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Kaaterskill Falls is a two-drop waterfall located near in the eastern Catskill Mountains of New York, on the north side of Kaaterskill Clove, between the hamlets of Haines Falls and Palenville in Greene County's Town of Hunter. The dual cascades total 260 feet (79 m) in height, making the falls the highest in New York, and one of the Eastern United States' taller waterfalls. The falls are one of America's oldest tourist attractions, wappearing in some of the most prominent books, essays, poems and paintings of the early 19th century.
While the falls are on public land, they can only be reached via the Kaaterskill Falls Trail, a state-maintained yellow-blazed path running 0.4 mile (650 m) uphill from NY 23A, the only road through the clove. Built in 1967, the trail, though challenging enough for experienced hikers, is the most-hiked trail in the Catskill Park, contribtuing to erosion.
The falls, like the clove and creek with which they share a name, are a relatively recent addition to the Catskills in geologic time. They evolved through stream capture at the end of the Illinois glaciation, when runoff from the glacial melt that created North-South Lake began to flow away from the nearby headwaters of Schoharie Creek and down the steep slopes of the newly-created clove. The rushing waters of what would become known as Spruce Creek eroded a natural amphitheater at roughly 2,000 feet (609 m) on the south slope of South Mountain. Most of the drop is accounted for by the upper cascade. The shelf breaking the two falls (and creating the huge pool) is the break between the Manorkill Sandstone formed in the Middle Devonian period and the Oneonta-Genesee sandstone-shale mix of the late Devonian period.
While the falls' existence was known prior to colonization, it played minor role among the indigenous peoples of the Hudson Valley, who avoided the Catskills due to the limited agricultural possibilities of higher elevations. The falls' name probably came from a later corruption of "Catskill" by English-speaking colonists who had supplanted the Dutch by the early 18th century. Cat could mean Bobcat or Mountain Lion, while "kill" means stream in Dutch.
Early American naturalist John Bartram visited the falls on his 1753 expedition to the area. In "A Journey to Ye Cat Skill Mountains with Billy," one of the earliest Catskill travelogues, called it "the great gulf that swallowed all down." Still, Americans regarded upstate New York as unsafe and populated by savage natives. It wasn't until after the War of 1812 when the frontier shifted far to the west that attitudes changed.
The falls' fame began with a mention by Washington Irving in "Rip Van Winkle" in 1819. Drawn by Irving's story, pioneering Hudson River School artist Thomas Cole took a steamboat ride up the Hudson in October of 1825. The resulting paintings were featured on the front page of the New York Evening Post, and in turn helped make the Hudson River Valley one of the foremost tourist destinations in the country. A trip to the falls became something of a pilgrimmage for the first influential class of truly American artists. The earliest known view of the front of the Falls by Thomas Cole, dated 1826, is in the Westervelt Warner Museum in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Perhaps the best-known depiction is Asher Durand's highly stylized "Kindred Spirits" (1849), eulogizing the recently deceased Cole.
At some time in the 19th century the falls were used as a mill to power a tannery. The Laurel House, a nearby hotel, acquired the water rights to Spruce Creek and dammed it during tourist season, charging spectators a fee to watch as the falls were "turned on". In 1885 New York State established the Forest Peserve, which later became part of the New York State Constitution. The "forever wild" requirement helped protect the area from logging and commercial development, once the falls property came into state ownership during the early 20th century. They are today part of the North Mountain Wild Forest, a Forest Preserve Unit owned and managed by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC).
This image is of the Sun Dial at the Chinnese Gardens on the Tacoma WA Waterfront on Commencement Bay, The image was taken between heavy storms.
Camera: Canon AE-1 Program.
Lens: Canon FDn 50mm 1.8.
Filter: Hoya 52mm Ultra Pro UV.
Film: Candido 400 35mm.
Dev/Scan: miyagistudio.com
Photo: ragonar.com
Location: Madrid (Spain).
Date: December 2024.
It's the season between winter and spring. No snow, no leaves either, but they will soon arrived with the lengthening days
Lyman Woods Forest Preserve - Downers Grove IL
(2012) 365 Day Project Day 58
After a few days of really hot weather we had a day of almost constant rain. In between a couple of major downpours I wandered around the garden trying to get some water droplet shots.
This is the first of a planned 200 wind turbine windfarm based around the Beatrice Oil Field, in the Inner Moray Firth. This is one of the largest off-shore windmills built in the UK, and certainly the largest wind turbinel installed in deep water.
subject: two of a kind
50/365
Constructive feedback if you can, please! :) Be as honest as you can! :D
© Image by JeffreyHuang - All rights reserved. This image may not be changed, used, copied, or altered in any way without my permission and consent.
Jeff McMullen, Wayne Muir, (standing) Naomi Wolfe, Ken Ralph, Annette
Schneider (seated)
“Closing the Space Between Us”
Easing the Crisis in Indigenous
Health and Education
Jeff McMullen
2007 Annual Aquinas Lecture
Australian Catholic University Ballarat
Jim-baa-yer Indigenous Unit
Friday 14th September 2007
I am torn as I stand here tonight between sharing what I know is happening to Aboriginal communities and wanting to be there as the sun rises tomorrow.
In Barunga, a Jawoyn community in southern Arnhem Land, they will walk tomorrow along a heavily trodden sandy track through the trees to bury a very young man who died way too soon. He is the son of an Aboriginal teacher, Lorraine Bennett, a woman my family thinks of as one of our favourite people in the world. My words tonight are in honour of this young life and of his wonderful mother who has taught so much to so many other children, even mine.
When my son, Will, now 12, and daughter, Claire, now 13, were considerably younger they sent Lorraine books, the right books, the ones she said she needed. This inspiring teacher with the beautiful smile used those books to start the first preschool in Wugularr, 120 kilometres south of Katherine.
Lorraine works now for the Sunrise Health Service Aboriginal Corporation which has the huge job of bringing health to people scattered across vast distances in Arnhem Land. Lorraine directs the early learning and health education project supported by Ian Thorpe’s Fountain for Youth trust. She understands that if we are to create a brighter and more hopeful life for all Australian children then we need to create the change that can only come through education. If we are to overcome the crisis in Aboriginal communities around this country we have to educate ourselves to understand the truth.
Over fifty years of world wandering has deepened my appreciation of the extraordinary journey made by Aboriginal people to be here today as the world’s oldest continuous culture.
I am not romanticising the past but it is essential to acknowledge the strength, the beauty and the value of Australia’s Indigenous cultures to understand the scale of the crisis afflicting so many of our 460,000 Indigenous people.
Wherever you live in Australia you need to find out the longer timelines of the history of this land and its people to understand what is happening now.
Here in Victoria, it was plagues of sickness following European occupation that ravaged the Wathawurrung people on this land of theirs. Not since the arrival of those European illnesses has Aboriginal culture as a whole faced such a grave threat.
There is a genuine emergency today in the heartland of this country but it is not mentioned once in over 500 pages of legislation rushed through our Federal Parliament to try to legitimise the illegitimate takeover of the rights of Aboriginal communities. Eerily, it is hard to find mention of children in those 500 pages of legislation.
The federal intervention, approved by both major political parties, almost completely misreads the real trauma and the greatest threat to Aboriginal lives.
What is killing most Aboriginal people 17 to 20 years before their time is a plague of chronic illness known as Syndrome X. This is a new Black Death cutting the heart out of several generations of Aboriginal people. It is both physical and mental sickness on such a scale that Aboriginal communities are now shrouded in a seemingly endless procession of funerals and mourning.
In the 1980’s, travelling widely in the remote communities, I used the phrase “a health emergency” to describe for governments and our nation the accelerating plague of diabetes, renal disease, strokes, hypertension and heart disease. Syndrome X has been gathering terrible force. Governments, state and federal, have held numerous inquiries, health strategies have been plotted time and again, but no Government has invested adequately in the integrated program of health, housing, work and, in particular, education that can end this preventable cluster of chronic illnesses.
Look at it this way. Over 70% of your family’s good health is determined by your socio-economic status : your education, the money you earn at work, the quality of your home and the health care you access. Aboriginal people, on the UN’s measurement, have the second worst quality of life on earth, outdone in squalor and disadvantage only by the poorest rural Chinese.
Here in the midst of a Golden Age for most Australians, when the wealth of this Aboriginal Land has built an astonishing federal surplus of over 17 billion dollars this year, we still have hundreds of thousands of Aboriginal people, the owners of this Land, living in dire poverty. They are by far the most disadvantaged of Australia’s two million people living below the poverty line. I have seen children who wander around looking for food. Thousands of children are not even enrolled for school and many teenagers wander aimlessly. Whole communities have been denied their human right to adequate food, housing, health and education. As a result we are now witnessing the very rapid disintegration of so many Aboriginal families, in remote, rural and urban communities.
Aboriginal people have barely wiped the tears from their eyes when there’s news of another death, especially young men who see no future in their own country, ashamed middle aged men in the grip of alcohol and illness who know they can’t support their families and broken men who die in the long grass or sometimes in a police cell.
Just a few years ago at Barunga we buried one of the Jawoyn’s great modern leaders. The late Bangardi Lee was just 53, young enough to be my brother. But in these parts I meet few Aboriginal men my age. Mr Lee died after suffering but never complaining about his handful of Syndrome X chronic illnesses. This thoughtful man knew that education was the key to a better chance of health for all of his community and he had asked Ian Thorpe and myself to lend a hand to try to improve the staggering 93% illiteracy in this zone of distress. As he was lowered into the ground, in the Aboriginal custom we pressed our sweat onto the coffin and I whispered a promise that I would do as he asked and do what we could until these children, the Children of the Sunrise, had the same opportunity as my own.
When my mother was a country child, growing up on the land near Singleton in the Hunter Valley, she lived opposite a shanty settlement of very poor Aboriginal families. She told my brothers and I that as she walked barefoot to school she came to see that it was wrong that Aboriginal children were then denied a chance to learn in that same school. In my family we felt the same way to know that in the whole of the Northern Territory only 62 Aboriginal children completed high school in government schools in 2004 as we worked with Ian Thorpe to build an early learning and health education program. My son, Will and daughter, Claire, were unsettled when they learned that Aboriginal children had so little. They, too, knew it was wrong. It was the unfairness they couldn’t bear.
“I know why these kids find it so hard when they start school”, Will said. “They never see a book at home.” Yes, bookless homes, scores of communities without a library or a pre-school this is part of our failure. Claire and Will truly could not imagine a childhood without books, without that world of pure joy and discovery that is opened up through reading.
Yet every Australian literacy study confirms that by Year 3 many Indigenous children have fallen eighteen months behind the national literacy and numeracy standards. The strugglers continue to deteriorate and by grade seven lag five years behind. How will these Australian children make their way through life with the literacy level of a six-year-old?
If they can’t read or write properly how will they ever find their way out of the maze of poverty and poor health? How will they get a driver’s licence to move with freedom in the wider world or ever hold down a well paying job? Almost certainly non-readers will become dependent on others for simple but sometimes critical functions. In the Jawoyn communities, Bangardi Lee used to say how distressing it was for his people to turn to outsiders, even to write letters begging for help from Canberra.
