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Valsts prezidents Egils Levits piedalās Vairas Vīķes-Freibergas grāmatas “The Singer of Songs. On Cognitive Shemas and Sequential Structuring in Longer Latvian Folk Songs” atvēršanas svētkos by Valsts prezidents

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Poster for an event on “Cognitive development and learning impairment”. Designer: Jerôme Knebusch. Strasbourg, France. 2002.

ACRM Cognitive Rehabilitation MANUAL & TEXTBOOK — SECOND EDITION by ACRM-Rehabilitation

Business People Office Working Discussion Team Concept

How To Get The Way To Overcome Memory space Concerns by Albert Ridolfi

Require time for associating the details you intend to remember to details you currently preserve. Developing a partnership in between both points makes it a lot easier for your human brain to save details and also recollect it later on. On top of that, the activity of uncovering an ideal relational web link fits to profit your memory itself!

One means to boost memory is to avoid residence on adverse occasions. Study has actually revealed that individuals which frequently experience adverse ideas go through a lot more anxiety, which could additionally bring about inadequate memory abilities. Get in touch with a specialist for anxiety alleviation recommendations.

Assume favorably making your memory a lot better. Individuals which delight adverse ideas or undertake bunches of anxiety will certainly have a better lack of ability to consider points compared to individuals which declare or are much less anxious. Talk to your medical professional concerning stress-relieving approaches.

Attempt focusing on far better your memory. You could be permitting disturbances and also competing ideas to obtain the most effective of your memory and also eat your focus. Keep loosened up and also concentrated to soak up details a lot more successfully. As soon as the minute has actually passed, play it over again in your mind to dedicate it to memory.

Consider your human brain as a muscle mass. To maintain it healthy, you should exercise it. Study has actually recorded that puzzle having fun fend off senility.

The pointers we have actually offered you in this write-up will actually get you a long way when it involves boosting your memory, concentration and also capacity to find out. An additional point you need to take into consideration is to make use of a clever medicine like Neurofuse. This supplement will certainly quicken the procedure so you will certainly get some outcomes much faster. In fact Neurofuse is so reliable that you will certainly begin to really feel a distinction within HALF AN HOUR. Taking this supplement two times a day will actually get you much. www.musclesupplements101.com/neurofuse-get-more-brain-pow...

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Cognitive by Am 0s

Imogen Stidworthy, The Work. Photography Julian Hughes by Radar - Loughborough

Imogen Stidworthy uses a series of cognitive interviews with recent war veterens to develop a new audio work, exploring how experience is recalled and communicated.

The cognitive interview is used in many fields where sensitivity is important, for example when police speak to a witness of a crime. The interview follows a precise but open structure to access different forms of memory, such as episodic, semantic and sensory, and the focus on colour, light and smell can allow the interviewee to reconstruct an event in detail. The choice of veterans as her subject is symbolic. Loughborough University has a history of military connections, from the munitions training centre that was set up here during World War One to the recent establishment of the Defence Technology Centre (a collaboration between the university and the MOD).

This work is presented in the Waiting Room of Loughborough Railway Station, which overlooks another old munitions factory,the Brush Factory.

Sy's Cookies by gatheringwater

I work hard to find activities in which even people suffering from cognitive decline can participate. This is important, because so many of my clients with dementia have been busy, accomplished people who are suddenly expected to sit back and have everything done for them.

Boredom and frustration are the cause of many so-called "behavior problems" that get medicated into submission. I believe that everybody can benefit from a sense of accomplishment and it is up to me to find activities that suit my clients' abilities. In this instance, Sy (who has always enjoyed cooking) was able to mix pre-measured ingredients and cut out cookies. He decorated them with colored sugar.

It was great to see him show off his accomplishment. "I made cookies today!" he told his wife, Jan, who is pictured with him.

Later, he was able to share his cookies with friends who came to visit. He'd been the recipient of kind gifts of food from many friends, but it must have felt good for him to be able to give as well as receive gifts. After all, if we only give to a person with dementia, not only do they have the burden of constant unreciprocated gratitude, they never have the boost to self-esteem that comes from the ability to be generous.

2023 ADM+S Symposium Poster Competition by ADM+S Centre

Nuha Abu Onq, RMIT University

Title: User Query Variations and Cognitive Complexity of

Search Tasks

When given a common information need, a large number of searchers tend to form a wide variety of queries. However, one aspect of this query variation that remains unexplored is the extent to which searchers rely on their past experience when forming queries. Our research focuses on this aspect and also considers the complexity of information needs and its connection to query formulation. In this study, we categorise each term in users' initial queries to examine its relationship with the task description. To the best of our knowledge, this level of query term analysis has not been previously explored. By examining the terms used by searchers, we delve into the realm of query variants that has received limited exploration. Our contributions include: (1) an examination of the terms used in variants and backstories; (2) an understanding of those terms and their relationship to a set of existing backstories newly categorised into cognitive complexity.

