fame) is a 22 metres high tower built on a 9.1 m base with 4.6 m at the top, is adorned with Jain sculptures on the outside and is older (probably 12th century) and smaller than the Victory Tower. Built by a Bagherwal Jain merchant Jijaji Rathod, it is dedicated to Adinath, the first Jain tirthankar (revered Jain teacher). In the lowest floor of the tower, figures of the various tirthankars of the Jain pantheon are seen in special niches formed to house them. These are digambara monuments. A narrow stairway with 54 steps leads through the six storeys to the top. The top pavilion that was added in the 15th century has 12 columns.

 

RANA KUMBHA PALACE

At the entrance gate near the Vijaya Stamba, Rana Kumbha's palace (in ruins), the oldest monument, is located. The palace included elephant and horse stables and a temple to Lord Shiva. Maharana Udai Singh, the founder of Udaipur, was born here; the popular folk lore linked to his birth is that his maid Panna DaiPanna Dhai saved him by substituting her son in his place as a decoy, which resulted in her son getting killed by Banbir. The prince was spirited away in a fruit basket. The palace is built with plastered stone. The remarkable feature of the palace is its splendid series of canopied balconies. Entry to the palace is through Suraj Pol that leads into a courtyard. Rani Meera, the famous poetess saint, also lived in this palace. This is also the palace where Rani Padmini, consigned herself to the funeral pyre in one of the underground cellars, as an act of jauhar along with many other women. The Nau Lakha Bandar (literal meaning: nine lakh treasury) building, the royal treasury of Chittor was also located close by. Now, across from the palace is a museum and archeological office. The Singa Chowri temple is also nearby.

 

FATEH PRAKASH PALACE

Located near Rana Khumba palace, built by Rana Fateh Singh, the precincts have modern houses and a small museum. A school for local children (about 5,000 villagers live within the fort) is also nearby.

 

GAUMUKH RESERVOIR

A spring feeds the tank from a carved cow’s mouth in the cliff. This pool was the main source of water at the fort during the numerous sieges.

 

PADMINI´S PALACE

Padmini's Palace or Rani Padmini's Palace is a white building and a three storied structure (a 19th-century reconstruction of the original). It is located in the southern part of the fort. Chhatris (pavilions) crown the palace roofs and a water moat surrounds the palace. This style of palace became the forerunner of other palaces built in the state with the concept of Jal Mahal (palace surrounded by water). It is at this Palace where Alauddin was permitted to glimpse the mirror image of Rani Padmini, wife of Maharana Rattan Singh. It is widely believed that this glimpse of Padmini's beauty besotted him and convinced him to destroy Chittor in order to possess her. Maharana Rattan Singh was killed and Rani Padmini committed Jauhar. Rani Padmini's beauty has been compared to that of Cleopatra and her life story is an eternal legend in the history of Chittor. The bronze gates to this pavilion were removed and transported to Agra by Akbar.

 

OTHER SIGHTS

Close to Kirti Sthamba is the Meera Temple, or the Meerabai Temple. Rana Khumba built it in an ornate Indo–Aryan architectural style. It is associated with the mystic saint-poet Mirabai who was an ardent devotee of Lord Krishna and dedicated her entire life to His worship. She composed and sang lyrical bhajans called Meera Bhajans. The popular legend associated with her is that with blessings of Krishna, she survived after consuming poison sent to her by her evil brother-in-law. The larger temple in the same compound is the Kumbha Shyam Temple (Varaha Temple). The pinnacle of the temple is in pyramid shape. A picture of Meerabai praying before Krishna has now been installed in the temple.

 

Across from Padmini’s Palace is the Kalika Mata Temple. Originally, a Sun Temple dated to the 8th century dedicated to Surya (the Sun God) was destroyed in the 14th century. It was rebuilt as a Kali temple.

 

Another temple on the west side of the fort is the ancient Goddess Tulja Bhavani Temple built to worship Goddess Tulja Bhavani is considered sacred. The Tope Khana (cannon foundry) is located next to this temple in a courtyard, where a few old cannons are still seen.

 

JAUHAR MELA

The fort and the city of Chittorgarh host the biggest Rajput festival called the "Jauhar Mela". It takes place annually on the anniversary of one of the jauhars, but no specific name has been given to it. It is generally believed that it commemorates Padmini’s jauhar, which is most famous. This festival is held primarily to commemorate the bravery of Rajput ancestors and all three jauhars which happened at Chittorgarh Fort. A huge number of Rajputs, which include the descendants of most of the princely families, hold a procession to celebrate the Jauhar. It has also become a forum to air one's views on the current political situation in the country.

I love the description. Personally, if your religion forbids chrome on a car and you leave the grille, I think you have committed the worst form of blasphemy as what asserts your vow of poverty more than a chrome grille and upgraded turbine wheels. Frivolous if you ask me.

 

From eBay:

 

For sale in a no reserve auction is a nice '87 Mercury station wagon that looks good and drives nicely. It is being sold for a neighbor who purchased the car 20 years ago for his now deceased wife. He had it painted a dark blue with no chrome showing in accordance with their religious beliefs. It has been driven infrequently the past few years since her passing and could use a good tune up and fresh gas. The car has been maintained over the years with an engine rebuild at about 100000 miles.There has also been work done on the automatic transmission.

The car starts easily in all weather and idles nicely. It runs cool and the radiator was re-cored recently. With the 5 liter engine the wagon cruises nicely at Interstate speeds. Compression was checked on the engine and all cylinders are within normal specs.

The interior has also been completely redone in a dark blue velour material that looks great with no flaws. The dash top looks bad as there is a crack in the middle and both speaker covers have deteriorated. The headliner looks good with no flaws. All the gauges and lights work well. The turn indicators do not flash properly. The electric radio antenna does not operate.The car interior stays warm with a new heater core and with a recharge, the A/C should be good.

The body is in fine condition and the paint holds up nicely. There is no evidence of any collision damage, the door gaps are good and the body is straight as an arrow. The only rust on the car is in the foot well of the third row seats.The car has nearly new tires with plenty of tread and has the beautiful mag turbine wheels. The brakes have been recently redone and work well.

This wagon will only appreciate in value in the future and will provide a handsome ride for any new owner.

LA County Library employee Karen Gonzalez loads boxes of food into a car at a drive-through food giveaway at CSULA, Thursday, June 25, 2020.

 

The County of Los Angeles is committed to feeding our most vulnerable communities during the Coronavirus pandemic. It is mobilizing public agencies, nonprofits and volunteers to provide meals to anyone in need during the long months to come.(Photo/Michael Owen Baker)

Earth Infrastructures Limited is committed to contribute to the society in the best possible manner.

Georgia: Prime Minister Irakli Garibashvili

 

"2015 is the year of women in Georgia. …[We are] committed to fully improve our gender equality and women’s empowerment policy framework. On November 9 and 10 we will host the international high-level conference on achieving gender equality in the European neighbourhood region. Today I am here to make concrete commitments. First, Georgia will continue to update, enhance and develop next phases of gender equality, domestic violence, and women, peace and security national action plans... [We] will enhance our institutional mechanisms on gender by setting up and resourcing an interministerial commission on gender under my leadership. Thirdly, we will continue to update and reform our legal system. [We plan] to amend the labour code [with] protection of women’s employment rights, and we will revise the gender equality law to …address cases of gender discrimination with the newly adopted non-discrimination law. And we will also ratify and implement the Istanbul Convention. Fourthly, we will work with development partners, the UN family and civil society to jointly address the practice of early marriages. An intersectoral taskforce with this purpose will be established in my office…. Dedicated awareness raising-campaigns [will take place] on combating violence against women and girls, and prevention of early marriages. The final commitment I can make is that my country, Georgia, will continue to adhere to human rights standards and implement Georgia’s international commitments to women’s rights, such as CEDAW and [the] Beijing Platform for Action."

 

World leaders convene at the United Nations on 27 September 2015 for the “Global Leaders’ Meeting on Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: A Commitment to Action” to personally commit to ending discrimination against women by 2030 and announce concrete and measurable actions to kick-start rapid change in their countries.

 

Read More: www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2015/9/press-release-glob...

 

Read every country's committment from the event: beijing20.unwomen.org/en/step-it-up/commitments

 

Photo: UN Women/Sarah Stacke

  

The Philharmonie de Paris © Ateliers Jean Nouvel In January 2015, the Philharmonie de Paris is committed to the revival of the musical life. The architectural project of Jean Nouvel, which includes a large room with 2 400 seats, five rehearsal rooms, an educational center and a temporary exhibition space will complement all existing spaces of the City of Music designed by Christian de Portzamparc (both 250 concert halls and 1,900 seats, the Library and the Museum of Music). The complex will replace the existing organization to host a unifying project, led by a unified institution.A new concert program Such educational ambitions call musical programming principles equally innovative. This is why the Philharmonie de Paris multiplies proposals weekends: participatory family concerts, shows for young audiences, impromptu musical moments, multidisciplinary projects ... While some are involved in choirs demonstrations or performances combining professional and lovers, others enjoy musical awakening formulas family or musical workshops for children during the concerts. A tradition of excellence During the week, the public finds himself in familiar territory with the exception evenings proposed by the Orchestre de Paris. The Ensemble Intercontemporain continues its journey through the creation of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, while the new associates orchestras (Chamber Orchestra of Paris, the National Orchestra of de-France Island and Les Arts Florissants) share directories vision of early music, baroque, classical and romantic. At these concerts adds complementary programming carried by other French formations (Orchestre National du Capitole de Toulouse, Lille National Orchestra, Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio France) and international (London Symphony Orchestra, Berlin Philharmonic, Royal Concertgebouw Amsterdam, New York Philharmonic, Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra) and devoted to contemporary music, jazz and world music.

Virtual Philharmonie The digital development is another major focus of the project. Such as citedelamusiquelive.tv foreshadows the digital device Philharmonie de Paris will see concerts, interviews with artists, lectures, documentaries on musical instruments, teaching tools for teachers and students, information about careers in music, listening guides, musicological concepts ...An architectural and urban project The building designed by Jean Nouvel embodies this ambition to combine various streams. In the large room, immersed in the heart of exceptional acoustics, listeners around the orchestra in a closeness and intimacy that few concert halls are entitled. Outside, walkers roam this "mineral relief" that is "observatory of the urban landscape." At night, the illumination, visible from the ring road, listed as a starry constellation, a chart on which read off the big names in the music that resonate in his heart.