Closing the gap in life expectancy between Aboriginal people and the rest of Australians is our greatest national challenge. The key is to close the gap in education.
It is no coincidence that in regions like Arnhem Land where the median age of death of Aboriginal men is around 46, much lower than the national average of around 56 for Indigenous men, you also find these illiteracy rates as high as 93%. The explanation lies in the complex chain of factors that produce disadvantage beginning at birth and developing into a loss of control over individual lives and even the destiny of whole communities.
In the case of some children the disadvantage starts in utero. American scholar, Paul E. Barton, found that of fourteen major factors contributing to the racial gap in educational achievement, eight of them occurred before the child reached school. Of great interest to me was Barton’s finding that hunger, nutrition and low-birthweight were important contributors. He is not alone in these findings.
Syndrome X, that cluster of illnesses devastating Aboriginal lives, was for a long time explained by some as the consequence of a weak gene. I heard the same racial excuse used thirty years ago to explain the disproportionate amount of these illnesses among Native Americans or African-Americans I was filming at the time for Four Corners. But this theory has been shattered in recent years. Professor John Bertram of Monash University and a team that included the Menzies School of Health Research in the NT and the University of Mississippi examined autopsies of those who had died of the Syndrome X illnesses. They found a fascinating constant. It crossed over races but it hovered around hunger and poverty. The common factor was being born a dangerously low birth weight baby.
Young Aboriginal mothers are often malnourished and have untreated infections. In utero their unborn baby develops too few nephrons in the kidney. These are the tiny filters. You don’t catch up on nephrons. The hand you are dealt at birth is what you will live and die with. With too few nephrons the kidney of the Aboriginal child struggles and overcompensates, with an increased risk of scarring and ultimately early kidney disease, then premature death. I wear another hat as a Trustee of Jimmy Little’s Foundation which is committed to helping Aboriginal people on dialysis get back to their country when they are battling through the last years of their lives. Australian hospitals are now seeing the start of an avalanche of patients requiring costly dialysis but many Aboriginal people won’t get this treatment and they too will die years before their time.
This is the epitaph we chisel on their tombstones. Born into disadvantage and died that way.
A leading Aboriginal scholar, Professor Ted Wilkes and Dr Fiona Stanley of the Telethon Institute report in their landmark Western Australian assessment of Aboriginal health a disturbing pattern of hunger, poor nutrition and a high incidence of smoking and drinking even while those young Aboriginal mothers were pregnant. 49 per cent of Indigenous mothers smoked through pregnancy and 23 per cent continued to drink alcohol. These are two more of the major causes of those dangerously low birth-weight babies.
What distressed the researchers the most was that apparently the health education message had never reached these young people or had been ignored. If you work in education we need to make a far more vigorous and creative effort, with messages shaped by Indigenous people, to help especially young teenage mothers understand that it is not only their health that is threatened. It is the future of their child, including the child’s intellect and ability to learn.
This kind of education is not part of the Federal Government’s intervention in the Northern Territory.
The Federal Government has never adequately funded the vital screening and prevention programs to prevent the epidemics of illness and disease. Led by the ex-Army Captain, Mal Brough, some troops lend a hand on logistics but they should be building up the vital services that have never been provided in so many of these communities. The Volunteer GP’s are now paid by the Federal Government to complete health checks to establish an audit of a health disaster that has been assessed numerous times. They will not be there long enough to provide real treatment. When they go home the pattern of chronic illness will remain.
The Northern Territory Intervention patronisingly ignores the good work by Aboriginal medical services, staffed by black and white Australians who can never get the adequate primary health care funding they need.
Mal Brough’s Intervention is a show of concern but it offers very little treatment for the conditions or illnesses of poverty that afflict these children.
Most of these children will never access the pharmaceutical benefits scheme because there are chemist shops in Aboriginal communities. They will not access the medical benefits scheme either because there may be only one GP for a vast area of the Northern Territory.
According to the National Rural health Alliance the number of Australian-trained GP’s choosing
to bring care to the seven million Australians living in the bush has plummeted.
The Aboriginal Health Services need more nurses, dentists and other health professionals. Their patients are about five times sicker than other Australians.
Aboriginal children have ailments hardly seen in our cities in thirty years, including the world’s highest rate of acute rheumatic heart fever, scabies, anaemia and other diseases of poverty, and otitis media, middle ear infections which cause serious loss of hearing and become a life long learning disability for over 80% of the Jawoyn children. These infections, which are detected in babies as young as three months spread rapidly in overcrowded houses, often with ten, fifteen or more people crowded together, sleeping on old mattresses. There’s broken plumbing, stoves and fridges often don’t work and there’s no one with a real plan to help them find their way out of this maze of poverty and bad health.
Patrick Dodson has stated firmly that only the Federal Government has the level of funding required to change this health disaster. This year, the Aboriginal Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commissioner, Tom Calma decided to lead the Close the Gap campaign to focus our nation on this task at the start of a long federal election season. Cathy Freeman, Ian Thorpe and virtually every significant health organization in this land have joined forces to communicate a hopeful and positive message that within a decade we can make true progress and that with the will and the national commitment we will see that the ten thousand Aboriginal children born this year finally move towards a genuine equality of opportunity.
The Australian Medical Association, using estimates shaped by the health economist John Deeble, has estimated that an additional $460 million dollars a year is urgently required for primary health care in Aboriginal communities. I have pleaded for the past six years with the Federal Government to create the emergency level of aid that is required to deal with this genuine emergency. Kevin Rudd has put a couple of hundred million dollars on the table for an increased commitment to Indigenous Health. If the Prime Minister wants to see change in the lives of abused and neglected Aboriginal children he should now make a stronger commitment to provide the required level of Primary Health Care. I am not interested in more blaming. Let’s stop talking and get this done. In that prized future fund we have the bounty. Now we must have the belief. Let me share with you the proof that it can be done.
A good deal of research, especially by the Canadian scientist, Dr Fraser Mustard, has established that for every additional year of education provided to a whole community of young teenage women, we will add up to four years life expectancy to their first child.
Professor Ken Wyatt, formerly head of Aboriginal Health in NSW and now in charge of Western Australia’s Aboriginal health policy, adds another great incentive. Increasing the education of those young women by a single year can also reduce the danger of infant mortality when they give birth by between 7 and 10%. This is what I think of when I say, “Literacy is for life”.
What more motivation or sense of purpose can we want to create a very different kind of intervention : primary health care, managed and delivered by well funded Aboriginal health organizations, and education on a revolutionary scale that we have never provided Aboriginal children. Guaranteed pre-school education for all Australian children would be a great place to start. Go Kevin 07! But come on John! If you are going to fight out this election Prime Minister and offer a plan for the future, radically boost the investment in early learning.
Indigenous children are so disadvantaged that we need a literacy brigade of well educated people to rapidly lift the rate of learning. After I made this proposal two years ago at the Garma National Education Conference in the Northern Territory, the Minister for Indigenous Affairs responded by inviting the so called Grey Panthers to visit some remote communities in their caravans. This, as every teacher knows, is simply not enough.
The most disadvantaged students, in fact, require the highest standards of teaching. Some retired teachers and principals would have those talents and many others with appropriate cultural training could support these badly undermanned schools. The real champions of Indigenous education like Dr Chris Sara believe that the first step is to retrain principals to retrain their teachers to believe that Aboriginal children can reach the same standard of learning as the rest of Australian children.
But as with health workers, we need to fund an adequate education force equal to the great national task ahead of us.
I escorted the Federal Education Minister to one of the remote communities to show her that this can be done.
At Ian Thorpe’s Fountain for Youth Trust we have had some good support from the Federal Education department for our seven year effort to help improve the health and education of all Australian children.
Ian has been a true champion, visiting many of the remote communities, encouraging the children, their parents and their teachers. He is a strong man, with a big heart and a very fine mind. When asked how long he will persist in this work, he says, until we get the job done.
Charles Perkins told me many years ago that for Aboriginal people the road to equality would be a very long and hard one. We have to remain relentless and find the best in one another. Aboriginal people have been teaching me this for years.
Our strategy at Ian Thorpe’s Fountain for Youth trust is to focus on the well being of the young mothers, with early learning for their infants and a highly successful program of support for literacy at the primary school level.
Our Literacy Backpacks are tackling those bookless homes and supporting the NT teachers by closing the space between the school and the home. First we raise funds from the public. $200 can fund a child’s Literacy Backpack for a year’s worth of good reading. We seek support from companies like Credit Suisse Australia, Kessler and Vodafone to help resource a good school library with books tailored to the Accelerated Learning strategy favoured in the remote area schools. We enrol the kids in the Scholastic or Wombat Book club so they have the same encouragement and enjoyment as my children did as they make their own selections of reading. Instead of forcing truant kids to walk around picking up rubbish and other punitive, humiliating versions of this so called “tough love” approach of the NT intervention, the teachers we work with give the children an incentive to learn, to find themselves in the book. If the kids make good progress they get vouchers to purchase any book they like from the Katherine Bookshop. It’s owner, another spirited woman who believes in education, says many of these Aboriginal families are now saving and spending hundreds of dollars to provide more books for their children.
In the Literacy Backpacks the children take home a selection of reading for the whole family, for their younger brothers and sisters as well. They also carry home Aboriginal newspapers like the Koori Mail and the National Indigenous Times. Magazines on nutrition, cooking and baby care are very popular among the women. It’s incentive. It’s what these families are looking for and when children see their parents reading a newspaper or a magazine about contemporary Indigenous issues they know that learning is not a “gubba thing” just for white fellas..
To see people reading in those once bookless homes is a great satisfaction for teachers like Lorraine Bennett. Many of these Aboriginal schools in the Jawoyn communities are seeing significant measurable increases in the reading performances of the children.
Some of the girls used to ask my daughter Claire, “What are you going to do next ? “Well high school first,” she’d say. “I want to run fast like Cathy Freeman, swim fast like Ian, and then go to University like mum and dad.” I like to see our kids together, the boys running wild with Will and sharing their stories. Australian children sharing dreams.
Most of these children have never been far from their homelands. Learning and finding out what they truly need to know, those life empowering skills, will allow them to travel and come home. The greatest sense of progress is to hear children we know now talk of going to high school in Darwin or Cairns. It’s always hard to leave home and not every kid can handle that journey. Many Aboriginal leaders would love to see new residential high schools built to let children from several different communities share their school week together and then go home for a long weekend. At the moment scholarships and a very long journey is the only way. If they can make it, their mothers and fathers glow with pride.
It is so important to most of these parents to see that Indigenous culture is as prized as everything else in the school syllabus. Ian Thorpe’s Trust supports Aboriginal people to train the children in music, art and dance. Where possible these talents can flow into viable work and business that allows people a real chance to move from away from life limiting welfare dependency. In Wugularr, the Aboriginal actor, Tom Lewis, and local men organised the rebuilding of a Cultural Education Centre where young people are now trained in many forms of cultural expression usually shown off proudly at the annual Walking with Spirits festival.
