View allAll Photos Tagged benjaminfranklin
“Life's tragedy is that we get old too soon and wise too late”~ Benjamin Franklin
A bit of an old wall in Vienna.
The title is an expression which means to stop behaving immaturely. It is said to adults who are acting like overgrown children. You can find it in Prince's song Kiss.. a link to the song is on a note. (I prefer Tom Jones' version..thanks)
Camden Riversharks versus Somerset Patriots at Campbell's Field and probably one of the oddest outfield views.
"The Ben Franklin Club, Lancaster, Pa., June 24, 1916. Instituted 1915. Lancaster. Reading. Landis Art Press."
Independence Day Celebration and Festival on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
As a native Philadelphian I am *privy* to so many historical curiosities and locales that I feel duty-bound to share with you...Benjamin Franklin's toilet.
Benjamin Franklin With Kite.Sculpture by Agnes Yarnall 1965.Bronze on a Marble base.Coxe Park Philadelphia Pa.35mm Nikon FM2,Kodak Portra 400.
Taken in 2011.
I used to see this guy dressed up like Ben Franklin around the Quincy Market area. This time I encountered him on Union Street. He said he "educates" people about Franklin and asked $2 for a picture. I only had a one and a twenty, so this time he accepted less.
~*Photography Originally Taken By: www.CrossTrips.Com Under God*~
American Revolution
This article is about political and social developments, including the origins and aftermath of the war. For military actions, see American Revolutionary War.
For other uses, see American Revolution (disambiguation).
John Trumbull's Declaration of Independence, showing the five-man committee in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia
John Trumbull's Declaration of Independence, showing the five-man committee in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia
The American Revolution refers to the period during the last half of the 18th century in which the Thirteen Colonies gained independence from the British Empire to become the United States of America. In this period, the Colonies united against the British Empire and entered a period of armed conflict known as the Revolutionary War (also, mostly in British usage, "American War of Independence"), between 1775 and 1783. This resulted in an American Declaration of Independence in 1776, and victory on the battlefield in October 1781.
The revolutionary era began in 1763, when the French military threat to British North American colonies ended. Adopting the view that the colonies should pay a substantial portion of the costs associated with keeping them in the Empire, Britain imposed a series of taxes followed by other laws that proved extremely unpopular. Because the colonies lacked elected representation in the governing British Parliament many colonists considered the laws to be illegitimate and a violation of their rights as Englishmen. Beginning in 1772, Patriot groups began to create Committees of Correspondence which would lead to their own Provincial Congress in each of most of the colonies. In the course of a few years, the Provincial Congresses or their equivalents effectively replaced the British ruling apparatus in the former colonies, and culminated in the Continental Congress.
After protests in Boston, the British sent combat troops, the Americans mobilized their militia, and fighting broke out in 1775. Although Loyalists were about 30% of the population,[1] throughout the war the Patriots generally controlled 80-90% of the territory; the British could hold only a few coastal cities. In 1776, representatives of the Thirteen Colonies voted unanimously to adopt a Declaration of Independence, by which they established the United States of America. The Americans formed an alliance with France in 1778 that evened the military and naval strengths, later bringing Spain and the Dutch Republic into the conflict by their own alliance with France. Two main British armies were captured by the Continental Army, at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781, leading to peace with the Treaty of Paris in 1783.
The American Revolution included a series of broad intellectual and social shifts that occurred in the early American society, such as the new republican ideals that took hold in the American population. In some colonies, sharp political debates broke out over the role of democracy in government, with some of even the most liberal Founding Fathers fearing "mob rule". The American shift to republicanism, as well as the gradually expanding democracy, caused an upheaval of the traditional social hierarchy, and created the ethic that formed the core of American political values.[2]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Origins
o 1.1 Liberalism and republicanism
o 1.2 Navigation Acts
o 1.3 Western Frontier
o 1.4 Taxation without representation
o 1.5 New taxes 1764
o 1.6 Stamp Act 1765
o 1.7 Townshend Act 1767 and Boston Massacre 1770
o 1.8 Tea Act 1773
o 1.9 Intolerable Acts 1774
o 1.10 American political opposition
* 2 Fighting begins at Lexington: 1775
* 3 Factions: Patriots, Loyalists and Neutrals
o 3.1 Patriots - The Revolutionaries
o 3.2 Loyalists and neutrals
o 3.3 Class differences among the Patriots
o 3.4 Women
* 4 Creating new state constitutions
* 5 Military history: expulsion of the British 1776
* 6 Independence, 1776
* 7 War
o 7.1 British return: 1776-1777
o 7.2 British attack on the South, 1778-1783
o 7.3 Treason issue
* 8 Peace treaty
* 9 Aftermath of war
o 9.1 Worldwide influence
o 9.2 Interpretations
* 10 National debt
* 11 See also
* 12 Bibliography
o 12.1 Notes
o 12.2 Reference works
o 12.3 Surveys
o 12.4 Specialized studies
o 12.5 Primary sources
* 13 External links
Origins
Before the Revolution: The Thirteen Colonies are in pink.
Before the Revolution: The Thirteen Colonies are in pink.
Liberalism and republicanism
John Locke's ideas on liberalism greatly influenced the political minds behind the revolution; for instance, his theory of the "social contract" implied the natural right of the people to overthrow their leaders, should those leaders betray the historic rights of Englishmen. Historians find little trace of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's influence in America.[3] In terms of writing state and national constitutions, the Americans used Montesquieu's analysis of the ideally "balanced" British Constitution.