Une nouvelle offre de concerts De telles ambitions pédagogiques appellent des principes de programmation musicale tout aussi novateurs. C’est pourquoi la Philharmonie de Paris multiplie les propositions en week-ends : concerts participatifs en famille, spectacles pour le jeune public, moments musicaux impromptus, projets pluridisciplinaires… Tandis que les uns participent à des manifestations chorales ou à des représentations associant professionnels et amateurs, les autres profitent de formules d’éveil musical en famille ou d’ateliers musicaux organisés pour les enfants durant les concerts.Une tradition d’excellence En semaine, le public se retrouve en terrain connu avec les soirées d’exception proposées par l’Orchestre de Paris. L’Ensemble intercontemporain poursuit son cheminement à travers la création des XXe et XXIe siècles, tandis que les nouveaux orchestres associés (l’Orchestre de Chambre de Paris, l’Orchestre National d’Île-de-France et les Arts Florissants) partagent leur vision des répertoires de la musique ancienne, baroque, classique et romantique. À ces concerts s’ajoute une programmation complémentaire portée par d’autres formations françaises (Orchestre National du Capitole de Toulouse, Orchestre National de Lille, Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio France) et internationales (London Symphony Orchestra, Berliner Philharmoniker, Royal Concertgebouw Amsterdam, New York Philharmonic, Orchestre du Théâtre Mariinsky) ou consacrée aux musiques actuelles, au jazz et aux musiques du monde.

La Philharmonie virtuelle Le développement numérique constitue l’autre axe majeur du projet. Tel que le préfigure citedelamusiquelive.tv, le dispositif numérique de la Philharmonie de Paris permettra de consulter des concerts, des entretiens avec les artistes, des conférences, des documentaires sur la facture instrumentale, des outils pédagogiques pour les enseignants et les élèves, des informations sur les métiers de la musique, des guides d’écoute, des notions musicologiques…Un projet architectural et urbanistique Le bâtiment conçu par Jean Nouvel incarne cette ambition de conjuguer des flux variés. Dans la grande salle, immergés au cœur d’une acoustique exceptionnelle, les auditeurs entourent l’orchestre dans un rapport de proximité et d’intimité dont peu de salles de concerts peuvent se prévaloir. À l’extérieur, les promeneurs arpentent ce « relief minéral » qui se fait « observatoire du paysage urbain ». La nuit, la mise en lumière, visible depuis le boulevard périphérique, figure comme une constellation étoilée, une carte du ciel sur laquelle se lisent au loin les grands noms de la musique qui résonnent en son cœur.

PRESIDIO OF MONTEREY, Calif. -- The COVID-19 pandemic has created many operational challenges for the military. However, service members, DoD civilians and military families across the globe have adapted to overcome the challenges to stay ready and support the whole-of-government response.

 

While many service members and DoD civilians who work at the Presidio of Monterey and Defense Language Institute are teleworking – essential employees report to work daily to carry on the mission. Employees are strictly following CDC and DoD guidance of social distancing and face coverings to protect themselves and those around them.

 

The health and safety of all employees, regardless if they are essential employees or teleworking, is the command’s highest priority.

 

Our service members and DoD civilians are committed to mission success and remain trained and ready to defend the nation.

  

Photo by Joseph Kumzak, Presidio of Monterey Public Affairs

  

Clifford’s Tower is one of the best-loved landmarks in York. It is the largest remaining part of York Castle, once the centre of government for the north of England. The 11th-century timber tower on top of the earth mound was burned down in 1190, after York’s Jewish community, some 150 strong, was besieged here by a mob and committed mass suicide. The present 13th-century stone tower was probably used as a treasury and later as a prison.

 

Archaeological evidence shows that there was activity in this area in Roman times (with a Roman cemetery lying across the site) and perhaps even earlier, but it was William the Conqueror who first established a castle here. When he marched north in 1068 to suppress a rebellion against his rule, he built a series of castles as he went, including one here where Clifford’s Tower now stands.

The Norman motte-and-bailey castle saw several violent incidents during its earliest years, including further revolts and an attack by Danish invaders. As the political situation settled down in the 1070s, however, the damage of these early years was repaired, and the castle, built largely of earth and timber, probably survived relatively unaltered through most of the 12th century.

 

The Mass Suicide and Massacre of 1190

The castle of York was the setting for one of the most notorious events in English history: the mass suicide and massacre in March 1190 of York’s Jewish community.

Tensions between Christians and Jews had been increasing throughout England during the 12th century, partly because many people were in debt to Jewish moneylenders and partly because much crusading propaganda was directed not only against Muslims but also against Jews. Anti-Jewish riots in several cities followed the coronation of the crusader king Richard I in 1189, and a rumour (untrue) was put about that he had ordered a massacre of the Jews.

 

In York, as described by William of Newburgh and other contemporary chroniclers, about 150 people from the Jewish community were given protective custody in the royal castle, probably the site of Clifford’s Tower.

Somehow, though, trust between the royal officials and the Jews broke down. The officials, finding themselves shut out from the tower, summoned reinforcements to recapture it. These troops were joined by a large mob, which soon ran out of control, incited by both anti-Jewish preachers and local gentry eager to escape their debts.

On 16 March, the eve of the Sabbath before Passover, when the Jews realised that there would be no safe way out for them, a rabbi urged his fellow-inmates in the tower to commit suicide rather than fall into the hands of their persecutors. Heads of households killed their own families before killing themselves, and the wooden tower itself was set on fire.

According to several accounts a number of Jews did survive and came out of the tower under an amnesty, only to be murdered by the attackers. A plaque at the base of the mound, commemorating these events, was installed in 1978.

Though Jewish life did in fact revive in York within a few years of the massacre, it came to an end a hundred years later, in 1290, when Edward I expelled all Jews from England. This time their exile lasted until the 17th century.

 

The Medieval Castle

The tower burnt down in 1190 was rebuilt very shortly afterwards. Further repairs and rebuilding, some in stone, took place in the castle during the early 13th century. Then in the middle years of that century, as war with Scotland loomed, King Henry III decided to build a completely new stone tower on the mound.

A writ of March 1245 may refer to the construction of the tower. It orders Master Henry the mason and Master Simon the carpenter to advise the sheriff on strengthening the castle’s defences. Master Henry is often identified as Henry of Reyns, master mason of the new abbey at Westminster. At the abbey, as at Clifford’s Tower, English architectural detailing was applied to a plan influenced by French prototypes.

Documentary sources show that construction was intermittent and the tower was probably not finished until the 1270s, possibly not until the 1290s.

 

Despite the regional and national importance of York, its royal castle did not generally act as a royal residence. Together with Clifford’s Tower it was instead used chiefly for administrative purposes, notably for imprisonment, for storage and for judicial sessions. Occasionally it acted as a home for the Exchequer and its various treasuries when wars against the Scots caused the government to relocate to the north of England. It also housed an important royal mint.

The castle’s buildings, particularly Clifford’s Tower, whose mound was scoured by floods of the river Fosse, fell more than once into disrepair. By 1360, several of the structural defects which are visible today had already appeared.

 

The Tower in Decay

The history of the castle and Clifford’s Tower during the 15th and 16th centuries is obscure. Accounts of Henry VI, Richard III and Henry VIII suggest that several buildings were ruinous, and efforts were concentrated on maintaining a small number of them as gaols.[14] In 1540, just three years after Robert Aske (one of the leaders of the Pilgrimage of Grace) had been hanged ‘on the height of the castle dungeon’, John Leland wrote that the ‘arx is all in ruin’.

In 1596–7 a public scandal arose when the aldermen of York accused the gaoler, Robert Redhead, of trying to demolish the derelict tower and sell the stone for lime-burning. Contemporary correspondence about these events contains the first recorded use of the name ‘Clifford’s Tower’.

The name is sometimes interpreted as evidence that the Clifford family claimed the post of constable to be hereditary. Alternatively, it may refer to the rebel Roger de Clifford, who was executed after the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322 and whose body was displayed on a gibbet at the castle.

 

War and Explosion

After a brief period when Clifford’s Tower passed out of royal ownership, in 1643 it was occupied again by a royal garrison during the Civil War. The building was re-roofed and re-floored, apparently at the behest of Queen Henrietta Maria, creating storage rooms for ammunition and a gun platform on the roof. The forebuilding was largely reconstructed.

The city fell to Parliamentarians the following year. The tower continued to be occupied by a garrison of between 40 and 80 men and it may also have served occasionally as a prison. The Quaker George Fox was imprisoned here for two nights in 1665, on his way to Scarborough Castle.

The garrison’s dissolute behaviour caused discontent among the citizens of York, who called for the demolition of the tower, scathingly nicknamed ‘the Minced Pie’. On 23 April 1684 the interior was partly gutted by fire, allegedly as a result of the firing of a ceremonial salute for St George’s Day. Destruction was not total, though, and parts of the building remained in use for storage, while cannon were still positioned on the roof.

By 1699, however, when Clifford’s Tower was released to freeholders, sketches of the interior by Francis Place show that it was completely roofless.

 

Gaol and Monument

The 18th century was a period of changing ownership for the tower and mound. Clifford’s Tower was treated as a garden folly and possibly as a stable or cattle shed.

In marked contrast, the former bailey of the castle was redeveloped as a prison. New courthouses and gaol buildings were built, until in the 1820s and 1830s the prison encompassed the entire castle area. The mound and tower were enclosed and effectively hidden from view. Clifford’s Tower was accessible only with permission from a magistrate.

In 1902 a radical campaign of repairs and investigations was undertaken by Mr Basil Mott, including the partial reconstruction of the mound in an effort to underpin the south-east lobe of the tower with buried concrete ‘flying buttresses’. During these works, the most detailed archaeological investigation to date of the internal structure of the mound was carried out.

On 30 March 1915, Clifford’s Tower was taken into state guardianship. The structure was repaired and public access improved in 1935 with the demolition of the surviving 19th-century prison buildings, notably the wall enclosing the mound on its north and west sides. The lower parts of the slope were restored to their presumed medieval profile, and a stairway leading up to the forebuilding in a straight line was created, replacing a spiral path.

L/L 2nd Team vs Accrington amateurs 10/11/12

PHOTOS BY :

 

ABDALRHEM ALARJAN

 

El-Funoun Palestinian Popular Dance Troupe was established in 1979 by a small number of enthusiastic, talented and committed artists. Since then, El-Funoun has been throned as the lead Palestinian dance company. In Palestine, as well as among Palestinians in exile, El-Funoun has achieved an unprecedented popular recognition; in fact, quite a few of the Troupe’s songs and dances have become household tunes.

Since its inception, El-Funoun has aimed at expressing the spirit of Arab-Palestinian folklore and contemporary culture through unique combinations of traditional and stylized dance and music. The Troupe’s repertoire comprises folkloric dance forms, called “dabke”, in addition to more elaborate choreographed forms that embody El-Funoun’s own unique vision of Palestinian dance.

 

El-Funoun is widely recognized as the cultural entity that has played the most significant role in reviving and reinvigorating Palestinian dance and music folklore. This accomplishment is particularly important, since it effectively countered the systematic attempts by the Israeli occupation to suppress the Palestinian national identity through banning or expropriating any forms of Palestinian cultural expression.

 

El-Funoun is composed of seventy-five dancers, singers, musicians and support personnel. It is an independent, non-profit organization that is virtually entirely volunteer-based. The members are therefore motivated by the vision of the Troupe more than by any other factor. This not only keeps the Troupe’s administrative cost quite low, but also ensures a strong sense of belonging to and ownership of the group. This resolve, coupled with a driving commitment to artistic excellence and an authentic Palestinian vision have all afforded El-Funoun its current leadership status.