In Queensland I have collaborated with the Aboriginal educator, Ernie Grant, on his “My Land, My Tracks” project. This is a teaching aide to help orient children to find out who they really are and how they fit into the longer timelines of Australian history. My experience with communities like Yarrabah and Kuranda, near Cairns, indicates that all forms of learning rapidly improve when Aboriginal children are more secure in their cultural knowledge and can value and respect their elders and their heritage. With Ernie Grant I share a passion to see Indigenous Studies elevated in importance in all levels of Australian education. As much as I learned at University I have made an effort throughout my professional lifetime to expand and deepen my appreciation of what it really means to live in this Aboriginal land. This can be a personal journey for every Australian.
What is missing in the Federal Government’s intervention into Aboriginal community life is any real empathy, any sense that we are walking with them, listening and learning. I am sorry but the words do matter and there is a coldness and insensitivity about this new policy of assimilation. There has been little meaningful consultation with the Aboriginal community leaders. Some were so upset they travelled to Federal Parliament but still couldn’t meet with those planning this radical upheaval. Very few Aboriginal people that I know in the Northern Territory agree that traditional lands should be under federal control through five year leases, evolving possibly into 99 year leases. Most are opposed to ending the permit system. Many more are fearful that John Howard’s Northern Territory plan, in the name of protecting children, is attempting to take over most aspects of running their families and communities.
In the name of ending welfare dependency we see the return to white management and clearly discriminatory practices. It is hard to see how this punitive approach will provide the training or even the right atmosphere for Aboriginal people to make their own moves to something better.
Claiming to “save their children” does not disguise the truth that this policy once more treats Aboriginal parents as incapable of looking after their children. It shames men and women, all of them, regardless of their behaviour. It is a return to the Mission mentality of subservience and inferiority. I thought we had agreed to leave that behind.
We must be honest here. The NT legislation is blatant discrimination. One set of rules for someone else. The legislation set aside the provisions of the Racial Discrimination Act. It also ignores the recommendations of the UN Committee against Discrimination urging Australia to uphold the right of Indigenous people to consultation in the decision making about their lives. The First Australians do have a right to autonomy that is once more being denied. Yet once more we are hearing that old misguided argument made when Aboriginal children of the Stolen Generation were denied their rights. We have to save the children, is again the cry.
The NT Intervention is an ideological power-play by a Prime Minister who has never believed that Aboriginal people have an exceptional, sacred right to their Land,
the entitlement of Native Title legally established by the High Court. This is a Prime Minister, according to his biography, that told his Treasurer that he would not walk in a Reconciliation March with Cabinet. I have tried to work cooperatively with several of Mr Howard’s federal ministers and know some want far better than this for Aboriginal people. But our federal parliament in a failure of will and judgement has ridden along with this intervention and watched the steady erosion of Aboriginal rights for over a decade.
The Federal Government’s refusal to say SORRY effectively ended Reconciliation. The Governments 10 Point Plan undermined Native Title. This was followed by the denial of the Indigenous Right to Self-Determination, the abolishment of ATSC and the isolation of Indigenous leaders who do not support assimilation. Then came the cultivation of a new Conservative agenda to remove or weaken the teaching of Aboriginal culture in schools. For an animist people who see the Land as their Mother the final and greatest insult is to see the Federal Government take control of the community land on which they live.
After many lifetimes of denial of who Aboriginal people really are, came many more lifetimes of struggle to win respect for their Culture and see them treated as equals.
It is a shameful Big Lie to present the abuse of these rights as in the best interests of Aboriginal people.
The NT intervention is replete with treachery and a looming sense of greater tragedy to come if it is allowed to continue as planned. Thankfully the outcry from many has softened the initial order for mandatory sexual inspections of Aboriginal children.
But the health organizations that do the hard work of caring for all of these children say nothing has yet been done to fund that essential primary health care or education on the scale required.
After all of the battles for justice and civil rights, that long road trudged by true Australian heroes like Jack Patton and William Ferguson, the historic claims by Vincent Lingiari, Eddie Mabo, the Wik people and others, are we now going to watch in silence as Aboriginal people once more see their lives taken over by
Government managers.
It is forty years since the moral force of Australians expressed clearly in the 1967 referendum our belief in human equality.
It is time to speak up and insist that whomever wins the coming federal election our federal government must invest some of that future fund in the real future of a great society, health and education for our children.
These are the Children of the Sunrise.
SOURCES
1. “No Excuses – Closing the Racial Gap in Learning. Stephen and Abigail Thernstrom. Simon & Schuster. New York. 2003.
2.“My Land, My Tracks”. Ernie Grant. Innisfail & District Education Centre. Innisfail.1998.
3.“Preliminary findings in a multiracial study of kidneys in autopsy”. Hoy, W.E., Douglas-Denton, R.N., Hughson, M.D., Cass, A.,Johnson,K., Betram, J.F., Kidney Journal International. 83, 31-37. June 2003.
4.“Benefits of Swimming Pools in Two Remote Communities in Western Australia”. (Includes Aboriginal childhood illness assessment) Lehmann,L., Tennant,M., Silva,D., McAullay,D., Lannigan,F., Coates,H. and Stanley,F. British Medical Journal (2003) 7412, 415-419.
5. “Public Report Card, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health: Time for Action”. Australian Medical Association. www.ama.com
6.“Parsing the Achievement Gap”, Paul E. Barton.
Analyses 14 factors contributing to the Racial
gap in Learning. Published by The Policy
Information Centre of the Educational Testing
Service. New York. 2003.
7. Western Australia Aboriginal Health Survey. Dr
Fiona Stanley, Assoc. Professor Ted Wilkes et
al. Telethon Institute for Child health
Research. Perth. WA.
8. Details of Health Education, Early Learning at
the Women Centres & Literacy Backpack
Projects available from Ian Thorpe’s Fountain
for Youth Trust. PO Box 402, Manly, NSW.
1655. Telephone : 02-89669422.
Oak Alley Plantation, along River Road in Louisiana. Probably one of the most famous of the southern plantations. It has been in movies www.oakalleyplantation.com/about/movies+filmed+here/
and has quite a history www.oakalleyplantation.com/about/history/
We had driven from Natchez to New Orleans and were on hour 7 of the road trip along the River Road when we came upon Oak Alley. It was raining and they wanted to charge an unreal amount of money for the tour so we skipped the tour. I told my husband to drive around the back of it along a public road, just in case there was a photo opportunity there. We hit the mother lode because this IS THE CLASSIC photo that can be seen on the Internet--and we got it for FREE! There was a little hill by the bank of the river (how convenient) and I took this shot at 55 mm end of my 55-200mm lens from there. The lighting was more conducive to B&W, thus another mono shot this week.
This is how I picture Tara or Twelve Oaks in Gone With the Wind so it's a fav of mine.
We booked the tour that allowed us to go into Stonehenge at the very end of the day after the regurlar visitor's times were over. There were only about thirty of us, and we were allowed to leave the path and actually wander around between the stones. Definitely worth the extra money!
Between intervals of huddling underneath their mother's wings, the greylag goslings (Anser anser) are grabbing a quick bite.
Zwischen Intervallen unter Mutters Flügel, versuchen die Graugansküken (Anser anser) schnell ein paar Halme Gras zu fressen.
Between errands today I stopped at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park. I enjoy living close to this historic battleground and like being here, especially on certain holidays.
I wasn't necessarily looking for a Memorial Day photo. I changed my mind when I saw this lone head stone & flag.
As an American, I give thanks to all veterans - living & dead - whatever their nationality - who fought so I can have the freedoms that I enjoy.
Waiting outside during 21st Annual BLUE MASS at St. Patrick's Catholic Church on 10th between F and G Street, NW, Washington DC on Tuesday afternoon, 5 May 2015 by Elvert Barnes Photography
Lowering of American Flag from Fire Apparatus Aerial Ladders
St. Patrick's Catholic Church BLUE MASS at www.saintpatrickdc.org/bluemass.shtml
National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial NATIONAL POLICE WEEK at www.nleomf.org/programs/policeweek/
Elvert Barnes 2015 NATIONAL POLICE WEEK docu-project at elvertbarnes.com/NPW2015
"Leave unsaid unspoken,
Eyes wide shut, unopened.
You and me will always be
Between the lines."
Between The Lines - Sara Bareilles
I needed this. I've been dealing with an awful lot this past month in so many ways, and it was amazing to be able to go out into the woods and just create. To be crazy and not have a care in the world besides my art. I'm sure, now, that this is exactly what I'm meant to do.
Flickr does terrible things to this; I don't even know...
Classical, Hellenistic, or Roman period: variously dated between the 4th c. BCE and the 1st c. CE
Found in the mouth of the river Sele (Foce del Sele) at Paestum, probably originally from the nearby Sanctuary of Hera (see on Pleiades).
Recovered during underwater survey undertaken in 1974 by the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Salerno under Mario Napoli.
In the collection of the Parco Archeologico di Paestum
Photographed on display in the exhibit "Thalassa: meraviglie sommerse dal Mediterraneo" (December 12, 2019-August 31, 2020) at the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli (MANN).
Between Man and Touba / Godufu (via Biankouma, Foungesso and Go), we stopped to visit a village (Silakro, Silakoro, Sirakoro or Sirakro) famous for its pond of venerated catfish.
Bain News Service,, publisher.
Sims & Burrage
[between ca. 1915 and ca. 1920]
1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. or smaller.
Notes:
Title from data provided by the Bain News Service on the negative.
Photograph shows William Sowden Sims (1858-1936), who was the leader of U.S. Naval forces in Europe during World War I.
Forms part of: George Grantham Bain Collection (Library of Congress).
Format: Glass negatives.
Rights Info: No known restrictions on publication.
Repository: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA, hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
General information about the Bain Collection is available at hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.ggbain
Higher resolution image is available (Persistent URL): hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.28470
Call Number: LC-B2- 4873-11
On the Joban line.
Please enjoy in the interactive viewer! (thanks to fieldOfView and Aldo)
And small but quick interactive viewer is here (Wrapr Beta)
- SLR camera and lens: Nikon D80 /w Sigma 8mm fisheye
- panoramic head: handheld (with Simon's "HaPaLa")
- 4 pan (+15 degrees picth for 2, -15 degree picth for 2) [datails]
- software: ptgui and Photoshop on MS-Windows XP
It's been a good year for ice. All the forest streams are locked up tight, swallowed by a skin that gets thicker all the time. Down at the shoreline, they melt into the seawater, fade and freeze between the tides. It's some kind of otherworldly beauty, forming different every year, new shapes like frozen fingerprints. I try to visit them all at least once each winter, see what colours they've leached from the minerals, how they've twisted and changed shape from temperature fluctuations. It's the closest something inanimate comes to having a personality. Crystalline company on these midwinter wanders, making friends with the falls.
January 14, 2019
Outram, Nova Scotia
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For 'The Bridge'
at Rena Bransten Gallery
APRIL 5 - JUNE 2, 2012
Opening Reception: Thursday, April 5
5:30 - 7:30pm
LGBT VALLEY WEEKEND -Open event from JULY 31th to AUGUST 01th.