A motivating force behind the revolution (or first Civil War) was the American embrace of a political ideology called "republicanism", which was dominant in many of the colonies by 1775. The "country party" in Britain, whose critique of British government emphasized that corruption was to be feared, influenced American politicians. The colonists associated the "court" with luxury and inherited aristocracy, which many British Americans increasingly condemned. Corruption was the greatest possible evil, and civic virtue required men to put civic duty ahead of their personal desires. Men had a civic duty to fight for their country. For women, "republican motherhood" became the ideal, exemplified by Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren; the first duty of the republican woman was to instill republican values in her children and to avoid luxury and ostentation. The "Founding Fathers" were strong advocates of republicanism, especially Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams.[4]
Navigation Acts
Main articles: Navigation Acts, Mercantilism, and Writs of Assistance
Great Britain regulated the economies of the colonies through the Navigation Acts according to the doctrines of mercantilism, which stated that anything that benefited the Empire (and hurt other empires) was good policy. Widespread evasion of these laws had long been tolerated. Now, through the use of open-ended search warrants (Writs of Assistance), strict enforcement of these Acts became the practice. In 1761, Massachusetts lawyer James Otis argued that the writs violated the constitutional rights of the colonists. He lost the case, but John Adams later wrote, "American independence was then and there born."
In 1762, Patrick Henry argued the Parson's Cause in Virginia, where the legislature had passed a law and it was vetoed by the King. Henry argued, "that a King, by disallowing Acts of this salutary nature, from being the father of his people, degenerated into a Tyrant and forfeits all right to his subjects' obedience."[5]
Western Frontier
Main articles: British Royal Proclamation of 1763 and Quebec Act
The Proclamation of 1763 restricted colonization across the Appalachian Mountains as this was to be Indian Territory. Regardless, groups of settlers continued to move west and lay claim to Indian Land. The proclamation was soon modified and was no longer a hindrance to settlement, but its promulgation and the fact that it had been written without consulting Americans angered the colonists. The Quebec Act of 1774 extended Quebec's boundaries to the Ohio River, shutting out the claims of the thirteen colonies. By then, however, the Americans had little regard for new laws from London; they were drilling militia and organizing for war.[6]
Taxation without representation
Main article: No taxation without representation
By 1763, Great Britain possessed vast holdings in North America. In addition to the thirteen colonies, twenty-two smaller colonies were ruled directly by royal governors. Victory in the Seven Years' War had given Great Britain New France (Canada), Spanish Florida, and the Native American lands east of the Mississippi River. In North America there were six Colonies that remained loyal to Britain. The colonies included: Province of Quebec, Province of Nova Scotia, Colony of Bermuda, Province of West Florida and the Province of East Florida. The Republic of Vermont joined the U.S.A. in 1791. In 1765 however, the colonists still considered themselves loyal subjects of the British Crown, with the same historic rights and obligations as subjects in Britain.[7]
The British did not expect the colonies to contribute to the interest or the retirement of debt incurred during the French and Indian War, but they did expect a portion of the expenses for colonial defense to be paid by the Americans. Estimating the expenses of defending the continental colonies and the West Indies to be approximately £200,000 annually, the British goal after the end of this war was that the colonies would be taxed for £78,000 of this needed amount.[8] The issues with the colonists were both that the taxes were high and that the colonies had no representation in the Parliament which passed the taxes. Lord North in 1775 argued for the British position that Englishmen paid on average twenty-five shillings annually in taxes whereas Americans paid only sixpence (the average Englishman, however, also earned quite a bit more).[9] Colonists, however, as early as 1764, with respect to the Sugar Act, indicated that “the margin of profit in rum was so small that molasses could bear no duty whatever.”[10]
The phrase "No taxation without representation" became popular in many American circles. London argued that the Americans were represented "virtually"; but most Americans rejected the theory that men in London, who knew nothing about their needs and conditions, could represent them.[11]
New taxes 1764
Main articles: Sugar Act, Currency Act, Battle of Golden Hill, and Quartering Act
In 1764, Parliament enacted the Sugar Act and the Currency Act, further vexing the colonists. Protests led to a powerful new weapon, the systemic boycott of British goods. The British pushed the colonists even further that same year by also enacting the Quartering Act, which stated that British soldiers were to be cared for by residents in certain areas.
