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NWA 7325
Mercury (believed)
(Achondrite-ung)
Northwest Africa 2012
Slice 17mg
TKW 345g
In early 2012, a nomad in the western Sahara spotted some green stones scattered on the sand. Knowing that the empty desert was a good place to find rocks from space, and that meteorite dealers would pay good money for them, he picked up about three dozen that looked related.
By spring all 345 grams of them were for sale in Erfoud, Morocco. A known meteorite dealer from Germany was cruising the markets, spotted the stones and asked about them. The seller said he thought they were from a Martian meteorite. But the dealer argued that they couldn’t be from a meteorite of any type because of their bizarre, lustrous, emerald colour.
Thus began a scientific detective story to unravel the mystery of NWA (for North West Africa) 7325. And while the story isn’t finished yet, one thing is clear: The main character is a very interesting something. It may be the first meteorite ever to hail from the planet closest to the sun.
To have any meteorite formally classified, a dealer must donate 20 grams or 20 percent of the sample to a scientific institution. The meteorite dealer had worked before with Anthony Irving, a meteorite expert at the University of Washington in Seattle. So he shipped some stones to Irving, who got to work studying their mineralogy and sharing samples with scientists for other tests.
For his part, Irving doesn’t care exactly what NWA 7325 ends up being. “It’s an unsolved mystery,” he says. “That’s the fascination with meteorites, which is why I like doing this.”
NWA 7325 has several curious characteristics. It contains lots of magnesium, which most meteorites don’t have, and almost no iron, which most meteorites do. Its pale hue — different from the dark gray or black of many meteorites — suggests it came from the outer portion of a celestial body that separated into layers the way planets do, with a dense, hot core surrounded by a much lighter crust.
Likely candidates would be rocky planets Mercury, Venus or Mars. Scientists rule Venus out because its thick atmosphere burns up any incoming (or outgoing) rocks. Mars is also out of the running. Researchers know of 67 meteorites from Mars, but NWA 7325’s ratio of oxygen isotopes, each with varying numbers of neutrons in its atomic nucleus, is nothing like the oxygen ratios from known Martian meteorites.
“We’re dealing with a place that we didn’t know about before,” says Irving. “It’s not any of the usual suspects.”
Suspect Mercury
In theory, it would be tough to get a rock from Mercury to Earth because the rock would have to spiral outward in the solar system, away from the sun’s immense gravitational pull. (Mercury is 58 million kilometers from the sun; Earth is 150 million kilometers from the sun.) But in 2009, a pair of Canadian researchers did some recalculating. They found that because of the sun’s strong pull, rocks smashing into Mercury would be moving very fast. So fast, in fact, that debris kicked up from their impact might also be moving fast enough to sail all the way to Earth. The scientists say that roughly 2 to 5 percent of rocks leaving Mercury at high speeds (faster than 9 kilometers per second) might reach Earth within 30 million years, an estimate about 10 to 100 times higher than previously thought.
Tests on the weird green rock also support the idea that it may have made the trip from Mercury, says Irving, who presented his theory in March at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference in The Woodlands, Texas. Irving lent his samples to Benjamin Weiss, a magnetics expert at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. In a stroke of bad luck, the intrinsic magnetic fields of all of the rocks except one had been erased by the common kitchen magnets that Moroccan meteorite hunters carry around. But Weiss was able to test the one unaltered rock, and it turned out to have the lowest magnetic intensity ever measured in any meteorite—a magnetism that matches Mercury’s modern field almost exactly, Irving says.
The magnetism, the low iron content and the high magnesium content all suggest that Mercury is the meteorite’s original home. But other scientists aren’t nearly as confident as Irving. They point to other problems with NWA 7325’s chemistry. First, NASA’s MESSENGER spacecraft recently discovered that Mercury has quite a bit of sulfur on its surface, but NWA 7325 doesn’t contain sulfur-rich minerals to the degree that would be expected were it from Mercury, says Shoshana Weider, a geochemist at the Carnegie Institution for Science in Washington, D.C. The rock also has different levels of titanium and calcium than Mercury has, plus large amounts of a chromium-rich version of the mineral pyroxene.
The chemical evidence doesn’t quite add up, says Timothy McCoy, a meteorite expert at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. He thinks NWA 7325 could belong to a class of meteorites known as primitive achondrites, which contain chromium-rich pyroxene and are low in iron. These meteorites are thought to be the remains of protoplanets that formed in the early solar system, separated out a crust and core, and then were shattered into oblivion by some impact.
Another potential problem: NWA 7325 is ancient. Geochemists at Australian National University in Canberra, working with Irving, tested lead isotopes left behind in the rock by the radioactive decay of uranium. From that they could back-calculate how long it had been since the meteorite formed, and they came up with an age of 4.56 billion years. That would have been almost immediately after the solar system sprang from the swirling disk of gas and dust around the newborn sun. The tight time frame means that the proto-Mercury would have had only 8 million years to form, melt inside and separate into core and crust before another impact knocked off a chunk of its outer layer. That’s not an impossible scenario, says Yuri Amelin of ANU, who will report on the dating work in July at the Meteoritical Society meeting in Edmonton, Canada.
But the timing also opens the possibility that NWA 7325 could have come from a small asteroid that cooled off quickly in the early solar system, says Richard Carlson, a meteorite expert at Carnegie. It would not necessarily have had to come from something quite as large as Mercury, he says.
Irving has a comeback for arguments about the rock’s age; he points out that the famous Martian meteorite ALH84001 may be as old or even older. “If you can do it on Mars, you can do it on Mercury,” he says.
Further studies might help scientists choose among the possibilities. Thomas Sharp, a geochemist at Arizona State University in Tempe, is looking for physical evidence that NWA 7325 was shocked by an impact at some point in its past. Research has not yet turned up a mineral called maskelynite, a glassy substance that forms in rocks that have been shocked by high pressures and high temperatures, Sharp says. But the meteorite does show hints in some places of having melted and recrystallized, which could indicate more about the conditions under which it was knocked off from its parent body.
In the end, there may be no way to tell definitively whether or not NWA 7325 is from Mercury. At least not yet. When scientists find a rock that they think is from the moon, they can test it against the lunar rocks brought back by Apollo astronauts. Possible Martian meteorites can be tested against ones known to be from Mars because of the air trapped within them. But an equivalent test for Mercury could only be done if a spacecraft were to bring back a sample from the planet’s surface.
Hallelujah Mountains
•Location Information
oLocation: Pandora
oResidents: Mountain Banshee; Na’vi; Great Leonopteryx (possibly)
•Behind the Scenes:
oFirst Appearance: Avatar
The Hallelujah Mountains (Na’vi name: Ayram alusìng meaning “Floating Mountains”) are floating islands that circulate slowly in the magnetic currents like icebergs at sea, scraping against each other and the towering mesa-like mountains of the region. On Pandora, huge outcroppings of unobtanium rip loose from the surface and float in the magnetic vortices due to the Meissner Effect.
Physical Description
They are overgrown with foliage at the top and straggly beards of vines hang down beneath the mountains like the roots of air-ferns. Their sides are sheer cliffs. Waterfalls, originating on the mesa-like tops, stream down the sides and disperse into spray at the bottoms, like upside-down geysers. The mist then condenses on other floating mountains and flows over the side and disperses, renewing the process. The local peaks and mesas actually project above the level of the craggy undersides of the few floating mountains Jake Sully can see, so it seems obvious that collisions are inevitable.
It is also the place that Norm Spellman wants to visit the most on Pandora—his wish is fulfilled when Grace Augustine decides to move her avatar program operation to the region when she realizes Jake is being manipulated by Quaritch. Most human detection instruments are useless amidst the large magnetic fields. The mountains float like clouds among the fixed mountains and swirling cloud structures. When they are in clear sunlight they cast distinct shadows on the land below.
In Na’vi Culture
The mountains are home to several clans, including Ni’awve and the Tipani. The latter reside in the settlement of Vayaha Village. In 2154 the Omaticaya fled to the mountains, seeking sanctuary at the Tree of Souls. The tree is one of the most sacred sites on Pandora.
The Hallelujah Mountains are also where mountain banshees choose to roost. This location atop the 2,600m high Mons Veritatis makes the final challenge on the path to becoming a Na’vi hunter (known as Iknimaya) even more difficult and dangerous, as the route taken to the top of the mountains is treacherous. One wrong move will send a candidate plummeting to his or her death. The danger of wild mountain banshees is also present. The local Tipani also refer to the entire region around their village as Iknimaya.
Behind the Scenes
The mountains also bear a similar appearance to the Chinese Huang Shan Mountains. James Cameron said that it was the Huang Shan mountains that inspired him to create the Hallelujah Mountains, which would explain the similar appearance. On January 25, 2010 in China, hundreds of locals in ethnic Tujia costumes “officially” renamed the Qiankunzhu mountains after the Hallelujah Mountains as a tribute to Avatar.
Sacred Sites
The Hallelujah Mountains: Fragile Giants
For humans, the Hallelujah Mountains are a stunning vista, a true wonder of the natural world. For the Na’vi, they are so much more.
It’s hard to imagine. And trust us: pictures don’t do it justice.
Whole mountains lifted from the earth like children’s balloons. Billions of tons of rock floating in the air as though hung there deliberately—some the size of boulders, and some miles across. The Hallelujah Mountains are one of the definitive natural wonders of Pandora, objects of surreal delight for every human lucky enough to see them.
As enduring as they are in both fact and imagination, the truth is that the mountains perform a delicate balancing act within the region’s geology and ecology. Most significantly, they represent a cherished, essential part of Na’vi spiritual life. From their role in the iknimaya to the mysteries of Eywa herself, the mountains are a prime sacred site, offering a fascinating glimpse into indigenous belief.
But first, an answer to the question you’re all thinking.
Yes, They Really Float. But How?
Admittedly, it took some digging for RDA geologists to figure it out—literally. The intense magnetic fields covering Pandora—and clustering in this region in particular—were common knowledge during early exploration of the moon, and it was assumed they had something to do with how the mountains stayed in place. But it wasn’t until unobtanium was excavated that a full picture started to come together.
What we know is that, thanks to the superconductive properties of the unobtanium deposits within, each mountain is surrounded by its own magnetic field that effectively keeps the mass in place, as though fenced in. And conforming to the rules of a fence, the mountains can actually shift position within their boundaries—their occasional collisions inspired the Na’vi to nickname them “Thundering Mountains.”
The Eywa Theory
The alternate point of view belongs to the Na’vi. There is nothing unsolved in the Na’vi ontology: everything that exists does so within the system of interconnectedness controlled by Eywa. And by Na’vi accounts, the mountains were lifted as a part of Eywa’s plan. This puts things lightly; really, the Na’vi regard the mountains as one of the greatest symbols of Eywa’s organizing abilities. As we know, it’s extremely unlikely for a mountain to float. Isn’t the fact that these do prove that a higher power made it so?
