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It´s pretty hard to figure out what really fascinates you in Life. Is it Music, Photography or something else.
You always have to decide what is you favorite pleasure.
--Canon 60D--Speedlite 430EX--Canon 18-135mm @ 18mm--
- insured parcel tag, mailed as registered mail. Sometimes the clients recycled their tags, putting stamps over the postmarks.
The history of fur in Canada - Once used as currency between European settlers and their First Nations hosts, fur has been a fixture in what is now Canada for more than 500 years, and it has been a fixture of Canada’s retail scene for almost as long, with the 340-year-old Hudson’s Bay Co. making its name in the fur trade. But it wasn’t until the country started to modernize that fur transitioned from necessity to luxury. The fashion industry first introduced the fur coat as we know it around 1880, and its popularity as a symbol of wealth and power continued to grow over the next century. The 1980s, an age of excess and conspicuous consumption, marked the apex of Canada’s modern fur trade, with Pappas Furs even recruiting Sylvester Stallone to hawk its wares in glossy magazine ads. LINK - www.bcbusiness.ca/the-skins-game-canadas-fur-trade-revival
SIMOOM SOUND is a post office located at Echo Bay, British Columbia, Canada, on Gilford Island in the Central Coast region adjacent to the body of water of the same name, which was named for HMS Simoom. The name formerly applied to a location on the nearby Wishart Peninsula as a steamer landing but was moved to Echo Bay when the former location became depopulated.
SIMOOM SOUND Post Office was opened - 1 August 1912, located on the Wishart Peninsula facing Simoom Sound. Some time before 28 June 1943 the post office was moved to the west side of Gilford Island (likely at the seaplane base outside Echo Bay). Some time before February 1967 the post office was moved less than 1 mile south into the settlement at Echo Bay. January 1983 decision by Canada Post to close the post office was evidently reversed, and the SIMOOM SOUND Post Office - located in the settlement of Echo Bay - remains open.
- this address label tag was likely attached to a shipment of furs - the stamps paying for the parcel post with parcel insurance were affixed to this tag. The postage affixed to the label was 37 cents The use of the 1937 Mufti stamps establishes that the furs were shipped after 1 April 1937.
Underneath the stamps is a list of furs the shipment could have contained: Badger, Bear, Beaver, Cross Fox, Fisher, Lynx, Marten, Mink, Muskrat, Otter, Red Fox, Silver Fox, Skunk, Weasel, White Fox, Wolf, Wild Cat, Squirrels & License No.
The stamps were cancelled at SIMOOM SOUND, B.C., with a split ring stamp - sent from - / SIMOOM SOUND / ?? 2 / 3? / B.C / - split ring cancel - this split ring hammer (A1-1) was proofed - 16 June 1912 - (RF B) - (from 1937, 1938 or 1939).
- the furs were sent insured - / INSURED PARCEL, / Collis, Assuré / 14 / - handstamp in red ink.
Company issued address label tag was addressed to - T. Pappas (Sr) / Fur Merchant / 850 Granville St. / Vancouver, B.C.
- sent by his son - Ted Pappas (Jr) / Echo Bay P.O. (Simoom Sound) / B.C.
Ted Pappas would buy furs directly from First Nations trappers, then hop on a train to New York where he’d sell the wild mink, sable, lynx cat, muskrat, beaver and otter pelts at auction. He did well and for a while, owned a good chunk of downtown Prince George. But his wife died in 1928, then he lost everything in the 1929 stock market crash, and Ted came down to Vancouver as a penniless single father in 1931. Ten years later, he’d rebuilt his business enough to buy Pappas Furs’ existing building, the former Vancouver Star newspaper building on Hamilton Street. Ted passed on the buying to his son, Ted Jr., who dropped out of high school at 15 to work in the family business full-time. Ted Jr. went up and down the Pacific Coast from First Nation village to First Nations village, buying for his dad. He did most of the travelling in the winter because that’s when they were harvested. He went in a fishing boat. It was an extremely dangerous undertaking. His father Ted Sr. would wire him up the money and he would send the stuff down. By the 1950s, Pappas Furs were financing trappers for the three or four months between taking the pelts and selling them at auction. They went right up to the Arctic Circle, and went into villages and give them half and when it sold, the other half. Hudson’s Bay did the same thing, but Pappas Furs gave them a bit more. LINK to the complete article - vancouversun.com/business/pappas-furs-closes-after-100-years The above address tag is an example of Ted Pappas Jr. buying furs for his father Ted Pappas Sr.
Theodore "Ted" Pappas Sr.
(b. 1 March 1895 in Lafka, Greece - d. 24 November 1983 at age 88 in Vancouver, B.C.) - occupation - owner fur industry / fur buyer - LINK to his death certificate - search-collections.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/Image/Genealogy/c9... - LINK to his Find a Grave site - www.findagrave.com/memorial/224424406/theodore-pappas
His son (the sender of this tag) - TED PAPPAS (1921-2010) - It is with very deep sadness that we deliver the news of the passing of Mr. Ted Pappas, long-time President and owner of Western Canadian Raw Fur Auction Sales of Vancouver, British Columbia. His business was founded by his father in 1924, and was well known for housing the finest collection of sables on the continent. Ted was a man with a deep understanding of the fur trade, and a deep respect for the people who produced the goods. Ted could be best summed up in one word as a “Maverick”, an untameable force to be reckoned with. Under his leadership, Western Canadian was an aggressive competitor and Ted always played to win. LINK to the complete obituary - www.iti.gov.nt.ca/sites/iti/files/2010Summer.pdf
Time between sheets
07/52 Teleidoscope 2014 [tiempo / time/ Zeit]
“Where's the love song?
To set us free
Too many people down
Everything turning the wrong way around
And I don't know what love will be
But if we start dreaming now
Lord knows we'll never leave the clouds
And you've been so busy lately
that you haven't found the time
To open up your mind
And watch the world spinning gently out of time”
Inspirated by: www.youtube.com/watch?v=SRkX1Up1vnc
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This diagrams the symmetry between mass and charge when comparing the Energy-Momentum relationship given by Einstein to the Electric-Magnetic field relationship given by Heaviside (and others).
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%E2%80%93momentum_relation
In the drawing:
m = mass
p = momentum
Q = electric charge
Eo = electric field of charge at rest
E_L = electric field perpendicular to the direction of motion
B = magnetic field associated with the moving charge
A = surface of constant potential tangent to the observer (for a point charge A = 4piR^2 where R is the vector from the observer to the charge at the time the observer sees it)
v = velocity
c = speed of light
eo = permittivity of free space
The angle theta is defined by the particle's speed (0 degrees corresponds to no velocity, 90 degrees means the particle is going the speed of light). When the Stanford Linear Accelerator was accelerating electrons, it could accelerate an electron to where theta would be ~89.99919 degrees.
So as the particle (say an electron) increases it's speed, the 'box' in the diagram grows taller. If one were to adjust the mass/charge, the box would grow wider or narrower.
This assumes that the mass to charge ratio remains constant.
Note the direct symmetry between momentum (left side of the box) and the magnetic field (right side of the box). The magnetic field provides the property of "inductance" for a charged particle which is quite analogous to the momentum and inertia of a massive particle.
If an electron were to slow down, the angle theta would decrease and the box would get shorter. The amount it got shorter would be reflected in the energy of the photon it emitted (i.e. the change in p x c = hf). where f = frequency
For such a mountainous area, a piece of flat land like this meadow between Crummock Water and Buttermere stands out in England's Lake District National Park.
This is actually a "Lacustrine Delta". Originally, the two lakes, Buttermere and Crummock Water were one, but over millions of years, the mountain streams", which flow in from the Mountains to the East, have deposited silt into the flat bottom of the classic glacial U-shaped valley, and split the lake in two, leaving this flat and fertile plain dividing them.
We are looking roughly South-East here, along the valley and over Buttermere (which can't be seen). At the head of the valley stands the shapely peak of Fleetwith Pike (centre-left), with Haystacks, High Peak & High Stile to the right.
Camera: Nikon F5
Lens: Nikkor 28-80mm
Film: Kodak Ektar 100
For more of my photographs, see here
Kaaterskill Falls is a two-drop waterfall located near in the eastern Catskill Mountains of New York, on the north side of Kaaterskill Clove, between the hamlets of Haines Falls and Palenville in Greene County's Town of Hunter. The dual cascades total 260 feet (79 m) in height, making the falls the highest in New York, and one of the Eastern United States' taller waterfalls. The falls are one of America's oldest tourist attractions, wappearing in some of the most prominent books, essays, poems and paintings of the early 19th century.
While the falls are on public land, they can only be reached via the Kaaterskill Falls Trail, a state-maintained yellow-blazed path running 0.4 mile (650 m) uphill from NY 23A, the only road through the clove. Built in 1967, the trail, though challenging enough for experienced hikers, is the most-hiked trail in the Catskill Park, contribtuing to erosion.
The falls, like the clove and creek with which they share a name, are a relatively recent addition to the Catskills in geologic time. They evolved through stream capture at the end of the Illinois glaciation, when runoff from the glacial melt that created North-South Lake began to flow away from the nearby headwaters of Schoharie Creek and down the steep slopes of the newly-created clove. The rushing waters of what would become known as Spruce Creek eroded a natural amphitheater at roughly 2,000 feet (609 m) on the south slope of South Mountain. Most of the drop is accounted for by the upper cascade. The shelf breaking the two falls (and creating the huge pool) is the break between the Manorkill Sandstone formed in the Middle Devonian period and the Oneonta-Genesee sandstone-shale mix of the late Devonian period.
While the falls' existence was known prior to colonization, it played minor role among the indigenous peoples of the Hudson Valley, who avoided the Catskills due to the limited agricultural possibilities of higher elevations. The falls' name probably came from a later corruption of "Catskill" by English-speaking colonists who had supplanted the Dutch by the early 18th century. Cat could mean Bobcat or Mountain Lion, while "kill" means stream in Dutch.
Early American naturalist John Bartram visited the falls on his 1753 expedition to the area. In "A Journey to Ye Cat Skill Mountains with Billy," one of the earliest Catskill travelogues, called it "the great gulf that swallowed all down." Still, Americans regarded upstate New York as unsafe and populated by savage natives. It wasn't until after the War of 1812 when the frontier shifted far to the west that attitudes changed.
The falls' fame began with a mention by Washington Irving in "Rip Van Winkle" in 1819. Drawn by Irving's story, pioneering Hudson River School artist Thomas Cole took a steamboat ride up the Hudson in October of 1825. The resulting paintings were featured on the front page of the New York Evening Post, and in turn helped make the Hudson River Valley one of the foremost tourist destinations in the country. A trip to the falls became something of a pilgrimmage for the first influential class of truly American artists. The earliest known view of the front of the Falls by Thomas Cole, dated 1826, is in the Westervelt Warner Museum in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Perhaps the best-known depiction is Asher Durand's highly stylized "Kindred Spirits" (1849), eulogizing the recently deceased Cole.
At some time in the 19th century the falls were used as a mill to power a tannery. The Laurel House, a nearby hotel, acquired the water rights to Spruce Creek and dammed it during tourist season, charging spectators a fee to watch as the falls were "turned on". In 1885 New York State established the Forest Peserve, which later became part of the New York State Constitution. The "forever wild" requirement helped protect the area from logging and commercial development, once the falls property came into state ownership during the early 20th century. They are today part of the North Mountain Wild Forest, a Forest Preserve Unit owned and managed by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC).
This image is of the Sun Dial at the Chinnese Gardens on the Tacoma WA Waterfront on Commencement Bay, The image was taken between heavy storms.
Camera: Canon AE-1 Program.
Lens: Canon FDn 50mm 1.8.
Filter: Hoya 52mm Ultra Pro UV.
Film: Candido 400 35mm.
Dev/Scan: miyagistudio.com
Photo: ragonar.com
Location: Madrid (Spain).
Date: December 2024.
(2012) 365 Day Project Day 58
After a few days of really hot weather we had a day of almost constant rain. In between a couple of major downpours I wandered around the garden trying to get some water droplet shots.
subject: two of a kind
50/365
Constructive feedback if you can, please! :) Be as honest as you can! :D
© Image by JeffreyHuang - All rights reserved. This image may not be changed, used, copied, or altered in any way without my permission and consent.
Jeff McMullen, Wayne Muir, (standing) Naomi Wolfe, Ken Ralph, Annette
Schneider (seated)
“Closing the Space Between Us”
Easing the Crisis in Indigenous
Health and Education
Jeff McMullen
2007 Annual Aquinas Lecture
Australian Catholic University Ballarat
Jim-baa-yer Indigenous Unit
Friday 14th September 2007
I am torn as I stand here tonight between sharing what I know is happening to Aboriginal communities and wanting to be there as the sun rises tomorrow.
In Barunga, a Jawoyn community in southern Arnhem Land, they will walk tomorrow along a heavily trodden sandy track through the trees to bury a very young man who died way too soon. He is the son of an Aboriginal teacher, Lorraine Bennett, a woman my family thinks of as one of our favourite people in the world. My words tonight are in honour of this young life and of his wonderful mother who has taught so much to so many other children, even mine.
When my son, Will, now 12, and daughter, Claire, now 13, were considerably younger they sent Lorraine books, the right books, the ones she said she needed. This inspiring teacher with the beautiful smile used those books to start the first preschool in Wugularr, 120 kilometres south of Katherine.
Lorraine works now for the Sunrise Health Service Aboriginal Corporation which has the huge job of bringing health to people scattered across vast distances in Arnhem Land. Lorraine directs the early learning and health education project supported by Ian Thorpe’s Fountain for Youth trust. She understands that if we are to create a brighter and more hopeful life for all Australian children then we need to create the change that can only come through education. If we are to overcome the crisis in Aboriginal communities around this country we have to educate ourselves to understand the truth.
Over fifty years of world wandering has deepened my appreciation of the extraordinary journey made by Aboriginal people to be here today as the world’s oldest continuous culture.
I am not romanticising the past but it is essential to acknowledge the strength, the beauty and the value of Australia’s Indigenous cultures to understand the scale of the crisis afflicting so many of our 460,000 Indigenous people.
Wherever you live in Australia you need to find out the longer timelines of the history of this land and its people to understand what is happening now.
Here in Victoria, it was plagues of sickness following European occupation that ravaged the Wathawurrung people on this land of theirs. Not since the arrival of those European illnesses has Aboriginal culture as a whole faced such a grave threat.
There is a genuine emergency today in the heartland of this country but it is not mentioned once in over 500 pages of legislation rushed through our Federal Parliament to try to legitimise the illegitimate takeover of the rights of Aboriginal communities. Eerily, it is hard to find mention of children in those 500 pages of legislation.
The federal intervention, approved by both major political parties, almost completely misreads the real trauma and the greatest threat to Aboriginal lives.
What is killing most Aboriginal people 17 to 20 years before their time is a plague of chronic illness known as Syndrome X. This is a new Black Death cutting the heart out of several generations of Aboriginal people. It is both physical and mental sickness on such a scale that Aboriginal communities are now shrouded in a seemingly endless procession of funerals and mourning.
In the 1980’s, travelling widely in the remote communities, I used the phrase “a health emergency” to describe for governments and our nation the accelerating plague of diabetes, renal disease, strokes, hypertension and heart disease. Syndrome X has been gathering terrible force. Governments, state and federal, have held numerous inquiries, health strategies have been plotted time and again, but no Government has invested adequately in the integrated program of health, housing, work and, in particular, education that can end this preventable cluster of chronic illnesses.
Look at it this way. Over 70% of your family’s good health is determined by your socio-economic status : your education, the money you earn at work, the quality of your home and the health care you access. Aboriginal people, on the UN’s measurement, have the second worst quality of life on earth, outdone in squalor and disadvantage only by the poorest rural Chinese.