Stamp Act 1765
Main article: Stamp Act 1765
Burning of the Gaspée
Burning of the Gaspée
In 1765 the Stamp Act was the first direct tax ever levied by Parliament on the colonies. All newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, and official documents — even decks of playing cards — were required to have the stamps. All 13 colonies protested vehemently, as popular leaders such as Patrick Henry in Virginia and James Otis in Massachusetts, rallied the people in opposition. A secret group, the "Sons of Liberty" formed in many towns and threatened violence if anyone sold the stamps, and no one did. In Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice-admiralty court and looted the elegant home of the chief justice, Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765. Moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a "Declaration of Rights and Grievances" stating that taxes passed without representation violated their Rights of Englishmen. Lending weight to the argument was an economic boycott of British merchandise, as imports into the colonies fell from £2,250,000 in 1764 to £1,944,000 in 1765. In London, the Rockingham government came to power and Parliament debated whether to repeal the stamp tax or send an army to enforce it. Benjamin Franklin eloquently made the American case, explaining the colonies had spent heavily in manpower, money, and blood in defense of the empire in a series of wars against the French and Indians, and that further taxes to pay for those wars were unjust and might bring about a rebellion. Parliament agreed and repealed the tax, but in a "Declaratory Act" of March 1766 insisted that parliament retained full power to make laws for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever."[5]
Townshend Act 1767 and Boston Massacre 1770
Main articles: Townshend Act and Boston Massacre
In 1767, the Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, which placed a tax on a number of essential goods including paper, glass, and tea. Angered at the tax increases, colonists organized a boycott of British goods. In Boston on March 5, 1770, a large mob gathered around a group of British soldiers. The mob grew more and more threatening, throwing snowballs,rocks and debris at the soldiers. One soldier was clubbed and fell. All but one of the soldiers fired into the crowd. Eleven people were hit; Three civilians were killed at the scene of the shooting, and two died after the incident. The event quickly came to be called the Boston Massacre. Although the soldiers were tried and acquitted (defended by John Adams), the exaggerated and widespread descriptions soon became propaganda to turn colonial sentiment against the British. This in turn began a downward spiral in the relationship between Britain and the Province of Massachusetts.
Tea Act 1773
This 1846 lithograph has become a classic image of the Boston Tea Party.
This 1846 lithograph has become a classic image of the Boston Tea Party.
Main articles: Tea Act and Boston Tea Party
In June 1772, in what became known as the Gaspée Affair, a British warship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations was burned by American patriots. Soon afterwards, Governor Thomas Hutchinson of Massachusetts reported that he and the royal judges would be paid directly from London, thus bypassing the colonial legislature.
On December 16, 1773, a group of men, led by Samuel Adams and dressed to evoke American Indians, boarded the ships of British tea merchants and dumped an estimated £10,000 worth of tea on board into the harbor. This event became known as the Boston Tea Party and remains a significant part of American patriotic lore.
Intolerable Acts 1774
Main article: Intolerable Acts
An American version of London cartoon that denounces the "rape" of Boston in 1774 by the Intolerable Acts.
An American version of London cartoon that denounces the "rape" of Boston in 1774 by the Intolerable Acts.
The British government responded by passing several Acts which came to be known as the Intolerable Acts, which further darkened colonial opinion towards the British. They consisted of four laws enacted by the British parliament.[12] The first was the Massachusetts Government Act, which altered the Massachusetts charter and restricted town meetings. The second Act, the Administration of Justice Act, ordered that all British soldiers to be tried were to be arraigned in Britain, not in the colonies. The third Act was the Boston Port Act, which closed the port of Boston until the British had been compensated for the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party (the British never received such a payment). The fourth Act was the Quartering Act of 1774, which allowed governors to house British troops in unoccupied buildings. The First Continental Congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, which declared the Intolerable Acts to be unconstitutional, called for the people to form militias, and called for Massachusetts to form a Patriot government.
American political opposition
American political opposition was initially through the colonial assemblies such as the Stamp Act Congress. In 1765, the Sons of Liberty were formed which used violence and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable. In late 1772 after the Gaspée Affair, Samuel Adams set about creating new Committees of Correspondence which linked Patriots in all thirteen colonies and eventually provided the framework for a rebel government. In early 1773, Virginia, the largest colony, set up its Committee of Correspondence, on which Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson served.[13]
In 1774, the Continental Congress was formed to serve as a provisional national government. In response to the Massachusetts Government Act Massachusetts Bay and then other colonies formed provisional governments called Provincial Congress. Committee of Safety were created for the enforcement of the resolutions of the Committees of Correspondence and the Continental Congress.
The people of Worcester set up an armed picket line in front of the local courthouse and refused to allow British magistrates to enter. Similar events soon occurred all across the colony. British troops were sent from England, but by the time they arrived, the entire colony of Massachusetts, with the exception of the heavily garrisoned city of Boston, had thrown off British control of local affairs.
Fighting begins at Lexington: 1775
Join, or Die by Benjamin Franklin was recycled to encourage the former colonies to unite against British rule.
Join, or Die by Benjamin Franklin was recycled to encourage the former colonies to unite against British rule.
The Battle of Lexington and Concord took place April 19, 1775, when the British sent a regiment to confiscate arms and arrest revolutionaries in Concord. It was the first fighting of the American Revolutionary War, and immediately the news aroused the 13 colonies to call out their militias and send troops to besiege Boston. The Battle of Bunker Hill followed on June 17, 1775. By late spring 1776[when?], with George Washington as commander, the Americans forced the British to evacuate Boston. The patriots were in control everywhere in the 13 colonies and were ready to declare independence. While there still were many Loyalists, they were no longer in control anywhere by July 1776, and all of the British Royal officials had fled.[14]
The Second Continental Congress convened in 1775, after the war had started. The Congress created the Continental Army and extended the Olive Branch Petition to the crown as an attempt at reconciliation. King George III refused to receive it, issuing instead the Proclamation of Rebellion, requiring action against the "traitors." There would be no negotiations whatsoever until 1783.