One natural condition that gives the “sacred plan” idea credence is the interplay between life on the ground and life on the mountains, and how, depending how you look at it, the mountains almost need to be floating in order to sustain this interplay. Which brings us to one interplay in particular, which has risen to mythic levels on Pandora: that of the mainland Na’vi with the mountain banshee.
A Deadly Rite of Passage
A defining characteristic of the Na’vi is the ability to form neural links with some of the animal life of Pandora. And there is no bond more central to clan life—or that more captures the Na’vi imagination—than the one forged with the mountain banshee.
But this bond has to be earned. And that means a dangerous rite of passage called the iknimaya. When a young Omatikaya Na’vi comes of age, he or she may choose to make a long and treacherous solo climb up the vines connecting the floating mountains to the banshee rookeries found in the high peaks. There, the heart of the challenge begins. A banshee never relents to Na’vi bonding advances without resistance, and so the Na’vi only gets one chance; it will end either in free-fall or the banshee leaving its mountain habitat to nest near its rider, who now wears the title Ikran Makto—“Banshee Rider.”
Seeing the Mountains All Over Again
Obviously, the best way to feel the monumental power of the Hallelujah Mountains (and the other ranges of floating mountains on Pandora, such as the one hovering over the Mo’ara Valley) is to see them in person, in the way that the power of the Grand Canyon or the gorges of the Yangtze River can only be experienced when you’re really there. Like the Grand Canyon, the mountains are picturesque, often the first thing people think of when they think of Pandoran landscape. We love to look at the mountains—but to really see them, and all that they signify, you have to put them in perspective. Imagine if the Grand Canyon, in addition to being beautiful, defined how you entered into adulthood, in effect giving you your identity among friends and family. Imagine if the Grand Canyon represented an emblem of a spiritual force guiding every gesture of every day of your life—that its very existence was a spectacular visual proof of that force and its will. Do this, and you will have the briefest glimpse of what the mountains mean to the Na’vi, deeply and personally, and why we must do what we can to understand, respect, and celebrate them. When you consider the wonders of our two explored galaxies, they are literally irreplaceable.
#Hypnosis makes the #memory more dynamic and allows witnesses to remember the incidents easily while giving their testimonies. This practice helps witnesses focus on details, hypnosis should be used in investigations. It will give more different and useful results.
The use of forensic hypnosis is to reveal unsolved murders, rapes and robberies in many places.
Hypnosis is sometimes practiced by #police officers while taking witness testimonies in developed countries. Hypnosis is useful in revealing unsolved incidents that happened a long time ago. If available procedures are not sufficient to uncover the #incidents, police forces should try hypnosis.
"Be patient toward all that is unsolved in your heart and try to love the questions themselves. Do not now seek the answers, which cannot be given you because you would not be able to live them. And the point is to live everything."
-Rainer Maria Rilke
30/52
Leica IIIC, Summitar 2/5cm, Efke KB100, souped in ID-11
Swanbourne Lake lies in the lower part of a deep steep-sided valley or coombe that has been eroded into the chalk bedrock. The valley starts at the crest of the Downs and ends in the flood plain of the River Arun, which is underlain by soft alluvial clay and peat. In its natural state, the lower part of the valley would also have had alluvium and probably a stream fed from springs that emerged from the chalk.
Damming of a stream in the valley, marked on maps as Pugh Dean Bottom, eventually created the lake that we see today with its overflow of a sparkling chalk stream we know as the Mill Stream. The whole area is rich with plants and wildlife such as local and exotic water birds, water rats, voles, bats and dragonflies. (With grateful thanks to David Shilston for this information.)
A mill pond is known to have existed on the site in the c11th prior to the Norman Conquest. Records tell us that in 1066 the mill pond powered a water mill which was valued at 40/- per annum. In 1340 the mill tithes bought in £3 and income from the mill supported the Priory (Next to St Nicholas Church), the castle Chaplain (In 1301) and the leper hospital of St. James which was located in the area now know as Park Bottom (In 1272).
It was recorded in 1595 that the pond was, "Too cold for fish in the summer but never too cold to freeze in winter".
During the Civil War William Wallers Parliamentarian troops entered Arundel from South Stoke along Mill lane and beat down the two earth works erected by the castle defenders. There is a very brief reference to the pond as a water source in 1644 during the Civil War noting that the pipes supplying water were cut by the Parliamentarians.
The reference infers that there was a pumped supply from outside the castle to the besieged Royalist troops inside but no indication to the type of pump or how it was powered although it is likely that water would have been pumped to a cistern in the castle grounds from one of the springs at the south end of the pond.
In 1768/9 the mill is recorded as grinding corn for Sir John Shelley of Michelgrove a great political opponent to the Duke of Norfolk of the day, Duke Edward. The mill pond which was located near to the current road was enlarged in the late 1700s covering about 17 acres to become the lake we see today.
The Miller Robert Horne (Born 1769) is recorded as being killed on 1 January 1813 believed to be by the accidental starting of the water wheel at the mill. He was a Quaker and was buried in their burial ground in Tarrant Street behind the wall directly opposite Sparks Yard. Arundel museum has a gravestone that was always believed to have been this Robert Horne, however, upon closer inspection for this article, it was noted that the year and the name was correct but the age at death was stated as thirteen. Clearly a mystery for another day.
In 1834, Mark Aloysius Tierney wrote of Swanbourne Lake, "...in whose presence the lapse of centuries will easily be forgotten, and the mind, hastening back to the age of the Confessor, will muse on the lake and the stream as they existed then, and fancy itself beside the mill which was at work nearly eight hundred years ago".
Arundel Mill and Castle, the subject of John Constable's last great oil painting was not exhibited at the royal Academy until after his death in 1837. Constable adored Arundel and wrote, "I never saw such beauty on natural landscapes before.....The meadows are lovely, so is the delightful river, but the trees are above all".
The old water mill was demolished c1844 to make way for the castle Dairy, new pump house, a cow shed and dairyman's residence.
In 1846 Queen Victoria was given a tour of the new dairy and wrote in her diary: "We lunched with all the company, and afterwards took a nice, long walk with them all down the Slopes Walk to a charming Dairy, with gardens and a pretty little cottage, for the Duchess's use, all so nicely kept" The dairy still supplied the castle with butter, cream and milk in 1893 even when the Duke and his family were in London. Any surplus was given to the poor of the parish.
In the early 1900's there was a Commemorative firework display at Swanbourne Lodge. An article from the time notes, "Swanbourne Lake was transformed into a veritable fairyland. Chinese lanterns and coloured lights in every conceivable form of fanciful display". The Duke and Duchess and their party must have had a wonderful view of the proceedings from where they were located on the island in the lake. The article goes on to say, "Great was the delight of the crowds at the display of wailing fireworks, which, with ghost-like shrieks, echoed against the hillsides. There followed a great white waterfall of fire, and in conclusion, a firework portrait of the King, and the music of the National Anthem from the band in the trees."
In 1931 areas within a series of lynchets (a bank of earth that builds up on the down slope of a field ploughed over a long period of time), belonging to agricultural field systems were excavated in 1931. This area was located on high ground above the Boxcopse just past the far end of the lake. It was known as "Shepherds Garden" from a name that appeared on an early estate map. Evidence of a number of wattle and daub buildings strengthened with flint were discovered which appeared to represent Romano-British domestic occupation. Finds included pottery, tiles and coins ranging from late Iron Age to the 3rd or 4th century AD. Fragments of pottery can often be seen scattered across this area through disturbance by animals but one should not be tempted to remove pieces from this listed site.
In 1940 at 6.30am on 13th August a German WW2 Ju88A-1 aircraft belonging to Stab II/KG 54 was shot down by Tangmere based Hurricanes whilst en-route to bomb Farnborough. The plane smashed through some beech trees on the west side of the lake, ripping itself apart as it careered down the steep embankment. The engines were torn off as it hit the footpath while the remains of the airframe continued into the far end of the lake. The damaged trees could still be seen until the 1987 storm.
Of the four crew members, two baled out and became prisoners of war, the parachute of one caught on the tail dragging him to his death while the other was found mortally wounded in a tree in Worthing. Portions of the plane could be seen when the lake dried out in 1989. The 2 airmen who died are buried in St. Andrew's Churchyard at Tangmere, near Arundel. One of the defused bombs recovered from the wreckage many years later can be seen on display at Arundel castle.
In the summer 1948 the body of 27 year visitor to the town by the name of Joan Woodhouse was discovered in the Boxcopse area which is on the side of the hill just past the far end of the lake. The body was discovered ten days later by a local man and reported to the Police. The Pathologist confirmed that she had been murdered. Following a high profile investigation by Scotland Yard the Police's key suspect was the local man who reported finding the body. Although a public prosecution was attempted followed by a very rare private prosecution funded by relatives of the murdered woman, no one was ever convicted of this murder which made headlines around the world.
www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3622612/Brutal-murder-li...
The pump house, that was built in 1846, was taken out of commission in c1955 following a number of mechanical updates over the years. One of the three water cisterns in the castle grounds that this pump supplied was still in use up until the 1940's. It can still be seen as the roofless brick built structure near the N/E corner of the cricket ground.
For a number of years from the mid 1970âs onwards, the lake suffered from low water levels and in some cases, the central area all but dried up. This appears to have been resolved by the dredging that was carried out in 2001.
In c 1987 the mill pond was converted into a trout farm where one couple pay to feed the fish. This venture has been closed for a number of years now.
The castle Pump house by the dairy was restored in the 1990's by the Arundel Castle Estate and the Sussex Industrial Archaeology Society who also cleaned up the pumping machinery. It is possible to view this by appointment.
Today, Swanbourne lake is enjoyed each year by thousands of visitors and locals alike for it beauty and by taking one of the footpaths off of the main lake walk, one can enjoy absolute tranquillity immersed in nature.
A Brief History of Swanbourne Lake by Local historian Mark Phillips and Adge Roberts - Published in the June 2015 edition of the Arundel Bell magazine.
Image processed in On1 Photo 10
all copyrights reserved ©2016 Art Hutchins ~ Art's Eye photographic©
Homicide Candle Memorial for 27 year old Ernest Maddox who was shot to death while sitting in a car in front of the apartment to the right located at 51 Roehrer Avenue on May 23rd 2016. Maddox was the 15th person murdered in 2016 in Buffalo NY. His case is currently unsolved.
LINKS
www.wkbw.com/news/police-blotter/person-shot-on-roehrer-a...