Here in the midst of a Golden Age for most Australians, when the wealth of this Aboriginal Land has built an astonishing federal surplus of over 17 billion dollars this year, we still have hundreds of thousands of Aboriginal people, the owners of this Land, living in dire poverty. They are by far the most disadvantaged of Australia’s two million people living below the poverty line. I have seen children who wander around looking for food. Thousands of children are not even enrolled for school and many teenagers wander aimlessly. Whole communities have been denied their human right to adequate food, housing, health and education. As a result we are now witnessing the very rapid disintegration of so many Aboriginal families, in remote, rural and urban communities.
Aboriginal people have barely wiped the tears from their eyes when there’s news of another death, especially young men who see no future in their own country, ashamed middle aged men in the grip of alcohol and illness who know they can’t support their families and broken men who die in the long grass or sometimes in a police cell.
Just a few years ago at Barunga we buried one of the Jawoyn’s great modern leaders. The late Bangardi Lee was just 53, young enough to be my brother. But in these parts I meet few Aboriginal men my age. Mr Lee died after suffering but never complaining about his handful of Syndrome X chronic illnesses. This thoughtful man knew that education was the key to a better chance of health for all of his community and he had asked Ian Thorpe and myself to lend a hand to try to improve the staggering 93% illiteracy in this zone of distress. As he was lowered into the ground, in the Aboriginal custom we pressed our sweat onto the coffin and I whispered a promise that I would do as he asked and do what we could until these children, the Children of the Sunrise, had the same opportunity as my own.
When my mother was a country child, growing up on the land near Singleton in the Hunter Valley, she lived opposite a shanty settlement of very poor Aboriginal families. She told my brothers and I that as she walked barefoot to school she came to see that it was wrong that Aboriginal children were then denied a chance to learn in that same school. In my family we felt the same way to know that in the whole of the Northern Territory only 62 Aboriginal children completed high school in government schools in 2004 as we worked with Ian Thorpe to build an early learning and health education program. My son, Will and daughter, Claire, were unsettled when they learned that Aboriginal children had so little. They, too, knew it was wrong. It was the unfairness they couldn’t bear.
“I know why these kids find it so hard when they start school”, Will said. “They never see a book at home.” Yes, bookless homes, scores of communities without a library or a pre-school this is part of our failure. Claire and Will truly could not imagine a childhood without books, without that world of pure joy and discovery that is opened up through reading.
Yet every Australian literacy study confirms that by Year 3 many Indigenous children have fallen eighteen months behind the national literacy and numeracy standards. The strugglers continue to deteriorate and by grade seven lag five years behind. How will these Australian children make their way through life with the literacy level of a six-year-old?
If they can’t read or write properly how will they ever find their way out of the maze of poverty and poor health? How will they get a driver’s licence to move with freedom in the wider world or ever hold down a well paying job? Almost certainly non-readers will become dependent on others for simple but sometimes critical functions. In the Jawoyn communities, Bangardi Lee used to say how distressing it was for his people to turn to outsiders, even to write letters begging for help from Canberra.
Closing the gap in life expectancy between Aboriginal people and the rest of Australians is our greatest national challenge. The key is to close the gap in education.
It is no coincidence that in regions like Arnhem Land where the median age of death of Aboriginal men is around 46, much lower than the national average of around 56 for Indigenous men, you also find these illiteracy rates as high as 93%. The explanation lies in the complex chain of factors that produce disadvantage beginning at birth and developing into a loss of control over individual lives and even the destiny of whole communities.
In the case of some children the disadvantage starts in utero. American scholar, Paul E. Barton, found that of fourteen major factors contributing to the racial gap in educational achievement, eight of them occurred before the child reached school. Of great interest to me was Barton’s finding that hunger, nutrition and low-birthweight were important contributors. He is not alone in these findings.
Syndrome X, that cluster of illnesses devastating Aboriginal lives, was for a long time explained by some as the consequence of a weak gene. I heard the same racial excuse used thirty years ago to explain the disproportionate amount of these illnesses among Native Americans or African-Americans I was filming at the time for Four Corners. But this theory has been shattered in recent years. Professor John Bertram of Monash University and a team that included the Menzies School of Health Research in the NT and the University of Mississippi examined autopsies of those who had died of the Syndrome X illnesses. They found a fascinating constant. It crossed over races but it hovered around hunger and poverty. The common factor was being born a dangerously low birth weight baby.
Young Aboriginal mothers are often malnourished and have untreated infections. In utero their unborn baby develops too few nephrons in the kidney. These are the tiny filters. You don’t catch up on nephrons. The hand you are dealt at birth is what you will live and die with. With too few nephrons the kidney of the Aboriginal child struggles and overcompensates, with an increased risk of scarring and ultimately early kidney disease, then premature death. I wear another hat as a Trustee of Jimmy Little’s Foundation which is committed to helping Aboriginal people on dialysis get back to their country when they are battling through the last years of their lives. Australian hospitals are now seeing the start of an avalanche of patients requiring costly dialysis but many Aboriginal people won’t get this treatment and they too will die years before their time.
This is the epitaph we chisel on their tombstones. Born into disadvantage and died that way.
A leading Aboriginal scholar, Professor Ted Wilkes and Dr Fiona Stanley of the Telethon Institute report in their landmark Western Australian assessment of Aboriginal health a disturbing pattern of hunger, poor nutrition and a high incidence of smoking and drinking even while those young Aboriginal mothers were pregnant. 49 per cent of Indigenous mothers smoked through pregnancy and 23 per cent continued to drink alcohol. These are two more of the major causes of those dangerously low birth-weight babies.
What distressed the researchers the most was that apparently the health education message had never reached these young people or had been ignored. If you work in education we need to make a far more vigorous and creative effort, with messages shaped by Indigenous people, to help especially young teenage mothers understand that it is not only their health that is threatened. It is the future of their child, including the child’s intellect and ability to learn.
This kind of education is not part of the Federal Government’s intervention in the Northern Territory.
The Federal Government has never adequately funded the vital screening and prevention programs to prevent the epidemics of illness and disease. Led by the ex-Army Captain, Mal Brough, some troops lend a hand on logistics but they should be building up the vital services that have never been provided in so many of these communities. The Volunteer GP’s are now paid by the Federal Government to complete health checks to establish an audit of a health disaster that has been assessed numerous times. They will not be there long enough to provide real treatment. When they go home the pattern of chronic illness will remain.
The Northern Territory Intervention patronisingly ignores the good work by Aboriginal medical services, staffed by black and white Australians who can never get the adequate primary health care funding they need.
Mal Brough’s Intervention is a show of concern but it offers very little treatment for the conditions or illnesses of poverty that afflict these children.
Most of these children will never access the pharmaceutical benefits scheme because there are chemist shops in Aboriginal communities. They will not access the medical benefits scheme either because there may be only one GP for a vast area of the Northern Territory.
According to the National Rural health Alliance the number of Australian-trained GP’s choosing
to bring care to the seven million Australians living in the bush has plummeted.
The Aboriginal Health Services need more nurses, dentists and other health professionals. Their patients are about five times sicker than other Australians.
Aboriginal children have ailments hardly seen in our cities in thirty years, including the world’s highest rate of acute rheumatic heart fever, scabies, anaemia and other diseases of poverty, and otitis media, middle ear infections which cause serious loss of hearing and become a life long learning disability for over 80% of the Jawoyn children. These infections, which are detected in babies as young as three months spread rapidly in overcrowded houses, often with ten, fifteen or more people crowded together, sleeping on old mattresses. There’s broken plumbing, stoves and fridges often don’t work and there’s no one with a real plan to help them find their way out of this maze of poverty and bad health.
Patrick Dodson has stated firmly that only the Federal Government has the level of funding required to change this health disaster. This year, the Aboriginal Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commissioner, Tom Calma decided to lead the Close the Gap campaign to focus our nation on this task at the start of a long federal election season. Cathy Freeman, Ian Thorpe and virtually every significant health organization in this land have joined forces to communicate a hopeful and positive message that within a decade we can make true progress and that with the will and the national commitment we will see that the ten thousand Aboriginal children born this year finally move towards a genuine equality of opportunity.
The Australian Medical Association, using estimates shaped by the health economist John Deeble, has estimated that an additional $460 million dollars a year is urgently required for primary health care in Aboriginal communities. I have pleaded for the past six years with the Federal Government to create the emergency level of aid that is required to deal with this genuine emergency. Kevin Rudd has put a couple of hundred million dollars on the table for an increased commitment to Indigenous Health. If the Prime Minister wants to see change in the lives of abused and neglected Aboriginal children he should now make a stronger commitment to provide the required level of Primary Health Care. I am not interested in more blaming. Let’s stop talking and get this done. In that prized future fund we have the bounty. Now we must have the belief. Let me share with you the proof that it can be done.
A good deal of research, especially by the Canadian scientist, Dr Fraser Mustard, has established that for every additional year of education provided to a whole community of young teenage women, we will add up to four years life expectancy to their first child.
Professor Ken Wyatt, formerly head of Aboriginal Health in NSW and now in charge of Western Australia’s Aboriginal health policy, adds another great incentive. Increasing the education of those young women by a single year can also reduce the danger of infant mortality when they give birth by between 7 and 10%. This is what I think of when I say, “Literacy is for life”.
What more motivation or sense of purpose can we want to create a very different kind of intervention : primary health care, managed and delivered by well funded Aboriginal health organizations, and education on a revolutionary scale that we have never provided Aboriginal children. Guaranteed pre-school education for all Australian children would be a great place to start. Go Kevin 07! But come on John! If you are going to fight out this election Prime Minister and offer a plan for the future, radically boost the investment in early learning.
Indigenous children are so disadvantaged that we need a literacy brigade of well educated people to rapidly lift the rate of learning. After I made this proposal two years ago at the Garma National Education Conference in the Northern Territory, the Minister for Indigenous Affairs responded by inviting the so called Grey Panthers to visit some remote communities in their caravans. This, as every teacher knows, is simply not enough.
The most disadvantaged students, in fact, require the highest standards of teaching. Some retired teachers and principals would have those talents and many others with appropriate cultural training could support these badly undermanned schools. The real champions of Indigenous education like Dr Chris Sara believe that the first step is to retrain principals to retrain their teachers to believe that Aboriginal children can reach the same standard of learning as the rest of Australian children.
But as with health workers, we need to fund an adequate education force equal to the great national task ahead of us.
I escorted the Federal Education Minister to one of the remote communities to show her that this can be done.
At Ian Thorpe’s Fountain for Youth Trust we have had some good support from the Federal Education department for our seven year effort to help improve the health and education of all Australian children.
Ian has been a true champion, visiting many of the remote communities, encouraging the children, their parents and their teachers. He is a strong man, with a big heart and a very fine mind. When asked how long he will persist in this work, he says, until we get the job done.
Charles Perkins told me many years ago that for Aboriginal people the road to equality would be a very long and hard one. We have to remain relentless and find the best in one another. Aboriginal people have been teaching me this for years.
Our strategy at Ian Thorpe’s Fountain for Youth trust is to focus on the well being of the young mothers, with early learning for their infants and a highly successful program of support for literacy at the primary school level.
Our Literacy Backpacks are tackling those bookless homes and supporting the NT teachers by closing the space between the school and the home. First we raise funds from the public. $200 can fund a child’s Literacy Backpack for a year’s worth of good reading. We seek support from companies like Credit Suisse Australia, Kessler and Vodafone to help resource a good school library with books tailored to the Accelerated Learning strategy favoured in the remote area schools. We enrol the kids in the Scholastic or Wombat Book club so they have the same encouragement and enjoyment as my children did as they make their own selections of reading. Instead of forcing truant kids to walk around picking up rubbish and other punitive, humiliating versions of this so called “tough love” approach of the NT intervention, the teachers we work with give the children an incentive to learn, to find themselves in the book. If the kids make good progress they get vouchers to purchase any book they like from the Katherine Bookshop. It’s owner, another spirited woman who believes in education, says many of these Aboriginal families are now saving and spending hundreds of dollars to provide more books for their children.
In the Literacy Backpacks the children take home a selection of reading for the whole family, for their younger brothers and sisters as well. They also carry home Aboriginal newspapers like the Koori Mail and the National Indigenous Times. Magazines on nutrition, cooking and baby care are very popular among the women. It’s incentive. It’s what these families are looking for and when children see their parents reading a newspaper or a magazine about contemporary Indigenous issues they know that learning is not a “gubba thing” just for white fellas..
To see people reading in those once bookless homes is a great satisfaction for teachers like Lorraine Bennett. Many of these Aboriginal schools in the Jawoyn communities are seeing significant measurable increases in the reading performances of the children.
Some of the girls used to ask my daughter Claire, “What are you going to do next ? “Well high school first,” she’d say. “I want to run fast like Cathy Freeman, swim fast like Ian, and then go to University like mum and dad.” I like to see our kids together, the boys running wild with Will and sharing their stories. Australian children sharing dreams.
Most of these children have never been far from their homelands. Learning and finding out what they truly need to know, those life empowering skills, will allow them to travel and come home. The greatest sense of progress is to hear children we know now talk of going to high school in Darwin or Cairns. It’s always hard to leave home and not every kid can handle that journey. Many Aboriginal leaders would love to see new residential high schools built to let children from several different communities share their school week together and then go home for a long weekend. At the moment scholarships and a very long journey is the only way. If they can make it, their mothers and fathers glow with pride.
It is so important to most of these parents to see that Indigenous culture is as prized as everything else in the school syllabus. Ian Thorpe’s Trust supports Aboriginal people to train the children in music, art and dance. Where possible these talents can flow into viable work and business that allows people a real chance to move from away from life limiting welfare dependency. In Wugularr, the Aboriginal actor, Tom Lewis, and local men organised the rebuilding of a Cultural Education Centre where young people are now trained in many forms of cultural expression usually shown off proudly at the annual Walking with Spirits festival.
In Queensland I have collaborated with the Aboriginal educator, Ernie Grant, on his “My Land, My Tracks” project. This is a teaching aide to help orient children to find out who they really are and how they fit into the longer timelines of Australian history. My experience with communities like Yarrabah and Kuranda, near Cairns, indicates that all forms of learning rapidly improve when Aboriginal children are more secure in their cultural knowledge and can value and respect their elders and their heritage. With Ernie Grant I share a passion to see Indigenous Studies elevated in importance in all levels of Australian education. As much as I learned at University I have made an effort throughout my professional lifetime to expand and deepen my appreciation of what it really means to live in this Aboriginal land. This can be a personal journey for every Australian.
What is missing in the Federal Government’s intervention into Aboriginal community life is any real empathy, any sense that we are walking with them, listening and learning. I am sorry but the words do matter and there is a coldness and insensitivity about this new policy of assimilation. There has been little meaningful consultation with the Aboriginal community leaders. Some were so upset they travelled to Federal Parliament but still couldn’t meet with those planning this radical upheaval. Very few Aboriginal people that I know in the Northern Territory agree that traditional lands should be under federal control through five year leases, evolving possibly into 99 year leases. Most are opposed to ending the permit system. Many more are fearful that John Howard’s Northern Territory plan, in the name of protecting children, is attempting to take over most aspects of running their families and communities.
In the name of ending welfare dependency we see the return to white management and clearly discriminatory practices. It is hard to see how this punitive approach will provide the training or even the right atmosphere for Aboriginal people to make their own moves to something better.
Claiming to “save their children” does not disguise the truth that this policy once more treats Aboriginal parents as incapable of looking after their children. It shames men and women, all of them, regardless of their behaviour. It is a return to the Mission mentality of subservience and inferiority. I thought we had agreed to leave that behind.