Factions: Patriots, Loyalists and Neutrals
Patriots - The Revolutionaries
Main article: Patriot (American Revolution)
At the time, revolutionaries were called 'Patriots', 'Whigs', 'Congress-men', or 'Americans'. They included a full range of social and economic classes, but a unanimity regarding the need to defend the rights of Americans. After the war, Patriots such as George Washington, James Madison, John Adams, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay were deeply devoted to republicanism while also eager to build a rich and powerful nation, while Patriots such as Patrick Henry, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson represented democratic impulses and the agrarian plantation element that wanted a localized society with greater political equality.
The word "patriot" is used in this context simply to mean a person in the colonies who sided with the American revolution. Calling the revolutionaries "patriots" is a long standing historical convention, and was done at the time. It is not meant to express bias in favor of either side.[citation needed]
Loyalists and neutrals
Main article: Loyalist (American Revolution)
While there is no way of knowing the actual numbers, historians estimate 25% to 33% of the colonists remained loyal to the British Crown; these were known at the time as 'Loyalists', 'Tories', or 'King's men'. A third remained neutral and another third were known as Rebels or Patriots depending on who's side one was on. Loyalists were typically older, less willing to break with old loyalties, often connected to the Anglican church, and included many established merchants with business connections across the Empire, for example, Thomas Hutchinson of Boston. However; this was America's first civil war and like most civil wars it divided families, such as the Franklins. William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin and Governor of New Jersey remained Loyal to the Crown throughout the war and never spoke to his father again. Recent immigrants who had not been fully Americanized were also inclined to support the King, such as recent Scottish settlers in the back country; among the more striking examples of this, see Flora MacDonald.[15]
There are notable examples of Loyalists who were not high-born, however, and it seems unlikely that their numbers are included in estimates of the number of Loyalists. Notable among these were Native Americans, who mostly rejected American pleas that they remain neutral. Most groups aligned themselves with the loyalists. There were also incentives provided by both sides that helped to secure the affiliations of regional peoples and leaders, and the tribes that depended most heavily upon colonial trade tended to side with the revolutionaries, though political factors were important as well. The most prominent Native American leader siding with the Loyalists was Joseph Brant of the Mohawk nation, who led frontier raids on isolated settlements in Pennsylvania and New York until an American army under John Sullivan secured New York in 1779, forcing all the Loyalist Indians permanently into Canada.[16]
Another poorly-documented group that joined the Loyalist cause were African-American slaves, who were actively recruited into the British forces in return for manumission, protection for their families, and the (often broken) promise of land grants. Following the war, many of these "Black Loyalists" settled in Nova Scotia, Upper and Lower Canada, and other parts of the British Empire, where the descendants of some remain today.[17]
A minority of uncertain size tried to stay neutral in the war. Most kept a low profile. However, the Quakers, especially in Pennsylvania, were the most important group that was outspoken for neutrality. As patriots declared independence, the Quakers, who continued to do business with the British, were attacked as supporters of British rule, "contrivers and authors of seditious publications" critical of the revolutionary cause.[18]
After the war, the great majority of Loyalists remained in America and resumed normal lives. Some, such as Samuel Seabury, became prominent American leaders. 62,000 Loyalists (of the total estimated number of 450-500,000) relocated to Canada (42,000 according to the Canadian book on Loyalists, True Blue), Britain (7,000) or to Florida ([number missing]) or the West Indies (13,000), making it one of the largest mass migrations in history. This made up approximately 2% of the total population of the colonies. When the Loyalists left the South in 1783, they took thousands of their slaves with them to the British West Indies,[19] where their descendants would become free men 26 years earlier than their United States counterparts.
Class differences among the Patriots
Historians, such as J. Franklin Jameson in the early 20th century, examined the class composition of the Patriot cause, looking for evidence that there was a class war inside the revolution. In the last 50 years, historians have largely abandoned that interpretation, emphasizing instead the high level of ideological unity. Just as there were rich and poor Loyalists, the Patriots were a 'mixed lot', with the richer and better educated more likely to become officers in the Army. Ideological demands always came first: the Patriots viewed independence as a means of freeing themselves from British oppression and taxation and, above all, reasserting what they considered to be their rights. Most yeomen farmers, craftsmen, and small merchants joined the patriot cause as well, demanding more political equality. They were especially successful in Pennsylvania and less so in New England, where John Adams attacked Thomas Paine's Common Sense for the "absurd democratical notions" it proposed.[20]
Women
Abigail Adams.
Abigail Adams.
Main article: Women in the American Revolution
All types of women contributed to the American Revolution in multiple ways. Like men, women participated on both sides of the war. Among women, Anglo-Americans, African Americans, and Native Americans also divided between the patriot and loyalist causes.
While formal Revolutionary politics did not include women, ordinary domestic behaviors became charged with political significance as Whig women confronted a war that permeated all aspects of political, civil, and domestic life. Patriot women participated by boycotting British goods, spying on the British, following armies as they marched, washing, cooking, and tending for soldiers, delivering secret messages, and fighting disguised as men. Above all, they continued the agricultural work at home to feed the armies and their families.
The boycott of British goods involved the willing participation of American women;[citation needed] the boycotted items were largely household items such as tea and cloth. Women had to return to spinning and weaving—skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts, wove 20,522 yards (18,765 m) of cloth.[21]
A crisis of political loyalties could also disrupt the fabric of colonial America women’s social worlds: whether a man did or did not renounce his allegiance to the king could dissolve ties of class, family, and friendship, isolating women from former connections. A woman’s loyalty to her husband, once a private commitment, could become a political act, especially for women in America committed to men who remained loyal to Great Britain.