#vice #viceland #fusion #netflix #sundance #worldstar #wshh #worldstarhiphop #noisey #netflixoriginal #toronto #newyork #google #compton #nyc #brooklyn #chicago #canada #newyorkcity #facebook #atlanta #houston #neworleans #miami #flint #detroit #memphis #oakland #losangeles #camden
Homicide Memorial for 24 year old Robert Green who was gunned down near this location in the 300 block of Plymouth Avenue on August 22nd 2016. This section of Plymouth is between Rhode Island and Connecticut streets. Robert Green was the 31st homicide victim of 2016 in Buffalo New York and his murder case is currently unsolved. These candles were still lit and burning when I took this photo.
LINKS
www.buffalonews.com/city-region/buffalo-police-identify-v...
#vice #viceland #fusion #netflix #sundance #worldstar #wshh #worldstarhiphop #noisey #netflixoriginal #toronto #newyork #google #compton #nyc #brooklyn #chicago #canada #newyorkcity #facebook #atlanta #houston #neworleans #miami #flint #detroit #memphis #oakland #losangeles #camden
Homicide Memorial in Buffalo, New York. On March 12th, 2016, 15 year old Shaunice Gamblin was gunned down in the 600 block of Lasalle Avenue in Buffalo, New York. Police say she was an innocent victim targeted by killers in the city of Buffalo. She was also the granddaughter of a retired police detective. She was the 8th homicide victim in Buffalo in 2016. Her case is currently unsolved.
Links:
www.buffalonews.com/city-region/buffalo-police-probe-poss...
wivb.com/2016/03/14/buffalo-police-weekend-shootings-like...
#716 #niagarafalls #niagrafalls #buffalo #rochester #upstate #westernnewyork #newyork #newyorkcity #nyc #bronx #brooklyn #queens #manhattan #harlem #chicago #losangeles #compton #detroit #neworleans #miami #atlanta #cleveland #oakland #stlouis
Be patient all that is unsolved in your heart.. love the questions..like locked rooms and books that now written in a very foreign tongue. Do not seek the answers,which cannot given [to] you..because you would not be able to live them.. And the point is, to live everything. Live the question now.Perhaps you will then gradually, without noticing it, live.....into the answer. ( Rainer Maria Rike)
Davao City Mayor Rodrigo Duterte place flowers at the blast site in front old Davao International Airport terminal on Wednesday, March 04, 2009, to commemorate the 6th anniversary of the bombing incident that killed 22 persons and injured 135 others. The bombing incident, which was claimed by the Abu Sayyaf Group as their handiwork, remains unsolved. AKP Images / Keith Bacongco
"Sarah Pryor Living Memorial Sculpture
Hannah Williams Park
Sarah Elizabeth Pryor was nine years old when she disappeared during a walk in Wayland on October 9, 1985. In spite of extraordinary efforts by hundreds of people, she was never found. The renowned artist, Nancy Schön, has sculpted Sarah's sled and her dog, Katie, as a living memorial. The sculpture commemorates the tragedy, while celebrating the joy and playfulness of children.
Dedicated October 6, 1996
After 12 years Sarah's remains were found. She was laid to rest on Jan. 13, 1998, her 22nd birthday."
(Memorial inscription)
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Nancy Schön -- Empty Sled and Dog - The Sarah Pryor Memorial
Empty Sled and Dog - The Sarah Pryor Memorial
Wayland, Mass
Bronze mounted on Appian pavers - Hannah Williams Park
Height: 23"
Installed October 6, 1996
"9 year old Sarah Pryor had not been seen since she left her home in Wayland on October 8,1985. Her mother came to my studio asking me to create a memorial to her daughter, now having accepted that Sarah would never return. I asked her to tell me about Sarah. She told me how much Sarah loved to go sledding with her Border Collie Katie. However, when she would call her into the house for lunch, Sarah would say "What if the sun comes out and melts all the snow?" The sculpture is a living, interactive memorial. It captures Sarah’s spirit and celebrates the joy of children."
source: www.schon.com/public/empty-sled.php
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"It has been 26 years since the abduction and killing of 9-year-old Sarah Pryor.
Sarah vanished from her Concord Road neighborhood in 1985. The Daily News reported that she was last seen walking north along Rte. 126 in Wayland, near the Lincoln town line.
According to Daily News reports, search efforts were unsuccessful and the case went cold until 1995, when a man discovered a skull fragment while walking his dog through a wooded area in Wayland. The remains were exactly three miles from where Sarah was last seen.
Three years later, investigators announced that DNA from the fragment matched Sarah's. In January 1998, she was laid to rest on the same day she would have turned 22.
The case remains unsolved."
source: www.metrowestdailynews.com/top_stories/x1850042188/Last-W...
Empty Sled and Dog (Sarah Pryor Memorial),- Hannah Williams Park, Wayland, Massachusetts - Google Map - additional views
This is a walk made in the autumn of 2018, 32 years AFTER the murder of prime minister Olof Palme of Sweden. It follows his path that fatal evening. People in the streets have, of course, nothing to do with the case. The murder remains unsolved and has given rise to conspiracy theories.
On Friday, 28 February 1986, at 23:21 CET (22:21 UTC), Olof Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden, was fatally wounded by a single gunshot while walking home from a cinema with his wife Lisbet Palme on the central Stockholm street Sveavägen. Lisbet Palme was slightly wounded by a second shot. The couple did not have bodyguards at the time.
Christer Pettersson, who had previously been convicted of manslaughter, was convicted of the murder in 1988 after having been identified as the killer by Palme's wife. However, on appeal to Svea Court of Appeal he was acquitted. A petition for a new trial, filed by the prosecutor, was denied by the Supreme Court of Sweden. Pettersson died in late September 2004, legally declared not guilty of the Palme assassination. The case remains unsolved and has given rise to conspiracy theories.
Despite being Prime Minister, Palme sought to live as ordinary a life as possible. He would often go out without any bodyguard protection, and the night of his murder was one such occasion. Walking home from the Grand Cinema with his wife Lisbet Palme on the central Stockholm street Sveavägen, close to midnight on 28 February 1986, the couple was attacked by a lone gunman. Palme was fatally shot in the back at close range at 23:21 CET. A second shot wounded Mrs Palme.
Police said that a taxi driver used his mobile radio to raise the alarm, and two girls in a nearby car tried to assist. He was pronounced dead on arrival at the hospital at 00:06 CET on 1 March 1986. The attacker escaped eastwards on the Tunnelgatan.
Deputy Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson immediately assumed the duties of Prime Minister and as new leader of the Social Democratic Party.
Sequence of events
Cinema decision
Palme's decision to visit the Grand Cinema was made at very short notice. Lisbet Palme had discussed seeing a film when she was at work during the afternoon, and called her son, Mårten Palme, at 17:00 to talk about the film at the Grand Cinema. Olof Palme did not hear about the plans until at home, at 18:30, when he met with his wife, by which time Palme had already declined any further personal bodyguard protection from the security service. He talked to his son about the plans on the phone, and they eventually decided to join Mårten and his girlfriend, who had already purchased tickets for themselves to see the Swedish comedy Bröderna Mozart ("The Mozart Brothers") by Suzanne Osten. This decision was made about 20:00. The police later searched Palme's apartment, as well as Lisbet's and Mårten's work places, for wire-bugging devices or traces of such equipment, but did not find any.[1]
Grand Cinema
Grand cinema.
Crossing of Sveavägen–Tunnelgatan where Palme was shot.
Tunnelgatan. The assassin's immediate escape route.
At 20:30 the Palmes left their apartment, unescorted, heading for the Gamla stan metro station. Several people witnessed their short walk to the station and, according to the later police investigation, commented on the lack of bodyguards. The couple took the subway train to the Rådmansgatan station, from where they walked to the Grand Cinema. They met their son and his girlfriend just outside the cinema around 21:00. Olof Palme had not yet purchased tickets which were by then almost sold out. Recognizing the prime minister, the ticket clerk wanted him to have the best seats, and therefore sold Palme the theatre director's seats.[2]
Murder
After the screening, the two couples stayed outside the theatre for a while but separated about 23:15. Olof and Lisbet Palme headed south on the west side of Sveavägen, towards the northern entrance of the Hötorget metro station. When they reached the Adolf Fredrik Church, they crossed Sveavägen and continued on the street's east side. They stopped a moment to look at something in a shop window, then continued past the Dekorima shop which was then located on the corner of Sveavägen and Tunnelgatan.
At 23:21, a man appeared from behind, shot Mr. Palme at point-blank range and fired a second shot at Mrs. Palme. The perpetrator then jogged down Tunnelgatan street, up the steps to Malmskillnadsgatan and continued down David Bagares gata [street], where he was last seen
TED: "This wuz a nice brite pussel all abowt murders in London *shiver* but it wuz a long time ago, so no need to be scared. I lurned a lot abowt Jack the Ripper an' histry an' stuff, an' now I noes where it all 'appened, too, cuz it's on a map. All the peeces wuz there too!"
810 Linden Beverly Hills California Virginia Hill - Benjamin Siegel house
On the night of June 20, 1947, as Siegel sat in Virginia Hill's Beverly Hills home reading the Los Angeles Times, an unknown gunman entered the backyard and fired at him through the window with a .30-caliber military M1 carbine, hitting him many times including twice in the head. No one was ever charged with the murder, and the crime remains unsolved.
Book Description
Authorities estimate that there are between 35 and 50 serial killers on the loose in the United States - and new reports of suspected serial killers are constantly surfacing all over the globe. He could be your neighbour. She could be your gardener. He could be hunting prostitutes, drifters, hitchhikers, old widows, or young boys. He could strike at any time, and in any place And with horrifying regularity, he does. A serial killer living somewhere near you is looking for his next victim. According to an FBI Behavioural Unit study, seerial killing has climbed to an almost 'epidemic proportion'. This is the first look at serial killers at large, from one of the world's foremost authorities. Antonio Mendoza runs the Internet Crime Archives - his US based website recieves around 20,000 hits a day and has been featured in Newsweek, the New York Times and other high-profile newspapers and magazines. True Crime is an area that Virgin Publishing has a long and distinguished history based on critically acclaimed and highly successful titles.
www.amazon.com/Killers-Loose-Unsolved-Serial-Murder/dp/07...
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according to reports, she was murdered March 29, 1995, her lifeless body was found the morning of March 30, 1995 at 125 Jaques Street, Somerville, behind an elderly housing project there. in 2014 Deanna's mother Katherine was off a full week when talked about her birthday, in comments below. Still unsolved, I wonder why?