 

In Palestine, the Troupe holds an impressive track record of over one thousand performances since 1979, including its very well attended performances in Palestine International Festivals of 1992 through 1999. Moreover, El-Funoun has participated in the following:

 

US Tour (15 cities) in 1986

US Tour (20 cities) in 1991

Jerash International Festival, Jordan in 1994

Jerusalem Festival, United Arab Emirates in 1995

Raatvick International Folklore Festival, Sweden in 1996

Babylon International Festival, Iraq in 1996

Expo 98 Lisbon in Portugal 98

US Tour (5 cities) in 1999

France Tour (5 festivals) in 1999

Egyptian Opera House, Cairo in 1999

Lebanon Tour (5 performances) 2000

Expo 2000 Hannover in Germany 2000

United Arab Emirates in 2001

Egyptian Opera House, Cairo in 2003

Ribat Festival, Morocco in ‏2004‏‏

Rhythm Diversity, Malta in 2004

Corpi Sensibili Festival, Italy in 2005

Busra International Festival, Syria in 2005

Bahrain International Music Festival, Bahrain in 2005

US Tour (3 cities) in 2005

US Tour (4 cities) in 2006

UK, London in 2007

St. Plolten, Austria 2007

Vienna, Austria 2007

Berlin, Germany 2008

Vlaardingen, Holland 2008

Syria, Damascus 2008

The 15th Al Qurain Cultural Festival, Kuwait 2008

El-Funoun played a key role in establishing the Popular Art Centre, a community organization committed to raising awareness about the arts, and opening opportunities for community members to participate in artistic activity and expression. The Centre offers classes in traditional dance, ballet, jazz, music, puppets and drama, in addition to a host of other programs. Through the Centre, El-Funoun’s message has propagated to many schools, organizations and localities.

El-Funoun has won several commendation certificates and awards, most prominent among which is the Palestine Award for Popular Folklore 1997, the highest honour award given in this field by the Palestinian Authority. In addition, El-Funoun's dance film "Emotional Rescue" directed by the German Director Helena Waldmann, won a special prize as part of Al-Jazeera film festival 2006.

 

El-Funoun believes in building cultural bridges with the world, both to have a healthy exchange of experience, ideas and techniques and to present the long-suppressed Palestinian culture before other nations.

 

تأسست فرقة الفنون الشعبية الفلسطينية عام 1979 بجهود حفنة من الفنانين والفنانات المتحمسين والواعدين.

 

منذ ذلك الحين، توجت "الفنون" كرائدة للرقص الشعبي الفلسطيني، حاصدة في مسيرتها العديد من الجوائز الأولى وشهادات التقدير المميزة من مهرجانات محلية ودولية. لقد حققت "الفنون" بين الفلسطينيين في الوطن كما في الشتات شعبية لم يسبق لها مثيل، حيث تحولت أغاني ورقصات الفرقة لأنغام يشدوها الفلسطينيون أو يرقصونها في مختلف أماكن تواجدهم.

 

منذ ولادتها، حرصت الفنون على الجمع بين الأصالة والمعاصرة من خلال مزيج من الرقص المستوحى من الفلكلور والرقص المستحدث، الخاص بالفرقة. فجاءت أعمال الفرقة معبرة عن روح التراث الشعبي وعن ثقافتنا الحاضرة. يحوي سجلّ الفرقة أنماط الرقص التراثي (الدبكة) بالإضافة إلى أشكال متنوعة من الرقص، تعكس في تصميمها رؤية الفرقة الخاصة للرقص الفلسطيني المعاصر.

 

أنجزت الفرقة ثمانية أعمال فنية في تاريخها الحافل: "لوحات فلكلورية"، "وادي التفاح"، "مشعل"، "أفراح فلسطينية"، "مرج بن عامر"، "طله ورا طله"، "زغاريد"، و"حيفا بيروت، وما بعد..."، بالإضافة لبعض الرقصات التجريبية التي تسبق كل عمل فني جديد لتحديد مساره.

 

لعبت الفنون الدور الأبرز بين المؤسسات الثقافية في إحياء التراث الموسيقي والراقص للشعب العربي الفلسطيني. وقد كان هذا الإنجاز، ولا يزال، مصدر فخر للفرقة إذ أنها من خلال هذا الدور شاركت في التصدي للمحاولات المنهجية من قبل الاحتلال الإسرائيلي لقمع الشخصية الثقافية الفلسطينية ولمصادرة رموز الهوية الفلسطينية.

 

منذ البداية، سعت الفرقة في أعمالها إلى غرس روح التراث والفن الفلسطيني في قلوب الناشئة، فشكلت فرقة "براعم" للفتية والفتيات، لرفد الفرقة الأم براقصين/ات جدد ولضمان استمرار المسيرة.

 

فرقة الفنون جسم فني مستقل، غير ربحي، يعتمد بالأساس على جهود متطوعيه ومتطوعاته الذين يبلغ عددهم ما يقارب الخمسين، بين راقص/ة ومغني/ة وإداري/ة. وتعتبر الرؤيا والفلسفة والأهداف التي تقوم عليها الفرقة هي عناصر الجذب الرئيسية لعضوية الفرقة، مما يعزز الشعور بالانتماء لدى الأعضاء فيرفع منسوب عطائهم وإبداعهم. أعطت هذه العناصر مجتمعة، بالإضافة إلى التزام الفرقة الراسخ بتقديم فن فلسطيني مميز، أصيل، وجميل، الفنون موقعها الحالي في المقدمة.

 

يحفل تاريخ الفرقة بأكثر من ألف عرض منذ 1979 في مدن وقرى ومخيمات فلسطين. أبرز عروض الفرقة كانت في مهرجان فلسطين الدولي من 1992 حتى 1999. أما في العالم، فقد شاركت الفنون في التالي:

 

جولة الولايات المتحدة الأولى (15 مدينة)، 1986

جولة الولايات المتحدة الثانية (20 مدينة)، 1991

جولة بريطانيا وفرنسا (جوقة الغناء)، 1992

مهرجان جرش الدولي، الأردن، 1994

مهرجان "من أجلك يا قدس"، الإمارات العربية المتحدة، 1995

مهرجان ريتفيك الدولي للفلكلور، السويد، 1996

مهرجان بابل الدولي، العراق، 1996

إكسبو 98، البرتغال 1998

جولة الولايات المتحدة الثالثة (5 مدن)، 1998

جولة فرنسا ( خمسة مهرجانات فلكلورية)، 1999

دار الأوبرا – القاهرة، 1999

جولة لبنان - (خمسة عروض)، 2000

إكسبو 2000، هانوفر، ألمانيا

الإمارات العربية المتحدة (ثلاثة مدن)، 2001

دار الأوبرا- مسرح الجمهورية-القاهرة، 2003

مهرجان الرباط، مسرح محمد الخامس، المغرب، 2004

فاليتا، مالطا، 2004

إيطاليا،(اودبنة، بولونيا)، 2005

مهرجان بصرى الدولي، سوريا، 2005

مهرجان الموسيقى العربية،البحرين،2005

جولة الولايات المتحدة، (3 مدن)، 2005

جولة الولايات المتحدة، (4 مدن)، 2006

لندن، بريطانيا، 2007

سانت بولتن ، النمسا 2007

فينا، النمسا 2007

برلين، المانيا 2008

فلاردينجن، هولندا 2008

سوريا، دمشق 2008

مهرجان القرين الخامس عشر، الكويت 2008

لعبت فرقة الفنون الدور المحوري في تأسيس مركز الفن الشعبي، وهو مؤسسة تهدف لرفع الوعي الثقافي والفني في المجتمع ولإتاحة الفرص للمشاركة في النشاطات الفنية وفي أشكال التعبير الفني المبدع.

حاز فيلم "إنقاذ عاطفي" للفنون مع المخرجة الألمانية هيلينا ولدمان على جائزة خاصة من مهرجان الجزيرة الدولي للإنتاج التلفزيوني الثاني " لتفرده بالشكل الفني المتميز في تعبيره عن معاناة الشعب الفلسطيني" قطر 2006.

 

حازت فرقة الفنون على جائزة فلسطين للتراث الشعبي لعام 97 عن عملها " زغاريد".

 

تؤمن فرقة الفنون في بناء جسور ثقافية مع العالم، لتعزيز الحوار الحضاري ، ولتبادل الخبرات والأفكار والتقنية الفنية وكذلك لتمثيل الفن الفلسطيني في الخارج رغم محاولات العزل والحصار.

US Vice President Joe Biden, visited the Embassy of Turkey in Washington, Istanbul Atatürk Airport for those who lost their lives in terrorist attacks here and signed the condolence book opened and "united behind the world and Turkey." said. They came with Joe Biden, his wife Jill Biden to Turkey. Biden, terrorist attacks signed the condolence book opened for those who lost their lives. Biden, "Thank God that the attack was not part of the terminal, you can more people died or were injured. I know well and I appreciate President Erdogan," he said. Biden, in a message he wrote on the condolence book passing condolences to the people of Turkey, he wrote; "I and my wife Jill, President Barack Obama and his wife are in distress due to the loss of lives of many innocent people as the entire American people with Micheal Obama. Our prayers are those who lost their lives in this heinous attack and hurt those. Istanbul and Turkey, people will not surrender to terrorists. Lost precious lives never coming back, and only strengthens our resolve to eliminate terrorism. Turkey and the United States stand together, patient, and we are committed beat with this perverted ideology of hate, "he said.

ISBM University is a new-age university committed to provide innovative learning programs like Diploma in Journalism and Mass Communication, Executive Master of Business Administration, , Diploma In Business Administration , Bachelors in Business Administration,Bachelor of Science in Computer Science , Diploma in Computer Application, Bachelor in Computer Application and Post Graduation Diploma in Computer Application to meet the requirements of the industry. ISBM University programs are research driven, skill based and knowledge intensive. The University is envisioned to be a centre of academic innovation and research where students and faculty would collaborate together to learn, research, create, innovate, inspire and incubate.

 

ISBM University endeavours to offer services across the student-life cycle, supporting the students not only with teaching-learning but also with career development, skill enhancement, employment opportunities, business incubation, fund raising and mentoring.

 

With the network and pan India presence of the Group, the students of ISBM University can benefit with the reach and network across corporate and industries. This would help our students with placement as well as business networking and incubation.

 

ISBM University is established and approved by the Government of Chhattisgarh under the Chhattisgarh Private Universities (Establishment and Operation) Act, 2005 (Amendment Act 2016) to confer doctorate, degree, diploma and certificates to students.

 

At ISBM University, we are led by purpose and passion. We're committed to challenging convention and ourselves in order to meet the needs of new-age students; and we strive for a greater impact: one measured in people helped and lives improved.