We must be honest here. The NT legislation is blatant discrimination. One set of rules for someone else. The legislation set aside the provisions of the Racial Discrimination Act. It also ignores the recommendations of the UN Committee against Discrimination urging Australia to uphold the right of Indigenous people to consultation in the decision making about their lives. The First Australians do have a right to autonomy that is once more being denied. Yet once more we are hearing that old misguided argument made when Aboriginal children of the Stolen Generation were denied their rights. We have to save the children, is again the cry.
The NT Intervention is an ideological power-play by a Prime Minister who has never believed that Aboriginal people have an exceptional, sacred right to their Land,
the entitlement of Native Title legally established by the High Court. This is a Prime Minister, according to his biography, that told his Treasurer that he would not walk in a Reconciliation March with Cabinet. I have tried to work cooperatively with several of Mr Howard’s federal ministers and know some want far better than this for Aboriginal people. But our federal parliament in a failure of will and judgement has ridden along with this intervention and watched the steady erosion of Aboriginal rights for over a decade.
The Federal Government’s refusal to say SORRY effectively ended Reconciliation. The Governments 10 Point Plan undermined Native Title. This was followed by the denial of the Indigenous Right to Self-Determination, the abolishment of ATSC and the isolation of Indigenous leaders who do not support assimilation. Then came the cultivation of a new Conservative agenda to remove or weaken the teaching of Aboriginal culture in schools. For an animist people who see the Land as their Mother the final and greatest insult is to see the Federal Government take control of the community land on which they live.
After many lifetimes of denial of who Aboriginal people really are, came many more lifetimes of struggle to win respect for their Culture and see them treated as equals.
It is a shameful Big Lie to present the abuse of these rights as in the best interests of Aboriginal people.
The NT intervention is replete with treachery and a looming sense of greater tragedy to come if it is allowed to continue as planned. Thankfully the outcry from many has softened the initial order for mandatory sexual inspections of Aboriginal children.
But the health organizations that do the hard work of caring for all of these children say nothing has yet been done to fund that essential primary health care or education on the scale required.
After all of the battles for justice and civil rights, that long road trudged by true Australian heroes like Jack Patton and William Ferguson, the historic claims by Vincent Lingiari, Eddie Mabo, the Wik people and others, are we now going to watch in silence as Aboriginal people once more see their lives taken over by
Government managers.
It is forty years since the moral force of Australians expressed clearly in the 1967 referendum our belief in human equality.
It is time to speak up and insist that whomever wins the coming federal election our federal government must invest some of that future fund in the real future of a great society, health and education for our children.
These are the Children of the Sunrise.
SOURCES
1. “No Excuses – Closing the Racial Gap in Learning. Stephen and Abigail Thernstrom. Simon & Schuster. New York. 2003.
2.“My Land, My Tracks”. Ernie Grant. Innisfail & District Education Centre. Innisfail.1998.
3.“Preliminary findings in a multiracial study of kidneys in autopsy”. Hoy, W.E., Douglas-Denton, R.N., Hughson, M.D., Cass, A.,Johnson,K., Betram, J.F., Kidney Journal International. 83, 31-37. June 2003.
4.“Benefits of Swimming Pools in Two Remote Communities in Western Australia”. (Includes Aboriginal childhood illness assessment) Lehmann,L., Tennant,M., Silva,D., McAullay,D., Lannigan,F., Coates,H. and Stanley,F. British Medical Journal (2003) 7412, 415-419.
5. “Public Report Card, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health: Time for Action”. Australian Medical Association. www.ama.com
6.“Parsing the Achievement Gap”, Paul E. Barton.
Analyses 14 factors contributing to the Racial
gap in Learning. Published by The Policy
Information Centre of the Educational Testing
Service. New York. 2003.
7. Western Australia Aboriginal Health Survey. Dr
Fiona Stanley, Assoc. Professor Ted Wilkes et
al. Telethon Institute for Child health
Research. Perth. WA.
8. Details of Health Education, Early Learning at
the Women Centres & Literacy Backpack
Projects available from Ian Thorpe’s Fountain
for Youth Trust. PO Box 402, Manly, NSW.
1655. Telephone : 02-89669422.
Oak Alley Plantation, along River Road in Louisiana. Probably one of the most famous of the southern plantations. It has been in movies www.oakalleyplantation.com/about/movies+filmed+here/
and has quite a history www.oakalleyplantation.com/about/history/
We had driven from Natchez to New Orleans and were on hour 7 of the road trip along the River Road when we came upon Oak Alley. It was raining and they wanted to charge an unreal amount of money for the tour so we skipped the tour. I told my husband to drive around the back of it along a public road, just in case there was a photo opportunity there. We hit the mother lode because this IS THE CLASSIC photo that can be seen on the Internet--and we got it for FREE! There was a little hill by the bank of the river (how convenient) and I took this shot at 55 mm end of my 55-200mm lens from there. The lighting was more conducive to B&W, thus another mono shot this week.
This is how I picture Tara or Twelve Oaks in Gone With the Wind so it's a fav of mine.
We booked the tour that allowed us to go into Stonehenge at the very end of the day after the regurlar visitor's times were over. There were only about thirty of us, and we were allowed to leave the path and actually wander around between the stones. Definitely worth the extra money!
Comparison between MacBook Air and MacBook Pro keyboards. Both are the latest version with LED-backlit panels. The keyboard brightness is set to the highest setting.
2ТЭ121 mainline diesel-electric locomotoves were developed in mid 1970s as more powerfull model followed 2TE116 having two 3000 hp diesels. It traditionally composed of two sections but have many progressive elements as frame support of traction motors, the load-bearing body with new 4000 hp / 2942 kW diesel 2В-5Д49 (16ЧН26/23), increased wheel size (1250 mm) and high wheel loading (up to 27 t). Unfortunately it remained low-production (only 80 for 1978-1992) and after USSR breakage Ukrainian plant VZOR (renamed to Luhansk Locomotive Works) continued to develop the series 2TE116, which in the last, the UD model received 4000 hp diesel engine of American manufacture.
2TE121 mainly operated on the Northern Railway of Russia and Donetsk Railway of Ukraine. After the collapse of the USSR, repair of diesel locomotives available in Russia was difficult, and they were not needed in Ukraine, where they were massively decommissioned by 1994-95. In Russia some of them continued to operate on the Oktyabrskaya railroad until 2010, the last one was decommissioned in 2014.
www.rsc.org/images/CIIE_Thalidomide_tcm18-223647.mp3
History
Thalidomide was created by Grünenthal in 1953 and was used in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a "wonder drug" to treat morning sickness, headaches, coughs, insomnia and colds. Thalidomide was marketed in the UK under the name Distaval in 1958, and advertisements emphasized the drug's complete safety, using phrases such as “non-toxic” and “no known toxicity”.
However, in 1961 an Australian doctor, William McBride, wrote to the Lancet after noticing an increase in deformed babies being born at his hospital – all to mothers who had taken Thalidomide.
Between 1958 and 1962 tens of thousands of women throughout Europe found that the baby they were carrying unaccountably miscarried, or, worse, after they gave birth were told it was stillborn. Thousands more discovered that their babies had severe birth defects, missing arms, legs, or with severe reductions to these limbs, or even worse, damage to their internal organs, brain, heart, kidneys, intestines, genitals, etc. During 1962 record keepers began to count all of the children living who were born damaged by the drug. The only complete records are of those who survived long enough to participate in the national compensation schemes, which were established in Germany, Britain, Japan, Sweden and Australia in the 1970s. The difficulty in uncovering the full toll of the disaster begins with the unknown numbers of miscarriages and stillbirths (possibly up to ten times the number of live births), and the widespread practice of infanticide.
The Thalidomide injuries did not stop once the babies were born. At the age of fifty, the Thalidomide Trust’s records show that around half of all survivors are coping with chronic pain – mainly from muscles and joints (musculo-skeletal pain), largely as a result of the challenges of living with missing or damaged limbs. For many, their bodies are deteriorating far faster than able-bodied people. Several have been told words to the effect “your body is getting the problems of someone in their seventies”, which at forty to fifty years of age is not good news. At least a quarter are coping with developing neurological problems, tingling, numbness, and pain in their affected limbs. This means that a person may be holding a cup, for instance, and the next thing they know is it has fallen to the floor and broken, because of the numbness in their hand. For these survivors, the disaster is still slowly unfolding in their day-to-day lives.
Grünenthal scientists were not only negligent in failing to withdraw the drug when reports of problems came in, or for failing to test it according to the standards of the time, but more than most companies they were very well placed to anticipate the possibility that Thalidomide would cause birth defects.
Grünenthal initially denied claims that the drug hadn’t been extensively tested according to the standards of the time, but once the scandal became undeniable, they sought to deflect blame and limit damage.
In 1961 Thalidomide was eventually withdrawn after being found to be a teratogan - a cause of birth defects. 12 years later, the UK company Distillers Biochemicals Limited (now Diageo) – which was responsible for distributing the drug in the UK – reached a compensation settlement following a legal battle by the families of those affected.
Based on incomplete medical evidence and unrealistic expectations of Thalidomide survivors future needs this settlement has turned out to be at an inadequate level. With all Thalidomide survivors in the UK now over the age of 50, it is no longer sufficient to deal with their rising cost of living, and the dramatic deterioration of their health.
To this day, Grünenthal have never accepted responsibility for the suffering caused by Thalidomide. On September 1st 2012, The Grünenthal Group released a statement containing an apology, stating that it "regrets" the consequences of the drug, which led to babies being born without limbs during the 1950s and 1960s. Although the statement was welcomed by some Thalidomide survivors, it is still not an acceptance of responsibility. They just want to live a comfortable life, and that means Grünenthal should be held accountable and pay for their mistake financially.
Spanish
Historia
La talidomida fue creado por Grünenthal en 1953 y fue utilizado a finales de 1950 y principios de 1960 como una "droga milagrosa" para el tratamiento de las náuseas, dolores de cabeza, tos, insomnio y resfriados. La talidomida fue comercializada en el Reino Unido bajo el nombre Distaval en 1958, y destacó los anuncios de seguridad completa del medicamento, utilizando frases como "no tóxico" y "no hay toxicidad conocida".
Sin embargo, en 1961 un médico australiano, William McBride, escribió a la revista The Lancet después de notar un aumento en los bebés que nacen deformes en su hospital - todo a las madres que habían tomado Talidomida.
Entre 1958 y 1962, decenas de miles de mujeres de toda Europa descubrieron que el bebé que llevaban inexplicablemente abortado, o, peor aún, después de dar a luz se les dijo que estaba muerto. Miles de personas descubrieron que sus bebés nacieron con defectos congénitos graves, los brazos, las piernas, que faltan o con reducciones severas a estos miembros, o peor aún, el daño a sus órganos internos, cerebro, corazón, riñones, intestinos, genitales, etc Durante 1962 guardianes de los registros empezó a contar toda la vida los niños que nacieron dañado por la droga. Los únicos registros completos son de los que sobrevivieron lo suficiente como para participar en los sistemas nacionales de indemnización, que se establecieron en Alemania, Gran Bretaña, Japón, Suecia y Australia en la década de 1970. La dificultad para descubrir el número de víctimas del desastre comienza con los números desconocidos de abortos involuntarios y mortinatos (posiblemente hasta diez veces el número de nacidos vivos), y la práctica generalizada del infanticidio.
Las lesiones de la talidomida no se detuvo una vez que los bebés nacieron. A la edad de cincuenta años, los registros de la confianza talidomida muestran que cerca de la mitad de todos los sobrevivientes están lidiando con el dolor crónico - principalmente de músculos y articulaciones (dolor musculoesquelético), en gran parte como resultado de los desafíos de vivir con la falta o ramas dañadas. Para muchos, sus cuerpos se deterioran mucho más rápido que las personas sanas. Algunos han dicho palabras en el sentido de "su cuerpo está recibiendo los problemas de alguien en los setenta", que a los cuarenta o cincuenta años de edad no es una buena noticia. Al menos una cuarta están lidiando con el desarrollo de problemas neurológicos, hormigueo, entumecimiento y dolor en las extremidades afectadas. Esto significa que una persona puede ser la celebración de una taza, por ejemplo, y lo siguiente que sé es que ha caído al suelo y se rompe, debido a la sensación de adormecimiento en la mano. Para estos sobrevivientes, el desastre está siendo poco a poco se desarrolla en su día a día.
Grünenthal científicos no sólo fueron negligentes al no haber retirado la droga cuando los informes de problemas de vino, o por no probarlo de acuerdo a los estándares de la época, pero más que la mayoría de las empresas que estaban muy bien situados para prever la posibilidad de que la talidomida haría causar defectos de nacimiento.
Grünenthal inicialmente negó las acusaciones de que el medicamento no ha sido ampliamente probado de acuerdo con los estándares de la época, pero una vez que el escándalo se hizo innegable, trataron de desviar la culpa y limitar el daño.
En 1961, la talidomida fue finalmente retirada después de haber sido encontrado para ser un teratogan - una de las causas de los defectos congénitos. 12 años después, el Reino Unido, Distillers Company Limited (ahora Bioquímicos Diageo) - encargada de la distribución de la droga en el Reino Unido - llegó a un acuerdo de compensación después de una batalla legal por las familias de los afectados.
Sobre la base de evidencia incompleta médica y expectativas poco realistas de la talidomida futuro sobrevivientes necesita esta solución ha resultado ser en un nivel adecuado. Con todos los sobrevivientes de la talidomida en el Reino Unido ahora más de 50 años de edad, ya no es suficiente para hacer frente a su creciente costo de vida, y el dramático deterioro de su salud.
A día de hoy, Grünenthal nunca ha aceptado la responsabilidad por el sufrimiento causado por la talidomida. El 1 de septiembre de 2012, el Grupo Grünenthal emitió una declaración que contenga una disculpa, diciendo que "lamenta" las consecuencias de la droga, lo que llevó a los bebés que nacen sin extremidades durante los años 1950 y 1960. Aunque la declaración fue bien recibida por algunos sobrevivientes de la talidomida, no es todavía una aceptación de responsabilidad. Ellos sólo quieren vivir una vida cómoda, y eso quiere decir Grünenthal deben rendir cuentas y pagar por su error financieramente.
Italian
Storia
La talidomide è stato creato da Grünenthal nel 1953 ed è stato utilizzato alla fine del 1950 e 1960 come un "farmaco miracoloso" per curare la malattia di mattina, mal di testa, tosse, insonnia e raffreddori. La talidomide è stato commercializzato nel Regno Unito con il nome di Distaval nel 1958, e la pubblicità ha sottolineato sicurezza del farmaco, con frasi come "non tossico" e "nessuna tossicità conosciuto".
Tuttavia, nel 1961 un medico australiano, William McBride, ha scritto al Lancet dopo aver notato un aumento delle nascite di bimbi malformati essendo nati a suo ospedale - tutti da madri che avevano assunto talidomide.
Tra il 1958 e il 1962 decine di migliaia di donne in tutta Europa ha scoperto che il bambino che portavano inspiegabilmente abortito, o, peggio, dopo che ha dato alla luce hanno detto che era morto. Altre migliaia hanno scoperto che i loro bambini hanno gravi difetti di nascita, braccia, gambe, mancanti o con gravi riduzioni a queste arti, o peggio ancora, danni ai loro organi interni, cervello, cuore, reni, intestino, genitali, ecc Nel 1962 custodi record cominciò a contare tutta la vita i bambini che sono nati danneggiati dal farmaco. Le uniche registrazioni complete sono di coloro che sono sopravvissuti abbastanza a lungo per partecipare ai sistemi di indennizzo nazionali, che sono stati stabiliti in Germania, Gran Bretagna, Giappone, Svezia e Australia nel 1970. La difficoltà nello scoprire il bilancio del disastro inizia con i numeri sconosciuti di aborti spontanei e nati morti (forse fino a dieci volte il numero di nati vivi), e la pratica diffusa di infanticidio.