African Americans, both men and women, understood Revolutionary rhetoric as promising freedom and equality. These hopes were not realized. Although both British and American governments made promises of freedom for service throughout the war and many slaves attempted to better their lives by fighting in or assisting the armies, the war ultimately brought few changes for African American women both slave and free. After the Revolution, gradual abolition occurred in the North, but slavery expanded in the South and racial prejudice was near universal in the new nation.
For Native Americans, the American Revolution was not a war of patriotism or independence. Many Native Americans wished to remain neutral, seeing little value in participating yet again in a European conflict, but most were forced to take sides. During the war, Native American towns were often among the first to be attacked by patriot militias, sometimes without regard to which side the inhabitants espoused. One of the most fundamental effects of the war on Native American women was the disruption of home, family, and agricultural life.
Creating new state constitutions
Following the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1776, the Patriots had control of all the territory and population; the Loyalists were powerless. All thirteen states had overthrown their existing governments, closing courts and driving British agents and governors from their homes. They had elected conventions and "legislatures" that existed outside of any legal framework; new constitutions were needed in each state to replace the superseded royal charters. They were states now, not colonies.[22]
On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified the first state constitution, six months before the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Then, in May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. Virginia, South Carolina, and New Jersey created their constitutions before July 4. Rhode Island and Connecticut simply took their existing royal charters and deleted all references to the crown.[23]
The new states had to decide not only what form of government to create, they first had to decide how to select those who would craft the constitutions and how the resulting document would be ratified. In states where the wealthy exerted firm control over the process, such as Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, New York and Massachusetts, the results were constitutions that featured:
* Substantial property qualifications for voting and even more substantial requirements for elected positions (though New York and Maryland lowered property qualifications);[22]
* Bicameral legislatures, with the upper house as a check on the lower;
* Strong governors, with veto power over the legislature and substantial appointment authority;
* Few or no restraints on individuals holding multiple positions in government;
* The continuation of state-established religion.
In states where the less affluent had organized sufficiently to have significant power—especially Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New Hampshire—the resulting constitutions embodied
* universal white manhood suffrage, or minimal property requirements for voting or holding office (New Jersey enfranchised some property owning widows, a step that it retracted 25 years later);
Dr. Benjamin Rush, 1783
Dr. Benjamin Rush, 1783
* strong, unicameral legislatures;
* relatively weak governors, without veto powers, and little appointing authority;
* prohibition against individuals holding multiple government posts;
Whether conservatives or radicals held sway in a state did not mean that the side with less power accepted the result quietly. The radical provisions of Pennsylvania's constitution lasted only fourteen years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduced universal white-male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America.[24]
Military history: expulsion of the British 1776
The military history of the war in 1775 focused on Boston, held by the British but surrounded by militia from nearby colonies. The Congress selected George Washington as commander in chief, and he forced the British to evacuate the city in March 1776. At that point the Patriots controlled virtually all of the 13 colonies and were ready to consider independence.[25]
Independence, 1776
Common Sense by Thomas Paine
Common Sense by Thomas Paine
Main article: American Revolutionary War
On January 10, 1776, Thomas Paine published a political pamphlet entitled Common Sense arguing that the only solution to the problems with Britain was republicanism and independence from Great Britain.[26] In the ensuing months, before the United States as a political unit declared its independence, several states individually declared their independence. Virginia, for instance, declared its independence from Great Britain on May 15.
On July 2, 1776, Congress declared the independence of the United States; two days later, on July 4, it adopted the Declaration of Independence, which date is now celebrated as the US independence day. Although the bulk of delegates signed the Declaration on that date, signing continued over the next several months because many members weren't immediately available. The war began in April 1775, while the declaration was issued in July 1776. Until this point, the colonies had sought favorable peace terms; now all the states called for independence.[27]
The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, commonly known as the Articles of Confederation, formed the first governing document of the United States of America, combining the colonies into a loose confederation of sovereign states. The Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles in November 1777, though they were not formally ratified until March 1, 1781. On that date the Continental Congress was dissolved and the new government of the United States in Congress Assembled was formed.[28][29]
War
Main article: American Revolutionary War
British return: 1776-1777
The British returned in force in August 1776, engaging the fledgling Continental Army for the first time in the largest action of the Revolution in the Battle of Long Island. They eventually seized New York City and nearly captured General Washington. They made the city their main political and military base, holding it until 1783. They also held New Jersey, but in a surprise attack, Washington crossed the Delaware into New Jersey and defeated British armies at Trenton and Princeton, thereby reviving the Patriot cause and regaining New Jersey. In 1777, the British launched two uncoordinated attacks. The army based in New York City defeated Washington and captured the national capital at Philadelphia. Simultaneously a second army invaded from Canada with the goal of cutting off New England. It was trapped and captured at the Battle of Saratoga, New York, in October 1777. The victory encouraged the French to officially enter the war, as Benjamin Franklin negotiated a permanent military alliance in early 1778. Later Spain (in 1779) and the Dutch became allies of the French, leaving Britain to fight a major war alone without major allies and trying to slip through a combined blockade of the Atlantic. The American theatre thus became only one front in Britain's war.[30]
Because of the alliance and the deteriorating military situation, Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander, evacuated Philadelphia to reinforce New York City. General Washington attempted to intercept the retreating column, resulting in the Battle of Monmouth Court House, the last major battle fought in the northern states. After an inconclusive engagement, the British successfully retreated to New York City. The northern war subsequently became a stalemate, as the focus of attention shifted to the southern theatre.[30]
British attack on the South, 1778-1783
The siege of Yorktown ended with the surrender of a British army, paving the way for the end of the American Revolutionary War.