Items with prices between 50L$ and 80L$
♥ This week, the Designers are:
Bella Noté/Love Lace/Famous/Mish-Mesh/osha's secret /Brillancia/LouChara Designs/Charazad Design/
Acrid/iicing/Unholy&JTM/UwU Kawaii Store/REED/Achromance/B(u)Y ME/R3D Studio/[piXit]/CheerNo/BellePoses/ Candy Moon/ LA PERLA /[QE] Designs/ DarkMayhemFashion
Gallery: www.flickr.com/photos/orsyevent/
www.flickr.com/photos/lgbtvalleyweekend/
Bella Noté: maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Dynamite%20Beach/83/160/3502
Love Lace :http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Business%20District%20Bravo/111/197/23
Famous:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Taj%20Mahal/224/81/22
Mish-Mesh:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Island%20of%20Zen/81/49/43
osha's secret :http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Costa%20Verde/60/18/3867
Brillancia:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Gigglez%20City/107/28/3502
LouChara Designs: maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Hispaterra/102/107/2001
Charazad Design: maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Cyldane%20Vampires/13/27/21
Acrid:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Veles/58/175/21
iicing:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Zelopian/77/160/722
Unholy&JTM:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Salamander/245/153/3009
UwU Kawaii Store:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Amazing%20Coral%20Estate/140/107/778
REED:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Chahit%20Island/192/21/1501
Achromance:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Dashas%20Playground/136/152/1296
B(u)Y ME:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Dashas%20Playground/136/152/1296
R3D Studio:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Heaven%20Escapes/7/160/3601
[piXit]:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife//81/73/1262
IMPACTS STORE:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Plush%20Tau/198/237/24
CheerNo:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/CheerNo/141/72/2050
BellePoses:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Copper%20Mine/193/49/2128
Candy Moon:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Snowscape/122/6/2821
[QE] Designs:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Pink%20Heaven/188/28/31
DarkmayhemFashion:http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Cobra/156/171/22
LA PERLA :http://maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Snowscape/122/6/2821
Among the best images are those made between the shots - don't you think?
With Sarah Pirrotte, pianist and choir director.
© 2020 Jean Lemoine
Between the eyes of love I call your name
Behind those guarded walls I used to go
Upon a summer wind there's a certain melody
Takes me back to the place that I know
On the beach
Yeah Yeah
Down on the beach
Yeah
The secrets of the summer I will keep
The sands of time will blow a mystery
No one but you and I
Underneath that moonlit sky
Take me back to the place that I know
On the beach
Yeah Yeah
Oh, down on the beach
Yeah, down on the beach
On the beach
Yeah Yeah
Forever in my dreams my heart will be
Hanging on to this sweet memory
A day of strange desire
And a night that burned like fire
Take me back to the place that I know
On the beach
Yeah Yeah
Oh, down on the beach
Yeah, down on the beach
On the beach
Yeah Yeah
On the Beach - Chris Rea
Hair by Sebsis
Sports set from Sf design (free!)
Sneakers from A bomb
Become Part of the Solution (POS)... make new friends at www.WeChat3.com
Earth Hour at the 3 Finger Club LOHHAS Lifestyle Lounge
Lights were out between 8:30 and 9:30 while we told stories and discussed our Lifestyle Of Health, Happiness And Sustainability (LOHHAS) using the 3 Finger "Peace Plus One" Sustainability Salute to remind us about Peace, Harmony and Balance between Society, Environment and Economy
People were the best jugglers of "Society, Environment, Economy" balls won "EARTH HOUR 60" T-Shirts WOW \!/O\!/
Photo Courtesy of the McMaster Institute for Sustainable Development in Commerce
all participants in the Earth Hour Discussion got a copy of "Letter to Maddie" featured below:
We Screwed Up
A Letter of Apology to My Granddaughter
By Chip Ward
[Note: I became politically active and committed on the day 20 years ago when I realized I could stand on the front porch of my house and point to three homes where children were in wheelchairs, to a home where a child had just died of leukemia, to another where a child was born missing a kidney, and yet another where a child suffered from spina bifida. All my parental alarms went off at once and I asked the obvious question: What’s going on here? Did I inadvertently move my three children into harm’s way when we settled in this high desert valley in Utah? A quest to find answers in Utah’s nuclear history and then seek solutions followed. Politics for me was never motivated by ideology. It was always about parenting.
Today my three kids are, thankfully, healthy adults. But now that grandchildren are being added to our family, my blood runs cold whenever I project out 50 years and imagine what their world will be like at middle age -- assuming they get that far and that there is still a recognizable “world” to be part of. I wrote the following letter to my granddaughter, Madeline, who is almost four years old. Although she cannot read it today, I hope she will read it in a future that proves so much better than the one that is probable, and so terribly unfair. I’m sharing this letter with other parents and grandparents in the hope that it may move them to embrace their roles as citizens and commit to the hard work of making the planet viable, the economy equitable, and our culture democratic for the many Madelines to come.]
March 20, 2012
Dear Maddie,
I address this letter to you, but please share it with Jack, Tasiah, and other grandchildren who are yet unborn. Also, with your children and theirs. My unconditional love for my children and grandchildren convinces me that, if I could live long enough to embrace my great-grandchildren, I would love them as deeply as I love you.
On behalf of my generation of grandparents to all of you, I want to apologize.
I am sorry we used up all the oil. It took a million years for those layers of carbon goo to form under the Earth’s crust and we used up most of it in a geological instant. No doubt there will be some left and perhaps you can get around the fact that what remains is already distant, dirty, and dangerous, but the low-hanging fruit will be long-gone by the time you are my age. We took it all.
There’s no excuse, really. We are gas-hogs, plain and simple. We got hooked on faster-bigger-more and charged right over the carrying capacity of the planet. Oil made it possible.
Machines are our slaves and coal, oil, and gas are their food. They helped us grow so much of our own food that we could overpopulate the Earth. We could ship stuff and travel all over the globe, and still have enough fuel left to drive home alone in trucks in time to watch Monday Night Football.
Rocket fuel, fertilizer, baby bottles, lawn chairs: we made everything and anything out of oil and could never get enough of it. We could have conserved more for you to use in your lifetime. Instead, we demonstrated the self-restraint of crack addicts. It’s been great having all that oil to play with and we built our entire world around that. Living without it will be tough. Sorry.
I hope we develop clean, renewable energy sources soon, or that you and your generation figure out how to do that quickly. In the meantime, sorry about the climate. We just didn’t realize our addiction to carbon would come with monster storms, epic droughts, Biblical floods, wildfire infernos, rising seas, migration, starvation, pestilence, civil war, failed states, police states, and resource wars.
I’m sure Henry Ford didn’t see that coming when he figured out how to mass-produce automobiles and sell them to Everyman. I know my parents didn’t see the downside of using so much gas and coal. The all-electric house and a car in the driveway was their American Dream. For my generation, owning a car became a birthright. Today, it would be hard for most of us to live without a car. I have no idea what you’ll do to get around or how you will heat your home. Oops!
We also pigged out on most of the fertile soil, the forests and their timber, and the oceans that teemed with fish before we scraped the seabed raw, dumped our poisonous wastes in the water, and turned it acid and barren. Hey, that ocean was an awesome place and it’s too bad you can’t know it like we did. There were bright coral reefs, vibrant runs of red salmon, ribbons of birds embroidering the shores, graceful shells, the solace and majesty of the wild sea…
…But then I never saw the vast herds of bison that roamed the American heartland, so I know it is hard to miss something you only saw in pictures. We took lots of photos.
We thought we were pretty smart because we walked a man on the moon. Our technology is indeed amazing. I was raised without computers, smart phones, and the World Wide Web, so I appreciate how our engineering prowess has enhanced our lives, but I also know it has a downside.
When I was a kid we worried that the Cold War would go nuclear. And it wasn’t until a river caught fire near Cleveland that we realized fouling your own nest isn’t so smart after all. Well, you know about the rest -- the coal-fired power plants, acid rain, the hole in the ozone...
www.tomdispatch.com/images/managed/fear2.gifThere were plenty of signs we took a wrong turn but we kept on going. Dumb, stubborn, blind: Who knows why we couldn’t stop? Greed maybe -- powerful corporations we couldn’t overcome. It won’t matter much to you who is to blame. You’ll be too busy coping in the diminished world we bequeath you.
One set of problems we pass on to you is not altogether our fault. It was handed down to us by our parents’ generation so hammered by cataclysmic world wars and economic hardship that they armed themselves to the teeth and saw enemies everywhere. Their paranoia was understandable, but they passed their fears on to us and we should have seen through them. I have lived through four major American wars in my 62 years, and by now defense and homeland security are powerful industries with a stranglehold on Congress and the economy. We knew that was a lousy deal, but trauma and terror darkened our imaginations and distorted our priorities. And, like you, we needed jobs.
Sorry we spent your inheritance on all that cheap bling and, especially, all those weapons of mass destruction. That was crazy and wasteful. I can’t explain it. I guess we’ve been confused for a long time now.
Oh, and sorry about the confusion. We called it advertising and it seemed like it would be easy enough to control. When I was a kid, commercials merely interrupted entertainment. Don’t know when the lines all blurred and the buy, buy, buy message became so ubiquitous and all-consuming. It just got outta hand and we couldn’t stop it, even when we realized we hated it and that it was taking us over. We turned away from one another, tuned in, and got lost.
I’m betting you can still download this note, copy it, share it, bust it up and remake it, and that you do so while plugged into some sort of electrical device you can’t live without -- so maybe you don’t think that an apology for technology is needed and, if that’s the case, an apology is especially relevant. The tools we gave you are fine, but the apps are mostly bogus. We made an industry of silly distraction. When our spirits hungered, we fed them clay that filled but did not nourish them. If you still don’t know the difference, blame us because we started it.
And sorry about the chemicals. I mean the ones you were born with in your blood and bones that stay there -- even though we don’t know what they’ll do to you). Who thought that the fire retardant that kept smokers from igniting their pillows and children’s clothes from bursting into flames would end up in umbilical cords and infants?
It just seemed like better living through chemistry at the time. Same with all the other chemicals you carry. We learned to accept cancer and I guess you will, too. I’m sure there will be better treatments for that in your lifetime than we have today. If you can afford them, that is. Turning healthcare over to predatory corporations was another bad move.
All in all, our chemical obsession was pretty reckless and we got into that same old pattern: just couldn’t give up all the neat stuff. Oh, we tried. We took the lead out of gasoline and banned DDT, but mostly we did too little, too late. I hope you’ve done better. Maybe it will help your generation to run out of oil, since so many of the toxic chemicals came from that. Anyway, we didn’t see it coming and we could have, should have. Our bad.
There are so many other things I wish I could change for you. We leave behind a noisy world. Silence is rare today, and unless some future catastrophe has left your numbers greatly diminished, your machines stilled, and your streets ghostly empty, it is likely that the last remnants of tranquility will be gone by the time you are my age.