Our investigation revealed an interesting pattern in users’ query formulation process. Understanding the methods employed by individuals in generating queries, including the types and frequency of novel terms used, can provide valuable insights for researchers. This knowledge can aid in the development of more effective models for generating automated query variants that closely resemble those created by users. By incorporating these user-centric approaches, researchers can enhance the relevance and accuracy of automated query-generation techniques. Moreover, drawing upon the implications of information retrieval (IR) design, prior research has recommended the integration of comprehensive query autocompletion to enhance search queries. This approach involves considering the quality and ranking of current suggestions and identifying potential enhancements based on user preferences [1]. The findings of our study shed light on users’ initial inclination toward general information, such as data from Wiki, but their subsequent shift toward more specialised aspects as they refine their queries [2]. By incorporating these insights, search engines can improve the quality and ranking of query autocompletion suggestions. This can be achieved by initially presenting broad suggestions and gradually transitioning to more specialised ones. Furthermore, the integration of contextual based, demographic-based, time-sensitive, and location elements in query autocompletion can further enhance its relevance and quality, providing tailored suggestions aligned with users’ context, demographics, and temporal relevance. Additionally, individuals may exhibit inherent bias within their search queries, prompting the need for a comprehensive understanding of query variation. Thus, it becomes imperative for individuals to recognize and acknowledge this particular aspect.

[1] Fei Cai and Maarten de Rijke. 2016. A Survey of Query Auto Completion in Information Retrieval. Found. Trends Inf. Retr. 10, 4 (2016), 273–363.

[2] Jia Chen, Jiaxin Mao, Yiqun Liu, Fan Zhang, Min Zhang, and Shaoping Ma. 2021. Towards a Better Understanding of Query Reformulation Behavior in Web Search. In Proc. WWW. 743–755.

Cognitively Guided Instruction Conference by UW College of Education

The CGI Conference brings together classroom teachers, administrators, researchers, and professional developers from across the country. Educators develop and extend their understanding of CGI, learn about the latest research advances in CGI, and share about the impact CGI has on mathematics learning in PreK-6 classrooms.

Valsts prezidents Egils Levits piedalās Vairas Vīķes-Freibergas grāmatas “The Singer of Songs. On Cognitive Shemas and Sequential Structuring in Longer Latvian Folk Songs” atvēršanas svētkos. Foto: Ilmārs Znotiņš, VPK

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE @ PE 19th Anniversary 10.25.08 by Profane Existence

Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (part 2) by Parker Wilson

1

The second phase of AMI's mindfulness based cognitive psychotherapy is the development of mental clarity and healthy behavior. Aristotle once said, "Men acquire a particular quality by constantly acting in a particular way… you become just by performing just actions, temperate by performing...

www.denverpsychotherapists.com/mindfulness-based-cognitiv...

Cognitive Revolution Symposium by Swissnex in San Francisco

The Cognitive Revolution Symposium took the Mental Work art-science exhibition as a starting point for reflection on the emergent future of human-machine interaction, focusing on promoting a culture of responsibility within the communities at the forefront of this revolution.

The symposium convened experts from BCI research, AI, neuroscience, ethics, international security, policy, social science, human rights, education, design, and communication, with two objectives: 1) Identifying and prioritizing ethical, social, and security dilemmas around the Cognitive Revolution; and 2)

Envisioning strategies to promote a culture of responsibility around those dilemmas.

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Cognitive Assessment and Training Market Overview, Trends, Opportunities, Growth and Forecast to 2020-2025 by Imarc Group

According to IMARC Group’s latest report, titled “Cognitive Assessment and Training Market: Industry Trends, Share, Size, Growth, Opportunity and Forecast 2020-2025,”. Looking forward, IMARC Group expects the market to exhibit a CAGR of more than 20% during 2020-2025. Cognitive assessment and training refer to a formal evaluation of psychological faculties that are used to detect cognitive impairment in the early stages. They help in assessing the psychological functioning and speed of information processing in a patient.

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comedy: how to emulate cognitive disabilities by Anne Petersen

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE @ PE 19th Anniversary 10.25.08 by Profane Existence

Humans respond cognitively and emotionally to the built environment. by Hughes Songe

2

The modern possibility of recording the neural activity of subjects during exposure to environmental situations, using neuroscientific techniques and virtual reality, provides a promising framework for future design and studies of the built environment. The discipline derived is termed “neuroarchitecture”. Given neuroarchitecture’s transdisciplinary nature, it progresses needs to be reviewed in a contextualised way, together with its precursor approaches. The present article presents a scoping review, which maps out the broad areas on which the new discipline is based. The limitations, controversies, benefits, impact on the professional sectors involved, and potential of neuroarchitecture and its precursors’ approaches are critically addressed.