The siege of Yorktown ended with the surrender of a British army, paving the way for the end of the American Revolutionary War.
In late December 1778, the British captured Savannah and started moving north into South Carolina. Northern Georgia was spared occupation during this time period, due to the Patriots victory at the Battle of Kettle Creek in Wilkes County, Georgia. The British moved on to capture Charleston and set up a network of forts inland, believing the Loyalists would rally to the flag. Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to fight their way north into North Carolina and Virginia, where they expected to be rescued by the British fleet. That fleet was defeated by a French fleet, however. Trapped at Yorktown, Virginia, and under a combined US and French assault, the British army, under the command of General Cornwallis, surrendered their main combat army to Washington in October 1781. Although King George III wanted to fight on, his supporters lost control of Parliament, and the war effectively ended for America.[30] A final naval battle was fought by Captain John Barry and his crew of the Alliance as three British warships led by the HMS Sybil tried to take the payroll of the Continental Army on March 10, 1783 off the coast of Cape Canaveral.
Treason issue
In August 1775, the King declared Americans in arms to be traitors to the Crown. The British government at first started treating American prisoners as common criminals. They were thrown into jail and preparations were made to bring them to trial for treason. Lord Germain and Lord Sandwich were especially eager to do so. Many of the prisoners taken by the British at Bunker Hill apparently expected to be hanged. But the government declined to take the next step: treason trials and executions. There were tens of thousands of Loyalists under American control who would have been at risk for treason trials of their own (by the Americans), and the British built much of their strategy around using these Loyalists. After the surrender at Saratoga in 1777, there were thousands of British prisoners in American hands who were effectively hostages. Therefore no American prisoners were put on trial for treason, and although most were badly treated and many died nonetheless,[31][32] eventually they were technically accorded the rights of belligerents. In 1782, by act of Parliament, they were officially recognized as prisoners of war rather than traitors. At the end of the war, both sides released their surviving prisoners.[33]
Peace treaty
Main article: Treaty of Paris (1783)
The peace treaty with Britain, known as the Treaty of Paris, gave the U.S. all land east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, though not including Florida (On September 3, 1783, Britain entered into a separate agreement with Spain under which Britain ceded Florida back to Spain.). The Native American nations actually living in this region were not a party to this treaty and did not recognize it until they were defeated militarily by the United States. Issues regarding boundaries and debts were not resolved until the Jay Treaty of 1795.[34]
Aftermath of war
For roughly five percent of the inhabitants of the United States, defeat was followed by exile. Approximately 100,000 United Empire Loyalists left the newly founded republic, most settling in the remaining British colonies in North America, such as the Province of Quebec (concentrating in the Eastern Townships), Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. The new colonies of Upper Canada (now Ontario) and New Brunswick were created by Britain for their benefit.[35]
Worldwide influence
The Revolution began in states without inherited rank or position, despite the unsuccessful efforts of the Society of the Cincinnati to create such a division. After the Revolution, genuinely democratic politics, such as those of Matthew Lyon, became possible, despite the opposition and dismay of the Federalist Party.[36] The rights of the people were incorporated into state constitutions. Thus came the widespread assertion of liberty, individual rights, equality and hostility toward corruption which would prove core values of republicanism to Americans. The greatest challenge to the old order in Europe was the challenge to inherited political power and the democratic idea that government rests on the consent of the governed. The example of the first successful revolution against a European empire provided a model for many other colonial peoples who realized that they too could break away and become self-governing nations.[37]
Morocco was the first country to recognize the independence of the United States of America from the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1777. The two countries signed the Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship ten years later. Friesland, one of the seven United Provinces of the Dutch Republic, was the next to recognize American independence (on February 26, 1782, followed by the Staten-Generaal of the Dutch Republic on April 19, 1782). John Adams became the first US Ambassador in The Hague.[38] The American Revolution was the first wave of the Atlantic Revolutions that took hold in the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American wars of liberation. Aftershocks reached Ireland in the 1798 rising, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in the Netherlands.[39]
The Revolution had a strong, immediate impact in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. Many British and Irish Whigs spoke in favor of the American cause. The Revolution, along with the Dutch Revolt (end of the 16th century) and the English Civil War (in the 17th century), was one of the first lessons in overthrowing an old regime for many Europeans who later were active during the era of the French Revolution, such as Marquis de Lafayette. The American Declaration of Independence had some impact on the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789.[40][41]
The North American states' new-found independence from the British Empire allowed slavery to continue in the United States until 1865, 32 years after it was banned in all British colonies. It also cost the Native Americans dearly; they had been protected under British rule, but in the newly formed United States, their treaties were torn up, their rights were withdrawn and finally, their lands were taken.