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This is a walk made in the autumn of 2018, 32 years AFTER the murder of prime minister Olof Palme of Sweden. It follows his path that fatal evening. People in the streets have, of course, nothing to do with the case. The murder remains unsolved and has given rise to conspiracy theories.
On Friday, 28 February 1986, at 23:21 CET (22:21 UTC), Olof Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden, was fatally wounded by a single gunshot while walking home from a cinema with his wife Lisbet Palme on the central Stockholm street Sveavägen. Lisbet Palme was slightly wounded by a second shot. The couple did not have bodyguards at the time.
Christer Pettersson, who had previously been convicted of manslaughter, was convicted of the murder in 1988 after having been identified as the killer by Palme's wife. However, on appeal to Svea Court of Appeal he was acquitted. A petition for a new trial, filed by the prosecutor, was denied by the Supreme Court of Sweden. Pettersson died in late September 2004, legally declared not guilty of the Palme assassination. The case remains unsolved and has given rise to conspiracy theories.
Despite being Prime Minister, Palme sought to live as ordinary a life as possible. He would often go out without any bodyguard protection, and the night of his murder was one such occasion. Walking home from the Grand Cinema with his wife Lisbet Palme on the central Stockholm street Sveavägen, close to midnight on 28 February 1986, the couple was attacked by a lone gunman. Palme was fatally shot in the back at close range at 23:21 CET. A second shot wounded Mrs Palme.
Police said that a taxi driver used his mobile radio to raise the alarm, and two girls in a nearby car tried to assist. He was pronounced dead on arrival at the hospital at 00:06 CET on 1 March 1986. The attacker escaped eastwards on the Tunnelgatan.
Deputy Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson immediately assumed the duties of Prime Minister and as new leader of the Social Democratic Party.
Sequence of events
Cinema decision
Palme's decision to visit the Grand Cinema was made at very short notice. Lisbet Palme had discussed seeing a film when she was at work during the afternoon, and called her son, Mårten Palme, at 17:00 to talk about the film at the Grand Cinema. Olof Palme did not hear about the plans until at home, at 18:30, when he met with his wife, by which time Palme had already declined any further personal bodyguard protection from the security service. He talked to his son about the plans on the phone, and they eventually decided to join Mårten and his girlfriend, who had already purchased tickets for themselves to see the Swedish comedy Bröderna Mozart ("The Mozart Brothers") by Suzanne Osten. This decision was made about 20:00. The police later searched Palme's apartment, as well as Lisbet's and Mårten's work places, for wire-bugging devices or traces of such equipment, but did not find any.[1]
Grand Cinema
Grand cinema.
Crossing of Sveavägen–Tunnelgatan where Palme was shot.
Tunnelgatan. The assassin's immediate escape route.
At 20:30 the Palmes left their apartment, unescorted, heading for the Gamla stan metro station. Several people witnessed their short walk to the station and, according to the later police investigation, commented on the lack of bodyguards. The couple took the subway train to the Rådmansgatan station, from where they walked to the Grand Cinema. They met their son and his girlfriend just outside the cinema around 21:00. Olof Palme had not yet purchased tickets which were by then almost sold out. Recognizing the prime minister, the ticket clerk wanted him to have the best seats, and therefore sold Palme the theatre director's seats.[2]
Murder
After the screening, the two couples stayed outside the theatre for a while but separated about 23:15. Olof and Lisbet Palme headed south on the west side of Sveavägen, towards the northern entrance of the Hötorget metro station. When they reached the Adolf Fredrik Church, they crossed Sveavägen and continued on the street's east side. They stopped a moment to look at something in a shop window, then continued past the Dekorima shop which was then located on the corner of Sveavägen and Tunnelgatan.
At 23:21, a man appeared from behind, shot Mr. Palme at point-blank range and fired a second shot at Mrs. Palme. The perpetrator then jogged down Tunnelgatan street, up the steps to Malmskillnadsgatan and continued down David Bagares gata [street], where he was last seen
In the year 1922 four members of a farmer's family and a maid had been killed at the farm of Hinterkaifeck. The youngest victim was a little boy, three years old and presumably the result of an incest crime. The murder case is unsolved to this day. The farm house had been demolished in 1923.
English:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinterkaifeck_murders
German:
Brian Jones of Cincinnati, Ohio was 29 years old when he was shot in the head on the side of I-275 in Hebron, Kentucky on January 6, 2010. Brian had been at Vito’s Bar, Reading Rd., Roselawn, in Cincinnati, the evening before and was seen leaving there around 1am. Later, friends reported he had been kidnapped and held for a $100,000 ransom. Cincinnati Police were actively investigating the kidnapping when Brian was found that morning.
Soon after a man's body was found on the side of Interstate 275 on a cold day last January, Boone County Sheriff's deputies received a call from Cincinnati Police. Officers had been searching for Brian Jones after his friends reported that the 29-year-old had been kidnapped and was being held for ransom. Deputies told the officers their search was over.
Jones' death is the only unsolved homicide of 2010 in Northern Kentucky, police say, and the first unsolved murder in Boone County in more than 10 years.
Two of the 10 homicides, including Jones', were the result of drug violence that started in Cincinnati and ended across the river, authorities said. Jones, who had a history of drug charges in Hamilton County, was last seen leaving a Roselawn bar early Jan. 6. His body was found about seven hours later. Detectives think Jones' death was drug-related, Scheben said.
Brian Jones, 29, was found dead with a single gunshot wound to the head near the Petersburg, Ky., exit of Interstate 275 in early January. He lived in Hyde Park with his sister, Shauna Trimble, 37, who has since moved with her three daughters to North College Hill. Wearing a white T-shirt that featured her brother's image and the words R.I.P. Fat Boy, Trimble came to support "something positive. It really touched my heart that these ladies put this together. I broke down, it meant so much to me."
Daughter Porsh'a Trimble, 13, cried when trying to describe the uncle she lost - never mind his record of arrests for drug possession and trafficking. "He was so nice to everybody," the girl said. "He took me clothes shopping."
Gaius (Caligula), with Germanicus. AD 37-41. AR Denarius (20mm, 3.60 g). Rome mint. Struck AD 37-38. Laureate head of Gaius (Caligula) right / Bare head of Germanicus right. RIC I 18; BMCRE 19; RSC 2. cngcoins.com
For more on Caligulan Numismatic Articles see:
Related Articles of Caligula from American Numismatic Society Library Search
Library Catalog Search (Preliminary Version)
Full Record: Barrett, Anthony A. The invalidation of currency in the Roman Empire : the Claudian demonetization of Caligula's AES. (1999)
Full Record: Bost, Jean-Pierre. Routes, cits et ateliers montaires : quelques remarques sur les officines hispaniques entre les rgnes d'Auguste en de Caligula. (1999)
Full Record: Bibliothque Municipale d'Etude et d'Information de Grenoble. Grenoble : Bibliothque Municipale d'Etude et d'Information : catalogue des monnaies. II. Monnaies romaines. Monnaies impriales romaines. 2. Caligula - Neron . Index. / Bernard Rmy, Frdric Bontoux, Virginie Risler. (1998)
Full Record: Gainor, John R. The image of the Julio-Claudian dynasty from coins / by John R. Gainor.
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Monete romane imperiali del Museo G. B. Adriani. Parte 3, Caius (37-41 d.C.) / Rodolfo Martini. (2001)
Full Record: ACCLA privy to presentation by Richard Baker on Caligula. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 1. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 2. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 3. (2002)
Full Record: Kemmers, Fleur. Caligula on the Lower Rhine : Coin finds from the Roman Fort of Albaniana (The Netherlands) / Fleur Kemmers. (2004)
Full Record: Estiot, Sylviane. Le trsor de Meussia (Jura) : 399 monnaies d'argent d'poques rpublicaine et julio-claudienne / Sylviane Estiot, Isabelle Aymar. (2002)
Full Record: Gocht, Hans. Namenstilgungen an Bronzemünzen des Caligula und Claudius / Hans Gocht. (2003)
Full Record: Gomis Justo, Marivi. Ercavica : La emision de Caligula. Estimacion del numero de cunos originales.
Full Record: Sayles, Wayne G. Fakes on the Internet. (2002)
Full Record: Kemmers, Fleur. The coin finds from the Roman fort Albaniana, the Netherlands / Fleur Kemmers . (2005)
Full Record: Lopez Snchez, Fernando. La afirmacion soberana de Caligula y de Claudio y el fin de las acunaciones ciudadanas en occidente / Fernando Lopez Snchez. (2000)
Full Record: Besombes, Paul-Andr. Les monnaies hispaniques de Claude Ier des dpôts de la Vilaine (Rennes) et de Saint-Lonard (Mayenne) : tmoins de quel type de contact entre l'Armorique et la pninsule ibrique ? / Paul-Andr Besombes. (2005)
Full Record: Catalli, Fiorenzo. Le thesaurus de Sora / Fiorenzo Catalli et John Scheid.
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Faux deniers de Caligula de la Renaissance.
Full Record: Vermeule, Cornelius. Faces of Empire (Julius Caesar to Justinian). Part II(B), More young faces : Caligula again and Nero reborn / Cornelius Vermeule. (2005)
Full Record: Geranio, Joe. Portraits of Caligula : the seated figure? / Joe Geranio. (2007)
Full Record: Aguilera Hernandez, Alberto. Acerca de un as de Caligula hallado en Zaragoza / Alberto Aguilera Hernandez. (2007)
Full Record: Butcher, K. E. T. Caligula : the evil emperor. (1985)
Full Record: Fuchs, Michaela. Frauen um Caligula und Claudius : Milonia Caesonia, Drusilla und Messalina. (1990)
Full Record: Faur, Jean-Claude. Moneda de Caligula de Museo Arqueologico Provincial de Tarragona. (1979)
Full Record: British Museum. Dept. of coins and medals. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British museum. Vol. I: Augustus to Vitellius / by Harold Mattingly. (1976)
Full Record: Conrad, Edwin. A Caligula Isotope of Hadrian. (1968)
Full Record: Conrad, Edwin. The Metamorphosis of an Allegad 'As of Hadrian.' (1968)
Full Record: Bendall, Simon. A 'new' gold quinarius of Caligula. (1985)
Full Record: Cortellini, Nereo. Le monete di Caligola nel Cohen.
Full Record: Guey, Julien. Les "bains d'or" de Caligula "Immensi Avreorvm Acervi (Sutone, Cal., 42,3).
Full Record: Guey, J. Les "bains d'or" de Caligula : Sutone, Cal. 42, 3.