And how about all those species, the abundant and wondrous creatures that are fading away forever as I write these words? I never saw a polar bear and I guess you can live without that, too, but when I think of the peep and chirp of frogs at night, the hum of bees busy on a flower bed, the trill of birds at dawn, and so many other splendorous pleasures that you may no longer have, I ache with regret. We should have done more to keep the planet whole and well, but we couldn’t get clear of the old ways of seeing, the ingrained habits, the way we hobble one another’s choices so that the best intentions never get realized.
Mostly I’m sorry about taking all the good water. When I was a child I could kneel down and drink from a brook or spring wherever we camped and played. We could still hike up to glaciers and ski down snow-capped mountains.
Clean, crisp, cold, fresh water is life’s most precious taste. A life-giving gift, all water is holy. I repeat: holy. We treated it, instead, as if it were merely useful. We wasted and tainted it and, again in a geological moment, sucked up aquifers that had taken 10,000 years to gather below ground. In my lifetime, glaciers are melting away, wells are running dry, dust storms are blowing, and rivers like the mighty Colorado are running dry before they reach the sea. I hate to think of what will be left for you. Sorry. So very, very sorry.
I’m sure there’s a boatload of other trouble we’re leaving you that I haven’t covered here. My purpose is not to offer a complete catalog of our follies and atrocities, but to do what we taught your parents to do when they were as little as you are today.
When you make a mistake, we told them, admit it, and then do better. If you do something wrong, own up and say you are sorry. After that, you can work on making amends.
I am trying to see a way out of the hardship and turmoil we are making for you. As I work to stop the madness, I will be mindful of how much harder your struggles will be as you deal with the challenges we leave you to face.
The best I can do to help you through the overheated future we are making is to love you now. I cannot change the past and my struggle to make a healthier future for you is uncertain, but today I can teach you, encourage you, and help you be as strong and smart and confident as you can be, so that whatever the future holds, whatever crises you face, you are as ready as possible. We will learn to laugh together, too, because love and laughter can pull you through the toughest times.
I know a better world is possible. We create that better world by reaching out to one another, listening, learning, and speaking from our hearts, face to face, neighbor to neighbor, one community after another, openly, inclusively, bravely. Democracy is not a gift to be practiced only when permitted. We empower ourselves. Our salvation is found in each other, together.
Across America this morning and all around the world, our better angels call to us, imploring us to rise up and be as resilient as our beloved, beautiful children and grandchildren, whose future we make today. We can do better. I promise.
Your grandfather,
Chip Ward
(further information and pictures are available by clicking on the link at the end of section and of page!)
Synagogue St. Pölten
Exterior of the former St. Pölten Synagogue
The St. Pölten Synagogue was up to the November pogroms in 1938 the main synagogue of the Jewish Community of St. Pölten. The In the years 1912 to 1913 by the architects Theodor Schreier and Viktor Postelberg built Art Nouveau synagogue is located in the Dr. Karl Renner Promenade in St. Pölten and is now the headquarters of the Institute for Jewish History in Austria.
History
The old synagogue, which was demolished in favor of the new one
The first prayer rooms of in 1863 founded Jewish Community of St. Pölten were located in the premises of the former Kattunmanufaktur (cotton manufactory), the later Gasser factory at school ring. A building of this factory was adapted between 1885 and 1890 as a synagogue. This adaptation was associated with considerable effort, which is why the members of the Jewish community already since 1888 endeavoured to get a new building, until 1903 but this was rejected by the township. At this time, a redesign of the promenade was planned, which was only possible by demolition of the in the street course standing synagogue. After lengthy preparations, a preparatory committee was elected in April 1907, which in addition to building site and plans the necessary financing should provide.
1911, a building committee was chosen and agreed with the community a real estate exchange. At the architectural competition, which was tendered in the same year, participated among others Jacob Modern, Jacob Gartner, Ignaz Reiser and Theodor Schreier. The latter was together with his partner Viktor Postelberg by the Committee commissioned another project for a temple with room for 220 men and 150 women to submitt, which was then realized. The conditions for the planning work developed Rudolf Frass. The necessary funds were raised through collections and appeals for donations throughout the country, so that could be started with the construction in June 1912. The gilding works were carried out by Ferdinand Andri. After little more than a year of construction and 141 390 crowns total investment, the synagoge on 17 August 1913 was solemnly consecrated.
Destruction
On the night of 9th to the 10th November 1938 invaded several SS and SA members the rooms of the synagogue, smashed windows and set fire. The that night caused damage was limited, as the fire could be extinguished relatively quickly. On the following morning 300 to 400 people gathered, some in civilian clothes, in front of the building. They moved with the singing of political songs in the sacred spaces and destroyed them completely. The windows were broken, Torah scrolls, Torah shrine, benches and images burned. Even water pipes and door posts were torn from the walls. The books of the extensive library were largely thrown on the road and burned. Some people climbed the dome and tore the Star of David of the roof .
Almost all of the movable property of the Jewish community was destroyed or stolen . A limited set of books were placed in the city archives, the City Museum there's still a donation box and a painting of Emperor Franz Josef, which hung in the entrance area. A single prayer book is since 1998 owned again by the Jewish Community.
In the following years the side rooms of the building of the SA were used as an office, the interior was used among other things as furniture warehouse. 1942, the synagogue became the property of the city of St. Pölten, which used it as a detention center for Russian forced laborers. In last fightings and bombings in 1945 the building was further damaged.
1945
The Red Army used the former synagogue as a grain storage until it was in 1947 returned to the city. The application of restitution was recognized in 1952 by the city council, which then returned the synagogue to the Jewish Community Vienna. In the following years, the former house of God continued to decay as after the Holocaust no Jewish community in St. Pölten could establish. The domed roof showed severe damage, individual components were threatening to collapse completely and through the boarded windows came rain and snow into the by dovecotes populated house.
In 1975, the Jewish Community Vienna (IKG - Israelitische Kultusgemeinde Wien) offered the city of St. Pölten to purchase the synagogue, which did not accept the offer due to lack of uses. Then the Jewish Community Vienna wanted to initiate the demolition, but this was prevented by the fact that the Federal Monuments Office the building put under monument protection. Then it was renovated from 1980 to 1984. Here, for example, many wall paintings were recovered, on the other hand, some structural changes were made (especially removal of water basins for the ritual washing of the hands), since it was clear from the beginning that the building would not be used as a synagogue, but as an event center.
Since 1988 in the premises of the former synagogue the Institute for Jewish History of Austria is located, further regular events are realized. The original function the synagoge never could fulfill again, as too few Jews returned after the Holocaust to St. Pölten.
On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the synagogue the City Museum in St. Pölten 2013/14 the building dedicates its own special exhibition. In doing so there is also shown a recently found photo of the interior before the destruction. It is also pointed out that the synagogue due to lack of funding already again is abandoned to a certain decay.
The St. Pölten rabbi
Interior of the synagogue with part of the dome ceiling, in the center of the former shrine
Name Period of office
Moritz Tintner 1863-1869
Adolf Kurrein 1873-1876
Samuel Marcus 1876-1878
Adolf Hahn 1878-1882
Jacob Reiss 1882-1889
Bernhard Zimmels 1889-1891
Leopold Weinsberg 1891-1897
Adolf Schächter 1897-1934
Arnold Frankfurt 1934-1936
Manfred Papo 1936-1938
Building description
Outside
The dominant element of the synagogue is the octagonal, completed by a large dome main building, to which the eastern and western side wings are attached. Connected to the synagogue is the former school building in Lederergasse 12.
Main tract
The main tract houses the former sanctuary. The facade is divided into a low ground floor, high upper floor and the dome. At the facade facing the street can be found in the two storeys each three windows, that are executed on the ground floor as low segmental arch windows with above running continuously cordon cornice. The windows on the upper floor, however, are high, rectangular windows, the space between them is divided by pilasters. The original stained glass windows were destroyed from 1938, today, clear glass can be found in the windows. Directly under the dome there is a large segment gable with representations of the Tablets of the Law, set in floral vines. Beneath it is written in Hebrew the text of Psalm 118, verse 19.
" פתחו לי שערי צדק אבא בם אודה יה "
"Open to me the gates of righteousness: I will enter and give thanks to God".
- Inscription under the law boards.
On the short, lateral oblique walls of the main building on the ground floor there are side entrances, in the transition to the dome there are embedded large oval windows.
Side wings
To the eastern side wing, which in comparison to the western tract is designed very narrowly, connects the former school building and was once home to the shrine. At the by segment gable and barrel roof completed tract can be found on the northern front in the upper floor a tall, rectangular window of the same type as that of the main wing. At the eastern side a round window is embedded, in the ground floor begins a connecting room to the school building.
The western side wing is identical to the east in the basic form, but it is significantly wider. In addition, in front of it there are entrance buildings. Both at the road side and on the opposite side between the main wing and the western annex are wide projecting semi-circular staircases, next to it can be found till half the height of the first upper floor each a buttress with two low windows. Road side, this buttress is preceded by a walk-in porch, which on three sides is open round-arched. The with triangular gable completed building ends in a concave enclosure, where a commemorative plaque is attached today. The west facade repeats the design of the main building, it can be found on the ground floor low segmental arch windows with above running continuously, jagged cordon cornice. On the first floor the windows are, however, significantly lower than in the main wing.
Former school building
The former school building has its main facade towards Lederergasse and there has the number 12. The road-side main facade of the two-storey building is divided into four axes. The window on the ground floor are round-arched disigned, the ones on the upper floor rectangularly. Between side wing of the synagogue and the main wing of the school building there is a tower-like, curved stairwell risalit up to the attic.
Gallery
Wall lamp
Wall ornament
Wall ornament
Wall ornament
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synagoge_St._P%C3%B6lten
(further information is available by clicking on the link at the end of page!)
History of the City St. Pölten
In order to present concise history of the Lower Austrian capital is in the shop of the city museum a richly illustrated full version on CD-ROM.
Tip
On the occasion of the commemoration of the pogroms of November 1938, the Institute for Jewish History of Austria its virtual Memorbuch (Memory book) for the destroyed St. Pölten Jewish community since 10th November 2012 is putting online.
Prehistory
The time from which there is no written record is named after the main materials used for tools and weapons: Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age. Using the latest technologies, archaeologists from archaeological finds and aerial photographs can trace a fairly detailed picture of life at that time. Especially for the time from the settling down of the People (New Stone Age), now practicing agriculture and animal husbandry, in the territory of St. Pölten lively settlement activity can be proved. In particular, cemeteries are important for the research, because the dead were laid in the grave everyday objects and jewelry, the forms of burial changing over time - which in turn gives the archeology valuable clues for the temporal determination. At the same time, prehistory of Sankt Pölten would not be half as good documented without the construction of the expressway S33 and other large buildings, where millions of cubic meters of earth were moved - under the watchful eyes of the Federal Monuments Office!
A final primeval chapter characterized the Celts, who settled about 450 BC our area and in addition to a new culture and religion also brought with them the potter's wheel. The kingdom of Noricum influenced till the penetration of the Romans the development in our area.