Interpretations
Interpretations about the effect of the Revolution vary. At one end of the spectrum is the older view that the American Revolution was not "revolutionary" at all, that it did not radically transform colonial society but simply replaced a distant government with a local one.[42] A more recent view pioneered by historians such as Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood, and Edmund Morgan is that the American Revolution was a unique and radical event that produced deep changes and had a profound impact on world affairs, based on an increasing belief in the principles of republicanism, such as peoples' natural rights, and a system of laws chosen by the people.[43]
National debt
See also: United States public debt
The national debt after the American Revolution fell into three categories. The first was the $11 million owed to foreigners—mostly debts to France during the American Revolution. The second and third—roughly $24 million each—were debts owed by the national and state governments to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the revolutionary forces. Congress agreed that the power and the authority of the new government would pay for the foreign debts. There were also other debts that consisted of promissory notes issued during the Revolutionary War to soldiers, merchants, and farmers who accepted these payments on the premise that the new Constitution would create a government that would pay these debts eventually. The war expenses of the individual states added up to $114,000,000, compared to $37 million by the central government.[44] In 1790, Congress combined the state debts with the foreign and domestic debts into one national debt totaling $80 million. Everyone received face value for wartime certificates, so that the national honor would be sustained and the national credit established.
Taken in 2011.
These two grumpy busts (the further one is Ben Franklin), who adorn Bates Hall, the Boston Public Library's main reading room, look like proctors overseeing an exam.
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"A slip of the foot you may soon recover, but a slip of the tongue you may never get over."
-- Benjamin Franklin
Today's the first day of 2010! Let's start life anew shall we?
May life be more pleasant & fulfilling than yesterday. HAPPY NEW YEAR MY FRIENDS! :D
Hidden Treasures
A very rare 1933 $20 Double Eagle gold coin sold in July 2002 for a record of $7,590,020.00!
In History, the first gold coins were coined by Egyptian Pharaohs around 2,700 BC.
These gold egyptian coins of the time had a variable purity and were used primarily as gifts and not for public circulation or commerce.
In Lydia, some centuries later, King Croesus that ruled between 560-546 BC, started issuing gold coins with a standardised purity for general circulation and this is how larger units of money like the modern 400 troy ounce gold bullion bar came to be.. but gold coins had a very long period as a primary form of money, falling out of use in the early 20th century.
Most of the world stopped making gold coins as currency by 1933, as countries switched from the Gold Standard due to hoarding during the worldwide economic crisis of the Great Depression.
flickr today
Located outside of the Smithfield Times at no. 228 Main Street.
"Smithfield is a town in Isle of Wight County, in the South Hampton Roads subregion of the Hampton Roads region of Virginia in the United States. The population was 8,089 at the 2010 census.
The town is most famous for the curing and production of the Smithfield ham. The Virginia General Assembly passed a statute defining "Smithfield ham" by law in 1926, with one of the requirements that it be processed within the town limits. Smithfield Foods, a Chinese Fortune 500 company that owns Smithfield Packing Company and others, is the world's largest pork processor and hog producer. The company, based in Smithfield, raises 12 million hogs and processes 20 million pounds of them annually." - info from Wikipedia.
The fall of 2022 I did my 3rd major cycling tour. I began my adventure in Montreal, Canada and finished in Savannah, GA. This tour took me through the oldest parts of Quebec and the 13 original US states. During this adventure I cycled 7,126 km over the course of 2.5 months and took more than 68,000 photos. As with my previous tours, a major focus was to photograph historic architecture.
Now on Instagram.
Next time you are in Edinburgh give yourself a treat and visit the Cafe Royale, just off its main street, Princes Street. It is one of the classiest but friendliest public bars in the world, with great food and atmosphere and lots of antique mirrors and dark polished wood similar to that of Restaurante Julienne in Paris. But it also has these wonderful giant, tile mosaics, featuring geniuses such as William Caxton, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Peel and Michael Faraday amongst others. The bar has nice memories for me, because way back in the Palaeolithic era, after we had discovered our university degree grades, our geology lecturers traditionally took the newly qualified graduates to the Cafe Royale to buy them a pint or two of beer, before we made our way out into the world of employment.
The Cafe Royale was established in 1863. The building was originally commissioned by John Ambrose in 1817 as a showroom for the new-fangled gas and sanitary fittings. The unique current design was done by a local architect Robert Paterson, way back in 1862.
Jean-Antoine Houdon, French (active Paris), 1741 - 1828
Houdon was the leading portrait sculptor of the eighteenth century. It is the most powerful and fully realized version of the best-known portrait of Franklin. Houdon's accomplishment is the more remarkable in that Franklin did not sit for the sculptor--the men did not meet formally until 1783. Presumably Houdon drew upon his experience of seeing Franklin at events such as meetings of the Masonic lodge to which they both belonged.
The works include Nam June Paik's "Megatron Matrix" (1995), which is roughly the size of a billboard and holds 215 monitors, and his "Electronic Superhighway" (1995-96), which is the artist's tribute to the United States, his adopted homeland. Also included are David Hockney's "Snails Space with Vari-Lites: Painting as Performance" (1995 -96), Kota Ezawa's "Lyam 3D" (2008), and Marina Zurkow's "Elixir II" (2009). The latter is a digital animation showing a figure inside a crystal bottle floating on storm-tossed ocean waves.
Terracotta bust of American diplomat and scientist Benjamin Franklin, sculpted by by Jean-Antoine Houdon in 1778. Franklin became a celebrity in France when he traveled there to seek support for the American war for independence from Great Britain.