1. Introduction

Architecture has various effects on people. Studies have been undertaken into archi- tectural aspects most open to objectification such as those related to structure, construction, and installations of buildings. There exists a broad background with standards and norms, that supports these aspects [1]. However, these are not the only factors involved. The envi- ronment also has effects on humans at the cognitive level (understood as the processing and appraisal of perceived information) and the emotional level (understood as the adaptive reactions to the perceived information), which both operate through closely interrelated systems [2]. For example, it has been found that noise and a lack of vegetation can generate stress [3,4], and stress associated with the built environment can even negatively affect life expectancy [5]. Studies on specific spaces have shown a variety of cognitive-emotional impacts, such as poorer patient recoveries in hospital rooms that lack relaxing external views of greenery [6]. Thus, the architecture has cognitive-emotional repercussions.

“Designerly ways of knowing” (distinct from the best-known scientific forms of knowledge [7]) has been, traditionally, the main way to address the cognitive-emotional dimension of architecture [8]. Through this way, which offers a great economy of means, architects have explored and exploited some of the perceptual foundations of the experience of space. However, it is particularly linked to subjective issues in decision-making [9], whose use may result in biases [10]. This can lead to inadequate results in responding to the users’ cognitive-emotional needs. Although many approaches have addressed this dimension of architecture, they have not overcome some of these intrinsic limitations and, in part, because of this, have not been adopted as practical design tools.

1

2 3

*

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- iations.

Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

Sensors 2021, 21, 2193. doi.org/10.3390/s21062193 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

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Neuroscience studies the nervous system from different areas, some of which are promising in this respect [11,12]. At a general level, the application of neuroscience to architecture is often termed “neuroarchitecture” [13]. Although bidirectional human-space influence, and its impact on neural activity [14], is not new, the modern recording of experimental subjects’ neural activity during exposure to physical and simulated envi- ronmental situations provides a framework for future design and studies. For example, neuroarchitecture has allowed researchers to study some design variables in-depth, which reduce the stress, previously mentioned, in hospital spaces [15]. Accordingly, the cognitive- emotional effects of architecture have been addressed through different approaches and, more recently, through neuroscience. This novel, complex transdisciplinary nature of neuroarchitecture make it important to review its progress. However, although reviews have been undertaken of the application of neuroscience to other arts, such as dance [16] to aesthetics [17] and to architectural aesthetics [18], and more recently to compile findings on the effects of architecture, as measured by neurophysiological recordings [19–22], the authors’ found no previous study that reviews the application of neuroscience to architec- ture (sometimes referred to as “built space”) to study its cognitive-emotional dimension in a holistic and contextualised way (for which it is necessary to incorporate its precursor approaches, in a complementary way for the vision of some authors in this respect [23]). The objective of this article is to present a scoping review of neuroarchitecture and its precursor approaches. This type of literature review is aimed at mapping the broad areas in which a discipline is based.

In this sense, it is worth highlighting the shared ground between architecture, art, and aesthetics, which means that the results of the latter two may be, in some way, transferable to the former (for example, much of what has been studied on colour or geometry). Tackling this type of review requires a broad and interrelated perspective, which is characteristic of scoping reviews [24]. This is especially useful in the case of disciplines that are complex [25] and have not previously been reviewed at this level, like neuroarchitecture.

To address this broad objective, the following sub-objectives were set: (a) to provide a global vision of related scientific production, showing the trends of the different approaches in terms of type and date of publication, (b) to expose the need to investigate the impact of architecture on people, (c) to synthesise the main precursor approaches of neuroarchitecture to study the cognitive-emotional dimension of architecture, (d) to overview the progress of tools and methods in neuroscience and virtual reality, on which the new discipline is based, (e) define the state of-the-art application of neuroscience to the field of art and aesthetics, due to its similarity with architecture, and (f) to describe the main context, lines of research, and specific results of the application of neuroscience to architecture. In addition, the current status of the discipline is discussed. Therefore, a literature review was conducted.

2. Materials and Methods

Literature reviews examine articles to provide further knowledge about topics [26,27]. There are various types. The present work was tackled by means of a scoping review [28]. This strategy aligns with alternatives to present a broad perspective on complex issues involving heterogeneous sources [29]. In addition, this leads to highly explanatory arti- cles [30] that update professionals from different fields [31]. These updates of the state- of-the-art applications are essential to support the development of the neuroarchitecture discipline. Overall, preventative measures were taken to avoid biases, using a rigorous and transparent protocol [32]. Denyer and Tranfield’s proposals [33] were used to struc- ture the methodology: (1) formulation of objectives, (2) locating studies, (3) selection of studies, (4) analysis and synthesis, and (5) the presentation of the results. All the phases are detailed (Figure 1). The objectives of the study are described in the “Introduction” sec- tion. The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines [34] for systematic reviews were followed for the location and selection of the studies.

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FiFgiugruer1e.1E.xEpxopsoitsoitroyraynadndmmethetohdoodlogloicgaiclasltrsutrcutuctrue,reth,ethPeRPIRSMISMAAflofwlowdiadgiaragmra,ma,nadnidtsimtsemtheothdosd. s.