Full Record: Curry, Michael R. The Aes Quadrans of Caligula. (1968)
Full Record: Jonas, Elemr. L'emploi dar "damnatio memoriae" sur l'un des "dupondius" de Calgula. (1937)
Full Record: Julian, R. W. The coins of Caligula. (1994)
Full Record: Donciu, Ramiro. Cu privire la activitatea militara a lui Caius (Caligula) in anul 40 e.n. (1983)
Full Record: Hansen, Peter. A history of Caligula's Vesta. (1992)
Full Record: Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Augustus, Caligula oder Caludius? (1978)
Full Record: Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Die Organisation der Münzprgung Caligulas. (1987)
Full Record: Johansen, Flemming S. The sculpted portraits of Caligula. (1987)
Full Record: Carter, G. F. Chemical compositions of copper-based Roman coins. V : imitations of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero / G. F. Carter and others. (1978)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. L'atelier de Lyon sous Auguste : Tibre et Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Les missions d'or et d'argent de Caligula dans l'atelier de Lyon. (1976)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Le monnayage de l'atelier de Lyon des origines au rgne de Caligula (43 avant J.-C. - 41 aprs J.-C.). (1983)
Full Record: Nony, D. Quelques as d'imitation de Caligula trouves a Bordeaux (Gironde). (1981)
Full Record: Levy, Brooks Emmons. Caligula's radiate crown. (1988)
Full Record: Poulsen, Vagn. Un nouveau visage de Caligula. (1972)
Full Record: Price, Martin Jessop. Elephant in Crete? New light ona cistophorus of Caligula. (1973)
Full Record: MacInnis, H. Frank. Ego-driven emperor commits excesses. (1979)
Full Record: McKenna, Thomas P. The case of the curious coin of Caligula : a provincial bronze restruck with legend-only dies. (1994)
Full Record: Mowat, Robert. Bronzes remarquables de Tibre, de son fils, de ses petits-fils et de Caligula. (1911)
Full Record: Koenig, Franz E. Roma, monete dal Tevere : l'imperatore Gaio (Caligola). (1988)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. Caligula's coins profile despot. (1993)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. A numismatic mystery : "the Caligula quadrans." (1994)
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Osservazioni su contromarche ed erosioni su assi de Caligula. (1980)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Moneta Imperii Romani. Band 2 und 3. Die Münzprgung der Kaiser Tiberius und Caius (Caligula) 14/41 / von Wolfgang Szaivert. (1984)
Full Record: Boschung, Dietrich. Die Bildnisse des Caligula. Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Jucker, Hans. Deutsches Archaologisches Institut. Das Romische Herrscherbild. 1. Abt., Bd. 4, Die Bildnisse des Caligula / Dietrich Boschung ; mit einem Beitrag von Hans-Markus von Kaenel ; auf Grund der Vorarbeiten und Marterialsammlungen von Hans Jucker. (1989)
Full Record: Rosborough, Ruskin R. An epigraphic commentary on Suetonius's life of Gaius Caligula. A thesis...for the...Doctor of Philosophy. (1920)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. A propos de l'aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. Un aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Ritter, Hans-Werner. Adlocutio und Corona Civica unter Caligula und Tiberius. (1971)
Full Record: Kumpikevicius, Gordon C. A numismatic look at Gaius. (1979)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. La coerenza di Caligola nella gestione della moneta / Adriano Savio. (1988)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. Note su alcune monete di Gaio-Caligola. (1973)
Full Record: Stylow, Armin U. Die Quadranten des Caligula als Propaganda-münzen.münzen" aus der stdtischen sammlung zu Osnabrück. (1971)
Full Record: Schwartz, Jacques. Le Monnayage Snatorial entre 37 et 42 P.C. (1951)
Full Record: Rodolfo Martini, ed. Sylloge nummorum Romanorum. Italia. Milano, Civiche Raccolte Numismatiche Vol. 1 Giulio-Claudii / a cura di Rodolfo Martini. (1990)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Zur Julisch-Claudischen Münzprgung. (1979)
Full Record: Vedrianus. The Roman Imperial series. V. Gaius. (1963)
Full Record: Tietze, Christian M. Kaiser Cajus Caesar, genannt Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Wood, Susan. Diva Drusilla Panthea and the sisters of Caligula / Susan Wood. (1995)
Full Record: Sutherland, Carol Humphrey Vivian. Coinage in Roman imperial policy 31 B.C.-A.D. 68. (1951)
Full Record: Sutherland, C. H. V. The mints of Lugdunum and Rome under Gaius : an unsolved problem. (1981)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Familienpropaganda der Kaiser Caligula und Claudius : Agrippina Maior und Antonia Augusta auf Münzen. (1978)
Full Record: Voirol, August. Eine Warenumsatzsteuer im antiken Rom und der numismatische Beleg inher Aufhebung : Centesima rerum venalium. (1943)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Zur Münzprgung des Caligula von Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza). (1973)
wearandcheer.com/10-unsolved-beauty-mysteries-that-will-p...
Now these days ladies are just using lipstick for spending the days demystifying beauty. But for each makeup question we address, hair how-to we untie, and skin problems we resolve, there’s a niggling beauty mystery we presently can’t build out. Example? Oh here are 10, to begin.
1. Why getting ...
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In Schrödinger's Cat Experiment,
a cat, a flask of poison, and a radioactive source connected to a Geiger counter are placed in a sealed box. As illustrated, the objects are in a state of superposition: the cat is both alive and dead.
In quantum mechanics, Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment that illustrates a paradox of quantum superposition. In the thought experiment, a hypothetical cat may be considered simultaneously both alive and dead, while it is unobserved in a closed box, as a result of its fate being linked to a random subatomic event that may or may not occur. This thought experiment was devised by physicist Erwin Schrödinger in 1935[1] in a discussion with Albert Einstein[2] to illustrate what Schrödinger saw as the problems of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics.
In Schrödinger's original formulation, a cat, a flask of poison, and a radioactive source are placed in a sealed box. If an internal monitor (e.g. a Geiger counter) detects radioactivity (i.e. a single atom decaying), the flask is shattered, releasing the poison, which kills the cat. The Copenhagen interpretation implies that, after a while, the cat is simultaneously alive and dead. Yet, when one looks in the box, one sees the cat either alive or dead, not both alive and dead. This poses the question of when exactly quantum superposition ends and reality resolves into one possibility or the other.
Though originally a critique on the Copenhagen interpretation, Schrödinger's seemingly paradoxical thought experiment became part of the foundation of quantum mechanics. The scenario is often featured in theoretical discussions of the interpretations of quantum mechanics, particularly in situations involving the measurement problem. The experiment is not intended to be actually performed on a cat, but rather as an easily understandable illustration of the behavior of atoms. As a result, Schrödinger's cat has had enduring appeal in popular culture. Experiments at the atomic scale have been carried out, showing that very small objects may be superimposed; superimposing an object as large as a cat would pose considerable technical difficulties.
Fundamentally, the Schrödinger's cat experiment asks how long superpositions last and when (or whether) they collapse. Interpretations for resolving this question include that the cat is dead or alive when the box is opened (Copenhagen); that a conscious mind must observe the box (Von Neumann–Wigner); that upon observation, the universe branches into one universe where the cat is alive and another one where it is dead (many-worlds); that every object (such as the cat, and the box itself) is an observer, but superposition is relative depending on the observer (relational); that superposition never truly exists due to time-travelling waves (transactional); that merely observing the box either slows or accelerates the cat's death (quantum Zeno effect); among other theories that assert that the cat is dead or alive long before the box is opened. It is unclear which interpretation is correct; the underlying issue raised by Schrödinger's cat remains an unsolved problem in physics.
Origin And Motivation
Schrödinger intended his thought experiment as a discussion of the EPR article—named after its authors Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen—in 1935.[3][4] The EPR article highlighted the counterintuitive nature of quantum superpositions, in which a quantum system such as an atom or photon can exist as a combination of multiple states corresponding to different possible outcomes.
The prevailing theory, called the Copenhagen interpretation, says that a quantum system remains in superposition until it interacts with, or is observed by, the external world. When this happens, the superposition collapses into one or another of the possible definite states. The EPR experiment shows that a system with multiple particles separated by large distances can be in such a superposition. Schrödinger and Einstein exchanged letters about Einstein's EPR article, in the course of which Einstein pointed out that the state of an unstable keg of gunpowder will, after a while, contain a superposition of both exploded and unexploded states.[4]
To further illustrate, Schrödinger described how one could, in principle, create a superposition in a large-scale system by making it dependent on a quantum particle that was in a superposition. He proposed a scenario with a cat in a locked steel chamber, wherein the cat's life or death depended on the state of a radioactive atom, whether it had decayed and emitted radiation or not. According to Schrödinger, the Copenhagen interpretation implies that the cat remains both alive and dead until the state has been observed. Schrödinger did not wish to promote the idea of dead-and-live cats as a serious possibility; on the contrary, he intended the example to illustrate the absurdity of the existing view of quantum mechanics.[1]
Since Schrödinger's time, various interpretations of the mathematics of quantum mechanics have been advanced by physicists, some of which regard the "alive and dead" cat superposition as quite real, others do not.[5][6] Intended as a critique of the Copenhagen interpretation (the prevailing orthodoxy in 1935), the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment remains a touchstone for modern interpretations of quantum mechanics and can be used to illustrate and compare their strengths and weaknesses.[7]
Thought experiment
Schrödinger wrote: [1][8]
One can even set up quite ridiculous cases. A cat is penned up in a steel chamber, along with the following device (which must be secured against direct interference by the cat): in a Geiger counter, there is a tiny bit of radioactive substance, so small, that perhaps in the course of the hour one of the atoms decays, but also, with equal probability, perhaps none; if it happens, the counter tube discharges and through a relay releases a hammer that shatters a small flask of hydrocyanic acid. If one has left this entire system to itself for an hour, one would say that the cat still lives. if meanwhile, no atom has decayed. The first atomic decay would have poisoned it. The psi-function of the entire system would express this by having in it the living and dead cat (pardon the expression) mixed or smeared out in equal parts.
It is typical of these cases that an indeterminacy originally restricted to the atomic domain becomes transformed into macroscopic indeterminacy, which can then be resolved by direct observation. That prevents us from so naïvely accepting as valid a "blurred model" for representing reality. In itself, it would not embody anything unclear or contradictory. There is a difference between a shaky or out-of-focus photograph and a snapshot of clouds and fog banks.