Le lesioni Talidomide non si è fermata una volta che i bambini sono nati. All'età di 50, del Trust talidomide i tabulati mostrano che circa la metà di tutti i sopravvissuti stanno affrontando con dolore cronico - principalmente da muscoli e le articolazioni (il dolore muscoloscheletrico), soprattutto a causa delle sfide della vita con mancanti o arti danneggiati. Per molti, i loro corpi si stanno deteriorando molto più veloce di persone abili. Molti hanno detto parole per l'effetto "il tuo corpo è sempre il problema di qualcuno nei loro anni settanta", che a 40-50 anni di età non è una buona notizia. Almeno un quarto stanno affrontando con lo sviluppo di problemi neurologici, formicolio, intorpidimento e dolore a carico degli arti colpiti. Ciò significa che una persona può essere in possesso di un tazza, per esempio, e la prossima cosa che so è che è caduto a terra e rotto, a causa del torpore in mano. Per questi sopravvissuti, il disastro è ancora lentamente svolgendo nel loro giorno per giorno la vita.
Grünenthal scienziati non erano solo negligenza nel non ritirare il farmaco quando i report di problemi è venuto in, o per non aver testarlo secondo gli standard del tempo, ma più che la maggior parte delle aziende erano molto ben disposti ad anticipare la possibilità che Thalidomide avrebbe causare difetti di nascita.
Grünenthal inizialmente smentito che il farmaco non era stato ampiamente testati secondo gli standard del tempo, ma una volta che lo scandalo è diventata innegabile, hanno cercato di deviare la colpa e di limitare i danni.
Nel 1961 talidomide è stata infine ritirata dopo essere stato trovato per essere un teratogan - una causa di difetti di nascita. 12 anni dopo, i Distillers Company Limited, Regno Unito Biochemicals (ora Diageo) - incaricata di distribuire il farmaco nel Regno Unito - ha raggiunto un accordo di compensazione a seguito di una battaglia legale da parte delle famiglie delle persone colpite.
Sulla base di prove mediche incomplete e le aspettative non realistiche del futuro Thalidomide sopravvissuti ha bisogno di questa soluzione si è rivelata essere ad un livello insufficiente. Con tutti i sopravvissuti Talidomide nel Regno Unito ora di età superiore ai 50 anni, non è più sufficiente per affrontare la loro crescente costo della vita, e il drammatico deterioramento della loro salute.
Fino ad oggi, la Grünenthal non hanno mai accettato la responsabilità per la sofferenza causata dal talidomide. Il 1 ° settembre 2012, il Gruppo Grünenthal ha rilasciato una dichiarazione che contiene delle scuse, affermando che esso "deplora" le conseguenze della droga, che ha portato a bambini nati senza arti nel corso del 1950 e 1960. Anche se la dichiarazione è stata accolta da alcuni sopravvissuti talidomide, non è ancora una assunzione di responsabilità. Vogliono solo vivere una vita comoda, e questo significa che Grünenthal dovrebbero essere ritenuti responsabili e pagare per il loro errore finanziario.
Japanese
サリドマイドは1953年にGrünenthalによって作成されたとつわり、頭痛、咳、不眠や風邪を治療するための「特効薬」として、1950年代後半から1960年代初頭に使用された。サリドマイドは1958年に名称Distavalの下に英国で販売された、と広告はそのような「非毒性」と「知られていない毒性」などのフレーズを使用して、薬剤の完全な安全性を強調した。
サリドマイドを取っていた母親にすべて - しかし、1961年にオーストラリアの医師、ウィリアム·マクブライドは、彼の病院で生まれた赤ちゃん変形の増加に気付いた後、Lancet誌に手紙を書いた。
1958と1962の間で十ヨーロッパ全土の女性の何千人もの彼らは誕生それは死産だったと言われたた後に、彼らがどういうわけか運んでいた赤ちゃんが、悪化し流産し、またはことがわかった。もっと自分の赤ちゃんは1962レコードキーパーの間に脚、またはなど彼らの内臓、脳、心臓、腎臓、腸、生殖器、これらの手足、またはさらに悪いことに、ダメージに深刻な減少を伴う重度の先天性欠損、不足している武器を持っていたことを発見した何千も薬剤によって損傷生まれた生きたすべての子を数えるようになった。唯一の完全な記録は、1970年代にドイツ、イギリス、日本、スウェーデン、オーストラリアで設立された国家補償方式、に参加するのに十分な長生き残った人々のである。災害を完全に通行料を暴くの難しさは、流産や死産の未知数（おそらく生児出生の10倍の数まで）、および嬰児の広範な練習から始まる。
赤ちゃんが生まれた後にサリドマイドの怪我は停止しませんでした。主に筋肉や関節（筋骨格痛）から、大部分が欠落しているか損傷し手足と共に生きるの挑戦の結果として - 50歳の時、サリドマイドトラストの記録は、すべての生存者の約半数が慢性疼痛に対処していることを示している。多くの人にとって、自分の体は健常人よりもはるかに速く悪化している。いくつかは、年齢の四〇から五〇歳で良いニュースではない、「あなたの体は70代の誰かの問題を得ている」旨の言葉を言われている。少なくとも、四半期には、彼らの影響を受けた四肢の発達神経学的な問題、うずき、しびれ、痛みに対処されています。これは、人が、たとえば、カップを保持することができ、彼らが知っている次の事は、それが原因で彼らの手のしびれのため、床に落ちたし、壊れていることを意味します。これらの生存者のために、災害はまだゆっくりと彼らの日々の生活の中で展開されている。
Grünenthalの科学者は問題の報告が入ってきたときだけでなく、薬剤を撤回することができないで怠慢だったか、失敗するのは時間の基準に従ってそれをテストするための、より多くの企業よりも、彼らは非常によく可能性を予想するために置かれたサリドマイドだろうと先天性欠損症を引き起こす。
Grünenthalは当初、薬物が広く、時間の基準に従ってテストされていなかったの主張を否定したが、スキャンダルは否定できないとなったら、それらを非難し、限界ダメージを偏向しようとした。
先天性欠損症の原因は - 1961年にサリドマイドは、最終的にteratoganであることが判明された後に撤回された。 12年後、英国の会社ラーズ·バイオケミカルズ·リミテッド（現ディアジオ） - 英国で薬物を分配するための責任があった - 被災者の家族による法廷闘争以下の補償和解に達した。
この和解は、不十分なレベルであることが判明した不完全な医学的証拠とサリドマイド生存者の将来の非現実的な期待に基づいている必要がありますベース。英国内のすべてのサリドマイドの生存者で、今50歳以上、それはもはや彼らの生活費の上昇、そして自分の健康の劇的な悪化に対処するのに十分ではありません。
この日に、Grünenthalはサリドマイドによって引き起こされる苦しみの責任を受け入れたことがありません。 9月1日2012年、Grünenthalグループは、赤ちゃんへ導いたそれを "後悔"薬の影響は、1950年代と1960年代に手足ずに生まれていることを示す、謝罪を含む声明を発表した。文はいくつかのサリドマイド生存者に歓迎されたものの、それはまだ責任の受け入れではありません。彼らはただ、快適な生活をしたい、それがGrünenthalが責任を負うと財政的に自分の過ちのために支払うべきであることを意味します。
Saridomaido wa 1953-nen ni Grünenthal ni yotte sakusei sa reta to tsuwari, zutsū, seki, fumin ya kaze o chiryō suru tame no `tokkōyaku' to shite, 1950-nendai kōhan kara 1960-nendai shotō ni shiyō sa reta. Saridomaido wa 1958-nen ni meishō Distaval no shita ni Igirisu de hanbai sa reta, to kōkoku wa sono yō na `hi dokusei' to `shira rete inai dokusei' nado no furēzu o shiyō shite, yakuzai no kanzen'na anzen-sei o kyōchō shita. Saridomaido o totte ita hahaoya ni subete - shikashi, 1961-nen ni ōsutoraria no ishi, U~Iriamu· makuburaido wa, kare no byōin de umareta akachan henkei no zōka ni kidzuita nochi, ransetto-shi ni tegami o kaita. 1958 To 1962 no ma de jū yōroppa zendo no josei no nan sen-ri mo no karera wa tanjō soreha shizandatta to iwa retata nochi ni, karera ga dō iu wake ka hakonde ita akachan ga, akka shi ryūzan shi, matawa koto ga wakatta. Motto jibun no akachan wa 1962 rekōdokīpā no ma ni ashi, matawa nado karera no naizō, nō, shinzō, jinzō, chō, seishokki, korera no teashi, matawa saraniwaruikoto ni, damēji ni shinkokuna genshō o tomonau jūdo no senten-sei kesson, fusoku shite iru buki o motte ita koto o hakken shita nan sen mo yakuzai ni yotte sonshō umareta ikita subete no ko o kazoeru yō ni natta. Yuiitsu no kanzen'na kiroku wa, 1970-nendai ni Doitsu, Igirisu, Nihon, suu~ēden, ōsutoraria de setsuritsu sa reta kokka hoshō hōshiki, ni sanka suru no ni jūbun'na naga ikinokotta hitobito nodearu. Saigai o kanzen ni tsūkō-ryō o abaku no muzukashi-sa wa, ryūzan ya shizan no michisū (osoraku nama-ji shussei no 10-bai no kazu made), oyobi midorigo no kōhan'na renshū kara hajimaru. Akachan ga umareta nochi ni Saridomaido no kega wa teishi shimasendeshita. Omoni kin'niku ya kansetsu (suji kokkaku-tsū) kara, daibubun ga ketsuraku shite iru ka sonshō shi teashi to tomoniikiru no chōsen no kekka to shite - 50-sai no toki, saridomaidotorasuto no kiroku wa, subete no seizon-sha no yaku hansū ga mansei tōtsū ni taisho shite iru koto o shimeshite iru. Ōku no hito ni totte, jibun no karada wa kenjō hito yori mo haruka ni hayaku akka shite iru. Ikutsu ka wa, nenrei no shi rei kara go rei-saide yoi nyūsude wanai, `anata no karada wa 70-dai no dareka no mondai o ete iru' mune no kotoba o iwa rete iru. Sukunakutomo, shihanki ni wa, karera no eikyō o uketa shishi no hattatsu shinkeigakutekina mondai, uzuki, shibire, itami ni taisho sa rete imasu. Kore wa, hito ga, tatoeba, kappu o hoji suru koto ga deki, karera ga shitte iru tsugi no koto wa, sore ga gen'in de karera no te no shibire no tame, yuka ni ochitashi, kowarete iru koto o imi shimasu. Korera no seizon-sha no tame ni, saigai wa mada yukkuri to karera no hibi no seikatsu no naka de tenkai sa rete iru. Grünenthal no kagaku-sha wa mondai no hōkoku ga haitte kita toki dakedenaku, yakuzai o tekkai suru koto ga dekinaide taimandatta ka, shippai suru no wa jikan no kijun ni shitagatte sore o tesuto suru tame no, yori ōku no kigyō yori mo, karera wa hijō ni yoku kanōsei o yosō suru tame ni oka reta Saridomaidodarou to senten-sei kesson-shō o hikiokosu. Grünenthal wa tōsho, yakubutsu ga hiroku, jikan no kijun ni shitagatte tesuto sa rete inakatta no shuchō o hitei shitaga, sukyandaru wa hiteidekinai to nattara, sorera o hinan shi, genkai damēji o henkō shiyou to shita. Senten-sei kesson-shō no gen'in wa - 1961-nen ni Saridomaido wa, saishūtekini teratogandearu koto ga hanmei sa reta nochi ni tekkai sa reta. 12-Nen-go, Igirisu no kaisha rāzu· baiokemikaruzu· rimiteddo (gen diajio) - Igirisu de yakubutsu o bunpai suru tame no sekinin ga atta - hisai-sha no kazoku ni yoru hōtei tōsō ika no hoshō wakai ni tasshita. Kono wakai wa, fujūbun'na reberudearu koto ga hanmei shita fukanzen'na igaku-teki shōko to Saridomaido seizon-sha no shōrai no higenjitsutekina kitai ni motodzuite iru hitsuyō ga arimasu bēsu. Igirisu-nai no subete no Saridomaido no seizon-sha de, ima 50-sai ijō, sore wa mohaya karera no seikatsu-hi no jōshō, soshite jibun no kenkō no gekitekina akka ni taisho suru no ni jūbunde wa arimasen. Kono Ni~Tsu ni, Grünenthal wa Saridomaido ni yotte hikiokosa reru kurushimi no sekinin o ukeireta koto ga arimasen. 9 Tsuki 1-nichi 2012-nen, Grünenthal gurūpu wa, akachan e michibiita sore o" kōkai"-yaku no eikyō wa, 1950-nendai to 1960-nendai ni teashizu ni umarete iru koto o shimesu, shazai o fukumu seimei o happyō shita. Bun wa ikutsu ka no Saridomaido seizon-sha ni kangei sa reta mono no, sore wa mada sekinin no ukeirede wa arimasen. Karera wa tada, kaitekina seikatsu o shitai, sore ga Grünenthal ga sekininwoou to zaisei-teki ni jibun no ayamachi no tame ni shiharaubekidearu koto o imi shimasu.
Welsh
Thalidomid ei greu gan Grünenthal ym 1953 ac fe'i defnyddiwyd yn y 1950au hwyr a'r 1960au cynnar fel "cyffur rhyfeddod" i drin salwch bore, cur pen, peswch, anhunedd ac annwyd. Thalidomid ei farchnata yn y DU o dan yr enw Distaval ym 1958, a hysbysebion yn pwysleisio diogelwch cyflawn y cyffur, gan ddefnyddio ymadroddion megis "heb fod yn wenwynig" a "dim gwenwyndra hysbys".
Fodd bynnag, yn 1961 meddyg Awstralia, William McBride, ysgrifennodd at y Lancet ar ôl sylwi cynnydd mewn babanod deformed cael eu geni yn ei ysbyty - i gyd i famau a oedd wedi cymryd Thalidomide.
Rhwng 1958 a 1962 degau o filoedd o ferched ledled Ewrop gwelwyd bod y baban eu bod yn cario miscarried anesboniadwy, neu, yn waeth, ar ôl iddynt roi genedigaeth Dywedwyd wrthym ei fod yn farw-anedig. Mae miloedd mwy darganfod bod gan eu babanod namau geni difrifol, breichiau goll, coesau, neu gyda gostyngiadau difrifol i aelodau hyn, neu hyd yn oed yn waeth, difrod i'w organau mewnol, yr ymennydd, y galon, yr arennau, coluddion, organau cenhedlu, ac ati Yn ystod 1962 geidwaid record dechreuodd i gyfrif pob un o'r plant sy'n byw a anwyd niweidio gan y cyffur. Yr unig cofnodion cyflawn yn y rhai a oroesodd yn ddigon hir i gymryd rhan yn y cynlluniau iawndal cenedlaethol, a sefydlwyd yn yr Almaen, Prydain, Japan, Sweden ac Awstralia yn y 1970au. Yr anhawster mewn datgelu y doll llawn y drychineb yn dechrau gyda nifer anhysbys o gamesgor a marw-enedigaethau (o bosibl hyd at ddeg gwaith y nifer o enedigaethau byw), ac mae'r arfer cyffredin o babanladdiad.