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The studies were located through searches of various sources. First, the studies were found in publishers’ electronic databases (Avery index to architectural periodicals, Cog- prints, Elsevier, Emerald, IEEE, NDLTD, PsycINFO, PubMed/Medline, Springer, Taylor & Francis, Urbadoc, and Wiley) and repositories (Dialnet, SciELO, Google Scholar). Second, other reference lists exist, but they contain only redundant information, including content already provided by the first lists searched: Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (www.anfarch.org/research/recommended-reading), Neuroscience+Architecture (dilab.uos.ac.kr/neuroarch/), and International Network for Neuroaesthetics (neuroaesthetics.net/books, and neuroaesthetics.net/papers). To keep the data updated, all searches were carried out four times between 28 February 2012 and 19 July 2019 (see “location of studies” in Figure 1). The same search terms and criteria were used throughout. It is worth highlighting some aspects. Regarding terminology, due to architecture’s artistic and aesthetic impacts, the following concepts were considered: (architecture * OR spa * OR urban * OR “town planning”) AND (neuroscien * OR percept * OR emoti * OR cogniti * OR affect *) OR neuro?architectur *; where “*” denotes truncation and “?” any character. Three criteria were stablished: language, publication category, and study type. The language criterion was that the search was to be conducted in English, Spanish, German, and Italian. This involved repeating the process with translations of the various terms. The publication-type criterion was three-fold. The most useful sources for literature reviews are usually peer-reviewed journals and conference papers [35]. Reference books were added to help address sub-objectives a, b, and c. It should be noted that, within these types of publications, no discard criteria were considered for indications of publisher quality. Thus, the suitability of references for this review was assessed independently throughout the selection process detailed below. The third criterion was that the studies had to be human-based. Given that much neuroscientific research is animal-based, this represented a significant restriction. It should be noted that, due to the temporal diversity of the approaches involved in sub-objective c, filtering by date of publication was not applied. The bibliographic references of the works retrieved were also reviewed. Therefore, these references were not localised using the above terms and language criteria. The satu- ration point was assumed to have been reached when most of the references were found to be redundant.

The selection process followed the bibliographic search. This consisted of four sequen- tial actions: (1) elimination of duplicates, using Excel (www.microsoft.com/excel) and Mendeley (www.mendeley.com) software, (2) screening to evaluate relevance of the titles, and to make the final decision on inclusion, (3) abstract evaluation, and (4) full-text evaluation. Regarding the latter action, it should be noted that the criterion of “not appropriate for the review’s objective” refers to information that is irrelevant or was not considered to be of quality judging by its overall content (discarding, among other references, a number of bachelor’s or master’s degree final projects), but was not adequately filtered at the abstract stage. The criterion of “not original data” refers to information that is redundant, or for which more representative information has been found in another article by the same authors (Figure 1). All the actions were centralised, to avoid mismatches in such a comprehensive reference base. The sequence made it possible to eliminate the references that did not strictly contribute to achieving the review’s objectives.

Subsequently, the information selected was analysed and synthesised. Several meth- ods are available [36]. The content analysis synthesis framework was selected due to its ability to interpret content [37] and adapt to the heterogeneous nature of reviews [38]. Two approaches were followed. The first is to categorise and group the information we under- took as a “conventional content analysis”. The second is to recalculate and compare the information we undertook as a “summative content analysis”. The conventional content analysis was undertaken following Reference [39], which identified relevant categories. The summative content analysis was structured in two phases. The first is through com- piling the neurophysiological and design aspects, and the second is by grouping these aspects. This latter analysis resulted in summary tables. Collecting the effects of different

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design variables can be useful for different objectives within the design and study of the cognitive-emotional dimension of the architecture. For example, in decision-making prior to experimental development (to consider variables that may influence the human response, and, among other actions, to choose the appropriate sample), to guide the analysis (to bring forward brain areas on which to focus data processing, among other actions), and even directly in design (given that some of these questions can be understood as design guidelines). A qualitative analysis software, Atlas.ti (atlasti.com), was used due to the support it offers to reviews [40]. Three researchers, who are specialists in architecture, behavioural sciences, and neuroscience, independently carried out analyses. The varied profiles of the researchers helped address the heterogeneous nature of the references and reduce the effect of possible professional deformation. The analyses were shared and discussed until consensus was reached. This gives greater reliability to the findings [41,42]. The content obtained from the analyses, which was focused on meeting the sub-objectives, was organised into appropriate sections.

3. Results

This section synthesises the proposed sub-objectives.

3.1. Classification of References and Their Descriptive Analysis

The process identified 612 references that fulfilled the search criteria. A total of 327,058 were originally identified, with 289,146 from electronic databases, 37,635 from repositories, and 278 from reference lists (Table 1).

Table 1. Number of references identified in each source.