On loan to the Detroit Institute of Arts from the Museé du Louvre.
Independence Day Celebration and Festival on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
My wife was spending the day at UPenn Medical so I took SEPTA into Philadelphia to play tourist for the day.
My primary objective was to tour Independence Hall since it had been a bunch of years since visiting. A timed ticket is required for the tour which I booked online several days before. I picked up my ticket at the visitor center and headed over to the muster point for entering. I was genuinely surprised at the security process which involved having every pocket in my jacket searched and having everything removed in my backpack. Electronics had to be turned on. Once inside, the guided tour was very informative but only lasted about 1/2 hour.
Lunch was a Starbucks “Cafe Mocha”, a favorite of mine, and a slice of banana nut bread.
I finished off my day with a stroll through Christ Church Burial Ground where I did my Casey Neistat routine…. getting myself in a video by placing it on a tripod and walking by. Anyway, the burial ground was founded in 1695. Five of the original signers of the declaration are buried there with Benjamin Franklin being the most notable of them.
My wife sent a text telling me she was going to be done early so I headed back to UPenn Medical following my stroll through the burial ground.
Das Buch der Welt,
ein Inbegriff des Wissenwürdigsten und Unterhaltendsten aus den Gebieten der Naturgeschichte, Naturlehre, Länder- und Völkerkunde, Weltgeschichte, Götterlehre, etc.
> Benjamin Franklin
Hoffmann'sche Verlags-Buchhandlung
(Stuttgart / Deutschland; 1845)
ex libris MTP
John's school does a project every spring called "Wax Museum." The kids each pick a famous person and prepare a little report in the form of a speech. On the appointed day, they dress up as their chosen personages and are arranged in the parish center as if they were wax statues. Visitors may "press" a "button" to make the statue "come to life" and hear its speech. John chose Benjamin Franklin. The costume was assembled from random crap lying around our house, except for the wig and glasses, which came from a local costume shop.
Light: SB-800 + 60" Photek Softlighter frame left; SB-600 + Rosco #375 Cerulean Blue behind and below, illuminating a white bed sheet. Triggered with PocketWizards.
This quote is either by Aldo Gucci or Benjamin Franklin, according to the internet.
“The bitterness of poor quality remains long after the sweetness of low price is forgotten” – Benjamin Franklin
“The bitterness of poor quality is remembered long after the sweetness of low price has faded from memory.” – Aldo Gucci
Never trust this sign! I took this photo years ago at our first pillow insert manufacturer's warehouse. The best part is that we had to fire that supplier for - you guessed it- substandard quality (and, well, drunkenness). Our new pillow insert supplier, who makes great products, has photos of his fishing trips on the wall. As for Aldo Gucci:
-------------------------------------------You have to focusONsomething right?---------------------------------------------
He really is the most photogenic and lovable little kitten. Thanking the heavens daily for allowing me to find & save him that day.
UPDATE: On June 20th, 2010 my precious Ben lost his battle. He had kidney problems that weren't noticeable until it was too late. He passed peacefully in my arms, I felt his last breath and heartbeat... and it crushed me.
He will be so, so, greatly missed. he was just 7 months old.
Benjamin Franklin statue inside the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, PA
20-foot (6.1 m) high marble statue, sculpted by James Earle Fraser
This may not look like much, but twice now I have stood at Benjamin Franklin’s grave side. If you have been to Philly you will know this means looking through a fence with other people standing or kneeling beside you. Not much to see, but Ben Franklin was one heck of a guy.
Many, many years ago I started to read The Autobiography of Ben Franklin. I though it was good but never finished it. Years later I decided I really wanted to read and finish the book. I have enjoyed looking for the book ever since, something to look for at any garage sale or Goodwill store.
Well, in Philly this past month I found, Ben Franklin; America’s original entrepreneur; Franklin’s autobiography adapted for modern times. How could I go wrong? I bought it. For the record, two of Ben’s saying are “snug as a bug in a rug” (one of my favorite sayings) and “A penny saved is a penny earned.”
A second upload of the statue of Benjamin Franklin of 1889, by Jacques Jouvenal. When unveiled, it stood two blocks away from its present Pennsylvania Avenue site, but was moved to the corner of 12th Street NW to stand outside the Old Post Office Building in 1980.
Week 6: Going Green
For me, green means money. Houston is a very oil rich city, it's also the 4th most polluted city in the US (by ozone). If it weren't for the oil industry, I wouldn't have a job. It's harder for us to think green. We don't have a whole lot of mountains, trees and rivers to protect unlike the northwest. We don't have nice public transportation systems and we all drive huge trucks and suvs. Instead, we are surrounded by the major oil companies like Texaco, BP and Shell that fuel (pun intended) Houston's economy. For many, going green means looking out for the future. Pictured above represents my future in a different way, my "Nest Egg". For me, going green means saving up enough green-backs for the future even if that means the environment has to take a backseat.
This photo was rather difficult to pull off and was inspired by another fellow strobist by the name of "the light wisperer." Strobe #1 was used to project an image of ben franklin onto the egg by lighting up a 100 dollar bill and bouncing the light through a 50mm 1.4 lens. This strobe was also green gelled and snooted. Strobe #2 was fired through an umbrella for fill.