 

Our Focus:

A new-age university with focus on entrepreneurship, leadership and incubation

A networked university with global alliances

A technology university that brings blended learning and problem based learning to students

Our Academics:

Programs are industry driven and skill oriented

Mode of instruction is in both English and Hindi

Focus on Spoken English, Personality Development and Career Skills

Our Students:

Are creative, innovative and global citizens

Aspire to be entrepreneurs, leaders and technocrats

Are life-long learners, imbibing universal values of knowledge, wisdom and humanity

Our Approach:

Student-centred policies and practices

Inclusive learning environment

Systems driven and people oriented

Our life-on-campus:

Driven by passion to innovate and incubate

Full of learning, experience and industry-preparedness

Ensures you have your best days of your life spent with ISBM University

Committed To Memory: A History of Johnstown in Objects

 

Heritage Discovery Center, Johnstown PA 2016

 

Johnstown Area Heritage Association (JAHA)

Emmeline declared herself a committed suffragist – a campaigner for women’s right to vote – when she was just fourteen. She went on to dedicate her life to the cause.

 

She fought tirelessly for the poor and oppressed, believing that society could only progress if women had an equal voice with men. In 1903 she formed the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) and began a peaceful campaign for the vote.

 

The motto of the WSPU was ‘Deeds not words’ and, in the face of continued opposition, the suffragettes became more militant. They were condemned by many for marching, heckling, setting fires and throwing stones, but it kept their campaign in the news. It took until 1928 for women over 21 to be given the right to vote. Tragically, Emmeline died three weeks before the law was passed.

 

Emmeline asked her fellow suffragettes to halt their militant campaigning when the First World War broke out in 1914. In the face of such danger, she felt they should put their energies into the war effort instead.

 

She urged all men to volunteer, and for women to ‘keep the country going, to get in the harvest, to carry on the industries’ in their absence.

 

Emmeline’s eldest daughter Christabel, also a committed suffragette, agreed with her mother. By contrast, her two youngest daughters, Adela and Sylvia, were passionate pacifists. This caused a terrible rift between the women that never healed.

  

Brompton Cemetery, Fulham Road, London

As part of the Administration’s priority of making America safe through energy independence, the BLM is committed to supporting improved transmission and pipline development that stabilizes the grid and otherwise strengthens America’s energy infrastructure – all while encouraging environmentally responsible development of energy and minerals.

 

One such project is the Vantage to Pomona Transmission Line. A regional planning study in 2007 showed that the addition of a Vantage to Pomona Heights 230 kilovolt transmission line would ensure continued reliable and efficient service to the Yakima Valley.

 

The new transmission line will run from Pacific Power’s existing Pomona Heights Substation east of Selah, Washington, in Yakima County to the Bonneville Power Administration’s existing Vantage Substation east of Wanapum Dam in Grant County, Washington.

 

Pacific Power expects construction to take place in early to mid-2018, and for the project to be in service in early 2019.

 

As the lead federal agency in the development of the project’s Environmental Impact Statement, the BLM analyzed the effects of the proposed transmission line on public health and safety, cultural resources and traditional cultural properties, agricultural operations and property values, military training operation, and wildlife.

 

After reviewing comments from cooperating agencies, affected tribes, and interested members of the public, the BLM identified the New Northern Route Alternative as the Agency preferred alternative in its Record of Decision, and authorized a right-of-way grant to be issued to Pacific Power to construct, operate, and maintain the transmission line on approximately 4-miles of BLM-managed public land.

 

Relative to other alternatives analyzed, this alternative has fewer resource impacts because of its shorter overall length, its distance from known occupied Greater Sage-Grouse use areas, and the fact that it is co-located with other existing transmission facilities.

 

In its entirety, the New Northern Route Alternative is about 40 miles long and is located primarily on federal land. It mostly paralleling Pacific Power’s existing Pomona-Wanapum 230 kV transmission line, and crosses the Army’s Joint Base Lewis-McChord Yakima Training Center on its north side for over 60 percent of its total length.

 

For more information head on over to: www.blm.gov/oregon-washington

too late to change his mind now!

A dramatic backdrop of rocks and islands and a community committed to conserving and sharing its natural and cultural heritage are hallmarks of the California Coastal National Monument at Trinidad Head.

 

About 30 miles north of Eureka, California lies the majestic and culturally important promontory that encompasses several prominent historic sites along with the rocky ledges that provide their setting, such as the Trinidad Head Light Station, which first operated in 1871 and is still active today.

 

Accompanied by a small wooden bell house, it sits atop sheer cliffs overlooking crashing waves and rugged sea stacks.

 

Outdoor adventurers can choose a hike around Trinidad Head for great views of the coastal rocks and islands, stroll along the beaches or view the more than 75,000 birds, including cormorants, common murres, and occasionally tufted puffins that call Trinidad Head home.

 

Photo by Bob Wick, BLM.

17 AUG 12

 

I said today was going to be the day that I went out and I committed to that. I have been avoiding the overwhelming heat all summer long but I miss my photowalks. It's such a huge calming influence on me, just being able to move about the world with my camera. So I woke up at 5am, no big deal considering I tried to go to bed at 230am and couldn't so basically rolled along in the bed until 5am. I wanted to catch the park at dawn hours because a)its friggin' hot and b) this is the last weekend for the kiddos of the world to be school free, so I knew it would be packed today.

 

I wasn't as impressed with this walk. Last time at dawn I caught so much stuff, but this go round I really had to search. It was so muggy out that my camera lens kept fogging up which was kind of annoying. Yet again I have the uncanny ability of being at the wrong place/wrong time. I was strolling along the back paths snapping some birds when I came across the local construction man (whom I originally thought was homeless b/c a lot of homeless make camp in the park), but there he was in all his glory taking a piss. Talk about awkward moment...do I turn back, do I go forward...I mean we made eye contact (shudder). I did what any respectable person would do, I pretended the whole thing didn't happen and walked quickly in the other direction. At least this guy had the majority of his clothes on. My last adventure included the insane man sitting in the middle of the intersection with no clothes at all.

 

Oh boy...I have to really bring up this next point, and maybe others can relate, but it is really annoying when people scream out to me, HEY TAKE MY PICTURE!!!! This happens to me on such a frequent basis, that its worth mentioning. Example, this morning, its like 6:30am, its only me in the park, a few runners, and the waking homeless, and here comes the parks and rec lawn guy cracking through the calm silence of the dawn hours screaming for me to take his picture. I was nestled in between some steps on a low crouch on a manual setting trying to get a shot of this brownish white pigeon amongst the hundreds of other gray pigeons. I've got one eye closed, looking through the viewfinder, trying to concentrate on the manual manipulation of the lens...but no, now I have to stop and address some rando yelling about a picture. So I look up, do the smile and nod thing hoping he'd just go away, but no, he keeps asking for a picture. Finally I aim my camera on him and take some fuzzy unfocused thing. Does he give me an email address to send it to him, no, of course not, so this was clearly a waste of my time because what am I going to do with the image? Rather then leave me alone now that I'd obliged, he says, are you in school, what are you taking these photos for, and then he says the most random thing ever...he says, well, you know, when you make it big and make it on BET you'll remember me right. I thought, I don't know if you know this sir, but this is a camera, as in takes photos, as in when is the last time you saw a photographer on BET making it big? And why BET of all things...that's an entire network. I am a photographer at 6:30am in the morning taking pictures of pigeons for gosh sakes, what about that says shooting straight to stardom to you??? So I just kind of nodded and went back to trying to focus on the birds when he starts up the loudest freakin' lawn mower ever and scares the birds away. Seriously dude? Seriously?

 

I think the guys need to explain this one, because it only ever seems to be guys that approach and scream about wanting photos that they apparently have no intention of ever actually receiving. I have tried to be nice in the past and oblige people and in one case I did meet a homeless man wanting a picture because he said quite poetically that this is his lot in life, a life destined to be on the streets and he wanted someone to remember him. I thought wow, definitely taking this photo, but for others I'm just kind of like get away from me ESPECIALLY when I'm with clients...those are the worst. I'm talking my assistant has the reflectors up, we're working to get a pose right, and here comes someone yelling about a photo.

 

In other news, this is my favorite shot of the day. I'd had enough of ducks and pigeons and went across the street to work on my 6 angles assignment, as in take a photo of one thing from at least six different POV's or angles. You can cross under this statue and as I did and came out of the other side to shoot some shots with something in the foreground, this guy came running through and did the whole Rocky thing. At first I thought it was like a funny thing, but he was like so serious about it. I kept watching him as he ran up the steps and circled the statue and did the little dance of triumph. Then he just sat down underneath it and snapped a couple of pictures. This guy was for sure a serious runner because I'd seen him run full 5 mile laps around the park while I was taking photos. Because I didn't really want him in the shot, I decided to walk around the statue and found myself in lizardville. Out from under the bushes hundreds of lizards were just darting back and fourth. It was the freakiest thing. I'm not big on the bug/insect/creepy crawly things fear as long as they don't touch me. Once something is on me, I turn into serious girl mode, though I'm not a screamer. I actually thought about that the other day...I've never truly screamed a day in my life. Even on things like roller coasters, I could never muster up any juice to get one out. People have done the run up and scare on me, and I just jump but never scream. I thought, maybe I should go to the woods somewhere and let one out.

 

And finally in the funniest comment ever news, I was watching this guys response video to something in the news and in the video he goes on a quiet rant, but uses a LOT of profanity in the video. So the first youtube comment was this long paragraph about how intelligence is equated with being able to use speech that is not of the four letter variety. The author of the video simply wrote: ummmmm f__k you, and thank you for watching!

The city has committed R685m to the stadium, but it needs to find a further R365m to cover rising costs.

 

Most of the funding has come from the national government, at R2,9bn, but the city needs to allocate a further R188m to the project. The provincial government, which has committed R212m, needs to allocate a further R105m.

 

My view this evening not as spectacular as yesterday with the high clouds but nice enough to get my cam out

 

I'm reading Committed, the new book about marriage by Elizabeth Gilbert, the author of Eat, Pray, Love.

 

The figurines are empty Avon perfume bottles. Some friends and I were cruising yard sales, and came through one that was mostly old Avon perfume bottles, which I thought was a pretty lame lay-out for a yard sale, and I made a snide comment to my friends. But then, before we left, the woman who was holding the sale gave each of us, for free, something from the sale. I didn't want empty Avon bottles, but I was touched by her effort to be kind and generous, and I still have the bottles she gave me. Although I switched them around to be non-conformist.

 

It Takes Two, Baby

  

www.youtube.com/watch?v=6jWZ9lO2Bac

 

I’ll be honest with you I hate war in all it’s forms -Physical, psychological, spiritual…. emotional… environmental I hate war…And I hate having to struggle. I honestly do Because I wish I had been born into a world when this is not necessary. This context of struggle and being a warrior and being a struggler Has been forced on me by opression otherwise I would have been a sculptor or a gardener Carpenter - you know, I would be free to be so much more…I guess being part of me or part of who I am, a part of what I do Is being a warrior, a reluctant warrior, a reluctant struggler But… I do it because I am committed to life We can’t avoid it. We can’t run away from it Because to do that is to be subservient… to devils, Subservient to evil and so that the only way to live on this planet with any human dignity at the moment is to struggle

 

Comprometida con la vida (Assata Shakur)

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=6jWZ9lO2Bac

 

Voy a ser honesto contigo,odio la guerra en toda su formas:

 

física, psicológica, espiritual … emocional … ambiental

 

odio la guerra …y no me gusta tener que luchar, honestamente, lo hago porque me gustaría haber vivido en un mundo en el que fuera innecesaria.Este contexto de luchar y de ser una guerrera y ser una luchadora a la que me he visto obligada por la opresión.(De lo contrario, sería una escultora o una jardinera o una carpintera…ya sabes, me gustaría tener la libertad para ser mucho más) supongo que una parte de mí o una parte de lo que soy, una parte de lo que hago es ser una guerrera…una guerrera reacia a guerrear, una luchadora reacia a luchar, pero… lo hago porque estoy comprometida con la vida.