Source Type

Database (N = 289.145)

Repositories (N = 37.635)

Reference lists (N = 278)

Source

Springer

NDLTD

PubMed

Elsevier

Taylor & Francis

IEEE

Avery

Wiley

Emerald

Reference Lists PsvcINFO Cogprints

Google Scholar Dialnet

ScieLo

Academy of Neuroscience for

Architecture Neuroscience + Architecture

International Network for Neuroaesthetics

Total

Number of References

259,121 10,962 5609 3438 3209 2416 1949 1523 453 278 178

9 36,249 711 675

69

41 168 327,058

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The information in the references was categorised following the previously men-

tioned methodology. Each reference was able to satisfy more than one category. The cat-

egories and sub-categories are shown in Table 2. This organisation serves as a structure

for the rest of the results section (sub-objectives b to f). In this sense, Figure 3 provides a

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map of the general contents of this article.

Figure 4 provides temporal information about the sub-category references relating to

approaches of the cognitive-emotional dimension of architecture. The following should

Of the 205,462 references remaining after duplicates were removed, only 520 were

be noted: (1) the different approaches that have addressed the human-space relationship

included after a full-text search. In addition, 92 references were added by following a

have enjoyed moments of greater popularity, and (2) neuroscience was applied to archi-

review of the reference bibliography. Of the 612 references, 130 are books, 31 are book

tecture later than to art and aesthetics. Both aspects suggest that including all the sub-

chapters, 380 are journal papers, 55 are conference papers, 6 are posters, and 10 are of other

categories helps address the issues that motivate this review.

natures. Figure 2 presents the proportions chronologically.

Figure 2. Number of references included, based on type and publication date. Figure 2. Number of references included, based on type and publication date.

In terms of focus, 141 references of the 612 references explicitly examine the application of neuroscience to architecture. The remaining 471 focus on the precursor approaches to the cognitive-emotional study of architectural space. Two aspects are remarkable about the neuroscience in architecture approach references. First, more references might have been expected, but this can be explained by the relatively recent emergence of the topic. Most were published after 2000 and the trend seems to indicate an increase in the next few years. The second aspect focused on the high volume of recently published books. Regarding the publication dates, only first editions were considered. In addition to references that explicitly address the issue, the others were considered relevant because they mentioned, or addressed topics related to, the review’s sub-objectives.

The information in the references was categorised following the previously mentioned methodology. Each reference was able to satisfy more than one category. The categories and sub-categories are shown in Table 2. This organisation serves as a structure for the rest of the results section (sub-objectives b to f). In this sense, Figure 3 provides a map of the general contents of this article.

Figure 4 provides temporal information about the sub-category references relating to approaches of the cognitive-emotional dimension of architecture. The following should be noted: (1) the different approaches that have addressed the human-space relationship have enjoyed moments of greater popularity, and (2) neuroscience was applied to architecture later than to art and aesthetics. Both aspects suggest that including all the sub-categories helps address the issues that motivate this review.

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Table 2. Categories and sub-categories linked to the references. Table 2. Categories and sub-categories linked to the references.

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Category

Category Sub-Category

rectly associated research

of architecture

Sub-Category

2a Geometry

2b1 Space phenomenology

1. The impact of architecture on human beings 1. The impact of architecture oannhdudmireacntlybeaisnsogcsiatnedrdeis-earch

2a Geometry

2b1 Space phenomenology

2. Base approaches to the cognitive-emotional dimension

2b2 Geographical experience 2c1 Philosophy 2c1 Philosophy

2. Base approaches to the cognitive-emotional

2b2 Geographical experience

dimension of architecture

2c2 Environmental psychology

2c3 Evidence-based design

3a Neuroscience

3b Virtual reality3b Virtual reality 3. New architectural study and3.pNraewctiasrechtoitoelcstural study and practise tools

4. The cognitive-emotional dimension of architecture

3c Combined neuroscientific and virtual reality technolo-

3c Combined neuroscientific and virtual reality gies technologies

4. The cognitive-emotional dimension of 4a Neuroscience and psychology in art and

architecture through neuro-aesthetics aesthetics 5. Neuroscience in architecture5. Neuroscience in architecture

through neuro-aesthetics

4a Neuroscience and psychology in art and aesthetics

Figure 3. Expository structure and key-concepts map of the paper. Figure 3. Expository structure and key-concepts map of the paper.

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Figure 4. Number of references included, grouped by the categorisation of the approaches to the cognitive-emotional Figure 4. Number of references included, grouped by the categorisation of the approaches to the cognitive-emotional

dimension, and date of publication.

3.2. Holistic Framework of the Issue

This issue comprises various topics. Addressing it requires a holistic approach. The

This issue comprises various topics. Addressing it requires a holistic approach.

expository sequence follows the structure shown in Table 2.

The expository sequence follows the structure shown in Table 2.