Nid oedd yr anafiadau Thalidomide oedd yn rhoi'r gorau unwaith y bydd y babanod eu geni. Ar hanner cant oed, cofnodion yr Ymddiriedolaeth Thalidomid yn dangos bod tua hanner yr holl goroeswyr yn ymdopi â phoen cronig - yn bennaf o gyhyrau a chymalau (poen cyhyrysgerbydol), yn bennaf o ganlyniad i heriau o fyw gyda aelodau goll neu wedi'u difrodi. I lawer, mae eu cyrff yn dirywio yn llawer gyflymach na phobl abl. Mae nifer wedi cael gwybod y geiriau i'r perwyl "eich corff yn cael y problemau y bydd rhywun yn eu saithdegau", a oedd yn 40-50 mlwydd oed nad yw newyddion da. Mae o leiaf chwarter yn ymdopi â datblygu problemau niwrolegol, pinnau bach, diffyg teimlad, a phoen yn eu coesau yr effeithir arnynt. Mae hyn yn golygu y gall person gael ei dal cwpan, er enghraifft, a'r peth nesaf eu bod yn gwybod ei fod wedi disgyn i'r llawr ac yn torri, oherwydd y diffyg teimlad yn eu llaw. Ar gyfer goroeswyr hyn, mae'r drychineb yn dal yn datblygu yn araf yn eu bywydau o ddydd i ddydd.
Gwyddonwyr Grünenthal oedd nid yn unig yn esgeulus wrth fethu i dynnu'r cyffur pan ddaeth adroddiadau am broblemau mewn, neu am fethu i brofi ei fod yn ôl y safonau ar y pryd, ond yn fwy na'r rhan fwyaf o gwmnïau eu bod mewn sefyllfa dda iawn i ragweld y posibilrwydd y byddai Thalidomide achosi namau geni.
Grünenthal i ddechrau gwadu honiadau nad oedd y cyffur wedi cael ei brofi'n helaeth yn ôl y safonau ar y pryd, ond unwaith y bydd y sgandal daeth yn ddiymwad, maent yn ceisio symud y bai a therfyn difrod.
Ym 1961 Thalidomide ei dynnu'n ôl yn y pen draw ar ôl ei gael i fod yn teratogan - un o achosion o namau geni. 12 mlynedd yn ddiweddarach, mae'r DU Distillers Biochemicals cwmni Limited (Diageo erbyn hyn) - a oedd yn gyfrifol am ddosbarthu'r cyffur yn y DU - cyrraedd setliad iawndal yn dilyn brwydr gyfreithiol gan deuluoedd y rhai yr effeithir arnynt.
Yn seiliedig ar dystiolaeth feddygol anghyflawn a disgwyliadau afrealistig o oroeswyr Thalidomide anghenion y dyfodol setliad hwn wedi troi allan i fod ar lefel annigonol. Gyda'r holl goroeswyr Thalidomid yn y DU bellach dros 50 oed, ei bod yn ddigonol i ddelio â'u cynnydd mewn costau byw, ac mae'r dirywiad dramatig ar eu hiechyd mwyach.
Hyd heddiw, erioed Grünenthal wedi derbyn cyfrifoldeb am y dioddefaint a achosir gan Thalidomide. Ar 1 Medi 2012, rhyddhawyd y Grŵp Grünenthal datganiad sy'n cynnwys ymddiheuriad, gan ddweud ei fod yn "difaru" y canlyniadau y cyffur, a arweiniodd at fabanod yn cael eu geni heb aelodau yn ystod y 1950au a'r 1960au. Er bod y datganiad yn ei groesawu gan rai goroeswyr Thalidomid, nid yw'n dal i fod yn derbyn cyfrifoldeb. Maent yn unig yn awyddus i fyw bywyd cyfforddus, ac mae hynny'n golygu y dylai Grünenthal fod yn atebol ac yn talu am eu camgymeriad yn ariannol.
Between errands today I stopped at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park. I enjoy living close to this historic battleground and like being here, especially on certain holidays.
I wasn't necessarily looking for a Memorial Day photo. I changed my mind when I saw this lone head stone & flag.
As an American, I give thanks to all veterans - living & dead - whatever their nationality - who fought so I can have the freedoms that I enjoy.
"Leave unsaid unspoken,
Eyes wide shut, unopened.
You and me will always be
Between the lines."
Between The Lines - Sara Bareilles
I needed this. I've been dealing with an awful lot this past month in so many ways, and it was amazing to be able to go out into the woods and just create. To be crazy and not have a care in the world besides my art. I'm sure, now, that this is exactly what I'm meant to do.
Flickr does terrible things to this; I don't even know...
Bain News Service,, publisher.
Wilson & wife
[between ca. 1915 and ca. 1920]
1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. or smaller.
Notes:
Title from unverified data provided by the Bain News Service on the negatives or caption cards.
Forms part of: George Grantham Bain Collection (Library of Congress).
Format: Glass negatives.
Rights Info: No known restrictions on publication.
Repository: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA, hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
General information about the Bain Collection is available at hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.ggbain
Higher resolution image is available (Persistent URL): hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.29099
Call Number: LC-B2- 4965-9
Following, a text, in english, from Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
Foro Romano
Roma, Largo della Salara Vecchia 5/6
The valley of Foro, nestled between the seven hills of Rome, was in ancient times a marsh. From the end of the seventh century B.C., after the improvement and drainage of the marshes, the Foro Romano (a forum) was constructed and this served as the centre of public life in Rome for over a thousand years. Over the course of the centuries, the various monuments were constructed: firstly, those structures which served political, religious and economic purposes and, later, during the second century B.C., the civil buildings or ‘basilicas’, which functioned as juridical centres. At the end of the Republic era of Ancient Rome, the Foro Romano was inadequate in its functioning as a civil and administrative centre. The various Emperors and their dynasties added only monuments of prestige: The Temple of Vespasian and Titus and that of Antoninus Pio and Faustina dedicated to the memory of the Divine Emperors, the monumental arch of Settimo Severo, built on the extreme west of the square in 203 A.D. to celebrate his military victories. The last great addition was made in the first years of the fourth century A.D. under the Emperor Massenzio, a temple dedicated to the memory of his son Romulus. The imposing Basilica on the Velia was restructured at the end of the fourth century A.D. and the last monument to be erected in the Foro was the Column of 608 A.D. in honour of the Byzantine Emperor Foca.
Copyright © 2003-2007 Pierreci
The Roman Forum, Forum Romanum, (although the Romans called it more often the Forum Magnum or just the Forum) was the central area around which ancient Rome developed, in which commerce and the administration of justice took place. The communal hearth was also located here. It was built on the site of a past cemetery.
Sequences of remains of paving show that sediment eroded from the surrounding hills was already raising the level of the forum in early Republican times. Originally it had been marshy ground, which was drained by the Tarquins with the Cloaca Maxima. Its final travertine paving, still visible, dates from the reign of Augustus.
Structures within the Forum
The ruins within the forum clearly show how urban spaces were utilized during the Roman Age. The Roman Forum includes a modern statue of Julius Caesar and the following major monuments, buildings, and ancient ruins:
Temples
Temple of Castor and Pollux
Temple of Saturn
Temple of Vesta
Temple of Venus and Roma
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
Temple of Caesar
Temple of Vespasian and Titus
Temple of Concord
Shrine of Venus Cloacina
Basilicas
Basilica Aemilia
Basilica Julia
Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine
Arches
Arch of Septimius Severus
Arch of Titus
Arch of Tiberius
Arch of Augustus
Temple of Saturn
Temple of Castor and Pollux
Temple of Vesta
Temple of Venus and Roma
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
Temple of Concord
Campo Vaccino, by Claude Lorrain
The Roman Forum
Other structures
Regia, originally the residence of the kings of Rome or at least their main headquarters, and later the office of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Roman religion.
Rostra, from where politicians made their speeches to the Roman citizens
Curia Hostilia (later rebuilt as the Curia Julia), the site of the Roman Senate
Tabularium
Gemonian stairs
Clivus Capitolinus was the street that started at the Arch of Tiberius, wound around the Temple of Saturn, and ended at Capitoline Hill.
Umbilicus Urbi, the designated centre of the city from which and to which all distances in Rome and the Roman Empire were measured
Milliarium Aureum
Lapis Niger, a shrine also known as the Black Stone
Atrium Vestae, the house of the Vestal Virgins
A processional street, the Via Sacra, linked the Atrium Vetae with the Colosseum. By the end of the Empire, it had lost its everyday use but remained a sacred place.
Column of Phocas, the last monument built within the Forum
Tullianum, the prison used to hold various foreign leaders and generals.
Excavation and preservation
An anonymous 8th century traveler from Einsiedeln (now in Switzerland) reported that the Forum was already falling apart in his time. During the Middle Ages, though the memory of the Forum Romanum persisted, its monuments were for the most part buried under debris, and its location was designated the "Campo Vaccino" or "cattle field," located between the Capitoline Hill and the Colosseum. The return of Pope Urban V from Avignon in 1367 led to an increased interest in ancient monuments, partly for their moral lesson and partly as a quarry for new buildings being undertaken in Rome after a long lapse. Artists from the late 15th century drew the ruins in the Forum, antiquaries copied inscriptions in the 16th century, and a tentative excavation was begun in the late 18th century.
A cardinal took measures to drain it again and built the Alessandrine neighborhood over it. But the excavation by Carlo Fea, who began clearing the debris from the Arch of Septimius Severus in 1803, and archaeologists under the Napoleonic regime marked the beginning of clearing the Forum, which was only fully excavated in the early 20th century.
Remains from several centuries are shown together, due to the Roman practice of building over earlier ruins.
Other forums in Rome
Other fora existed in other areas of the city; remains of most of them, sometimes substantial, still exist. The most important of these are a number of large imperial fora forming a complex with the Forum Romanum: the Forum Iulium, Forum Augustum, the Forum Transitorium (also: Forum Nervae), and Trajan's Forum. The planners of the Mussolini era removed most of the Medieval and Baroque strata and built the Via dei Fori Imperiali road between the Imperial Fora and the Forum. There is also:
The Forum Boarium, dedicated to the commerce of cattle, between the Palatine Hill and the river Tiber,
The Forum Holitorium, dedicated to the commerce of herbs and vegetables, between the Capitoline Hill and the Servian walls,
The Forum Piscarium, dedicated to the commerce of fish, between the Capitoline hill and the Tiber, in the area of the current Roman Ghetto,
The Forum Suarium, dedicated to the commerce of pork, near the barracks of the cohortes urbanae in the northern part of the campus Martius,
The Forum Vinarium, dedicated to the commerce of wine, in the area now of the "quartiere" Testaccio, between Aventine Hill and the Tiber.
Other markets were known but remain unidentifiable due to a lack of precise information on the function of the sites. Among these, the Forum cuppedinis, was known as a general market for many goods.
Fórum Romano.
O principal fórum da Roma antiga.
O Fórum Romano ( latim : Forum Romanum, italiano : Foro Romano) é um pequeno retângulo aberto rodeado pelas ruínas de antigos edifícios do governo no centro da cidade de Roma . Os cidadãos da cidade antiga referência a este mercado como a Magnum Fórum, ou simplesmente o Fórum . Foi durante séculos o centro da vida pública romana: o local de procissões triunfais e as eleições, palco para discursos públicos e núcleo de assuntos comerciais. Aqui estátuas e monumentos comemorou os grandes homens da cidade. O coração cheio de Roma antiga , foi chamado o local de encontro mais célebre do mundo, e em toda a história. [1] Localizado no pequeno vale entre o Palatino e Capitolino Hills , hoje o Fórum é um imenso arruinar de fragmentos de arquitetura intermitente e escavações arqueológicas atrair turistas numerosos.
Muitas das estruturas mais antigas e importantes da cidade antiga foram localizadas sobre ou próximo ao Fórum. O Reino de primeiros santuários e templos foram localizados na borda sudeste. Estes incluíram a sua antiga residência real antiga, a Regia ( século 8 aC ), bem como os arredores do complexo virgens vestais , as quais foram reconstruídas depois da ascensão de Roma imperial . Outros santuários arcaico para o noroeste desenvolvido na República formal Comitium , onde o Senado - bem como do governo republicano em si - começou. A Casa do Senado, repartições públicas, tribunais, templos, monumentos e estátuas gradualmente a área desordenado. Com o tempo a Comitium arcaica foi substituída pelo Fórum maiores eo foco da atividade judicial movida para a nova Basílica Emília (179 aC). Cerca de 130 anos depois, Júlio César construiu a basílica Julia , juntamente com a nova Cúria Júlia , a recentragem ambos os cargos judiciais e do próprio Senado. O Fórum serviu então como uma praça revitalizada em que o povo de Roma pudesse se reunir para comercial, político, judicial e religioso buscas em um número cada vez maior.
Eventualmente negócio muito económico e judicial seria a transferência de distância do Fórum de estruturas maiores e mais extravagantes para o norte. Após a construção do Fórum de Trajano (110 dC), essas atividades transferidas para o Ulpia Basílica . O reinado de Constantino, o Grande viu a divisão do império em suas metades oriental e ocidental, bem como a construção da Basílica de Maxêncio (312 dC), as principais última expansão do complexo do Fórum. Este devolveu o centro político do Fórum, até a queda do Império Romano do Ocidente quase dois séculos mais tarde.
Descrição
A plateia grego antigo (πλατεία), uma praça pública ou praça da cidade , foi o modelo utilizado como base para o fórum romano. No período Imperial os edifícios públicos de grande porte que se aglomeraram ao redor da praça central havia reduzido a área aberta a um retângulo de aproximadamente 130 por 50 metros, a sua dimensão de longo foi orientado de noroeste para sudeste e estendia desde o sopé da colina do Capitólio ao do Hill Velian . O Fórum bom incluídos nesta praça, os prédios de frente para ele e, às vezes, uma área adicional (o Adjectum Forum ) que prorroga a sudeste até o Arco de Tito . [2] O Fórum basílicas , embora originalmente concebido como escritórios do governo, foram as bases dos primeiros elaborados cristã igrejas. A arquitetura dos templos e edifícios judiciais do fórum romano pode ser visto copiado em muitas das estruturas atuais do governo moderno que ainda estão organizadas em torno de um espaço público central.
Originalmente, o site do Fórum foi pantanoso terreno, que foi drenada por Tarquínio com a Cloaca Máxima . Devido à sua localização, nos sedimentos de ambas as inundações do Rio Tibre ea erosão das colinas circundantes foram o aumento do nível do piso do Fórum durante séculos. Escavada seqüências de remanescentes de pavimento mostram que o sedimento corroído das colinas circundantes já levantava o nível no início republicano vezes. Como o chão em torno dos edifícios começou a subir, os moradores simplesmente abriu sobre os escombros que foi demais para remover. Seu final de travertino pavimentação, ainda visível, as datas do reinado de Augusto . As escavações no século 19 revelou uma camada em cima da outra. O nível mais profundo escavado foi de 3,60 metros acima do nível do mar. Achados arqueológicos mostram a atividade humana a esse nível com a descoberta de madeira carbonizada.
Uma importante função do Fórum, durante os dois republicanos e os tempos imperiais, era o de servir como local para os militares que culminou desfiles comemorativos conhecidos como Triunfos . generais vitoriosos entrou na cidade pelo oeste do Triunfo Gate ( Porta Triumphalis ) e circum o Palatino (esquerda) antes de prosseguir a partir do monte Velian abaixo da Via Sacra e no Fórum. A partir daí eles montar o Rise Capitolino ( Clivus Capitolinus ) até o Templo de Júpiter Optimus Maximus na cúpula do Capitólio. Pródiga banquetes públicos seguiu para baixo sobre o Fórum.
A área do Fórum foi originalmente uma gramínea pantanal . Ele foi drenado no século 7 aC, com a construção da Cloaca Maxima , um sistema de esgotos cobertos de grandes dimensões que desaguava no rio Tibre , quanto mais pessoas começaram a se estabelecer entre os dois morros.