 

No podemos evitarlo, no podemos huir de ello porque para hacer eso es necesario ser un cobarde, porque para hacer eso hay que estar al servicio de … los demonios, los subordinados al mal…así que la única manera de vivir en este planeta con un poco de dignidad en este momento es luchando.

 

90 x 70 cm on canvas

 

90 x 70 cm sobre lienzo

She committed suicide four years later after a rough break up with Rex Harrison. That factoid adds a certain wistfulness to her faraway look here.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carole_Landis

 

newcastlegaol.co.uk/burial

 

newcastlegaol.co.uk/memories

 

The Newcastle Gaol:“It is strange, but in one custom we are more barbarous than our ancestors in bygone days. It is the toll of the Felon’s Plot.”

 

Prison Burial: You might think that being executed would be punishment enough for an awful crime, but as late as the twentieth century in Britain there were what was known as post-mortem punishments. The most common two punishments were public dissection (anatomisation by surgeons) and gibbetting (the criminal’s body was encaged in iron and hung from a wooden mast, most commonly placed near the site of the crime or in a very prominent location as near to it as possible). Post-Mortem punishments have a long history, but arguably the longest lasting was the denial of a Christian burial and the refusal of the authorities to hand the convicted felons’ body over to their loved ones for burial. This punishment continued long after dissection and gibbeting were removed by the Anatomy Act (1832) and Hanging in Chains Act (1834) respectively.

 

We know from reports of executions in Newcastle that sometimes the fear of indecent burial was more potent than that of hanging itself in the minds of prisoners. In 1829 one broadside recorded Jane Jameson’s last moments before leaving the gaol on route to the gallows at the Town Moor. It noted that she asked the attendant Minister ‘a question about her body’, but was told that ‘she was not to care about her body but about her soul.’ Jane Jameson became the last executed felon in Newcastle to suffer the additional punishment of public dissection, but her body was not buried in the gaol grounds.

 

Burial within the prison walls

The first person to be buried within the walls of the Prison was Mark Sherwood in 1844. Although executed on Newcastle’s Town Moor his body was taken back to the prison via a carriage and interred within the boundaries of the prison. Like Jane Jameson before him Sherwood had raised concerns about what would happen to his body after death. Reports of his execution noted that one of his last requests was that “He expressed a wish that for interment of his bodily remains within the gaol-yard, the grave might be deep, and hoped his remains would not be allowed to be disturbed. He also desired, if not contrary to any legal regulation, that the burial service might be read when he was committed to the earth. In compliance with his wish the grave was made seven feet deep, as subsequently stated but the burial service was not read.”

 

Sherwood’s fears of being disturbed were not without justification as up until the Anatomy Act, 1832, the only bodies officially available for dissection, without consent, were those of executed criminals. This limited supply meant that across the country there were numerous instances of body-snatchers, sometimes known as resurrectionists, operating in churchyards and cemeteries. Newcastle was no exception. This illegal practice, arguably made most famous by William Burke and William Hare in Scotland, came about to meet the demands of a medical profession starved of body supply. Just 3 years prior to Sherwood’s execution Newcastle had been gripped by a body-snatching scandal very close to the prison. In 1840 Sophia Quin had died in the house of her daughter, Rosanna Rox, in Clogger’s Entry in Sandhill, Newcastle and was due to be buried at the dissenter’s burial ground at Ballast Hills, to the East of the city. Instead of going to the burial ground the coffin bearers took the body straight to the Surgeons’ Hall and refused Rox entry. She later gained entry by contacting the Mayor and found her mother’s coffin with the lid up and clothes were torn. On further investigation, they lifted the lid of what appeared to be a large chest and found her mother’s body standing upright in warm water up to her shoulders. At which point Rox fainted. The body was eventually recovered and successfully reburied but, it caused a great scandal in the region and was even reported on in the Medical Journal, The Lancet.

 

Until its closure in 1925, 15 executed criminals were buried within the walls of the prison and in most cases denied a Christian burial. After an execution it was customary for the body to hang for one hour, a centuries-old tradition, and then for an inquest to take place on the body to confirm both the cause of death and identity of the condemned. The burial would take place the same day, following the inquest over the body, and in the presence of the Prison Chaplain and a few officials.

 

Numerous reports from executions in the period note that there were markings made with the initials of the prisoners on stones in the boundary walls, relating to the position of their grave, but little else marked their presence. Indeed, such was the disdain for the recording or memorialising of criminal bodies in any way that a Home Office Circular in 1922 demanded that even these markings were to be removed as “such records are undesirable as they perpetuate the memory of the crime, cause unnecessary pain to relatives and rouse a morbid interest in the prisoners.” One proviso of this decision was that each prison was required to make a detailed map of the location of the bodies before destroying these remaining memorials.

 

Despite the Home Office’s request the location of the bodies became a serious problem for the authorities on closure of the prison. In agreeing to allow Newcastle to demolish and repurpose the prison land, the Home Office stipulated that the bodies must be removed and reinterred. Numerous reports abounded that the authorities were struggling to locate the exact placing of each grave and indeed when it came to the operation to remove them a number of bodies weren’t found. Up until now the identity of these bodies has been unknown, but research seen by this project has uncovered the identity and number of the missing bodies at Newcastle Prison.

 

“In the darkness of the night and at an hour kept strictly secret the bodies of the murderers which lie in the precinct of Newcastle Gaol are to be taken up and reinterred in All Saints’ Cemetery.”

 

Removing the bodies: On the closure of the prison

On Monday 12th October, 1925 the Governor of Durham Prison along with Robert Stuart, the medical officer and prison surgeon was in attendance at the exhumation of the graves. Stuart made a detailed report of his findings that was sent on to the Home Office. In it he gave key details into how the bodies had been buried, including whether they were clothed or not and the state of decomposition. Amongst his recordings was the following extraordinary details.

 

· 1. Mark Sherwood – 1844 “At a depth of about 11 feet there was no trace of coffin or body”

 

· 2. Patrick Forbes – 1850 “At a depth of about 11 feet there was no trace of coffin or body”

 

· 6. William Rowe (sic) – 1890 “We found no trace of body or coffin in this grave”

 

· 7 Samuel G Emery – 1894 “At a depth of about 11 feet we found no trace of a body in his grave.”

 

So, not only were the bodies not found but also, in some cases the coffins weren’t even located. It would appear that Mark Sherwood’s fears weren’t so ill-founded. Despite only locating 11 of the 15 bodies, the remains were eventually buried in unmarked graves at All Saints Cemetery in Jesmond – such was the secrecy around their location, that it is still unknown to this day.

 

Reporting on the reinterment one newspaper carried a telling quote from an unnamed prison official at Newcastle Prison,

 

“It is strange, but in one custom we are more barbarous than our ancestors in bygone days. It is the toll of the Felon’s Plot….Prison Officials who have assisted in the last act of a murder drama will agree that it is a mournful business. The body lies in its plain shell- not naked and covered with quicklime as was the custom until quite recent years – it lies clad in the clothes worn at the trial, so that no sensation-monger may exhibit them….when the grave is filled in the ground is levelled with its extremities marked by small white stones. On the wall of the prison that is nearest to the plot will be cut the initials of the dead and the date of the execution.”

 

However, there is one final twist to the tale that has been uncovered in the research for this project. On September 1st, 1928 The Boston Guardian carried the following remarkable story,

 

“Remains of a man who had been executed were found during excavation work for an automatic telephone exchange on the site of the old Newcastle Gaol.”

 

This may well tally with one of the memories that was sent in to us from a member of the public, Marie McNichol. Marie McNichol’s grandfather John (Jack) Level was part of the demolition and excavation team working on the prison site. He was employed by Purdie, Lumsden & Co as a Derrick Crane operator. Marie remembers that the building work was severely delayed when a body was uncovered “wrapped in oilskins, like that of a sailor.” An investigation followed that delayed the excavation work considerably and on the 27th August the Yorkshire Post reported that the body had remained unidentified but “It is believed the remains are those of another executed man. The bones were reinterred at Jesmond on Saturday.”

 

Newcastle upon Tyne, or simply Newcastle is a cathedral city and metropolitan borough in Tyne and Wear, England. It is located on the River Tyne's northern bank, opposite Gateshead to the south. It is the most populous settlement in the Tyneside conurbation and North East England.

 

Newcastle developed around a Roman settlement called Pons Aelius, the settlement became known as Monkchester before taking on the name of a castle built in 1080 by William the Conqueror's eldest son, Robert Curthose. It was one of the world's largest ship building and repair centres during the industrial revolution. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it separated and formed a county of itself. In 1974, Newcastle became part of Tyne and Wear. Since 2018, the city council has been part of the North of Tyne Combined Authority.

 

The history of Newcastle upon Tyne dates back almost 2,000 years, during which it has been controlled by the Romans, the Angles and the Norsemen amongst others. Newcastle upon Tyne was originally known by its Roman name Pons Aelius. The name "Newcastle" has been used since the Norman conquest of England. Due to its prime location on the River Tyne, the town developed greatly during the Middle Ages and it was to play a major role in the Industrial Revolution, being granted city status in 1882. Today, the city is a major retail, commercial and cultural centre.

 

Roman settlement

The history of Newcastle dates from AD 122, when the Romans built the first bridge to cross the River Tyne at that point. The bridge was called Pons Aelius or 'Bridge of Aelius', Aelius being the family name of Roman Emperor Hadrian, who was responsible for the Roman wall built across northern England along the Tyne–Solway gap. Hadrian's Wall ran through present-day Newcastle, with stretches of wall and turrets visible along the West Road, and at a temple in Benwell. Traces of a milecastle were found on Westgate Road, midway between Clayton Street and Grainger Street, and it is likely that the course of the wall corresponded to present-day Westgate Road. The course of the wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort at Wallsend, with the fort of Arbeia down-river at the mouth of the Tyne, on the south bank in what is now South Shields. The Tyne was then a wider, shallower river at this point and it is thought that the bridge was probably about 700 feet (210 m) long, made of wood and supported on stone piers. It is probable that it was sited near the current Swing Bridge, due to the fact that Roman artefacts were found there during the building of the latter bridge. Hadrian himself probably visited the site in 122. A shrine was set up on the completed bridge in 123 by the 6th Legion, with two altars to Neptune and Oceanus respectively. The two altars were subsequently found in the river and are on display in the Great North Museum in Newcastle.