3.2.1. The Impact of Architecture on Human Beings and Directly Associated Research

The influence of architecture on human beings that acts of spatial planning have led

to the current built space [43], which is our largest artifact [44,45]. Beyond its utilitarian

to the current built space [43], which is our largest artifact [44,45]. Beyond its utilitarian character, architecture has complementary cognitive-emotional impacts [46]. Architecture

character, architecture has complementary cognitive-emotional impacts [46]. Architecture can both elicit brain activation and modulate genetic function [47]. Consequently, changes

can both elicit brain activation and modulate genetic function [47]. Consequently, changes in the environment have important impacts [48]. Its physiological and social effects should

in the environment have important impacts [48]. Its physiological and social effects should be emphasised. At the physiological level, the consequences for human development, per-

be emphasised. At the physiological level, the consequences for human development, per-

formance, and stress are illustrative. Regarding development, a balanced environment can

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candidates for posts in organisations [58], and improve citizens’ sense of belonging [59] lectivism [57], attract candidates for posts in organisations [58], and improve citizens’

and behaviour [60]. It should be noted that the impact of environmental effects depends sense of belonging [59] and behaviour [60]. It should be noted that the impact of environ-

on the user’s sensitivity [61], and non-architectural elements may also have effects [62]. mental effects depends on the user’s sensitivity [61], and non-architectural elements may

Architects have been aware of this impact [63] and that, when designing architecture, also have effects [62].

experience is designed [64]. As Aalto noted, humanising architecture involves “a func- Architects have been aware of this impact [63] and that, when designing architecture,

tionalism much larger than the merely technical” [65]. “When I enter a space, the space experience is designed [64]. As Aalto noted, humanising architecture involves “a func-

enters me and transforms me” [66]. These statements make it clear that addressing the tionalism much larger than the merely technical” [65]. “When I enter a space, the space

cognitive-emotional state of the users is a transcendental function of architecture [67,68]. enters me and transforms me” [66]. These statements make it clear that addressing the

Despite this, the aspects most likely to be objectified have been extensively studied, and

cognitive-emotional state of the users is a transcendental function of architecture [67,68].

the cognitive-emotional dimension has been underexplored [69,70].

Despite this, the aspects most likely to be objectified have been extensively studied, and

the cognitive-emotional dimension has been underexplored [69,70].

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The fundamental limitation of this research is that the architectural design process is very complex [71] because the myriad of design solutions (the possible configurations of all design variables) makes it impossible to test them all. In addition, the problems that the design solutions try to resolve are diverse and vary over time (e.g., the individuals’ needs from their houses can vary as they age). Although there has been extensive research into the built environment, which indicates that a certain level of analysis is possible, archi- tectural design is infrequently, scientifically approached. Hence, the cognitive-emotional dimension of architecture has formed only a small part of the formative content [72], and the implementation of the design has been mostly based on an amalgam of practices and motivations specific to the architectural project that are part of the ”designerly ways of knowing” [7].

With this as the main way of approaching the cognitive-emotional dimension of architecture, more of the objectives of architectural design have shifted to more tangible and easily quantifiable issues, such as those closely related to the constructive processes of buildings. This has been pointed out from different perspectives: “Architecture and the modern cities that have been built tend to be inhumane” [73]. Have we turned our space into an economic-cosmetic product that ignores our primitive codes [74]? The importance of the built environment cannot be underestimated. “Any future construction must be preceded by a profound study of the relationships between spaces and feelings” [75]. In this sense, new tools that show the future of neuroarchitecture have been incorporated into the traditional architectural spectrum [76].

3.2.2. Base Approaches to the Cognitive-Emotional Dimension of Architecture

Architectural space has been the focus of thinking and research at the cognitive- emotional level. The concept has been addressed at different times. Therefore, knowledge of these bases allows us to contextualise current developments in the application of neuro- science to architecture and to understand the context of current practice [23]. This section exposes the base approaches organized as follows: (1) geometry, (2) phenomenology of space and geographical experience, and (3) philosophy, environmental psychology, and evidence-based design. This classification acknowledges the relationships between the base approaches.

Geometric Approach

Although users might not experience the exact dimensions of proportions, they will feel the underlying harmony [77]. Architects have worked with geometric proportions to address the cognitive-emotional dimension of architecture. Thus, the geometric approach is a valid starting point from which to understand how architects work and establish bridges that can lead to the development of design tools [71].

The geometric connection between the human body and architecture has histori- cally been addressed by two fundamental approaches, known as theomorphism and anthropomorphism. Theomorphism has existed from classical Greek architecture [78]. A well-known example is the Parthenon, fundamentally based on geometric proportions. The cognitive-emotional effect of the Parthenon’s geometric proportions is similar to that sought centuries later by architects, such as Palladio [79] and Le Corbusier [80], through a series of geometric-mathematical rules. Anthropomorphism has a long tradition. Ex- amples are found in the classical Roman world, such as temples based on the symmetry of the human body [81], and, more recently, in the Renaissance and the Baroque periods, where human bodies appeared in some buildings [82]. However, this architecture-body metaphor has been subjected to different efforts to mathematise it, which shows that these two approaches are not mutually exclusive. For example, Alberti’s attempts to humanise space based on the geometry of the human body [83,84]. This line was exploited with Rationalism, as opposed to speaking architecture [85], which led to works by Klint [86], Bataille’s anthropomorphic architecture [87], the organic architecture of Zevi [88], the close

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association with daily human needs of Smithson [89], and Niemeyer’s [90] and Mollino’s designs directed toward life actions [91].