Segundo a tradição, o começo do Fórum estão relacionadas com a aliança entre Rômulo , primeiro rei de Roma controlar o Monte Palatino , e seu rival, Tito Tácio , que ocupou a colina do Capitólio . Assim, uma aliança formada após o combate havia sido interrompida pelas orações e gritos de Sabine mulheres. Como o vale estava entre os dois assentamentos, foi o local designado para os dois povos se conhecerem. Como a área do Fórum adiantados incluíram poças de água estagnada, a área mais acessível foi a parte norte do vale, que foi designado como o Comitium . Foi aqui que, de acordo com a história, as duas partes depuseram as armas e formaram uma aliança. [4]
O fórum foi fora das muralhas da fortaleza original Sabine, que foi inserido através da Porta Saturni. Estas paredes foram destruídas na maior parte, quando os dois morros foram apensados. [5] O Fórum original começou como um mercado ao ar livre perto da Comitium, mas ampliou sua dia-a-dia de compras e as necessidades do mercado. Como a política, questões judiciais e julgamentos começaram a assumir cada vez mais espaço, fóruns por toda a cidade começou a surgir a expandir as necessidades específicas da população em crescimento. Fora de gado, porco, legumes e vinho especializada em produtos de seu nicho e as divindades associadas ao seu redor.
O segundo rei, Numa Pompilius , é dito ter começado o culto de Vesta, construção de sua casa e no templo, bem como a Regia como a primeira cidade real do palácio. Mais tarde Tullus Hostilius fechado Comitium ao redor do templo etrusco antigo, onde o senado se reunir no local do conflito Sabine. Ele disse ter convertido o templo ao Hostilia Curia perto de onde o Senado se conheceram em uma velha cabana etrusca. Em 600 aC, Tarquínio Prisco teve a área pavimentada, pela primeira vez.
Durante o período republicano Comitium continuou a ser o local central para todos e vida política judiciária, na cidade de Roma. [6] No entanto, a fim de criar um espaço, bem como local de reunião maior, o Senado começou a expandir tanto o Fórum e Comitium através da compra de casas particulares existentes e removê-los para uso público. construção de projetos de vários cônsules e imperadores repaved e construída em ambos os Comitium e do Fórum. [7]
O século V aC viu a construção do Templo de Castor e Pólux . O templo de Concord foi introduzido no século IV aC, possivelmente por Marcus Furius Camillus. A Basílica Emília é uma estrutura republicana, mas teve vários nomes após a sua dedicação inicial em 179 aC. Muitas das tradições do Comitium tais como assembléias populares, os funerais da nobreza e os jogos foram transferidos para o Fórum. [8] Caio Graco é creditado com (ou acusados de) perturbar mos maiorum ("costume dos pais / ancestrais" ) na antiga Roma. Um realizada longa tradição de falar nos alto-falantes elevados " Rostra frente para o norte em direção à Casa do Senado para os políticos ea elite montada colocar de volta o orador para o povo reunido no Fórum Romano atrás do Comitium. A tribuna conhecido como Caio Licínio foi o primeiro a afastar-se da elite romana para as pessoas no Forum, um ato repetido posteriormente por Gracchus. [9] Isso começou a tradição de popularis locus, onde, ainda jovens nobres eram esperados para falar da Rostra.
Em 78 aC, o tabularium (Registros Hall) foi construído no final Capitólio do Fórum, por despacho dos cônsules para o ano, M. Emílio Lépido e Q. Lutatius Catulus . Com o tempo a Comitium foi perdida para o crescimento Cúria sempre e Júlio César s rearranjos "antes de seu assassinato em 44 aC. Naquele ano, dois dramáticos eventos extremamente foram testemunhados pelo Fórum, talvez o mais famoso de sempre a acontecer lá: Marc Antony é oração fúnebre de César (imortalizada em Shakespeare é famosa peça ) foi entregue a partir parcialmente falante concluída a plataforma conhecida como a Nova Rostra ea queima pública de corpo de César ocorreu em um local em frente ao Rostra torno do qual o Templo para o César Deificado foi posteriormente construída por grandes Octavius sobrinho dele (Augusto). [10] Quase dois anos depois, Marc Antony adicionado a notoriedade da Rostra por exibir publicamente a cabeça cortada e mão direita de seu inimigo de Cícero lá.
A estreita relação entre a Comitium eo Fórum Romano eventualmente sumiu a partir dos escritos dos antigos. O primeiro é o último mencionado no reinado de Sétimo Severo .
Após a morte de Júlio César, e no final do subsequente Guerra Civil , Augusto terminou grande tio, seu trabalho no Fórum. Ele teria declarado "Achei Roma, uma cidade de tijolos e deixou uma cidade de mármore". O que é verdade é que ele continuou a construção de projetos de seu antecessor e começou a muitos de seus próprios diretamente no Fórum. Durante primeiros tempos imperiais, no entanto, os negócios económicos e judiciais transferidos muito longe do Fórum de estruturas maiores e mais extravagantes para o norte. Após a construção do Fórum de Trajano (110 dC), essas atividades transferidas para o Ulpia Basílica .
O reinado de Constantino, o Grande viu a divisão do império em suas metades oriental e ocidental, bem como a construção da Basílica de Maxêncio (312 dC), as principais última expansão do complexo do Fórum. Este devolveu o centro político do Fórum, até a queda do Império Romano do Ocidente quase dois séculos mais tarde.
No século 5 a velhos edifícios no âmbito do Fórum começaram a ser transformados em igrejas cristãs. Por volta do século 8, todo o espaço foi cercado por igrejas cristãs tomando o lugar das ruínas e templos abandonados. [11]
Um viajante do século 8 anônimas de Einsiedeln (agora na Suíça) informou que o Fórum já caía aos pedaços em seu tempo. Durante a Idade Média, embora a memória do Fórum Romano persistisse, seus monumentos foram em sua maioria enterrados embaixo do entulho, e sua localização foi designado "Campo Vaccino" ou "campo de gado", localizado entre o Capitólio eo Coliseu .
Após o século 8 as estruturas do Fórum foram desmontadas, re-arranjadas e usado para construir torres e castelos feudais dentro da área local. No século 13 dessas estruturas reorganizadas foram derrubadas eo local se tornou uma lixeira. Isto, junto com os restos da construção medieval desmontado e estruturas antigas, ajudou a contribuir para o aumento do nível do solo. [12]
O retorno do Papa Urbano V de Avinhão em 1367 levou a um interesse crescente em monumentos antigos, em parte para sua lição moral e em parte como uma pedreira para os edifícios novos que estão sendo empreendidos em Roma depois de um longo lapso.
Artistas do final do século 15 atraiu as ruínas do Fórum, os antiquários copiaram inscrições no século 16, e uma tentativa de escavação teve início no final do século 18.
Um cardeal tomou medidas para drená-lo novamente e construiu a vizinhaça Alessandrina sobre ele. Mas a escavação por Carlo Fea , que começou a limpar o entulho do Arco de Septímio Severo em 1803, e arqueólogos sob o regime napoleônico marcaram o início do clareamento do Fórum, que só foi totalmente escavado no início do século 20.
Restos de vários séculos são mostrados em conjunto, devido à prática romana de construir sobre ruínas anteriores.
Hoje, as escavações arqueológicas continuam, juntamente com a restauração e preservação permanente. Por muito tempo um dos principais destinos turísticos na cidade, o Fórum está aberto para tráfego de pedestres ao longo das ruas da Roma antiga que são restauradas para o nível Imperial tarde. O Museu do Forum (Antiquarium Forense) é encontrado no final Coliseu de uma estrada moderna, a Via dei Fori Imperiali . Este pequeno museu tem uma importante colecção de esculturas e fragmentos arquitetônicos. Há também reconstruções do Fórum e nas proximidades Imperial Fora, bem como um pequeno vídeo em vários idiomas. Ele é realizado a partir do Fórum ao lado de Santa Francesca Romana (n º 53 Piazza S. Maria Nova) e está aberto das 08:30 h às uma hora antes do anoitecer. A entrada é gratuita.
Em 2008, as fortes chuvas causaram danos estruturais da cobertura de concreto segurando o moderno "Black Stone" de mármore em conjunto durante os Vulcanal .
Muitos dos templos do Fórum de data para os períodos do Reino e da República, embora a maioria foi destruída e reconstruída várias vezes. As ruínas no âmbito do Fórum mostram claramente como os espaços urbanos foram utilizados durante a época romana. O Fórum inclui actualmente uma estátua moderna de Júlio César e os principais monumentos seguintes, prédios antigos e ruínas :
Templos
Esta seção requer expansão .
Templo Data construída Construtor Localização dentro do Fórum
Templo de Castor e Pollux 494 aC Aulus Postumius Albino Lado sul, leste da Basílica Júlia
Templo de Saturno 501 aC Tarquínio Superbus Lado sul, a oeste da Basílica Júlia
Templo de Vesta 7 º século aC Numa Pompilius Canto sudeste, junto ao Templo de Castor e Pollux
Templo de Vênus e Roma 135 Adriano Late expansão fórum Imperial para a mais distante da Regia , em frente ao Coliseu
Templo de Antonino e Faustina 141 Antonino Pio Lado norte, a leste da Basílica Emília
Templo de César 29 aC Augustus Lado Leste, a oeste da Regia
Templo de Vespasiano e Tito 79 Tito e Domiciano West borda abaixo do tabularium Sul do Templo da Concórdia e no norte do Dii Portico Consentes
Templo de Rômulo 309 Maxêncio
Santuário de Vênus Cloacina
Templo de Rômulo Divus 309 Maxêncio
Basílicas
Basílica Emília
Basílica Júlia
Basílica de Maxêncio e Constantino
Arcos
Arco de Septímio Severo
Arco de Tito
edifícios públicos ou residências oficiais
Regia , originalmente a residência dos reis de Roma ou, pelo menos, a sua sede principal, e mais tarde do escritório do Pontifex Maximus, o sumo sacerdote da religião romana.
Cúria Júlia (mais tarde reconstrução por Diocleciano ), o site do Senado romano .
Tabularium , o escritório de registros de Roma.
Portico Dii Consentes
Atrium Vestae , a casa das virgens vestais.
Tullianum , a prisão usado para prender vários líderes estrangeiros e de generais.
monumentos menores
Rostra , de onde os políticos discursavam aos cidadãos romanos.
Urbi umbigo , o centro da cidade designados a partir da qual e para o qual todas as distâncias em Roma e no Império Romano foram medidos.
Milliarium Aureum Depois de Augustus erguido este monumento, todas as estradas foram consideradas para começar aqui e todas as distâncias no Império Romano foram medidos em relação a esse ponto.
Coluna de Focas , o último monumento construído dentro do Fórum.
Lapis Niger ("Pedra Negra"), um antigo santuário, que foi muito obscura, mesmo para os romanos.
Piscinas, molas
O Lacus Curtius , o site de uma piscina misteriosa venerado pelos romanos, mesmo depois de terem esquecido o que significava.
O Iuturnae Lacus ("Primavera de Juturna"), uma piscina de cura, onde Castor e Pólux foram disse ter regado os seus cavalos
Estradas, ruas, escadarias
Gemonian stairssteps situado na parte central de Roma, líder da Arx do Capitólio até o Fórum Romano.
Clivus Capitolinus era a rua que começou no Arco de Tibério, enrolado em torno do Templo de Saturno, e terminou no Capitólio.
Via Sacra , a famosa procissão de rua de Roman triunfos ; ligados a Vestae Atrium com o Coliseu .
Vanished (ou quase desapareceu) estruturas
Arco de Augusto
Arco de Fabius
Arco de Tibério
Basílica Fulvia
Basílica Opimia
Basílica Porcia
Basílica Sempronia
Golden House of Nero (Domus Aurea)
Instituto dos escribas e Arautos do Aediles
Santuário de Faustina, o Jovem
Santuário de Vulcano (Vulcanal)
Estátua de Navius Attus
Estátua de Constantino, o Grande
Estátua de Domiciano
Estátua de Tremulus
Estátua de Vertumno
Templo de Augusto
Templo de Baco
Templo da Concórdia
Templo de Janus
Tribunal do Marco Aurélio
Tribunal da Cidade do Pretor (Praetor Urbanus)
Tribunal do Pretor para Estrangeiros (Praetor Peregrinus)
Bem-chefe de Libo (Puteal Libonus ou Scribonianum)
Estátuas de vários outros deuses e os homens
On the Joban line.
Please enjoy in the interactive viewer! (thanks to fieldOfView and Aldo)
And small but quick interactive viewer is here (Wrapr Beta)
- SLR camera and lens: Nikon D80 /w Sigma 8mm fisheye
- panoramic head: handheld (with Simon's "HaPaLa")
- 4 pan (+15 degrees picth for 2, -15 degree picth for 2) [datails]
- software: ptgui and Photoshop on MS-Windows XP
It's been a good year for ice. All the forest streams are locked up tight, swallowed by a skin that gets thicker all the time. Down at the shoreline, they melt into the seawater, fade and freeze between the tides. It's some kind of otherworldly beauty, forming different every year, new shapes like frozen fingerprints. I try to visit them all at least once each winter, see what colours they've leached from the minerals, how they've twisted and changed shape from temperature fluctuations. It's the closest something inanimate comes to having a personality. Crystalline company on these midwinter wanders, making friends with the falls.
January 14, 2019
Outram, Nova Scotia
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For 'The Bridge'
at Rena Bransten Gallery
APRIL 5 - JUNE 2, 2012
Opening Reception: Thursday, April 5
5:30 - 7:30pm
Picture taken 1987 during my 5-month-trip around the world - digitally captured from paper print. Sorry for the bad quality.
I have uploaded a lot of my digitally captured photos, which I took since 2004. But the most interesting journeys I did between 1979 and 2004! Those photos are on slide.
__________________________________________
Fiji (Listeni/ˈfiːdʒiː/ FEE-jee Fijian: Viti; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी), officially the Republic of Fiji[8] (Fijian: Matanitu Tugalala o Viti; Fiji Hindi: रिपब्लिक ऑफ फीजी[10] Fiji Hindi: Ripablik af Fījī), is an island country in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km) northeast of New Zealand's North Island. Its closest neighbours are Vanuatu to the west, New Caledonia to the southwest, New Zealand's Kermadec Islands to the southeast, Tonga to the east, the Samoas and France's Wallis and Futuna to the northeast, and Tuvalu to the north.
Fiji is an archipelago of more than 330 islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited, and more than 500 islets, amounting to a total land area of about 18,300 square kilometres. The farthest island is Ono-i-Lau. The two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87% of the population of almost 860,000. The capital, Suva on Viti Levu, serves as Fiji's principal cruise port. About three-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levu's coasts, either in Suva or in smaller urban centres like Nadi (tourism) or Lautoka (sugar cane industry). Viti Levu's interior is sparsely inhabited due to its terrain.
Fiji has one of the most developed economies in the Pacific due to an abundance of forest, mineral, and fish resources. Today, the main sources of foreign exchange are its tourist industry and sugar exports. The country's currency is the Fijian dollar. Fiji's local government, in the form of city and town councils, is supervised by the Ministry of Local Government and Urban Development.
The majority of Fiji's islands were formed through volcanic activity starting around 150 million years ago. Today, some geothermal activity still occurs on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni. Fiji has been inhabited since the second millennium BC, and was settled first by Austronesians and later by Melanesians, with some Polynesian influences. Europeans visited Fiji from the 17th century, and, after a brief period as an independent kingdom, the British established the Colony of Fiji in 1874. Fiji was a Crown colony until 1970, when it gained independence as a Commonwealth realm. A republic was declared in 1987, following a series of coups d'état.