 

The Romans built a stone-walled fort in 150 to protect the river crossing which was at the foot of the Tyne Gorge, and this took the name of the bridge so that the whole settlement was known as Pons Aelius. The fort was situated on a rocky outcrop overlooking the new bridge, on the site of the present Castle Keep. Pons Aelius is last mentioned in 400, in a Roman document listing all of the Roman military outposts. It is likely that nestling in the shadow of the fort would have been a small vicus, or village. Unfortunately, no buildings have been detected; only a few pieces of flagging. It is clear that there was a Roman cemetery near Clavering Place, behind the Central station, as a number of Roman coffins and sarcophagi have been unearthed there.

 

Despite the presence of the bridge, the settlement of Pons Aelius was not particularly important among the northern Roman settlements. The most important stations were those on the highway of Dere Street running from Eboracum (York) through Corstopitum (Corbridge) and to the lands north of the Wall. Corstopitum, being a major arsenal and supply centre, was much larger and more populous than Pons Aelius.

 

Anglo-Saxon development

The Angles arrived in the North-East of England in about 500 and may have landed on the Tyne. There is no evidence of an Anglo-Saxon settlement on or near the site of Pons Aelius during the Anglo-Saxon age. The bridge probably survived and there may well have been a small village at the northern end, but no evidence survives. At that time the region was dominated by two kingdoms, Bernicia, north of the Tees and ruled from Bamburgh, and Deira, south of the Tees and ruled from York. Bernicia and Deira combined to form the kingdom of Northanhymbra (Northumbria) early in the 7th century. There were three local kings who held the title of Bretwalda – 'Lord of Britain', Edwin of Deira (627–632), Oswald of Bernicia (633–641) and Oswy of Northumbria (641–658). The 7th century became known as the 'Golden Age of Northumbria', when the area was a beacon of culture and learning in Europe. The greatness of this period was based on its generally Christian culture and resulted in the Lindisfarne Gospels amongst other treasures. The Tyne valley was dotted with monasteries, with those at Monkwearmouth, Hexham and Jarrow being the most famous. Bede, who was based at Jarrow, wrote of a royal estate, known as Ad Murum, 'at the Wall', 12 miles (19 km) from the sea. It is thought that this estate may have been in what is now Newcastle. At some unknown time, the site of Newcastle came to be known as Monkchester. The reason for this title is unknown, as we are unaware of any specific monasteries at the site, and Bede made no reference to it. In 875 Halfdan Ragnarsson, the Danish Viking conqueror of York, led an army that attacked and pillaged various monasteries in the area, and it is thought that Monkchester was also pillaged at this time. Little more was heard of it until the coming of the Normans.

 

Norman period

After the arrival of William the Conqueror in England in 1066, the whole of England was quickly subjected to Norman rule. However, in Northumbria there was great resistance to the Normans, and in 1069 the newly appointed Norman Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Comines and 700 of his men were killed by the local population at Durham. The Northumbrians then marched on York, but William was able to suppress the uprising. That same year, a second uprising occurred when a Danish fleet landed in the Humber. The Northumbrians again attacked York and destroyed the garrison there. William was again able to suppress the uprising, but this time he took revenge. He laid waste to the whole of the Midlands and the land from York to the Tees. In 1080, William Walcher, the Norman bishop of Durham and his followers were brutally murdered at Gateshead. This time Odo, bishop of Bayeux, William's half brother, devastated the land between the Tees and the Tweed. This was known as the 'Harrying of the North'. This devastation is reflected in the Domesday Book. The destruction had such an effect that the North remained poor and backward at least until Tudor times and perhaps until the Industrial Revolution. Newcastle suffered in this respect with the rest of the North.

 

In 1080 William sent his eldest son, Robert Curthose, north to defend the kingdom against the Scots. After his campaign, he moved to Monkchester and began the building of a 'New Castle'. This was of the "motte-and-bailey" type of construction, a wooden tower on top of an earthen mound (motte), surrounded by a moat and wooden stockade (bailey). It was this castle that gave Newcastle its name. In 1095 the Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Mowbray, rose up against the king, William Rufus, and Rufus sent an army north to recapture the castle. From then on the castle became crown property and was an important base from which the king could control the northern barons. The Northumbrian earldom was abolished and a Sheriff of Northumberland was appointed to administer the region. In 1091 the parish church of St Nicholas was consecrated on the site of the present Anglican cathedral, close by the bailey of the new castle. The church is believed to have been a wooden building on stone footings.

 

Not a trace of the tower or mound of the motte and bailey castle remains now. Henry II replaced it with a rectangular stone keep, which was built between 1172 and 1177 at a cost of £1,444. A stone bailey, in the form of a triangle, replaced the previous wooden one. The great outer gateway to the castle, called 'the Black Gate', was built later, between 1247 and 1250, in the reign of Henry III. There were at that time no town walls and when attacked by the Scots, the townspeople had to crowd into the bailey for safety. It is probable that the new castle acted as a magnet for local merchants because of the safety it provided. This in turn would help to expand trade in the town. At this time wool, skins and lead were being exported, whilst alum, pepper and ginger were being imported from France and Flanders.

 

Middle Ages

Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was England's northern fortress, the centre for assembled armies. The Border war against Scotland lasted intermittently for several centuries – possibly the longest border war ever waged. During the civil war between Stephen and Matilda, David 1st of Scotland and his son were granted Cumbria and Northumberland respectively, so that for a period from 1139 to 1157, Newcastle was effectively in Scottish hands. It is believed that during this period, King David may have built the church of St Andrew and the Benedictine nunnery in Newcastle. However, King Stephen's successor, Henry II was strong enough to take back the Earldom of Northumbria from Malcolm IV.

 

The Scots king William the Lion was imprisoned in Newcastle, in 1174, after being captured at the Battle of Alnwick. Edward I brought the Stone of Scone and William Wallace south through the town and Newcastle was successfully defended against the Scots three times during the 14th century.

 

Around 1200, stone-faced, clay-filled jetties were starting to project into the river, an indication that trade was increasing in Newcastle. As the Roman roads continued to deteriorate, sea travel was gaining in importance. By 1275 Newcastle was the sixth largest wool exporting port in England. The principal exports at this time were wool, timber, coal, millstones, dairy produce, fish, salt and hides. Much of the developing trade was with the Baltic countries and Germany. Most of the Newcastle merchants were situated near the river, below the Castle. The earliest known charter was dated 1175 in the reign of Henry II, giving the townspeople some control over their town. In 1216 King John granted Newcastle a mayor[8] and also allowed the formation of guilds (known as Mysteries). These were cartels formed within different trades, which restricted trade to guild members. There were initially twelve guilds. Coal was being exported from Newcastle by 1250, and by 1350 the burgesses received a royal licence to export coal. This licence to export coal was jealously guarded by the Newcastle burgesses, and they tried to prevent any one else on the Tyne from exporting coal except through Newcastle. The burgesses similarly tried to prevent fish from being sold anywhere else on the Tyne except Newcastle. This led to conflicts with Gateshead and South Shields.

 

In 1265, the town was granted permission to impose a 'Wall Tax' or Murage, to pay for the construction of a fortified wall to enclose the town and protect it from Scottish invaders. The town walls were not completed until early in the 14th century. They were two miles (3 km) long, 9 feet (2.7 m) thick and 25 feet (7.6 m) high. They had six main gates, as well as some smaller gates, and had 17 towers. The land within the walls was divided almost equally by the Lort Burn, which flowed southwards and joined the Tyne to the east of the Castle. The town began to expand north of the Castle and west of the Lort Burn with various markets being set up within the walls.

 

In 1400 Henry IV granted a new charter, creating a County corporate which separated the town, but not the Castle, from the county of Northumberland and recognised it as a "county of itself" with a right to have a sheriff of its own. The burgesses were now allowed to choose six aldermen who, with the mayor would be justices of the peace. The mayor and sheriff were allowed to hold borough courts in the Guildhall.

 

Religious houses

During the Middle Ages a number of religious houses were established within the walls: the first of these was the Benedictine nunnery of St Bartholomew founded in 1086 near the present-day Nun Street. Both David I of Scotland and Henry I of England were benefactors of the religious house. Nothing of the nunnery remains now.

 

The friary of Blackfriars, Newcastle (Dominican) was established in 1239. These were also known as the Preaching Friars or Shod Friars, because they wore sandals, as opposed to other orders. The friary was situated in the present-day Friars Street. In 1280 the order was granted royal permission to make a postern in the town walls to communicate with their gardens outside the walls. On 19 June 1334, Edward Balliol, claimant to be King of Scotland, did homage to King Edward III, on behalf of the kingdom of Scotland, in the church of the friary. Much of the original buildings of the friary still exist, mainly because, after the Dissolution of the Monasteries the friary of Blackfriars was rented out by the corporation to nine of the local trade guilds.

 

The friary of Whitefriars (Carmelite) was established in 1262. The order was originally housed on the Wall Knoll in Pandon, but in 1307 it took over the buildings of another order, which went out of existence, the Friars of the Sac. The land, which had originally been given by Robert the Bruce, was situated in the present-day Hanover Square, behind the Central station. Nothing of the friary remains now.

 

The friary of Austinfriars (Augustinian) was established in 1290. The friary was on the site where the Holy Jesus Hospital was built in 1682. The friary was traditionally the lodging place of English kings whenever they visited or passed through Newcastle. In 1503 Princess Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII of England, stayed two days at the friary on her way to join her new husband James IV of Scotland.

 

The friary of Greyfriars (Franciscans) was established in 1274. The friary was in the present-day area between Pilgrim Street, Grey Street, Market Street and High Chare. Nothing of the original buildings remains.

 

The friary of the Order of the Holy Trinity, also known as the Trinitarians, was established in 1360. The order devoted a third of its income to buying back captives of the Saracens, during the Crusades. Their house was on the Wall Knoll, in Pandon, to the east of the city, but within the walls. Wall Knoll had previously been occupied by the White Friars until they moved to new premises in 1307.

 

All of the above religious houses were closed in about 1540, when Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries.

 

An important street running through Newcastle at the time was Pilgrim Street, running northwards inside the walls and leading to the Pilgrim Gate on the north wall. The street still exists today as arguably Newcastle's main shopping street.

 

Tudor period

The Scottish border wars continued for much of the 16th century, so that during that time, Newcastle was often threatened with invasion by the Scots, but also remained important as a border stronghold against them.

 

During the Reformation begun by Henry VIII in 1536, the five Newcastle friaries and the single nunnery were dissolved and the land was sold to the Corporation and to rich merchants. At this time there were fewer than 60 inmates of the religious houses in Newcastle. The convent of Blackfriars was leased to nine craft guilds to be used as their headquarters. This probably explains why it is the only one of the religious houses whose building survives to the present day. The priories at Tynemouth and Durham were also dissolved, thus ending the long-running rivalry between Newcastle and the church for control of trade on the Tyne. A little later, the property of the nunnery of St Bartholomew and of Grey Friars were bought by Robert Anderson, who had the buildings demolished to build his grand Newe House (also known as Anderson Place).