Many of these geometric concepts are recurring. On the one hand, geometrical rela- tionships found to be aesthetic, such as the nine-square pattern [92], or the golden section, have been validated experimentally [93], with the latter even using virtual reality [94] and neuroscientific bases [95]. On the other hand, the new attempts to quantify geometric properties to capture the cognitive-emotional dimension of architecture are worthy of mention. Among these are isovist analysis, the volume of space visible from a given point in space [96], and the application of artificial intelligence to distinguish formal categories, based on different features [97]. The recent mathematical-geometric analysis of architec- tural images is also noteworthy [98–100], through its use in architectural spaces of spatial metrics, such as edge density (number of straight and curved edges), fractal dimension (visual complexity), entropy (randomness), and colour metrics, such as hue (the dominant wavelength), saturation (the intensity of colour), and brightness (the darkness of colour). Hence, the geometric approach has not been abandoned.

The Phenomenology of Space and Geographical Experience Approach

Phenomenology is the study and description of phenomena as experienced through the senses in the first person. It is based on phenomena capable of being felt [101]. Archi- tects have found affinities with this approach, likely because it is related to intuition.

One of the first studies into subjective space was Husserl’s exposition of his ideas about the external world [102]. Heidegger continued with these influences in “Being and Time” [103], addressing the spatiality of humans and the concept of “Stimmung” (or state of mind), which is fundamental for understanding subjective space: “being impregnated by an environment”. Some of the first explicit formulations were made by References [104,105], focusing on vital space. Some of the advances were compiled in “Situation” [106]. Later, the concepts of hodological space and distance including the way in which people evaluate the routes with the preference being based on subjective and objective influences, were introduced by Lewin [107], and developed by Sartre [108]. Bachelard [109] developed his space poetics, a concept widely embraced in the theory of architecture, that seeks to explain the human being’s relationship with the world through poetic images. Rasmussen [110] presented a phenomenological vision of architecture, which exemplified the syncretism between phenomenology and architecture. Bollnow [111] presented concepts involved in subjective space: “[...] Unlike mathematical space, subjective space is characterised by its lack of homogeneity”. This is because subjective space derives from the human’s rela- tionship with space. This has led, even, to suggestions that objective space does not exist because it is always perceived [112]. These concepts (objective space and subjective space) have been embraced by many authors in different approaches to the cognitive-emotional dimension of architecture. At the same time, the concepts have been developed in geo- graphical experience [113], and have practical applications in urban planning [114]. Lynch work [115], which shows the influence of environmental psychology on the phenomenol- ogy of space, is representative of its beginnings [116]. More recently, Pallasmaa, influenced by previous authors, examined the phenomenology of space in architecture [117,118] that claimed architecture takes account of the human biological dimension. Pallasmaa’s line here is shared with Holl and Pérez-Gómez [119,120]. The phenomenology of space has more recently gained momentum under new approaches based on the concept of atmo- spheres [121,122]: quasi-things, without discrete or visible limits, that exist because of our emotional encounter with the environment [123,124]. Thus, the phenomenology of space and geographical experience have not been neglected.

The Philosophy, Environmental Psychology, and Evidence-Based Design Approach

Psychology addresses the behaviours and mental processes involved in its experi- ence [125]. Its focus on space is “environmental psychology” [126,127]. Environmental psychology takes phenomenology as one of its substrates [128]. Hence, it is sometimes diffi-

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Principle

Totality Dialectic Contrast Hierarchy Birkhoff Symmetry Multi-stability Reification Completion Closure Continuity Good Gestalt Invariance Proximity Similarity Experience

cult to distinguish them nor is it easy to discern the philosophical origins of environmental psychology [129].

It is illustrative to consider philosophical milestones. Burke [130] presented an in- fluential philosophical exposition on aesthetics, theorising about beauty through psy- chophysiological concepts. Burke’s ideas attracted the attention of Kant, who identified space and time as the mental structure of things that we know [131]. A series of works contributed to the expansion of psychology. Among these are Zeising, who combined geometry and psychology [132], art, physiology, and emotion linked by Friedrich Theodor Vischer [133] and Robert Vischer [134] (who coined the term “einfühlung”: aesthetic empa- thy, the process through which humans project their emotions onto objects), Fechner, who combined physiology and psychology [135], Wundt [136] and Stumpf [137], who combined psychophysiology and philosophy. Later, Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler (students of Stumpf) established gestalt psychology [138]. Gestalt psychology established principles, or laws, [139] about the organisation of scenes (Table 3). Many design professionals, including architects, have often embraced these principles. It is noteworthy that Koffka [140] studied the organisation of the visual field, and Köhler developed the concept of “isomorphism” including the correlation between experience and neural activity [141] and experience as a sensory sum [142]. At this historic point, the connections between psychology and neuroscience were evident. Although subsequent studies may have rejected some of these findings, some have been accepted and the works themselves have been recognised as meritorious [143].