In a coup in 2006, Commodore Frank Bainimarama seized power. When the High Court ruled in 2009 that the military leadership was unlawful, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo, whom the military had retained as the nominal Head of State, formally abrogated the Constitution and reappointed Bainimarama. Later in 2009, Iloilo was replaced as President by Ratu Epeli Nailatikau. After years of delays, a democratic election was held on 17 September 2014. Bainimarama's FijiFirst party won with 59.2% of the vote, and the election was deemed credible by international observers.
ETYMOLOGY
Fiji's main island is known as Viti Levu and it is from this that the name "Fiji" is derived, though the common English pronunciation is based on that of their island neighbours in Tonga. Its emergence can be described as follows:
Fijians first impressed themselves on European consciousness through the writings of the members of the expeditions of Cook who met them in Tonga. They were described as formidable warriors and ferocious cannibals, builders of the finest vessels in the Pacific, but not great sailors. They inspired awe amongst the Tongans, and all their Manufactures, especially bark cloth and clubs, were highly valued and much in demand. They called their home Viti, but the Tongans called it Fisi, and it was by this foreign pronunciation, Fiji, first promulgated by Captain James Cook, that these islands are now known.
"Feejee", the Anglicised spelling of the Tongan pronunciation, was used in accounts and other writings until the late 19th century, by missionaries and other travellers visiting Fiji.
HISTORY
EARLY HISTORY
Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC, although the question of Pacific migration still lingers. It is believed that the Lapita people or the ancestors of the Polynesians settled the islands first but not much is known of what became of them after the Melanesians arrived; they may have had some influence on the new culture, and archaeological evidence shows that they would have then moved on to Samoa, Tonga and even Hawai'i.The first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 5000 years ago. Lapita pottery shards have been found at numerous excavations around the country. Aspects of Fijian culture are similar to the Melanesian culture of the western Pacific but have a stronger connection to the older Polynesian cultures. Trade between Fiji and neighbouring archipelagos long before European contact is testified by the canoes made from native Fijian trees found in Tonga and Tongan words being part of the language of the Lau group of islands. Pots made in Fiji have been found in Samoa and even the Marquesas Islands.Across 1,000 kilometres from east to west, Fiji has been a nation of many languages. Fiji's history was one of settlement but also of mobility. Over the centuries, a unique Fijian culture developed. Constant warfare and cannibalism between warring tribes were quite rampant and very much part of everyday life. During the 19th century, Ratu Udre Udre is said to have consumed 872 people and to have made a pile of stones to record his achievement. According to Deryck Scarr, "Ceremonial occasions saw freshly killed corpses piled up for eating. 'Eat me!' was a proper ritual greeting from a commoner to a chief." Scarr also reported that the posts that supported the chief's house or the priest's temple would have sacrificed bodies buried underneath them, with the rationale that the spirit of the ritually sacrificed person would invoke the gods to help support the structure, and "men were sacrificed whenever posts had to be renewed". Also, when a new boat, or drua, was launched, if it was not hauled over men as rollers, crushing them to death, "it would not be expected to float long". Fijians today regard those times as "na gauna ni tevoro" (time of the devil). The ferocity of the cannibal lifestyle deterred European sailors from going near Fijian waters, giving Fiji the name Cannibal Isles; as a result, Fiji remained unknown to the rest of the world.The Dutch explorer Abel Tasman visited Fiji in 1643 while looking for the Great Southern Continent. Europeans settled on the islands permanently beginning in the 19th century. The first European settlers to Fiji were beachcombers, missionaries, whalers, and those engaged in the then booming sandalwood and bêche-de-mer trade.Ratu Seru Epenisa Cakobau was a Fijian chief and warlord from the island of Bau, off the eastern coast of Viti Levu, who united part of Fiji's warring tribes under his leadership. He then styled himself as Tui Viti or King of Fiji, and then Vunivalu, or Protector, after the cession of Fiji to the United Kingdom. The British subjugated the islands as a colony in 1874, and the British brought over Indian contract labourers to work on the sugar plantations as the first governor of Fiji, Arthur Charles Hamilton-Gordon, adopted a policy disallowing the use of native labour or any interference in their culture or way of life. In 1875–76, an epidemic of measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, about one-third of the Fijian population. The population in 1942 was approximately 210,000 of whom 94,000 were Indians, 102,000 native Fijians, 2,000 Chinese and 5,000 Europeans.
INDEPENDENCE (1970)
The British granted Fiji independence in 1970. Democratic rule was interrupted by two military coups in 1987 precipitated by a growing perception that the government was dominated by the Indo-Fijian (Indian) community. The second 1987 coup saw both the Fijian monarchy and the Governor General replaced by a non-executive president and the name of the country changed from Dominion of Fiji to Republic of Fiji and then in 1997 to Republic of the Fiji Islands. The two coups and the accompanying civil unrest contributed to heavy Indo-Fijian emigration; the resulting population loss resulted in economic difficulties and ensured that Melanesians became the majority.
In 1990, the new constitution institutionalised ethnic Fijian domination of the political system. The Group Against Racial Discrimination (GARD) was formed to oppose the unilaterally imposed constitution and to restore the 1970 constitution. In 1992 Sitiveni Rabuka, the Lieutenant Colonel who had carried out the 1987 coup, became Prime Minister following elections held under the new constitution. Three years later, Rabuka established the Constitutional Review Commission, which in 1997 wrote a new constitution which was supported by most leaders of the indigenous Fijian and Indo-Fijian communities. Fiji was re-admitted to the Commonwealth of Nations.
The year 2000 brought along another coup, instigated by George Speight, which effectively toppled the government of Mahendra Chaudhry, who in 1997 had become the country's first Indo-Fijian Prime Minister following the adoption of the new constitution. Commodore Frank Bainimarama assumed executive power after the resignation, possibly forced, of President Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara. Later in 2000, Fiji was rocked by two mutinies when rebel soldiers went on a rampage at Suva's Queen Elizabeth Barracks. The High Court ordered the reinstatement of the constitution, and in September 2001, to restore democracy, a general election was held which was won by interim Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase's Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua party.
In 2005, the Qarase government amid much controversy proposed a Reconciliation and Unity Commission with power to recommend compensation for victims of the 2000 coup and amnesty for its perpetrators. However, the military, especially the nation's top military commander, Frank Bainimarama, strongly opposed this bill. Bainimarama agreed with detractors who said that to grant amnesty to supporters of the present government who had played a role in the violent coup was a sham. His attack on the legislation, which continued unremittingly throughout May and into June and July, further strained his already tense relationship with the government.
In late November and early December 2006, Bainimarama was instrumental in the 2006 Fijian coup d'état. Bainimarama handed down a list of demands to Qarase after a bill was put forward to parliament, part of which would have offered pardons to participants in the 2000 coup attempt. He gave Qarase an ultimatum date of 4 December to accede to these demands or to resign from his post. Qarase adamantly refused either to concede or resign, and on 5 December the president, Ratu Josefa Iloilo, was said to have signed a legal order dissolving the parliament after meeting with Bainimarama.
In April 2009, the Fiji Court of Appeal ruled that the 2006 coup had been illegal. This began the 2009 Fijian constitutional crisis. President Iloilo abrogated the constitution, removed all office holders under the constitution including all judges and the governor of the Central Bank. He then reappointed Bainimarama as prime minister under his "New Order" and imposed a "Public Emergency Regulation" limiting internal travel and allowing press censorship.
For a country of its size, Fiji has fairly large armed forces, and has been a major contributor to UN peacekeeping missions in various parts of the world. In addition, a significant number of former military personnel have served in the lucrative security sector in Iraq following the 2003 US-led invasion.
GEOGRAPHY
Fiji covers a total area of some 194,000 square kilometres of which around 10% is land.
Fiji is the hub of the South West Pacific, midway between Vanuatu and Tonga. The archipelago is located between 176° 53′ east and 178° 12′ west. The 180° meridian runs through Taveuni but the International Date Line is bent to give uniform time (UTC+12) to all of the Fiji group. With the exception of Rotuma, the Fiji group lies between 15° 42′ and 20° 02′ south. Rotuma is located 220 nautical miles (410 km) north of the group, 360 nautical miles (670 km) from Suva, 12° 30′ south of the equator.
Fiji consists of 332 islands (of which 106 are inhabited) and 522 smaller islets. The two most important islands are Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, which account for about three-quarters of the total land area of the country. The islands are mountainous, with peaks up to 1,324 metres, and covered with thick tropical forests.
The highest point is Mount Tomanivi on Viti Levu. Viti Levu hosts the capital city of Suva, and is home to nearly three-quarters of the population. Other important towns include Nadi (the location of the international airport), and Lautoka, Fiji's second city with large sugar cane mills and a seaport.
The main towns on Vanua Levu are Labasa and Savusavu. Other islands and islandgroups include Taveuni and Kadavu (the third and fourth largest islands, respectively), the Mamanuca Group (just off Nadi) and Yasawa Group, which are popular tourist destinations, the Lomaiviti Group, off Suva, and the remote Lau Group. Rotuma, some 270 nautical miles (500 km) north of the archipelago, has a special administrative status in Fiji. Ceva-i-Ra, an uninhabited reef, is located about 250 nautical miles (460 km) southwest of the main archipelago.
CLIMATE
The climate in Fiji is tropical marine and warm year round with minimal extremes. The warm season is from November to April and the cooler season lasts from May to October. Temperatures in the cool season still average 22 °C.
Rainfall is variable, with the warm season experiencing heavier rainfall, especially inland. Winds are moderate, though cyclones occur about once a year (10–12 times per decade).
On 20 February 2016, Fiji was hit by the full force of Cyclone Winston, the only Category 5 tropical cyclone to make landfall in the nation. Winston destroyed tens of thousands of homes across the island, killing 44 people and causing an estimated FJ$2 billion ($1 billion USD) in damage.
POLITICS
Politics in Fiji normally take place in the framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic wherein the Prime Minister of Fiji is the head of government and the President the Head of State, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government, legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Fiji, and the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
2006 MILIARY TAKEOVER
Citing corruption in the government, Commodore Josaia Voreqe (Frank) Bainimarama, Commander of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces, staged a military takeover on 5 December 2006 against the prime minister that he had installed after a 2000 coup. There had also been a military coup in 1987. The commodore took over the powers of the presidency and dissolved the parliament, paving the way for the military to continue the takeover. The coup was the culmination of weeks of speculation following conflict between the elected prime minister, Laisenia Qarase, and Commodore Bainimarama. Bainimarama had repeatedly issued demands and deadlines to the prime minister. A particular issue was previously pending legislation to pardon those involved in the 2000 coup. Bainimarama named Jona Senilagakali as caretaker prime minister. The next week Bainimarama said he would ask the Great Council of Chiefs to restore executive powers to the president, Ratu Josefa Iloilo.
On 4 January 2007, the military announced that it was restoring executive power to president Iloilo, who made a broadcast endorsing the actions of the military. The next day, Iloilo named Bainimarama as the interim prime minister, indicating that the military was still effectively in control. In the wake of the takeover, reports emerged of alleged intimidation of some of those critical of the interim regime.
On 9 April 2009, the Court of Appeal overturned the High Court decision that Cdre. Bainimarama's takeover of Qarase's government was lawful and declared the interim government to be illegal. Bainimarama agreed to step down as interim PM immediately, along with his government, and president Iloilo was to appoint "a distinguished person independent of the parties to this litigation as caretaker Prime Minister, ...to direct the issuance of writs for an election."
On 10 April 2009, President Iloilo suspended the Constitution of Fiji, dismissed the Court of Appeal and, in his own words, "appoint[ed] [him]self as the Head of the State of Fiji under a new legal order". As President, Iloilo had been Head of State prior to his abrogation of the Constitution, but that position had been determined by the Constitution itself. The "new legal order" did not depend on the Constitution, thus requiring a "reappointment" of the Head of State. "You will agree with me that this is the best way forward for our beloved Fiji", he said. Bainimarama was re-appointed as Interim Prime Minister; he, in turn, re-instated his previous cabinet.
On 2 May 2009, Fiji became the first nation ever to have been suspended from participation in the Pacific Islands Forum, for its failure to hold democratic elections by the date promised. Nevertheless, it remains a member of the Forum.
On 1 September 2009, Fiji was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations. The action was taken because Cdre. Bainimarama failed to hold elections by 2010 as the Commonwealth of Nations had demanded after the 2006 coup. Cdre. Bainimarama stated a need for more time to end a voting system that heavily favoured ethnic Fijians at the expense of the multi-ethnic minorities. Critics, however, claimed that he had suspended the constitution and was responsible for human rights violations by arresting and detaining opponents.
In his 2010 New Year's address, Cdre. Bainimarama announced the lifting of the Public Emergency Regulations (PER). The PER had been put in place in April 2009 when the former constitution was abrogated. The PER had allowed restrictions on speech, public gatherings, and censorship of news media and had given security forces added powers. He also announced a nationwide consultation process leading to a new Constitution under which the 2014 elections will be held.
On 14 March 2014, the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group voted to change Fiji's full suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations to a suspension from the councils of the Commonwealth, allowing them to participate in a number of Commonwealth activities, including the 2014 Commonwealth Games. The suspension was lifted in September 2014.
A general election took place on 17 September 2014. Bainimarama's FijiFirst party won with 59.2% of the vote, and the election was deemed credible by a group of international observers from Australia, India and Indonesia.
ARMED FORCES AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
The military consists of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces (RFMF) with a total manpower of 3,500 active soldiers and 6,000 reservists, and includes a Navy Unit of 300 personnel.
The Land Force comprises the Fiji Infantry Regiment (regular and territorial force organised into six light infantry battalions), Fiji Engineer Regiment, Logistic Support Unit and Force Training Group. The two regular battalions are traditionally stationed overseas on peacekeeping duties.
The Law Enforcement branch is composed of:
Fiji Police Force
Fiji Corrections Service
ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS
Fiji is divided into Four Major Divisions which are further divided into 14 provinces. They are:
Central Division has 5 provinces: Naitasiri, Namosi, Rewa, Serua, and Tailevu.
Eastern Division has 3 provinces: Kadavu, Lau, and Lomaiviti.
Northern Division has 3 provinces: Bua, Cakaudrove, and Macuata.
Western Division has 3 provinces: Ba, Nadroga-Navosa, and Ra.
Fiji was also divided into 3 Confederacies or Governments during the reign of Seru Epenisa Cakobau, though these are not considered political divisions, they are still considered important in the social divisions of the indigenous Fijians:
ECONOMY
Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though still with a large subsistence sector. Some progress was experienced by this sector when Marion M. Ganey, S.J., introduced credit unions to the islands in the 1950s. Natural resources include timber, fish, gold, copper, offshore oil, and hydropower. Fiji experienced a period of rapid growth in the 1960s and 1970s but stagnated in the 1980s. The coup of 1987 caused further contraction.
Economic liberalisation in the years following the coup created a boom in the garment industry and a steady growth rate despite growing uncertainty regarding land tenure in the sugar industry.[citation needed] The expiration of leases for sugar cane farmers (along with reduced farm and factory efficiency) has led to a decline in sugar production despite subsidies for sugar provided by the EU; Fiji has been the second largest beneficiary of sugar subsidies after Mauritius.[citation needed] Fiji's vital gold mining industry based in Vatukoula, which shut down in 2006, was reactivated in 2008.
Urbanisation and expansion in the service sector have contributed to recent GDP growth. Sugar exports and a rapidly growing tourist industry – with tourists numbering 430,800 in 2003 and increasing in the subsequent years – are the major sources of foreign exchange. Fiji is highly dependent on tourism for revenue. Sugar processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Long-term problems include low investment and uncertain property rights. The political turmoil in Fiji in the 1980s, the 1990s, and 2000 had a severe impact on the economy, which shrank by 2.8% in 2000 and grew by only 1% in 2001.