 

With the gradual decline of the Scottish border wars the town walls were allowed to decline as well as the castle. By 1547, about 10,000 people were living in Newcastle. At the beginning of the 16th century exports of wool from Newcastle were more than twice the value of exports of coal, but during the century coal exports continued to increase.

 

Under Edward VI, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, sponsored an act allowing Newcastle to annexe Gateshead as its suburb. The main reason for this was to allow the Newcastle Hostmen, who controlled the export of Tyne coal, to get their hands on the Gateshead coal mines, previously controlled by the Bishop of Durham. However, when Mary I came to power, Dudley met his downfall and the decision was reversed. The Reformation allowed private access to coal mines previously owned by Tynemouth and Durham priories and as a result coal exports increase dramatically, from 15,000 tons in 1500 to 35,000 tons in 1565, and to 400,000 tons in 1625.

 

The plague visited Newcastle four times during the 16th century, in 1579 when 2,000 people died, in 1589 when 1700 died, in 1595 and finally in 1597.

 

In 1600 Elizabeth I granted Newcastle a charter for an exclusive body of electors, the right to elect the mayor and burgesses. The charter also gave the Hostmen exclusive rights to load coal at any point on the Tyne. The Hostmen developed as an exclusive group within the Merchant Adventurers who had been incorporated by a charter in 1547.

 

Stuart period

In 1636 there was a serious outbreak of bubonic plague in Newcastle. There had been several previous outbreaks of the disease over the years, but this was the most serious. It is thought to have arrived from the Netherlands via ships that were trading between the Tyne and that country. It first appeared in the lower part of the town near the docks but gradually spread to all parts of the town. As the disease gained hold the authorities took measures to control it by boarding up any properties that contained infected persons, meaning that whole families were locked up together with the infected family members. Other infected persons were put in huts outside the town walls and left to die. Plague pits were dug next to the town's four churches and outside the town walls to receive the bodies in mass burials. Over the course of the outbreak 5,631 deaths were recorded out of an estimated population of 12,000, a death rate of 47%.

 

In 1637 Charles I tried to raise money by doubling the 'voluntary' tax on coal in return for allowing the Newcastle Hostmen to regulate production and fix prices. This caused outrage amongst the London importers and the East Anglian shippers. Both groups decided to boycott Tyne coal and as a result forced Charles to reverse his decision in 1638.

 

In 1640 during the Second Bishops' War, the Scots successfully invaded Newcastle. The occupying army demanded £850 per day from the Corporation to billet the Scottish troops. Trade from the Tyne ground to a halt during the occupation. The Scots left in 1641 after receiving a Parliamentary pardon and a £4,000,000 loan from the town.

 

In 1642 the English Civil War began. King Charles realised the value of the Tyne coal trade and therefore garrisoned Newcastle. A Royalist was appointed as governor. At that time, Newcastle and King's Lynn were the only important seaports to support the crown. In 1644 Parliament blockaded the Tyne to prevent the king from receiving revenue from the Tyne coal trade. Coal exports fell from 450,000 to 3,000 tons and London suffered a hard winter without fuel. Parliament encouraged the coal trade from the Wear to try to replace that lost from Newcastle but that was not enough to make up for the lost Tyneside tonnage.

 

In 1644 the Scots crossed the border. Newcastle strengthened its defences in preparation. The Scottish army, with 40,000 troops, besieged Newcastle for three months until the garrison of 1,500 surrendered. During the siege, the Scots bombarded the walls with their artillery, situated in Gateshead and Castle Leazes. The Scottish commander threatened to destroy the steeple of St Nicholas's Church by gunfire if the mayor, Sir John Marley, did not surrender the town. The mayor responded by placing Scottish prisoners that they had captured in the steeple, so saving it from destruction. The town walls were finally breached by a combination of artillery and sapping. In gratitude for this defence, Charles gave Newcastle the motto 'Fortiter Defendit Triumphans' to be added to its coat of arms. The Scottish army occupied Northumberland and Durham for two years. The coal taxes had to pay for the Scottish occupation. In 1645 Charles surrendered to the Scots and was imprisoned in Newcastle for nine months. After the Civil War the coal trade on the Tyne soon picked up and exceeded its pre-war levels.

 

A new Guildhall was completed on the Sandhill next to the river in 1655, replacing an earlier facility damaged by fire in 1639, and became the meeting place of Newcastle Town Council. In 1681 the Hospital of the Holy Jesus was built partly on the site of the Austin Friars. The Guildhall and Holy Jesus Hospital still exist.

 

Charles II tried to impose a charter on Newcastle to give the king the right to appoint the mayor, sheriff, recorder and town clerk. Charles died before the charter came into effect. In 1685, James II tried to replace Corporation members with named Catholics. However, James' mandate was suspended in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution welcoming William of Orange. In 1689, after the fall of James II, the people of Newcastle tore down his bronze equestrian statue in Sandhill and tossed it into the Tyne. The bronze was later used to make bells for All Saints Church.

 

In 1689 the Lort Burn was covered over. At this time it was an open sewer. The channel followed by the Lort Burn became the present day Dean Street. At that time, the centre of Newcastle was still the Sandhill area, with many merchants living along the Close or on the Side. The path of the main road through Newcastle ran from the single Tyne bridge, through Sandhill to the Side, a narrow street which climbed steeply on the north-east side of the castle hill until it reached the higher ground alongside St Nicholas' Church. As Newcastle developed, the Side became lined with buildings with projecting upper stories, so that the main street through Newcastle was a narrow, congested, steep thoroughfare.

 

In 1701 the Keelmen's Hospital was built in the Sandgate area of the city, using funds provided by the keelmen. The building still stands today.

 

Eighteenth century

In the 18th century, Newcastle was the country's largest print centre after London, Oxford and Cambridge, and the Literary and Philosophical Society of 1793, with its erudite debates and large stock of books in several languages predated the London Library by half a century.

 

In 1715, during the Jacobite rising in favour of the Old Pretender, an army of Jacobite supporters marched on Newcastle. Many of the Northumbrian gentry joined the rebels. The citizens prepared for its arrival by arresting Jacobite supporters and accepting 700 extra recruits into the local militia. The gates of the city were closed against the rebels. This proved enough to delay an attack until reinforcements arrived forcing the rebel army to move across to the west coast. The rebels finally surrendered at Preston.

 

In 1745, during a second Jacobite rising in favour of the Young Pretender, a Scottish army crossed the border led by Bonnie Prince Charlie. Once again Newcastle prepared by arresting Jacobite supporters and inducting 800 volunteers into the local militia. The town walls were strengthened, most of the gates were blocked up and some 200 cannon were deployed. 20,000 regulars were billeted on the Town Moor. These preparations were enough to force the rebel army to travel south via the west coast. They were eventually defeated at Culloden in 1746.

 

Newcastle's actions during the 1715 rising in resisting the rebels and declaring for George I, in contrast to the rest of the region, is the most likely source of the nickname 'Geordie', applied to people from Tyneside, or more accurately Newcastle. Another theory, however, is that the name 'Geordie' came from the inventor of the Geordie lamp, George Stephenson. It was a type of safety lamp used in mining, but was not invented until 1815. Apparently the term 'German Geordie' was in common use during the 18th century.

 

The city's first hospital, Newcastle Infirmary opened in 1753; it was funded by public subscription. A lying-in hospital was established in Newcastle in 1760. The city's first public hospital for mentally ill patients, Wardens Close Lunatic Hospital was opened in October 1767.

 

In 1771 a flood swept away much of the bridge at Newcastle. The bridge had been built in 1250 and repaired after a flood in 1339. The bridge supported various houses and three towers and an old chapel. A blue stone was placed in the middle of the bridge to mark the boundary between Newcastle and the Palatinate of Durham. A temporary wooden bridge had to be built, and this remained in use until 1781, when a new stone bridge was completed. The new bridge consisted of nine arches. In 1801, because of the pressure of traffic, the bridge had to be widened.

 

A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of Fenham Barracks in 1806. The facilities at the Castle for holding assizes, which had been condemned for their inconvenience and unhealthiness, were replaced when the Moot Hall opened in August 1812.

 

Victorian period

Present-day Newcastle owes much of its architecture to the work of the builder Richard Grainger, aided by architects John Dobson, Thomas Oliver, John and Benjamin Green and others. In 1834 Grainger won a competition to produce a new plan for central Newcastle. He put this plan into effect using the above architects as well as architects employed in his own office. Grainger and Oliver had already built Leazes Terrace, Leazes Crescent and Leazes Place between 1829 and 1834. Grainger and Dobson had also built the Royal Arcade at the foot of Pilgrim Street between 1830 and 1832. The most ambitious project covered 12 acres 12 acres (49,000 m2) in central Newcastle, on the site of Newe House (also called Anderson Place). Grainger built three new thoroughfares, Grey Street, Grainger Street and Clayton Street with many connecting streets, as well as the Central Exchange and the Grainger Market. John Wardle and George Walker, working in Grainger's office, designed Clayton Street, Grainger Street and most of Grey Street. Dobson designed the Grainger Market and much of the east side of Grey Street. John and Benjamin Green designed the Theatre Royal at the top of Grey Street, where Grainger placed the column of Grey's Monument as a focus for the whole scheme. Grey Street is considered to be one of the finest streets in the country, with its elegant curve. Unfortunately most of old Eldon Square was demolished in the 1960s in the name of progress. The Royal Arcade met a similar fate.

 

In 1849 a new bridge was built across the river at Newcastle. This was the High Level Bridge, designed by Robert Stephenson, and slightly up river from the existing bridge. The bridge was designed to carry road and rail traffic across the Tyne Gorge on two decks with rail traffic on the upper deck and road traffic on the lower. The new bridge meant that traffic could pass through Newcastle without having to negotiate the steep, narrow Side, as had been necessary for centuries. The bridge was opened by Queen Victoria, who one year later opened the new Central Station, designed by John Dobson. Trains were now able to cross the river, directly into the centre of Newcastle and carry on up to Scotland. The Army Riding School was also completed in 1849.

 

In 1854 a large fire started on the Gateshead quayside and an explosion caused it to spread across the river to the Newcastle quayside. A huge conflagration amongst the narrow alleys, or 'chares', destroyed the homes of 800 families as well as many business premises. The narrow alleys that had been destroyed were replaced by streets containing blocks of modern offices.

 

In 1863 the Town Hall in St Nicholas Square replaced the Guildhall as the meeting place of Newcastle Town Council.

 

In 1876 the low level bridge was replaced by a new bridge known as the Swing Bridge, so called because the bridge was able to swing horizontally on a central axis and allow ships to pass on either side. This meant that for the first time sizeable ships could pass up-river beyond Newcastle. The bridge was built and paid for by William Armstrong, a local arms manufacturer, who needed to have warships access his Elswick arms factory to fit armaments to them. The Swing Bridge's rotating mechanism is adapted from the cannon mounts developed in Armstrong's arms works. In 1882 the Elswick works began to build ships as well as to arm them. The Barrack Road drill hall was completed in 1890.