Roman period, migrations
The Romans conquered in 15 BC the Celtic Empire and established hereinafter the Roman province of Noricum. Borders were protected by military camp (forts), in the hinterland emerged civilian cities, almost all systematically laid out according to the same plan. The civil and commercial city Aelium Cetium, as St. Pölten was called (city law 121/122), consisted in the 4th Century already of heated stone houses, trade and craft originated thriving urban life, before the Romans in the first third of the 5th Century retreated to Italy.
The subsequent period went down as the Migration Period in official historiography, for which the settlement of the Sankt Pöltner downtown can not be proved. Cemeteries witness the residence of the Lombards in our area, later it was the Avars, extending their empire to the Enns.
The recent archaeological excavations on the Cathedral Square 2010/2011, in fact, the previous knowledge of St.Pölten colonization not have turned upside down but enriched by many details, whose full analysis and publication are expected in the near future.
Middle Ages
With the submission of the Avars by Charlemagne around 800 AD Christianity was gaining a foothold, the Bavarian Benedictine monastery of Tegernsee establishing a daughter house here - as founder are mentioned the brothers Adalbert and Ottokar - equipped with the relics of St. Hippolytus. The name St. Ypolit over the centuries should turn into Sankt Pölten. After the Hungarian wars and the resettlement of the monastery as Canons Regular of St. Augustine under the influence of Passau St. Pölten received mid-11th Century market rights.
In the second half of the 20th century historians stated that records in which the rights of citizens were held were to be qualified as Town Charters. Vienna is indeed already in 1137 as a city ("civitas") mentioned in a document, but the oldest Viennese city charter dates only from the year 1221, while the Bishop of Passau, Konrad, already in 1159 the St. Pöltnern secured:
A St. Pöltner citizen who has to answer to the court, has the right to make use of an "advocate".
He must not be forced to rid himself of the accusation by a judgment of God.
A St. Pöltner citizen may be convicted only by statements of fellow citizens, not by strangers.
From the 13th Century exercised a city judge appointed by the lord of the city the high and low jurisdiction as chairman of the council meetings and the Municipal Court, Inner and Outer Council supported him during the finding of justice. Venue for the public verdict was the in the 13th Century created new marketplace, the "Broad Market", now the town hall square. Originally square-shaped, it was only later to a rectangle reduced. Around it arose the market district, which together with the monastery district, the wood district and the Ledererviertel (quarter of the leather goods manufacturer) was protected by a double city wall.
The dependence of St. Pölten of the bishop of Passau is shown in the municipal coat of arms and the city seal. Based on the emblem of the heraldic animal of the Lord of the city, so the Bishop of Passau, it shows an upright standing wolf holding a crosier in its paw.
Modern Times
In the course of the armed conflict between the Emperor Frederick III . and King Matthias of Hungary pledged the Bishop of Passau the town on the Hungarian king. From 1485 stood Lower Austria as a whole under Hungarian rule. The most important document of this period is the awarding of the city coat of arms by King Matthias Corvinus in the year 1487. After the death of the opponents 1490 and 1493 could Frederick's son Maximilian reconquer Lower Austria. He considered St. Pölten as spoils of war and had no intention of returning it to the diocese of Passau. The city government has often been leased subsequently, for instance, to the family Wellenstein, and later to the families Trautson and Auersperg.
That St. Pölten now was a princely city, found its expression in the coat of arms letter of the King Ferdinand I. from 1538: From now on, the wolf had no crosier anymore, and the from the viewer's point of view left half showed the reverse Austrian shield, so silver-red-silver.
To the 16th Century also goes back the construction of St. Pöltner City Hall. The 1503 by judge and council acquired house was subsequently expanded, rebuilt, extended and provided with a tower.
A for the urban history research important picture, painted in 1623, has captured scenes of the peasant uprising of 1597, but also allows a view to the city and lets the viewer read some of the details of the then state of construction. The economic inconveniences of that time were only exacerbated by the Thirty Years War, at the end of which a fifth of the houses were uninhabited and the citizenry was impoverished.
Baroque
After the successful defense against the Turks in 1683, the economy started to recover and a significant building boom began. Lower Austria turned into the land of the baroque abbeys and monasteries, as it is familiar to us today.
In St. Pölten, the change of the cityscape is closely connected to the Baroque architect Jakob Prandtauer. In addition to the Baroquisation of the interior of the cathedral, a number of buildings in St. Pölten go to his account, so the reconstruction of the castle Ochsenburg, the erection of the Schwaighof and of the core building of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Englische Fräuleins - English Maidens) - from 1706 the seat of the first school order of St.Pölten - as well as of several bourgeois houses.
Joseph Munggenast, nephew and co-worker of Prandtauer, completed the Baroquisation of the cathedral, he baroquised the facade of the town hall (1727) and numerous bourgeois houses and designed a bridge over the Traisen which existed until 1907. In the decoration of the church buildings were throughout Tyroleans collaborating, which Jakob Prandtauer had brought along from his homeland (Tyrol) to St. Pölten, for example, Paul Troger and Peter Widerin.
Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II: Their reforms in the city of the 18th Century also left a significant mark. School foundings as a result of compulsory education, the dissolution of the monasteries and hereinafter - from 1785 - the new role of St. Pölten as a bishop's seat are consequences of their policies.
1785 was also the year of a fundamental alteration of the old Council Constitution: The city judge was replaced by one magistrate consisting of five persons, at the head was a mayor. For the first mayor the painter Josef Hackl was chosen.
The 19th century
Despite the Napoleonic Wars - St. Pölten in 1805 and 1809 was occupied by the French - and despite the state bankruptcy of 1811, increased the number of businesses constantly, although the economic importance of the city for the time being did not go beyond the near vicinity.
Against the background of monitoring by the state secret police, which prevented any political commitment between the Congress of Vienna and the 1848 revolution, the citizens withdrew into private life. Sense of family, fostering of domestic music, prominent salon societies in which even a Franz Schubert socialized, or the construction of the city theater were visible signs of this attitude.
The economic upswing of the city did not begin until after the revolution of the year 1848. A prerequisite for this was the construction of the Empress Elisabeth Western Railway, moving Vienna, Linz, soon Salzburg, too, in a reachable distance. The city walls were pulled down, St. Pölten could unfold. The convenient traffic situation favored factory start-ups, and so arose a lace factory, a revolver factory, a soap factory or, for example, as a precursor of a future large-scale enterprise, the braid, ribbon and Strickgarnerzeugung (knitting yarn production) of Matthias Salcher in Harland.
In other areas, too, the Gründerzeit (years of rapid industrial expansion in Germany - and Austria) in Sankt Pölten was honouring its name: The city got schools, a hospital, gas lanterns, canalization, hot springs and summer bath.
The 20th century
At the beginning of the 20th Century the city experienced another burst of development, initiated by the construction of the power station in 1903, because electricity was the prerequisite for the settlement of large companies. In particular, the companies Voith and Glanzstoff and the main workshop of the Federal Railways attracted many workers. New Traisen bridge, tram, Mariazell Railway and other infrastructure buildings were erected; St. Pölten obtained a synagogue. The Art Nouveau made it repeatedly into the urban architecture - just think of the Olbrich House - and inspired also the painting, as exponents worth to be mentioned are Ernst Stöhr or Ferdinand Andri.
What the outbreak of the First World War in broad outlines meant for the monarchy, on a smaller scale also St. Pölten has felt. The city was heavily impacted by the deployment of army units, a POW camp, a military hospital and a sick bay. Industrial enterprises were partly converted into war production, partly closed. Unemployment, housing emergency and food shortages long after the war still were felt painfully.
The 1919 to mayor elected Social Democrat Hubert Schnofl after the war tried to raise the standard of living of the people by improving the social welfare and health care. The founding of a housing cooperative (Wohnungsgenossenschaft), the construction of the water line and the establishment of new factories were further attempts to stimulate the stiffening economy whose descent could not be stopped until 1932.
After the National Socialist regime had stirred false hopes and plunged the world into war, St. Pölten was no longer the city as it has been before. Not only the ten devastating bombings of the last year of the war had left its marks, also the restrictive persecution of Jews and political dissidents had torn holes in the structure of the population. Ten years of Russian occupation subsequently did the rest to traumatize the population, but at this time arose from the ruins a more modern St. Pölten, with the new Traisen bridge, district heating, schools.
This trend continued, an era of recovery and modernization made the economic miracle palpable. Already in 1972 was - even if largely as a result of incorporations - exceeded the 50.000-inhabitant-limit.
Elevation to capital status (capital of Lower Austria), 10 July 1986: No other event in this dimension could have become the booster detonation of an up to now ongoing development thrust. Since then in a big way new residential and commercial areas were opened up, built infrastructure constructions, schools and universities brought into being to enrich the educational landscape. East of the Old Town arose the governmental and cultural district, and the list of architects wears sonorous names such as Ernst Hoffmann (NÖ (Lower Austria) Landhaus; Klangturm), Klaus Kada (Festspielhaus), Hans Hollein (Shedhalle and Lower Austrian Provincial Museum), Karin Bily, Paul Katzberger and Michael Loudon ( NÖ State Library and NÖ State Archive).
European Diploma, European flag, badge of honor, Europe Price: Between 1996 and 2001, received St. Pölten numerous appreciations of its EU commitment - as a sort of recognition of the Council of Europe for the dissemination of the EU-idea through international town twinnings, a major Europe exhibition or, for example, the establishment and chair of the "Network of European medium-sized cities".
On the way into the 21st century
Just now happened and already history: What the St. Pöltnern as just experienced sticks in their minds, travelers and newcomers within a short time should be told. The theater and the hospital handing over to the province of Lower Austria, a new mayor always on the go, who was able to earn since 2004 already numerous laurels (Tags: polytechnic, downtown enhancement, building lease scheme, bus concept) - all the recent changes are just now condensed into spoken and written language in order to make, from now on, the history of the young provincial capital in the 3rd millennium nachlesbar (checkable).
www.st-poelten.gv.at/Content.Node/freizeit-kultur/kultur/...
Following, a text, in english, from Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
Foro Romano
Roma, Largo della Salara Vecchia 5/6
The valley of Foro, nestled between the seven hills of Rome, was in ancient times a marsh. From the end of the seventh century B.C., after the improvement and drainage of the marshes, the Foro Romano (a forum) was constructed and this served as the centre of public life in Rome for over a thousand years. Over the course of the centuries, the various monuments were constructed: firstly, those structures which served political, religious and economic purposes and, later, during the second century B.C., the civil buildings or ‘basilicas’, which functioned as juridical centres. At the end of the Republic era of Ancient Rome, the Foro Romano was inadequate in its functioning as a civil and administrative centre. The various Emperors and their dynasties added only monuments of prestige: The Temple of Vespasian and Titus and that of Antoninus Pio and Faustina dedicated to the memory of the Divine Emperors, the monumental arch of Settimo Severo, built on the extreme west of the square in 203 A.D. to celebrate his military victories. The last great addition was made in the first years of the fourth century A.D. under the Emperor Massenzio, a temple dedicated to the memory of his son Romulus. The imposing Basilica on the Velia was restructured at the end of the fourth century A.D. and the last monument to be erected in the Foro was the Column of 608 A.D. in honour of the Byzantine Emperor Foca.