The tourism sector recovered quickly, however, with visitor arrivals reaching pre-coup levels in 2002, resulting in a modest economic recovery which continued into 2003 and 2004 but grew by a mere 1.7% in 2005 and by 2.0% in 2006. Although inflation is low, the policy indicator rate of the Reserve Bank of Fiji was raised by 1% to 3.25% in February 2006 due to fears of excessive consumption financed by debt. Lower interest rates have so far not produced greater investment in exports.
However, there has been a housing boom due to declining commercial mortgage rates. The tallest building in Fiji is the fourteen-storey Reserve Bank of Fiji Building in Suva, which was inaugurated in 1984. The Suva Central Commercial Centre, which opened in November 2005, was planned to outrank the Reserve Bank building at seventeen stories, but last-minute design changes ensured that the Reserve Bank building remained the tallest.
Trade and investment with Fiji have been criticised due to the country's military dictatorship. In 2008, Fiji's interim Prime Minister and coup leader Frank Bainimarama announced election delays and said that Fiji would pull out of the Pacific Islands Forum in Niue, where Bainimarama was to have met with Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark.
The South Pacific Stock Exchange (SPSE) is the only licensed securities exchange in Fiji and is based in Suva. Its vision is to become a regional exchange.
TOURISM
Fiji has a significant amount of tourism with the popular regions being Nadi, the Coral Coast, Denarau Island, and Mamanuca Islands. The biggest sources of international visitors by country are Australia, New Zealand and the United States. Fiji has a significant number of soft coral reefs, and scuba diving is a common tourist activity.
Fiji's main attractions to tourists are primarily white sandy beaches and aesthetically pleasing islands with all-year-round tropical weather. In general, Fiji is a mid-range priced holiday/vacation destination with most of the accommodations in this range. It also has a variety of world class five-star resorts and hotels. More budget resorts are being opened in remote areas, which will provide more tourism opportunities.
Official statistics show that in 2012, 75% of visitors stated that they came for a holiday/vacation. Honeymoons are very popular as are romantic getaways in general. There are also family friendly resorts with facilities for young children including kids' clubs and nanny options.
Fiji has several popular tourism destinations. The Botanical Gardens of Thursten in Suva, Sigatoka Sand Dunes, and Colo-I-Suva Forest Park are three options on the mainland (Viti Levu). A major attraction on the outer islands is scuba diving. Most visitors arriving to Fiji on short term basis are from the following countries or regions of residence:
TRANSPORT
The Nadi International Airport is located 9 kilometres north of central Nadi and is the largest Fijian hub. Nausori International Airport is about 23 kilometres northeast of downtown Suva and serves mostly domestic traffic. The main airport in the second largest island of Vanua Levu is Labasa Airport located at Waiqele, southwest of Labasa Town. The largest aircraft handled by Labasa Airport is the ATR42. Airports Fiji Limited (AFL) is responsible for the operation of 15 public airports in the Fiji Islands. These include two international airports: Nadi international Airport, Fiji’s main international gateway, and Nausori Airport, Fiji’s domestic hub, and 13 outer island airports. Fiji's main airline was previously known as Air Pacific, but is now known as Fiji Airways.
Fiji's larger islands have extensive bus routes that are affordable and consistent in service. There are bus stops, and in rural areas buses are often simply hailed as they approach. Buses are the principal form of public transport and passenger movement between the towns on the main islands. Buses also serve on roll-on-roll-off inter-island ferries. Bus fares and routes are heavily regulated by the Land Transport Authority (LTA). Bus and taxi drivers hold Public Service Licenses (PSVs) issued by the LTA.
Taxis are licensed by the LTA and operate widely all over the country. Apart from urban, town-based taxis, there are others that are licensed to serve rural or semi-rural areas. The flagfall for regular taxis is F$1.50 and tariff is F$0.10 for every 200 meters. For taxis that are allowed to charge Value Added Tax (VAT), the flagfall is F$1.50 and tariff is F$0.30 for the first 200 meters, and F$0.11 for every 200 meters thereafter. Taxis operating out of Fiji's international airport, Nadi charge a flagfall of F$5. The elderly and Government welfare recipients are given a 20% discount on their taxi fares.
Inter-island ferries provide services between Fiji's principal islands and large vessels operate roll-on-roll-off services, transporting vehicles and large amounts of cargo between the main island of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, and other smaller islands.
SOCEITY
DEMOGRAPHICS
The 2007 census found that the permanent population of Fiji was 837,000. The population density at the time was 45.8 inhabitants per square kilometre. The life expectancy in Fiji was 72.1 years. Since the 1930s the population of Fiji has increased at a rate of 1.1% per year. The population is dominated by the 15–64 age segment. The median age of the population was 27.9, and the gender ratio was 1.03 males per 1 female.
ETHNIC GROUPS
The population of Fiji is mostly made up of native Fijians, who are Melanesians (54.3%), although many also have Polynesian ancestry, and Indo-Fijians (38.1%), descendants of Indian contract labourers brought to the islands by the British colonial powers in the 19th century. The percentage of the population of Indo-Fijian descent has declined significantly over the last two decades due to migration for various reasons. Indo-Fijians suffered reprisals for a period after the Fiji coup of 2000. There is also a small but significant group of descendants of indentured labourers from the Solomon Islands.
About 1.2% are Rotuman—natives of Rotuma Island, whose culture has more in common with countries such as Tonga or Samoa than with the rest of Fiji. There are also small but economically significant groups of Europeans, Chinese, and other Pacific island minorities. The total membership of other ethnic groups of Pacific Islanders is about 7,300.
Relationships between ethnic Fijians and Indo-Fijians in the political arena have often been strained, and the tension between the two communities has dominated politics in the islands for the past generation. The level of political tension varies among different regions of the country.
DEMONYM
Within Fiji, the term Fijian refers solely to indigenous Fijians: it denotes an ancestral ethnicity, not a nationality. Constitutionally, citizens of Fiji are referred to as "Fiji Islanders" though the term Fiji Nationals is used for official purposes. In August 2008, shortly before the proposed People's Charter for Change, Peace and Progress was due to be released to the public, it was announced that it recommended a change in the name of Fiji's citizens. If the proposal were adopted, all citizens of Fiji, whatever their ethnicity, would be called "Fijians". The proposal would change the English name of indigenous Fijians from "Fijians" to itaukei, the Fijian language endonym for indigenous Fijians.
Deposed Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase reacted by stating that the name "Fijian" belonged exclusively to indigenous Fijians, and that he would oppose any change in legislation enabling non-indigenous Fijians to use it. The Methodist Church, to which a large majority of indigenous Fijians belong, also reacted strongly to the proposal, stating that allowing any Fiji citizen to call themselves "Fijian" would be "daylight robbery" inflicted on the indigenous population.
In an address to the nation during the constitutional crisis of April 2009, military leader and interim Prime Minister Voreqe Bainimarama, who has been at the forefront of the attempt to change the definition of "Fijian", stated:
I know we all have our different ethnicities, our different cultures and we should, we must, celebrate our diversity and richness. However, at the same time we are all Fijians. We are all equal citizens. We must all be loyal to Fiji; we must be patriotic; we must put Fiji first.
In May 2010, Attorney-General Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum reiterated that the term "Fijian" should apply to all Fiji nationals, but the statement was again met with protest. A spokesperson for the Viti Landowners and Resource Owners Association claimed that even fourth-generation descendants of migrants did not fully understand "what it takes to be a Fijian", and added that the term refers to a legal standing, since legislation affords specific rights to "Fijians" (meaning, in legislation, indigenous Fijians). Fiji academic Brij Lal, although a prominent critic of the Bainimarama government, said he "would not be surprised" if the new definition of the word "Fijian" were included in the government's projected new Constitution, and that he personally saw "no reason the term Fijian should not apply to everyone from Fiji".
LANGUAGES
Fijian is an Austronesian language of the Malayo-Polynesian family spoken in Fiji. It has 350,000 first-language speakers, which is less than half the population of Fiji, but another 200,000 speak it as a second language. The 1997 Constitution established Fijian as an official language of Fiji, along with English and Fiji Hindi, and there has been discussion about establishing it as the "national language", though English and Hindi would remain official. Fijian is a VOS language.
The Fiji Islands developed many dialects, which may be classified in two major branches — eastern and western. Missionaries in the 1840s chose an Eastern dialect, the speech of Bau Island off the southeast coast of the main island of Viti Levu, to be the written standard of the Fijian language. Bau Island was home to Seru Epenisa Cakobau, the chief who eventually became the self-proclaimed King of Fiji.
RELIGION
According to the 2007 census, 64.4% of the population at the time was Christian, followed by 27.9% Hindu, 6.3% Muslim, 0.8% non-religious, 0.3% Sikh, and the remaining 0.3% belonging to other religions. Among Christians, 54% were counted as Methodist, followed by 14.2% Catholic, 8.9% Assemblies of God, 6.0% Seventh-day Adventist, 1.2% Anglican, with the remaining 16.1% belonging to other denominations.
The largest Christian denomination is the Methodist Church of Fiji and Rotuma. (The general secretary is Revd Tuikilakila Waqairatu.) With 34.6% of the population (including almost two-thirds of ethnic Fijians), the proportion of the population adhering to Methodism is higher in Fiji than in any other nation. In 2012, permission was granted by the government for Methodists to hold their annual conference, for the first time in four years, with the conditions that the conference not coincide with the national Hibiscus Festival and should only last for three days, and that no political matters were to be discussed, only church matters.
Roman Catholics is headed by the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Suva, whose province also includes the dioceses of Raratonga (on the Cook Islands, for those and Niue, both New Zealand-associated countries) and Tarawa and Nauru (with see at Tarawa on Kiribati, also for Nauru) and the Mission Sui Iuris of Tokelau (again with New Zealand). This reflects that much major Roman Catholic missionary activity was conducted through the former Apostolic Prefecture (created in 1863 from the Apostolic Vicariate of Central Oceania), then Apostolic Vicariate of Fiji, which has since been promoted to Archdiocese of Suva, which spans the whole of Fiji.
Furthermore, the Assemblies of God, the Seventh-day Adventists and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) are significant. Fiji also is the base for the Anglican Diocese of Polynesia (part of the Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia). These and other denominations have small numbers of Indo-Fijian members; Christians of all kinds comprise 6.1% of the Indo-Fijian population.
Hindus belong mostly to the Sanatan sect (74.3% of all Hindus) or else are unspecified (22%). The small Arya Samaj sect claims the membership of some 3.7% of Hindus in Fiji. Muslims are mostly Sunni (96.4%) following the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, with a small Ahmadiyya minority (3.6%). The Sikh religion comprises 0.9% of the Indo-Fijian population, or 0.4% of the national population in Fiji. Their ancestors originated from the Punjab region of India; they are a fairly recent wave of immigrants who did not live through[clarification needed] the indenture system.[citation needed] The Bahá'í Faith has over 21 local Spiritual Assemblies throughout Fiji, and Baha'is live in more than 80 localities. The first Baha'i in the islands was a New Zealander who arrived in 1924. There is also a small Jewish population of about 60 people. Every year the Israeli Embassy organises a Passover celebration with about 50-60 people attending.
EDUCATION
Primary school education in Fiji is compulsory, and free for eight years. As of 2001, attendance was decreasing due to security concerns and the burden of school fees, often due to the cost of transport. Following the government coup in May 2000, more than 5,000 students were reported to have left school.
CULTURE
Fiji's culture is a rich mosaic of indigenous Fijian, Indo-Fijian, Asian and European traditions, comprising social polity, language, food (coming mainly from the sea, plus casava, dalo (taro) and other vegetables), costume, belief systems, architecture, arts, craft, music, dance, and sports.
While indigenous Fijian culture and traditions are very vibrant and are integral components of everyday life for the majority of Fiji's population, Fijian society has evolved over the past century with the introduction of traditions such as Indian and Chinese as well as significant influences from Europe and Fiji's Pacific neighbours, particularly Tonga and Samoa. Thus, the various cultures of Fiji have come together to create a unique multicultural national identity.
Fiji's culture was showcased at the World Exposition held in Vancouver, Canada, in 1986 and more recently at the Shanghai World Expo 2010, along with other Pacific countries in the Pacific Pavilion.
HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS
This is a list of holidays celebrated in Fiji:
New Year's Day
Good Friday
Easter Saturday
Easter Monday
Fiji Day
Diwali
Christmas
Boxing Day
Prophet Mohammed's Birthday
The exact dates of public holidays vary from year to year, but the dates for the next year can be found at the Fiji Government Web Site
The following holidays are no longer celebrated in Fiji:
Queen's Official Birthday
National Youth Day
Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna Day
SPORT
Sports are very popular in Fiji, particularly sports involving physical contact. Fiji's national sport is Rugby Sevens.
RUGBY UNION
Rugby Union is the most-popular team sport played in Fiji.
Fiji is one of the few countries where rugby union is the main sport. There are about 80,000 registered players from a total population of around 900,000. One of the problems for Fiji is simply getting their players to play for their home country, as many have contracts in Europe or with Super Rugby teams, where monetary compensation is far more rewarding. The repatriated salaries of its overseas stars have become an important part of some local economies. In addition, a significant number of players eligible to play for Fiji end up representing Australia or New Zealand; notable examples are Fiji-born cousins and former New Zealand All Blacks, Joe Rokocoko and Sitiveni Sivivatu, current All Blacks Waisake Naholo and Seta Tamanivalu as well as Australian Wallabies former winger, Lote Tuqiri and current Wallabies Tevita Kuridrani , Samu Kerevi and Henry Speight. Fiji has won the most Pacific Tri-Nations Championships of the three participating teams.
RUGBY LEAGUE
The Fiji national rugby league team, nicknamed the Bati (pronounced [mˈbatʃi]), represents Fiji in the sport of rugby league football and has been participating in international competition since 1992. It has competed in the Rugby League World Cup on three occasions, with their best results coming when they made consecutive semi-final appearances in the 2008 Rugby League World Cup and 2013 Rugby League World Cup. The team also competes in the Pacific Cup.
Members of the team are selected from a domestic Fijian competition, as well as from competitions held in New Zealand and Australia. For the 2000, 2008 and 2013 World Cups, the Bati were captained by Lote Tuqiri, Wes Naiqama and the legendary Petero Civoniceva respectively. Fiji have also produced stars like Akuila Uate, Jarryd Hayne, Kevin Naiqama, Semi Tadulala, Marika Koroibete, Apisai Koroisau, Sisa Waqa and the Sims brothers Ashton Sims, Tariq Sims and Korbin Sims
RUGBY WAR DANCE (CIBI AND BOLE) AND FIJIAN HYMN
The Cibi (pronounced Thimbi) war dance was traditionally performed by the Fiji rugby team before each match. It was replaced in 2012 with the new "Bole" (pronounced mBolay) war cry.
Tradition holds that the original Cibi was first performed on the rugby field back in 1939 during a tour of New Zealand, when then Fijian captain Ratu Sir George Cakobau felt that his team should have something to match the Haka of the All Blacks. The 'Cibi' had perhaps been used incorrectly though, as the word actually means "a celebration of victory by warriors," whereas 'Bole' is the acceptance of a challenge.
The Fiji Bati rugby league team also gather in a huddle and perform the noqu masu before each match.
NETBALL
Netball is the most popular women's participation sport in Fiji. The national team has been internationally competitive, at Netball World Cup competitions reaching 6th position in 1999, its highest level to date. The team won gold medals at the 2007 and 2015 Pacific Games.
CRICKET
Cricket is a minor sport in Fiji. The Cricket Fiji is an Associate member of International Cricket Council. Fiji U19 cricket team won the 2015 edition of the tournament, and consequently qualified for the 2016 Under-19 World Cup, becoming the first team outside of Papua New Guinea to qualify from the region.
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