Schrödinger's famous thought experiment poses the question, "When does a quantum system stop existing as a superposition of states and become one or the other?" (More technically, when does the actual quantum state stop being a non-trivial linear combination of states, each of which resembles different classical states, and instead begin to have a unique classical description?) If the cat survives, it remembers only being alive. But explanations of the EPR experiments that are consistent with standard microscopic quantum mechanics require that macroscopic objects, such as cats and notebooks, do not always have unique classical descriptions. The thought experiment illustrates this apparent paradox. Our intuition says that no observer can be in more than one state simultaneously—yet the cat, it seems from the thought experiment, can be in such a condition. Is the cat required to be an observer, or does its existence in a single well-defined classical state require another external observer? Each alternative seemed absurd to Einstein, who was impressed by the ability of the thought experiment to highlight these issues. In a letter to Schrödinger dated 1950, he wrote:
You are the only contemporary physicist, besides Laue, who sees that one cannot get around the assumption of reality, if only one is honest. Most of them simply do not see what sort of risky game they are playing with reality — reality as something independent of what is experimentally established. Their interpretation is, however, refuted most elegantly by your system of radioactive atom + amplifier + charge of gun powder + cat in a box, in which the psi-function of the system contains both the cat alive and blown to bits. Nobody really doubts that the presence or absence of the cat is something independent of the act of observation.[9]
Note that the charge of gunpowder is not mentioned in Schrödinger's setup, which uses a Geiger counter as an amplifier and hydrocyanic poison instead of gunpowder. The gunpowder had been mentioned in Einstein's original suggestion to Schrödinger 15 years before, and Einstein carried it forward to the present discussion.[4]
Interpretations
Since Schrödinger's time, other interpretations of quantum mechanics have been proposed that give different answers to the questions posed by Schrödinger's cat of how long superpositions last and when (or whether) they collapse.
Copenhagen interpretation
Main article: Copenhagen interpretation
A commonly held interpretation of quantum mechanics is the Copenhagen interpretation.[10] In the Copenhagen interpretation, a system stops being a superposition of states and becomes either one or the other when an observation takes place. This thought experiment makes apparent the fact that the nature of measurement, or observation, is not well-defined in this interpretation. The experiment can be interpreted to mean that while the box is closed, the system simultaneously exists in a superposition of the states "decayed nucleus/dead cat" and "undecayed nucleus/living cat" and that only when the box is opened and an observation performed does the wave function collapse into one of the two states.
Von Neumann interpretation
Main article: Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation
In 1932, John von Neumann described in his book Mathematical Foundations a pattern where the radioactive source is observed by a device, which itself is observed by another device and so on. It makes no difference in the predictions of quantum theory where along this chain of causal effects the superposition collapses.[11] This potentially infinite chain could be broken if the last device is replaced by a conscious observer. This solved the problem because it was claimed that an individual's consciousness cannot be multiple.[12] Neumann asserted that a conscious observer is necessary for collapse to one or the other (e.g., either a live cat or a dead cat) of the terms on the right-hand side of a wave function. This interpretation was later adopted by Eugene Wigner, who then rejected the interpretation in a thought experiment known as Wigner's friend.[13]
Wigner supposed that a friend opened the box and observed the cat without telling anyone. From Wigner's conscious perspective, the friend is now part of the wave function and has seen a live cat and seen a dead cat. To a third person's conscious perspective, Wigner himself becomes part of the wave function once Wigner learns the outcome from the friend. This could be extended indefinitely.[13]
Bohr's interpretation
One of the main scientists associated with the Copenhagen interpretation, Niels Bohr, offered an interpretation that is independent of a subjective observer-induced collapse of the wave function, or of measurement; instead, an "irreversible" or effectively irreversible process causes the decay of quantum coherence, which imparts the classical behavior of "observation" or "measurement".[14][15][16][17] Thus, Schrödinger's cat would be either dead or alive long before the box is observed.[18]
A resolution of the paradox is that the triggering of the Geiger counter counts as a measurement of the state of the radioactive substance. Because a measurement has already occurred deciding the state of the cat, the subsequent observation by a human records only what has already occurred.[19] Analysis of an actual experiment by Roger Carpenter and A. J. Anderson found that measurement alone (for example by a Geiger counter) is sufficient to collapse a quantum wave function before any human knows of the result.[20] The apparatus indicates one of two colors depending on the outcome. The human observer sees which color is indicated, but they don't consciously know which outcome the color represents. A second human, the one who set up the apparatus, is told of the color and becomes conscious of the outcome, and the box is opened to check if the outcome matches.[11] However, it is disputed whether merely observing the color counts as a conscious observation of the outcome.[21]
Many-worlds interpretation and consistent histories
Main article: Many-worlds interpretation
In 1957, Hugh Everett formulated the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, which does not single out observation as a special process. In the many-worlds interpretation, both alive and dead states of the cat persist after the box is opened, but are decoherent from each other. In other words, when the box is opened, the observer and the possibly dead cat split into an observer looking at a box with a dead cat and an observer looking at a box with a live cat. But since the dead and alive states are decoherent, there is no effective communication or interaction between them.
When opening the box, the observer becomes entangled with the cat, so "observer states" corresponding to the cat's being alive and dead are formed; each observer state is entangled, or linked, with the cat so that the observation of the cat's state and the cat's state correspond with each other. Quantum decoherence ensures that the different outcomes have no interaction with each other. The same mechanism of quantum decoherence is also important for the interpretation in terms of consistent histories. Only the "dead cat" or the "live cat" can be a part of a consistent history in this interpretation. Decoherence is generally considered to prevent simultaneous observation of multiple states.[22][23]
A variant of the Schrödinger's cat experiment, known as the quantum suicide machine, has been proposed by cosmologist Max Tegmark. It examines the Schrödinger's cat experiment from the point of view of the cat, and argues that by using this approach, one may be able to distinguish between the Copenhagen interpretation and many-worlds.
Ensemble interpretation
The ensemble interpretation states that superpositions are nothing but subensembles of a larger statistical ensemble. The state vector would not apply to individual cat experiments, but only to the statistics of many similarly prepared cat experiments. Proponents of this interpretation state that this makes the Schrödinger's cat paradox a trivial matter, or a non-issue.
This interpretation serves to discard the idea that a single physical system in quantum mechanics has a mathematical description that corresponds to it in any way.[24]
Relational interpretation
The relational interpretation makes no fundamental distinction between the human experimenter, the cat, and the apparatus or between animate and inanimate systems; all are quantum systems governed by the same rules of wavefunction evolution, and all may be considered "observers". But the relational interpretation allows that different observers can give different accounts of the same series of events, depending on the information they have about the system.[25] The cat can be considered an observer of the apparatus; meanwhile, the experimenter can be considered another observer of the system in the box (the cat plus the apparatus). Before the box is opened, the cat, by nature of its being alive or dead, has information about the state of the apparatus (the atom has either decayed or not decayed); but the experimenter does not have information about the state of the box contents. In this way, the two observers simultaneously have different accounts of the situation: To the cat, the wavefunction of the apparatus has appeared to "collapse"; to the experimenter, the contents of the box appear to be in superposition. Not until the box is opened, and both observers have the same information about what happened, do both system states appear to "collapse" into the same definite result, a cat that is either alive or dead.
Transactional interpretation
In the transactional interpretation, the apparatus emits an advanced wave backward in time, which combined with the wave that the source emits forward in time, forms a standing wave. The waves are seen as physically real, and the apparatus is considered an "observer". In the transactional interpretation, the collapse of the wavefunction is "atemporal" and occurs along the whole transaction between the source and the apparatus. The cat is never in superposition. Rather the cat is only in one state at any particular time, regardless of when the human experimenter looks in the box. The transactional interpretation resolves this quantum paradox.[26]
Zeno effects
The Zeno effect is known to cause delays to any changes from the initial state.
On the other hand, the anti-Zeno effect accelerates the changes. For example, if you peek a look into the cat box frequently you may either cause delays to the fateful choice or, conversely, accelerate it. Both the Zeno effect and the anti-Zeno effect are real and known to happen to real atoms. The quantum system being measured must be strongly coupled to the surrounding environment (in this case to the apparatus, the experiment room ... etc.) in order to obtain more accurate information. But while there is no information passed to the outside world, it is considered to be a quasi-measurement, but as soon as the information about the cat's well-being is passed on to the outside world (by peeking into the box) quasi-measurement turns into measurement. Quasi-measurements, like measurements, cause the Zeno effects.[27]
Zeno effects teach us that even without peeking into the box, the death of the cat would have been delayed or accelerated anyway due to its environment.
Objective collapse theories
According to objective collapse theories, superpositions are destroyed spontaneously (irrespective of external observation) when some objective physical threshold (of time, mass, temperature, irreversibility, etc.) is reached. Thus, the cat would be expected to have settled into a definite state long before the box is opened. This could loosely be phrased as "the cat observes itself" or "the environment observes the cat".
Objective collapse theories require a modification of standard quantum mechanics to allow superpositions to be destroyed by the process of time evolution.[28] These theories could ideally be tested by creating mesoscopic superposition states in the experiment. For instance, energy cat states has been proposed as a precise detector of the quantum gravity related energy decoherence models.[29]
Applications and tests
Schrödinger's cat quantum superposition of states and effect of the environment through decoherence
The experiment as described is a purely theoretical one, and the machine proposed is not known to have been constructed. However, successful experiments involving similar principles, e.g. superpositions of relatively large (by the standards of quantum physics) objects have been performed.[30][better source needed] These experiments do not show that a cat-sized object can be superposed, but the known upper limit on "cat states" has been pushed upwards by them. In many cases the state is short-lived, even when cooled to near absolute zero.
A "cat state" has been achieved with photons.[31]
A beryllium ion has been trapped in a superposed state.[32]
An experiment involving a superconducting quantum interference device ("SQUID") has been linked to the theme of the thought experiment: "The superposition state does not correspond to a billion electrons flowing one way and a billion others flowing the other way. Superconducting electrons move en masse. All the superconducting electrons in the SQUID flow both ways around the loop at once when they are in the Schrödinger's cat state."[33]
A piezoelectric "tuning fork" has been constructed, which can be placed into a superposition of vibrating and non-vibrating states. The resonator comprises about 10 trillion atoms.[34]
An experiment involving a flu virus has been proposed.[35]
An experiment involving a bacterium and an electromechanical oscillator has been proposed.[36]
In quantum computing the phrase "cat state" sometimes refers to the GHZ state, wherein several qubits are in an equal superposition of all being 0 and all being 1; e.g.,
|\psi \rangle ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\bigg (}|00\ldots 0\rangle +|11\ldots 1\rangle {\bigg )}.