Copyright © 2003-2007 Pierreci
The Roman Forum, Forum Romanum, (although the Romans called it more often the Forum Magnum or just the Forum) was the central area around which ancient Rome developed, in which commerce and the administration of justice took place. The communal hearth was also located here. It was built on the site of a past cemetery.
Sequences of remains of paving show that sediment eroded from the surrounding hills was already raising the level of the forum in early Republican times. Originally it had been marshy ground, which was drained by the Tarquins with the Cloaca Maxima. Its final travertine paving, still visible, dates from the reign of Augustus.
Structures within the Forum
The ruins within the forum clearly show how urban spaces were utilized during the Roman Age. The Roman Forum includes a modern statue of Julius Caesar and the following major monuments, buildings, and ancient ruins:
Temples
Temple of Castor and Pollux
Temple of Saturn
Temple of Vesta
Temple of Venus and Roma
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
Temple of Caesar
Temple of Vespasian and Titus
Temple of Concord
Shrine of Venus Cloacina
Basilicas
Basilica Aemilia
Basilica Julia
Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine
Arches
Arch of Septimius Severus
Arch of Titus
Arch of Tiberius
Arch of Augustus
Temple of Saturn
Temple of Castor and Pollux
Temple of Vesta
Temple of Venus and Roma
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
Temple of Concord
Campo Vaccino, by Claude Lorrain
The Roman Forum
Other structures
Regia, originally the residence of the kings of Rome or at least their main headquarters, and later the office of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Roman religion.
Rostra, from where politicians made their speeches to the Roman citizens
Curia Hostilia (later rebuilt as the Curia Julia), the site of the Roman Senate
Tabularium
Gemonian stairs
Clivus Capitolinus was the street that started at the Arch of Tiberius, wound around the Temple of Saturn, and ended at Capitoline Hill.
Umbilicus Urbi, the designated centre of the city from which and to which all distances in Rome and the Roman Empire were measured
Milliarium Aureum
Lapis Niger, a shrine also known as the Black Stone
Atrium Vestae, the house of the Vestal Virgins
A processional street, the Via Sacra, linked the Atrium Vetae with the Colosseum. By the end of the Empire, it had lost its everyday use but remained a sacred place.
Column of Phocas, the last monument built within the Forum
Tullianum, the prison used to hold various foreign leaders and generals.
Excavation and preservation
An anonymous 8th century traveler from Einsiedeln (now in Switzerland) reported that the Forum was already falling apart in his time. During the Middle Ages, though the memory of the Forum Romanum persisted, its monuments were for the most part buried under debris, and its location was designated the "Campo Vaccino" or "cattle field," located between the Capitoline Hill and the Colosseum. The return of Pope Urban V from Avignon in 1367 led to an increased interest in ancient monuments, partly for their moral lesson and partly as a quarry for new buildings being undertaken in Rome after a long lapse. Artists from the late 15th century drew the ruins in the Forum, antiquaries copied inscriptions in the 16th century, and a tentative excavation was begun in the late 18th century.
A cardinal took measures to drain it again and built the Alessandrine neighborhood over it. But the excavation by Carlo Fea, who began clearing the debris from the Arch of Septimius Severus in 1803, and archaeologists under the Napoleonic regime marked the beginning of clearing the Forum, which was only fully excavated in the early 20th century.
Remains from several centuries are shown together, due to the Roman practice of building over earlier ruins.
Other forums in Rome
Other fora existed in other areas of the city; remains of most of them, sometimes substantial, still exist. The most important of these are a number of large imperial fora forming a complex with the Forum Romanum: the Forum Iulium, Forum Augustum, the Forum Transitorium (also: Forum Nervae), and Trajan's Forum. The planners of the Mussolini era removed most of the Medieval and Baroque strata and built the Via dei Fori Imperiali road between the Imperial Fora and the Forum. There is also:
The Forum Boarium, dedicated to the commerce of cattle, between the Palatine Hill and the river Tiber,
The Forum Holitorium, dedicated to the commerce of herbs and vegetables, between the Capitoline Hill and the Servian walls,
The Forum Piscarium, dedicated to the commerce of fish, between the Capitoline hill and the Tiber, in the area of the current Roman Ghetto,
The Forum Suarium, dedicated to the commerce of pork, near the barracks of the cohortes urbanae in the northern part of the campus Martius,
The Forum Vinarium, dedicated to the commerce of wine, in the area now of the "quartiere" Testaccio, between Aventine Hill and the Tiber.
Other markets were known but remain unidentifiable due to a lack of precise information on the function of the sites. Among these, the Forum cuppedinis, was known as a general market for many goods.
Fórum Romano.
O principal fórum da Roma antiga.
O Fórum Romano ( latim : Forum Romanum, italiano : Foro Romano) é um pequeno retângulo aberto rodeado pelas ruínas de antigos edifícios do governo no centro da cidade de Roma . Os cidadãos da cidade antiga referência a este mercado como a Magnum Fórum, ou simplesmente o Fórum . Foi durante séculos o centro da vida pública romana: o local de procissões triunfais e as eleições, palco para discursos públicos e núcleo de assuntos comerciais. Aqui estátuas e monumentos comemorou os grandes homens da cidade. O coração cheio de Roma antiga , foi chamado o local de encontro mais célebre do mundo, e em toda a história. [1] Localizado no pequeno vale entre o Palatino e Capitolino Hills , hoje o Fórum é um imenso arruinar de fragmentos de arquitetura intermitente e escavações arqueológicas atrair turistas numerosos.
Muitas das estruturas mais antigas e importantes da cidade antiga foram localizadas sobre ou próximo ao Fórum. O Reino de primeiros santuários e templos foram localizados na borda sudeste. Estes incluíram a sua antiga residência real antiga, a Regia ( século 8 aC ), bem como os arredores do complexo virgens vestais , as quais foram reconstruídas depois da ascensão de Roma imperial . Outros santuários arcaico para o noroeste desenvolvido na República formal Comitium , onde o Senado - bem como do governo republicano em si - começou. A Casa do Senado, repartições públicas, tribunais, templos, monumentos e estátuas gradualmente a área desordenado. Com o tempo a Comitium arcaica foi substituída pelo Fórum maiores eo foco da atividade judicial movida para a nova Basílica Emília (179 aC). Cerca de 130 anos depois, Júlio César construiu a basílica Julia , juntamente com a nova Cúria Júlia , a recentragem ambos os cargos judiciais e do próprio Senado. O Fórum serviu então como uma praça revitalizada em que o povo de Roma pudesse se reunir para comercial, político, judicial e religioso buscas em um número cada vez maior.
Eventualmente negócio muito económico e judicial seria a transferência de distância do Fórum de estruturas maiores e mais extravagantes para o norte. Após a construção do Fórum de Trajano (110 dC), essas atividades transferidas para o Ulpia Basílica . O reinado de Constantino, o Grande viu a divisão do império em suas metades oriental e ocidental, bem como a construção da Basílica de Maxêncio (312 dC), as principais última expansão do complexo do Fórum. Este devolveu o centro político do Fórum, até a queda do Império Romano do Ocidente quase dois séculos mais tarde.
Descrição
A plateia grego antigo (πλατεία), uma praça pública ou praça da cidade , foi o modelo utilizado como base para o fórum romano. No período Imperial os edifícios públicos de grande porte que se aglomeraram ao redor da praça central havia reduzido a área aberta a um retângulo de aproximadamente 130 por 50 metros, a sua dimensão de longo foi orientado de noroeste para sudeste e estendia desde o sopé da colina do Capitólio ao do Hill Velian . O Fórum bom incluídos nesta praça, os prédios de frente para ele e, às vezes, uma área adicional (o Adjectum Forum ) que prorroga a sudeste até o Arco de Tito . [2] O Fórum basílicas , embora originalmente concebido como escritórios do governo, foram as bases dos primeiros elaborados cristã igrejas. A arquitetura dos templos e edifícios judiciais do fórum romano pode ser visto copiado em muitas das estruturas atuais do governo moderno que ainda estão organizadas em torno de um espaço público central.
Originalmente, o site do Fórum foi pantanoso terreno, que foi drenada por Tarquínio com a Cloaca Máxima . Devido à sua localização, nos sedimentos de ambas as inundações do Rio Tibre ea erosão das colinas circundantes foram o aumento do nível do piso do Fórum durante séculos. Escavada seqüências de remanescentes de pavimento mostram que o sedimento corroído das colinas circundantes já levantava o nível no início republicano vezes. Como o chão em torno dos edifícios começou a subir, os moradores simplesmente abriu sobre os escombros que foi demais para remover. Seu final de travertino pavimentação, ainda visível, as datas do reinado de Augusto . As escavações no século 19 revelou uma camada em cima da outra. O nível mais profundo escavado foi de 3,60 metros acima do nível do mar. Achados arqueológicos mostram a atividade humana a esse nível com a descoberta de madeira carbonizada.
Uma importante função do Fórum, durante os dois republicanos e os tempos imperiais, era o de servir como local para os militares que culminou desfiles comemorativos conhecidos como Triunfos . generais vitoriosos entrou na cidade pelo oeste do Triunfo Gate ( Porta Triumphalis ) e circum o Palatino (esquerda) antes de prosseguir a partir do monte Velian abaixo da Via Sacra e no Fórum. A partir daí eles montar o Rise Capitolino ( Clivus Capitolinus ) até o Templo de Júpiter Optimus Maximus na cúpula do Capitólio. Pródiga banquetes públicos seguiu para baixo sobre o Fórum.
A área do Fórum foi originalmente uma gramínea pantanal . Ele foi drenado no século 7 aC, com a construção da Cloaca Maxima , um sistema de esgotos cobertos de grandes dimensões que desaguava no rio Tibre , quanto mais pessoas começaram a se estabelecer entre os dois morros.
Segundo a tradição, o começo do Fórum estão relacionadas com a aliança entre Rômulo , primeiro rei de Roma controlar o Monte Palatino , e seu rival, Tito Tácio , que ocupou a colina do Capitólio . Assim, uma aliança formada após o combate havia sido interrompida pelas orações e gritos de Sabine mulheres. Como o vale estava entre os dois assentamentos, foi o local designado para os dois povos se conhecerem. Como a área do Fórum adiantados incluíram poças de água estagnada, a área mais acessível foi a parte norte do vale, que foi designado como o Comitium . Foi aqui que, de acordo com a história, as duas partes depuseram as armas e formaram uma aliança. [4]
O fórum foi fora das muralhas da fortaleza original Sabine, que foi inserido através da Porta Saturni. Estas paredes foram destruídas na maior parte, quando os dois morros foram apensados. [5] O Fórum original começou como um mercado ao ar livre perto da Comitium, mas ampliou sua dia-a-dia de compras e as necessidades do mercado. Como a política, questões judiciais e julgamentos começaram a assumir cada vez mais espaço, fóruns por toda a cidade começou a surgir a expandir as necessidades específicas da população em crescimento. Fora de gado, porco, legumes e vinho especializada em produtos de seu nicho e as divindades associadas ao seu redor.