Table 3. Compilation of some gestalt principles.

Trend

The whole is different from the sum (the perception of entities depends on their context) Establishing entities separate from their background

The entity is better perceived if there is marked contrast with its background

The greater the importance of an entity, the more hierarchical its parts are Entities with multiple axes are more positively perceived

To perceive features as symmetrical, around a centre point

Perceiving different entities from the same ambiguous experience

To assign more information to a perception than is contained in the base stimuli

To perceive forms as closed when they are not

To perceive closed forms as better

To integrate elements of entities if they are aligned

To integrate elements of entities if they form a regular pattern

To recognise entities, regardless of transformations

Group entities based on their proximity

Group entities based on their similarities

To categorise stimuli based on previous experiences

One of the advantages of environmental psychology for addressing the cognitive- emotional dimension of architecture is its evaluation instruments. Semantic differential is among the most used [144]. This is based on the idea that a concept can acquire meaning when a sign (word) provokes the response associated with what it represents, which sug- gests the existence of an underlying structure. The models of Küller [145–147] and Russell & Mehrabian [148], which described the affective-emotional states elicited by the experi- ence of space, should be highlighted. One of its first applications was in architecture [149]. More recently, it has been used to quantify the relative importance of different design

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variables [150]. In this respect, it should be noted that some variables, such as the presence of vegetation and illumination, have been examined, but others, such as those focused on spatial geometry, have been less explored (probably, in part, because of the experimental difficulty involved in modifying them in a controlled manner). Semantic differential has also been used in the context of Kansei engineering, which is a product development method that translates the underlying structure into configurations of variables [151]. It has been applied in different contexts, including the architectural [152–154] and urban planning [153,155].

A more practical application of the tools available in environmental psychology is an evidence-based design (EBD) approach: “the process of basing decisions about the built environment on credible research” [156]. Its origins can be found in the medical field, as an extension of evidence-based medicine [157] to architectural design [158]. Illustrative are the plan analyses [159] and post-occupancy evaluations [160]. Since Ulrich demonstrated the influence of the environment on patient recovery [6], it has been widely applied in healthcare spaces [161–166]. One of the reasons that EBD is so widely used is that it is available for any organisation [167]. Various aspects have been studied. For example, some aspects include reducing pain [168] and stress [169], improving rest [170], spatial orientation [171], wandering [172], privacy and security [173], social cohesion [174], overall well-being and satisfaction [175], and the design of children-tailored environments [176]. Table 4 compiles effects generated by different design variables, according to different studies both in environmental psychology and EBD.

Table 4. Effects generated by variables or aspects of architectural design frequently studied in the environmental psychology and EBD approach.

Design Variable

Ceiling height

Presence of vegetation

Complexity

Illumination

Colour

Use Coherence

Effect

High ceilings inspire freedom, low ceilings calm [177].

High ceilings generate greater creativity and feelings of comfort [178].

Ceiling height positively affects wayfinding [179]

Vegetation reduces stress and anxiety [4].

In parks, pleasure increases based on tree density, and arousal with weed density [180].

Biophilia hypothesis: preference for natural forms [181,182].

Attention restoration theory: natural environments are restorative. Their restorative characteristics are “fascination,” “being away,” “coherence,” and “compatibility” [183].

Preference for moderate levels of complexity, similar to a savannah environment [184]. Prospect-refuge: preference for natural and built environments, which offer visual control of the

environment and places to hide [185–187].

Colour temperature and illuminance are interrelated with comfort [188].

Natural light reduces hospital stays [189].

Light and form are interrelated: walls and ceilings influence the perception of brightness. A room appears larger when it receives more indirect light [190].

Mood valence and cognitive performance alter based on light parameters: colour temperature with a less negative effect on mood, improved cognitive performance, the combination of colour temperature, and illuminance with better evaluation in mood, improved cognitive performance [191].

Emotional states affect the perception of brightness [192].

Extracted at an early stage of visual processing [193]

Wide variety of effects on aesthetic preferences [194].

Hue and saturation are related to the emotional state [195].

Warm tones have higher arousal values, and colder tones are lower [196]. The use to which a space is put influences its psychological evaluation [197].

In natural settings, the coherence of a setting with wooden furniture is significantly greater than a setting with metal furniture, but significantly less than a setting without furniture [198].

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Valsts prezidents Egils Levits piedalās Vairas Vīķes-Freibergas grāmatas “The Singer of Songs. On Cognitive Shemas and Sequential Structuring in Longer Latvian Folk Songs” atvēršanas svētkos. Foto: Ilmārs Znotiņš, VPK

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