According to at least one proposal, it may be possible to determine the state of the cat before observing it.[37][38]
Extensions
Prominent physicists have gone so far as to suggest that astronomers observing dark energy in the universe in 1998 may have "reduced its life expectancy" through a pseudo-Schrödinger's cat scenario, although this is a controversial viewpoint.[39][40]
In August 2020, physicists presented studies involving interpretations of quantum mechanics that are related to the Schrödinger's cat and Wigner's friend paradoxes, resulting in conclusions that challenge seemingly established assumptions about reality.[41][42][43]
See also
iconPhysics portal
Basis function
Complementarity (physics)
Double-slit experiment
Elitzur–Vaidman bomb tester
Heisenberg cut
Modal realism
Observer effect (physics)
Schroedinbug
Schrödinger's cat in popular culture
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Further reading
Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935). "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?". Physical Review. 47 (10): 777–780. Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777.none
Leggett, Tony (August 2000). "New Life for Schrödinger's Cat" (PDF). Physics World. pp. 23–24. Retrieved 28 February 2020.none An article on experiments with "cat state" superpositions in superconducting rings, in which the electrons go around the ring in two directions simultaneously.
Trimmer, John D. (1980). "The Present Situation in Quantum Mechanics: A Translation of Schrödinger's "Cat Paradox" Paper". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 124 (5): 323–338. JSTOR 986572.none(registration required)
Yam, Phillip (October 9, 2012). "Bringing Schrödinger's Cat to Life". Scientific American. Retrieved 28 February 2020. A description of investigations of quantum "cat states" and wave function collapse by Serge Haroche and David J. Wineland, for which they won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Kalmbach, Gudrun (1983). Orthomodular Lattices. Academic Press.
A wealthy architect has been charged with murdering three women linked to the unsolved killings of 11 people, which was the subject of the Netflix film Lost Girls.Rex Heuermann, 59, was arrested as the prime suspect in the historical Gilgo Beach murders - in which human remains were found along a New York beach highway more than a decade ago.He is charged with the murder of Melissa Barthelemy, 24, Megan Waterman, 22, and Amber Costello, 27, whose remains were discovered during the search for another missing female in 2010.He pleaded not guilty to all three charges.
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A man has been charged with murdering three women linked to the unsolved killings of 11 people.
It is believed 11 individuals fell victim to the murders, many young female sex workers. Their remains were discovered in 2010 and 2011.The New York-based architect lives in Massapequa, a community in Long Island around 15 miles away from where the victim's remains were found.Detectives who tailed the suspect recovered DNA from a pizza crust he threw away, then matched it to a hair found on a restraint used in the killings, police said.Another key part of what led to his arrest was his car - a Chevrolet Avalanche - which a witness said the killer was driving after the disappearance of Ms Costello, according to NBC.
Image:
(L-R) Melissa Barthelemy, Megan Waterman and Amber Lynn Costello.
nbmsports.com/gilgo-beach-murders-man-charged-over-deaths...
Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry contains the densest concentration of Jurassic-aged dinosaur bones ever found. Over 12,000 bones (belonging to at least 74 individual dinosaurs) have been excavated at the quarry.
Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry has helped paleontologists learn a great deal about the Jurassic period, yet the site presents at least as many mysteries as it helps to solve. Curiously, more than 75% of the bones come from carnivores, primarily Allosaurus fragilis. With more than 46 individual specimens of Allosaurus, scientists have been able to deduce much about how Allosaurus aged and compare individuals to better understand intraspecies diversity. Yet the sheer density of bones proposes many questions. How did the carcasses of so many animals end up in one place, and why are most of them meat-eaters?
While many good hypotheses have been presented they all still have major flaws, so the mystery continues to be unsolved.
Photo by BLM Utah.
Gaius (Caligula). AD 37-41. Æ Sestertius (35mm, 28.29 g, 6h). Rome mint. Struck AD 37-38. Pietas seated left, holding patera, resting arm on small draped figure standing facing on basis / Gaius standing left, holding patera over garlanded altar; victimarius holding bull for sacrifice and attendant holding a patera flanking; in background, garlanded hexastyle temple of Divus Augustus surmounted by acroteria and statues of Romulus and Aeneas, pediment decorated with sacrificial scene. RIC I 36. For more on Caligulan Numismatic Articles see: Coins courtesy cngoins.com
Related Articles of Caligula from American Numismatic Society Library Search
Library Catalog Search (Preliminary Version)
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Full Record: Koenig, Franz E. Roma, monete dal Tevere : l'imperatore Gaio (Caligola). (1988)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. Caligula's coins profile despot. (1993)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. A numismatic mystery : "the Caligula quadrans." (1994)
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Osservazioni su contromarche ed erosioni su assi de Caligula. (1980)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Moneta Imperii Romani. Band 2 und 3. Die Münzprgung der Kaiser Tiberius und Caius (Caligula) 14/41 / von Wolfgang Szaivert. (1984)
Full Record: Boschung, Dietrich. Die Bildnisse des Caligula. Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Jucker, Hans. Deutsches Archaologisches Institut. Das Romische Herrscherbild. 1. Abt., Bd. 4, Die Bildnisse des Caligula / Dietrich Boschung ; mit einem Beitrag von Hans-Markus von Kaenel ; auf Grund der Vorarbeiten und Marterialsammlungen von Hans Jucker. (1989)
Full Record: Rosborough, Ruskin R. An epigraphic commentary on Suetonius's life of Gaius Caligula. A thesis...for the...Doctor of Philosophy. (1920)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. A propos de l'aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. Un aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Ritter, Hans-Werner. Adlocutio und Corona Civica unter Caligula und Tiberius. (1971)
Full Record: Kumpikevicius, Gordon C. A numismatic look at Gaius. (1979)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. La coerenza di Caligola nella gestione della moneta / Adriano Savio. (1988)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. Note su alcune monete di Gaio-Caligola. (1973)
Full Record: Stylow, Armin U. Die Quadranten des Caligula als Propaganda-münzen.münzen" aus der stdtischen sammlung zu Osnabrück. (1971)
Full Record: Schwartz, Jacques. Le Monnayage Snatorial entre 37 et 42 P.C. (1951)
Full Record: Rodolfo Martini, ed. Sylloge nummorum Romanorum. Italia. Milano, Civiche Raccolte Numismatiche Vol. 1 Giulio-Claudii / a cura di Rodolfo Martini. (1990)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Zur Julisch-Claudischen Münzprgung. (1979)
Full Record: Vedrianus. The Roman Imperial series. V. Gaius. (1963)
Full Record: Tietze, Christian M. Kaiser Cajus Caesar, genannt Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Wood, Susan. Diva Drusilla Panthea and the sisters of Caligula / Susan Wood. (1995)
Full Record: Sutherland, Carol Humphrey Vivian. Coinage in Roman imperial policy 31 B.C.-A.D. 68. (1951)
Full Record: Sutherland, C. H. V. The mints of Lugdunum and Rome under Gaius : an unsolved problem. (1981)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Familienpropaganda der Kaiser Caligula und Claudius : Agrippina Maior und Antonia Augusta auf Münzen. (1978)
Full Record: Voirol, August. Eine Warenumsatzsteuer im antiken Rom und der numismatische Beleg inher Aufhebung : Centesima rerum venalium. (1943)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Zur Münzprgung des Caligula von Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza). (1973)
Affectionately known as the King Bill. Originally a house before 1820. Opened for the sale of alcohol in 1830 by John Bottomley, a grocer and sundries retailer. On 7th April 1832 the pub was used for the inquest into the murders of William Bradbury (Bill o’ Jack’s) and his son Thomas (Tom o’ Bill’s). The murders took place five days earlier at The Cherry Tree Inn, which was off Holmfirth Road, but is no longer standing. They remain unsolved and have grown into a legendary story throughout Saddleworth. At the inquest there was insufficient evidence to find anyone guilty.
The pub central to Greenfield is currently up for sale
Queensland State Archives Item ID ITM294496 Dept No.44
The murder of siblings Michael, Norah and Ellen Murphy near Gatton on Boxing Day 1898 sparked intense interest and speculation. All three were killed between 10pm and the early hours of the following morning on their way home from a dance that had been cancelled and the case remains unsolved to this day.
Contained within the QSA archived police files are pages of handwritten letters from across Queensland sent from members of the community convinced they could help solve the case using their spiritual gifts. Some are simply a few words on a scrap of paper, others take up many pages and go into lengthy detail about possible conspiracies. The police called the correspondence files ‘Astrologers, Dreamers, Theorists, etc’.
[ 29.11. - 11.12.2014 //
Hundsturm/Volkstheater ]
Theater
In Wien, einem multiethnischen, multikonfessionellen, balkannahen Schmelzpunkt, wollen wir einem Theater über das dunklere Erbe des Balkankrieges Raum verschaffen, gegen das Vergessen.
Dem österreichischen Publikum die Konflikte der unmittelbaren Nachbarschaft näherbringen, differenzierter erläutern sowie unseren Mitmenschen, die in den 90er Jahren aus dem Krieg zu uns geflohen sind, zum Teil wieder Tür an Tür mit den einstigen „Feinden“ leben, eine Plattform der Auseinandersetzung und Aufarbeitung bieten.
Die Grundlage zu diesem Stück besteht aus drei dramatischen Texten: den beiden Auftragsarbeiten an die bosnischen Autoren Almir Basovic und Almir Imsirevic sowie dem Stück „Das Rauschen der Bäume vor dem Haus“ der albanischen Autorin Doruntina Basha, das die Beziehung zweier Frauen zum Inhalt hat. Schwiegermutter und Schwiegertochter, die lange nach dem Ende des Konflikts im Kosovo auf einen jungen Mann warten …, die sich über diesen Verlust in ihrer sehr unterschiedlichen Art, damit fertig zu werden, einander annähern. In den beiden anderen Texten treten der Vermisste, sowie sein Mörder in Erscheinung …
Zur Zeit gelten 10000 Menschen als verschwunden. Es gibt keine Fakten über ihren Aufenthalt oder Tod.
Regie: Stevan Bodroza
Bühne: Antun Marohnic
Produktionsleitung: Jaschka Lämmert
Darsteller:
Zoja: Sylvia Haider
Shkurta: Ana Stefanovic Bilic
Assassinator: Jens Ole Schmieder
Vermisster: Jan Hutter
Anschließend an die Premiere am 29. November 2014 findet ein gemeinsames Gespräch statt mit Ö1 Moderator Bernhard Fellinger, Politologe Dr. Vedran Dzihic und Filmemacherin Nina Kusturica.
„… Ein echtes kleines Theaterjuwel über den Krieg, verletzte Seelen, Erinnerungen und Unaussprechliches … ein wundervolles Theater Triptychon. …meisterlich inszeniert. Subtil, weise und ruhig führt Regisseur Stevan Bodroza die fragilen Fäden zusammen, die die Welt der Lebenden und die der Toten verbindet. Mitfühlend mit den Opfern und den Tätern … erschreckt dieser Theaterabend, ist dabei unwiderstehlich lyrisch, voller Poesie, traumhaft. …“
Mladen Bicanic , BH DANI (BMladen Bicanic , BH DANI (Bosnian-Herzegovinian News Magazine),
16. Oktober 2014
Bereits mit der Produktion „Potocari Party“ hat sich das Ensemble mit der Thematik des Balkankrieges auseinandergesetzt. „Potocari Party“ wurde von MA7 und BMUKK gefördert, zu renommierten Festivals in Bosnien eingeladen und gewann beim Drama Festival Bosnien Herzegovina 2013 sowie beim Sarajevska Zima Festival den Preis für die beste Performance.