 

Industrialisation

In the 19th century, shipbuilding and heavy engineering were central to the city's prosperity; and the city was a powerhouse of the Industrial Revolution. Newcastle's development as a major city owed most to its central role in the production and export of coal. The phrase "taking coals to Newcastle" was first recorded in 1538; it proverbially denotes bringing a particular commodity to a place that has more than enough of it already.

 

Innovation in Newcastle and surrounding areas included the following:

 

George Stephenson developed a miner's safety lamp at the same time that Humphry Davy developed a rival design. The lamp made possible the opening up of ever deeper mines to provide the coal that powered the industrial revolution.

George and his son Robert Stephenson were hugely influential figures in the development of the early railways. George developed Blücher, a locomotive working at Killingworth colliery in 1814, whilst Robert was instrumental in the design of Rocket, a revolutionary design that was the forerunner of modern locomotives. Both men were involved in planning and building railway lines, all over this country and abroad.

 

Joseph Swan demonstrated a working electric light bulb about a year before Thomas Edison did the same in the USA. This led to a dispute as to who had actually invented the light bulb. Eventually the two rivals agreed to form a mutual company between them, the Edison and Swan Electric Light Company, known as Ediswan.

 

Charles Algernon Parsons invented the steam turbine, for marine use and for power generation. He used Turbinia, a small, turbine-powered ship, to demonstrate the speed that a steam turbine could generate. Turbinia literally ran rings around the British Fleet at a review at Spithead in 1897.

 

William Armstrong invented a hydraulic crane that was installed in dockyards up and down the country. He then began to design light, accurate field guns for the British army. These were a vast improvement on the existing guns that were then in use.

 

The following major industries developed in Newcastle or its surrounding area:

 

Glassmaking

A small glass industry existed in Newcastle from the mid-15th century. In 1615 restrictions were put on the use of wood for manufacturing glass. It was found that glass could be manufactured using the local coal, and so a glassmaking industry grew up on Tyneside. Huguenot glassmakers came over from France as refugees from persecution and set up glasshouses in the Skinnerburn area of Newcastle. Eventually, glass production moved to the Ouseburn area of Newcastle. In 1684 the Dagnia family, Sephardic Jewish emigrants from Altare, arrived in Newcastle from Stourbridge and established glasshouses along the Close, to manufacture high quality flint glass. The glass manufacturers used sand ballast from the boats arriving in the river as the main raw material. The glassware was then exported in collier brigs. The period from 1730 to 1785 was the highpoint of Newcastle glass manufacture, when the local glassmakers produced the 'Newcastle Light Baluster'. The glassmaking industry still exists in the west end of the city with local Artist and Glassmaker Jane Charles carrying on over four hundred years of hot glass blowing in Newcastle upon Tyne.

 

Locomotive manufacture

In 1823 George Stephenson and his son Robert established the world's first locomotive factory near Forth Street in Newcastle. Here they built locomotives for the Stockton and Darlington Railway and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, as well as many others. It was here that the famous locomotive Rocket was designed and manufactured in preparation for the Rainhill Trials. Apart from building locomotives for the British market, the Newcastle works also produced locomotives for Europe and America. The Forth Street works continued to build locomotives until 1960.

 

Shipbuilding

In 1296 a wooden, 135 ft (41 m) long galley was constructed at the mouth of the Lort Burn in Newcastle, as part of a twenty-ship order from the king. The ship cost £205, and is the earliest record of shipbuilding in Newcastle. However the rise of the Tyne as a shipbuilding area was due to the need for collier brigs for the coal export trade. These wooden sailing ships were usually built locally, establishing local expertise in building ships. As ships changed from wood to steel, and from sail to steam, the local shipbuilding industry changed to build the new ships. Although shipbuilding was carried out up and down both sides of the river, the two main areas for building ships in Newcastle were Elswick, to the west, and Walker, to the east. By 1800 Tyneside was the third largest producer of ships in Britain. Unfortunately, after the Second World War, lack of modernisation and competition from abroad gradually caused the local industry to decline and die.

 

Armaments

In 1847 William Armstrong established a huge factory in Elswick, west of Newcastle. This was initially used to produce hydraulic cranes but subsequently began also to produce guns for both the army and the navy. After the Swing Bridge was built in 1876 allowing ships to pass up river, warships could have their armaments fitted alongside the Elswick works. Armstrong's company took over its industrial rival, Joseph Whitworth of Manchester in 1897.

 

Steam turbines

Charles Algernon Parsons invented the steam turbine and, in 1889, founded his own company C. A. Parsons and Company in Heaton, Newcastle to make steam turbines. Shortly after this, he realised that steam turbines could be used to propel ships and, in 1897, he founded a second company, Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company in Wallsend. It is there that he designed and manufactured Turbinia. Parsons turbines were initially used in warships but soon came to be used in merchant and passenger vessels, including the liner Mauretania which held the blue riband for the Atlantic crossing until 1929. Parsons' company in Heaton began to make turbo-generators for power stations and supplied power stations all over the world. The Heaton works, reduced in size, remains as part of the Siemens AG industrial giant.

 

Pottery

In 1762 the Maling pottery was founded in Sunderland by French Huguenots, but transferred to Newcastle in 1817. A factory was built in the Ouseburn area of the city. The factory was rebuilt twice, finally occupying a 14-acre (57,000 m2) site that was claimed to be the biggest pottery in the world and which had its own railway station. The pottery pioneered use of machines in making potteries as opposed to hand production. In the 1890s the company went up-market and employed in-house designers. The period up to the Second World War was the most profitable with a constant stream of new designs being introduced. However, after the war, production gradually declined and the company closed in 1963.

 

Expansion of the city

Newcastle was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835: the reformed municipal borough included the parishes of Byker, Elswick, Heaton, Jesmond, Newcastle All Saints, Newcastle St Andrew, Newcastle St John, Newcastle St Nicholas, and Westgate. The urban districts of Benwell and Fenham and Walker were added in 1904. In 1935, Newcastle gained Kenton and parts of the parishes of West Brunton, East Denton, Fawdon, Longbenton. The most recent expansion in Newcastle's boundaries took place under the Local Government Act 1972 on 1 April 1974, when Newcastle became a metropolitan borough, also including the urban districts of Gosforth and Newburn, and the parishes of Brunswick, Dinnington, Hazlerigg, North Gosforth and Woolsington from the Castle Ward Rural District, and the village of Westerhope.

 

Meanwhile Northumberland County Council was formed under the Local Government Act 1888 and benefited from a dedicated meeting place when County Hall was completed in the Castle Garth area of Newcastle in 1910. Following the Local Government Act 1972 County Hall relocated to Morpeth in April 1981.

 

Twentieth century

In 1925 work began on a new high-level road bridge to span the Tyne Gorge between Newcastle and Gateshead. The capacity of the existing High-Level Bridge and Swing Bridge were being strained to the limit, and an additional bridge had been discussed for a long time. The contract was awarded to the Dorman Long Company and the bridge was finally opened by King George V in 1928. The road deck was 84 feet (26 m) above the river and was supported by a 531 feet (162 m) steel arch. The new Tyne Bridge quickly became a symbol for Newcastle and Tyneside, and remains so today.

 

During the Second World War, Newcastle was largely spared the horrors inflicted upon other British cities bombed during the Blitz. Although the armaments factories and shipyards along the River Tyne were targeted by the Luftwaffe, they largely escaped unscathed. Manors goods yard and railway terminal, to the east of the city centre, and the suburbs of Jesmond and Heaton suffered bombing during 1941. There were 141 deaths and 587 injuries, a relatively small figure compared to the casualties in other industrial centres of Britain.

 

In 1963 the city gained its own university, the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, by act of parliament. A School of Medicine and Surgery had been established in Newcastle in 1834. This eventually developed into a college of medicine attached to Durham University. A college of physical science was also founded and became Armstrong College in 1904. In 1934 the two colleges merged to become King's College, Durham. This remained as part of Durham University until the new university was created in 1963. In 1992 the city gained its second university when Newcastle Polytechnic was granted university status as Northumbria University.

 

Newcastle City Council moved to the new Newcastle Civic Centre in 1968.

 

As heavy industries declined in the second half of the 20th century, large sections of the city centre were demolished along with many areas of slum housing. The leading political figure in the city during the 1960s was T. Dan Smith who oversaw a massive building programme of highrise housing estates and authorised the demolition of a quarter of the Georgian Grainger Town to make way for Eldon Square Shopping Centre. Smith's control in Newcastle collapsed when it was exposed that he had used public contracts to advantage himself and his business associates and for a time Newcastle became a byword for civic corruption as depicted in the films Get Carter and Stormy Monday and in the television series Our Friends in the North. However, much of the historic Grainger Town area survived and was, for the most part, fully restored in the late 1990s. Northumberland Street, initially the A1, was gradually closed to traffic from the 1970s and completely pedestrianised by 1998.

 

In 1978 a new rapid transport system, the Metro, was built, linking the Tyneside area. The system opened in August 1980. A new bridge was built to carry the Metro across the river between Gateshead and Newcastle. This was the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge, commonly known as the Metro Bridge. Eventually the Metro system was extended to reach Newcastle Airport in 1991, and in 2002 the Metro system was extended to the nearby city of Sunderland.

 

As the 20th century progressed, trade on the Newcastle and Gateshead quaysides gradually declined, until by the 1980s both sides of the river were looking rather derelict. Shipping company offices had closed along with offices of firms related to shipping. There were also derelict warehouses lining the riverbank. Local government produced a master plan to re-develop the Newcastle quayside and this was begun in the 1990s. New offices, restaurants, bars and residential accommodation were built and the area has changed in the space of a few years into a vibrant area, partially returning the focus of Newcastle to the riverside, where it was in medieval times.

 

The Gateshead Millennium Bridge, a foot and cycle bridge, 26 feet (7.9 m) wide and 413 feet (126 m) long, was completed in 2001. The road deck is in the form of a curve and is supported by a steel arch. To allow ships to pass, the whole structure, both arch and road-deck, rotates on huge bearings at either end so that the road deck is lifted. The bridge can be said to open and shut like a human eye. It is an important addition to the re-developed quayside area, providing a vital link between the Newcastle and Gateshead quaysides.

 

Recent developments

Today the city is a vibrant centre for office and retail employment, but just a short distance away there are impoverished inner-city housing estates, in areas originally built to provide affordable housing for employees of the shipyards and other heavy industries that lined the River Tyne. In the 2010s Newcastle City Council began implementing plans to regenerate these depressed areas, such as those along the Ouseburn Valley.

This prayer left at the Wave’s Wailing wall shows the smiling faces of mothers Margaret and Cathy with their child Louie -- “a family committed to social justice in all its forms.”

 

“DVD to Art” by Lucinda Naylor protests the 400,000 DVDs against same-sex marriage sent to Minnesota Catholics by Archbishop John Nienstedt.

 

For more info, see our previous post “Artist turns anti-gay DVD into inclusive art” and visit:

 

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