O segundo rei, Numa Pompilius , é dito ter começado o culto de Vesta, construção de sua casa e no templo, bem como a Regia como a primeira cidade real do palácio. Mais tarde Tullus Hostilius fechado Comitium ao redor do templo etrusco antigo, onde o senado se reunir no local do conflito Sabine. Ele disse ter convertido o templo ao Hostilia Curia perto de onde o Senado se conheceram em uma velha cabana etrusca. Em 600 aC, Tarquínio Prisco teve a área pavimentada, pela primeira vez.
Durante o período republicano Comitium continuou a ser o local central para todos e vida política judiciária, na cidade de Roma. [6] No entanto, a fim de criar um espaço, bem como local de reunião maior, o Senado começou a expandir tanto o Fórum e Comitium através da compra de casas particulares existentes e removê-los para uso público. construção de projetos de vários cônsules e imperadores repaved e construída em ambos os Comitium e do Fórum. [7]
O século V aC viu a construção do Templo de Castor e Pólux . O templo de Concord foi introduzido no século IV aC, possivelmente por Marcus Furius Camillus. A Basílica Emília é uma estrutura republicana, mas teve vários nomes após a sua dedicação inicial em 179 aC. Muitas das tradições do Comitium tais como assembléias populares, os funerais da nobreza e os jogos foram transferidos para o Fórum. [8] Caio Graco é creditado com (ou acusados de) perturbar mos maiorum ("costume dos pais / ancestrais" ) na antiga Roma. Um realizada longa tradição de falar nos alto-falantes elevados " Rostra frente para o norte em direção à Casa do Senado para os políticos ea elite montada colocar de volta o orador para o povo reunido no Fórum Romano atrás do Comitium. A tribuna conhecido como Caio Licínio foi o primeiro a afastar-se da elite romana para as pessoas no Forum, um ato repetido posteriormente por Gracchus. [9] Isso começou a tradição de popularis locus, onde, ainda jovens nobres eram esperados para falar da Rostra.
Em 78 aC, o tabularium (Registros Hall) foi construído no final Capitólio do Fórum, por despacho dos cônsules para o ano, M. Emílio Lépido e Q. Lutatius Catulus . Com o tempo a Comitium foi perdida para o crescimento Cúria sempre e Júlio César s rearranjos "antes de seu assassinato em 44 aC. Naquele ano, dois dramáticos eventos extremamente foram testemunhados pelo Fórum, talvez o mais famoso de sempre a acontecer lá: Marc Antony é oração fúnebre de César (imortalizada em Shakespeare é famosa peça ) foi entregue a partir parcialmente falante concluída a plataforma conhecida como a Nova Rostra ea queima pública de corpo de César ocorreu em um local em frente ao Rostra torno do qual o Templo para o César Deificado foi posteriormente construída por grandes Octavius sobrinho dele (Augusto). [10] Quase dois anos depois, Marc Antony adicionado a notoriedade da Rostra por exibir publicamente a cabeça cortada e mão direita de seu inimigo de Cícero lá.
A estreita relação entre a Comitium eo Fórum Romano eventualmente sumiu a partir dos escritos dos antigos. O primeiro é o último mencionado no reinado de Sétimo Severo .
Após a morte de Júlio César, e no final do subsequente Guerra Civil , Augusto terminou grande tio, seu trabalho no Fórum. Ele teria declarado "Achei Roma, uma cidade de tijolos e deixou uma cidade de mármore". O que é verdade é que ele continuou a construção de projetos de seu antecessor e começou a muitos de seus próprios diretamente no Fórum. Durante primeiros tempos imperiais, no entanto, os negócios económicos e judiciais transferidos muito longe do Fórum de estruturas maiores e mais extravagantes para o norte. Após a construção do Fórum de Trajano (110 dC), essas atividades transferidas para o Ulpia Basílica .
O reinado de Constantino, o Grande viu a divisão do império em suas metades oriental e ocidental, bem como a construção da Basílica de Maxêncio (312 dC), as principais última expansão do complexo do Fórum. Este devolveu o centro político do Fórum, até a queda do Império Romano do Ocidente quase dois séculos mais tarde.
No século 5 a velhos edifícios no âmbito do Fórum começaram a ser transformados em igrejas cristãs. Por volta do século 8, todo o espaço foi cercado por igrejas cristãs tomando o lugar das ruínas e templos abandonados. [11]
Um viajante do século 8 anônimas de Einsiedeln (agora na Suíça) informou que o Fórum já caía aos pedaços em seu tempo. Durante a Idade Média, embora a memória do Fórum Romano persistisse, seus monumentos foram em sua maioria enterrados embaixo do entulho, e sua localização foi designado "Campo Vaccino" ou "campo de gado", localizado entre o Capitólio eo Coliseu .
Após o século 8 as estruturas do Fórum foram desmontadas, re-arranjadas e usado para construir torres e castelos feudais dentro da área local. No século 13 dessas estruturas reorganizadas foram derrubadas eo local se tornou uma lixeira. Isto, junto com os restos da construção medieval desmontado e estruturas antigas, ajudou a contribuir para o aumento do nível do solo. [12]
O retorno do Papa Urbano V de Avinhão em 1367 levou a um interesse crescente em monumentos antigos, em parte para sua lição moral e em parte como uma pedreira para os edifícios novos que estão sendo empreendidos em Roma depois de um longo lapso.
Artistas do final do século 15 atraiu as ruínas do Fórum, os antiquários copiaram inscrições no século 16, e uma tentativa de escavação teve início no final do século 18.
Um cardeal tomou medidas para drená-lo novamente e construiu a vizinhaça Alessandrina sobre ele. Mas a escavação por Carlo Fea , que começou a limpar o entulho do Arco de Septímio Severo em 1803, e arqueólogos sob o regime napoleônico marcaram o início do clareamento do Fórum, que só foi totalmente escavado no início do século 20.
Restos de vários séculos são mostrados em conjunto, devido à prática romana de construir sobre ruínas anteriores.
Hoje, as escavações arqueológicas continuam, juntamente com a restauração e preservação permanente. Por muito tempo um dos principais destinos turísticos na cidade, o Fórum está aberto para tráfego de pedestres ao longo das ruas da Roma antiga que são restauradas para o nível Imperial tarde. O Museu do Forum (Antiquarium Forense) é encontrado no final Coliseu de uma estrada moderna, a Via dei Fori Imperiali . Este pequeno museu tem uma importante colecção de esculturas e fragmentos arquitetônicos. Há também reconstruções do Fórum e nas proximidades Imperial Fora, bem como um pequeno vídeo em vários idiomas. Ele é realizado a partir do Fórum ao lado de Santa Francesca Romana (n º 53 Piazza S. Maria Nova) e está aberto das 08:30 h às uma hora antes do anoitecer. A entrada é gratuita.
Em 2008, as fortes chuvas causaram danos estruturais da cobertura de concreto segurando o moderno "Black Stone" de mármore em conjunto durante os Vulcanal .
Muitos dos templos do Fórum de data para os períodos do Reino e da República, embora a maioria foi destruída e reconstruída várias vezes. As ruínas no âmbito do Fórum mostram claramente como os espaços urbanos foram utilizados durante a época romana. O Fórum inclui actualmente uma estátua moderna de Júlio César e os principais monumentos seguintes, prédios antigos e ruínas :
Templos
Esta seção requer expansão .
Templo Data construída Construtor Localização dentro do Fórum
Templo de Castor e Pollux 494 aC Aulus Postumius Albino Lado sul, leste da Basílica Júlia
Templo de Saturno 501 aC Tarquínio Superbus Lado sul, a oeste da Basílica Júlia
Templo de Vesta 7 º século aC Numa Pompilius Canto sudeste, junto ao Templo de Castor e Pollux
Templo de Vênus e Roma 135 Adriano Late expansão fórum Imperial para a mais distante da Regia , em frente ao Coliseu
Templo de Antonino e Faustina 141 Antonino Pio Lado norte, a leste da Basílica Emília
Templo de César 29 aC Augustus Lado Leste, a oeste da Regia
Templo de Vespasiano e Tito 79 Tito e Domiciano West borda abaixo do tabularium Sul do Templo da Concórdia e no norte do Dii Portico Consentes
Templo de Rômulo 309 Maxêncio
Santuário de Vênus Cloacina
Templo de Rômulo Divus 309 Maxêncio
Basílicas
Basílica Emília
Basílica Júlia
Basílica de Maxêncio e Constantino
Arcos
Arco de Septímio Severo
Arco de Tito
edifícios públicos ou residências oficiais
Regia , originalmente a residência dos reis de Roma ou, pelo menos, a sua sede principal, e mais tarde do escritório do Pontifex Maximus, o sumo sacerdote da religião romana.
Cúria Júlia (mais tarde reconstrução por Diocleciano ), o site do Senado romano .
Tabularium , o escritório de registros de Roma.
Portico Dii Consentes
Atrium Vestae , a casa das virgens vestais.
Tullianum , a prisão usado para prender vários líderes estrangeiros e de generais.
monumentos menores
Rostra , de onde os políticos discursavam aos cidadãos romanos.
Urbi umbigo , o centro da cidade designados a partir da qual e para o qual todas as distâncias em Roma e no Império Romano foram medidos.
Milliarium Aureum Depois de Augustus erguido este monumento, todas as estradas foram consideradas para começar aqui e todas as distâncias no Império Romano foram medidos em relação a esse ponto.
Coluna de Focas , o último monumento construído dentro do Fórum.
Lapis Niger ("Pedra Negra"), um antigo santuário, que foi muito obscura, mesmo para os romanos.
Piscinas, molas
O Lacus Curtius , o site de uma piscina misteriosa venerado pelos romanos, mesmo depois de terem esquecido o que significava.
O Iuturnae Lacus ("Primavera de Juturna"), uma piscina de cura, onde Castor e Pólux foram disse ter regado os seus cavalos
Estradas, ruas, escadarias
Gemonian stairssteps situado na parte central de Roma, líder da Arx do Capitólio até o Fórum Romano.
Clivus Capitolinus era a rua que começou no Arco de Tibério, enrolado em torno do Templo de Saturno, e terminou no Capitólio.
Via Sacra , a famosa procissão de rua de Roman triunfos ; ligados a Vestae Atrium com o Coliseu .
Vanished (ou quase desapareceu) estruturas
Arco de Augusto
Arco de Fabius
Arco de Tibério
Basílica Fulvia
Basílica Opimia
Basílica Porcia
Basílica Sempronia
Golden House of Nero (Domus Aurea)
Instituto dos escribas e Arautos do Aediles
Santuário de Faustina, o Jovem
Santuário de Vulcano (Vulcanal)
Estátua de Navius Attus
Estátua de Constantino, o Grande
Estátua de Domiciano
Estátua de Tremulus
Estátua de Vertumno
Templo de Augusto
Templo de Baco
Templo da Concórdia
Templo de Janus
Tribunal do Marco Aurélio
Tribunal da Cidade do Pretor (Praetor Urbanus)
Tribunal do Pretor para Estrangeiros (Praetor Peregrinus)
Bem-chefe de Libo (Puteal Libonus ou Scribonianum)
Estátuas de vários outros deuses e os homens