Das Bosnische Nationaltheater in Zenica wird nebst den Festivalorganisatoren (MESS Festival Sarajevo, Drama Festival Bosnien Herzegovina) als Koproduzent auftreten.
ENGLISH INFORMATION
www.mess.ba/eng/10-program-mess2014/17-the-balkan-requiem
„The Balkan Requiem“ is a project that deals with the problem of the missing people in the Balkans, disappeared during the wars in the former Yugoslavia, back in the 90s. Relevance of this phenomenon has not been sufficiently recognized neither by the political structures, nor by the cultural institutions in the Balkans. In the former Yugoslavia area, there are still as many as 10,000 people listed as missing. The tragic and unsolved destinies of these people reveal the truth of how the countries of the Western Balkans swept their dark, recent past under the carpet, and continued their journey through history with suppressed trauma that threatens to, sooner or later, generate new hatred and conflicts. Art deals with the truth, confrontation, and pointing out the direction from which the new evil can arise. Art cautions. That is the reason for the birth of this project. With its heterogeneous form, “The Balkan Requiem” attempts to shine the light on this phenomenon from as many different angles, and to ask as many questions. The attitude towards the dead reflects, at its base level, the relationship of the living with themselves, the representation of what the living must forget or, indeed, must remember to be able to stay alive. „The Balkan Requiem“ is a play about the events and phenomena that have formed all of us, that are a part of our collective unconscious, and that irrevocably paint the landscape of our present and future.
Text:
DORUNTINA BASHA
ALMIR BAŠOVIĆ
ALMIR IMŠIREVIĆ
Direction and Adaptation:
STEVAN BODROŽA
Cast:
JAN HUTTER
SYLVIA HAIDER
ANA STEFANOVIĆ -BILIĆ
JENS OLLE SCHMIEDER
Dramaturgy:
ASJA KRSMANOVIĆ
Stage Design:
VEDRAN HRUSTANOVIĆ
Costume Design:
LEJLA HODŽIĆ
Stage Movement:
SANJA BURIĆ
Music Selection:
STEVAN BODROŽA
Producers:
HAZIM BEGAGIĆ
JASCHKA LAEMMERT
ANA STEFANOVIĆ – BILIĆ
WOLFGANG SCHLAG
DINO MUSTAFIĆ
Executive Producer :
SANDRA IKANOVIĆ
Stage Manager:
BORKA JOKANOVIĆ
Photography:
MUHAMED TUNOVIĆ-BADI
Production:
BOSANSKO NARODNO POZORIŠTE ZENICA
WIEN KULTUR
BMUKK
TREMBLES VEREIN FÜR FREIES THEATER
HUNDSTURM
FESTIVAL MESS
GAIUS CALIGULA. 37-41 AD. Æ As (11.21 gm). Struck 37/38 AD. C CAESAR AVG GERMANICVS PON M TR POT, bare head left / VESTA, S C across field, Vesta seated left, holding patera and sceptre. RIC I 38; BMCRE 46; Cohen 27. For more on Caligulan Numismatic Articles see: Coins courtesy cngoins.com
Related Articles of Caligula from American Numismatic Society Library Search
Library Catalog Search (Preliminary Version)
Full Record: Barrett, Anthony A. The invalidation of currency in the Roman Empire : the Claudian demonetization of Caligula's AES. (1999)
Full Record: Bost, Jean-Pierre. Routes, cits et ateliers montaires : quelques remarques sur les officines hispaniques entre les rgnes d'Auguste en de Caligula. (1999)
Full Record: Bibliothque Municipale d'Etude et d'Information de Grenoble. Grenoble : Bibliothque Municipale d'Etude et d'Information : catalogue des monnaies. II. Monnaies romaines. Monnaies impriales romaines. 2. Caligula - Neron . Index. / Bernard Rmy, Frdric Bontoux, Virginie Risler. (1998)
Full Record: Gainor, John R. The image of the Julio-Claudian dynasty from coins / by John R. Gainor.
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Monete romane imperiali del Museo G. B. Adriani. Parte 3, Caius (37-41 d.C.) / Rodolfo Martini. (2001)
Full Record: ACCLA privy to presentation by Richard Baker on Caligula. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 1. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 2. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 3. (2002)
Full Record: Kemmers, Fleur. Caligula on the Lower Rhine : Coin finds from the Roman Fort of Albaniana (The Netherlands) / Fleur Kemmers. (2004)
Full Record: Estiot, Sylviane. Le trsor de Meussia (Jura) : 399 monnaies d'argent d'poques rpublicaine et julio-claudienne / Sylviane Estiot, Isabelle Aymar. (2002)
Full Record: Gocht, Hans. Namenstilgungen an Bronzemünzen des Caligula und Claudius / Hans Gocht. (2003)
Full Record: Gomis Justo, Marivi. Ercavica : La emision de Caligula. Estimacion del numero de cunos originales.
Full Record: Sayles, Wayne G. Fakes on the Internet. (2002)
Full Record: Kemmers, Fleur. The coin finds from the Roman fort Albaniana, the Netherlands / Fleur Kemmers . (2005)
Full Record: Lopez Snchez, Fernando. La afirmacion soberana de Caligula y de Claudio y el fin de las acunaciones ciudadanas en occidente / Fernando Lopez Snchez. (2000)
Full Record: Besombes, Paul-Andr. Les monnaies hispaniques de Claude Ier des dpôts de la Vilaine (Rennes) et de Saint-Lonard (Mayenne) : tmoins de quel type de contact entre l'Armorique et la pninsule ibrique ? / Paul-Andr Besombes. (2005)
Full Record: Catalli, Fiorenzo. Le thesaurus de Sora / Fiorenzo Catalli et John Scheid.
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Faux deniers de Caligula de la Renaissance.
Full Record: Vermeule, Cornelius. Faces of Empire (Julius Caesar to Justinian). Part II(B), More young faces : Caligula again and Nero reborn / Cornelius Vermeule. (2005)
Full Record: Geranio, Joe. Portraits of Caligula : the seated figure? / Joe Geranio. (2007)
Full Record: Aguilera Hernandez, Alberto. Acerca de un as de Caligula hallado en Zaragoza / Alberto Aguilera Hernandez. (2007)
Full Record: Butcher, K. E. T. Caligula : the evil emperor. (1985)
Full Record: Fuchs, Michaela. Frauen um Caligula und Claudius : Milonia Caesonia, Drusilla und Messalina. (1990)
Full Record: Faur, Jean-Claude. Moneda de Caligula de Museo Arqueologico Provincial de Tarragona. (1979)
Full Record: British Museum. Dept. of coins and medals. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British museum. Vol. I: Augustus to Vitellius / by Harold Mattingly. (1976)
Full Record: Conrad, Edwin. A Caligula Isotope of Hadrian. (1968)
Full Record: Conrad, Edwin. The Metamorphosis of an Allegad 'As of Hadrian.' (1968)
Full Record: Bendall, Simon. A 'new' gold quinarius of Caligula. (1985)
Full Record: Cortellini, Nereo. Le monete di Caligola nel Cohen.
Full Record: Guey, Julien. Les "bains d'or" de Caligula "Immensi Avreorvm Acervi (Sutone, Cal., 42,3).
Full Record: Guey, J. Les "bains d'or" de Caligula : Sutone, Cal. 42, 3.
Full Record: Curry, Michael R. The Aes Quadrans of Caligula. (1968)
Full Record: Jonas, Elemr. L'emploi dar "damnatio memoriae" sur l'un des "dupondius" de Calgula. (1937)
Full Record: Julian, R. W. The coins of Caligula. (1994)
Full Record: Donciu, Ramiro. Cu privire la activitatea militara a lui Caius (Caligula) in anul 40 e.n. (1983)
Full Record: Hansen, Peter. A history of Caligula's Vesta. (1992)
Full Record: Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Augustus, Caligula oder Caludius? (1978)
Full Record: Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Die Organisation der Münzprgung Caligulas. (1987)
Full Record: Johansen, Flemming S. The sculpted portraits of Caligula. (1987)
Full Record: Carter, G. F. Chemical compositions of copper-based Roman coins. V : imitations of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero / G. F. Carter and others. (1978)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. L'atelier de Lyon sous Auguste : Tibre et Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Les missions d'or et d'argent de Caligula dans l'atelier de Lyon. (1976)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Le monnayage de l'atelier de Lyon des origines au rgne de Caligula (43 avant J.-C. - 41 aprs J.-C.). (1983)
Full Record: Nony, D. Quelques as d'imitation de Caligula trouves a Bordeaux (Gironde). (1981)
Full Record: Levy, Brooks Emmons. Caligula's radiate crown. (1988)
Full Record: Poulsen, Vagn. Un nouveau visage de Caligula. (1972)
Full Record: Price, Martin Jessop. Elephant in Crete? New light ona cistophorus of Caligula. (1973)
Full Record: MacInnis, H. Frank. Ego-driven emperor commits excesses. (1979)
Full Record: McKenna, Thomas P. The case of the curious coin of Caligula : a provincial bronze restruck with legend-only dies. (1994)
Full Record: Mowat, Robert. Bronzes remarquables de Tibre, de son fils, de ses petits-fils et de Caligula. (1911)
Full Record: Koenig, Franz E. Roma, monete dal Tevere : l'imperatore Gaio (Caligola). (1988)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. Caligula's coins profile despot. (1993)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. A numismatic mystery : "the Caligula quadrans." (1994)
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Osservazioni su contromarche ed erosioni su assi de Caligula. (1980)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Moneta Imperii Romani. Band 2 und 3. Die Münzprgung der Kaiser Tiberius und Caius (Caligula) 14/41 / von Wolfgang Szaivert. (1984)
Full Record: Boschung, Dietrich. Die Bildnisse des Caligula. Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Jucker, Hans. Deutsches Archaologisches Institut. Das Romische Herrscherbild. 1. Abt., Bd. 4, Die Bildnisse des Caligula / Dietrich Boschung ; mit einem Beitrag von Hans-Markus von Kaenel ; auf Grund der Vorarbeiten und Marterialsammlungen von Hans Jucker. (1989)
Full Record: Rosborough, Ruskin R. An epigraphic commentary on Suetonius's life of Gaius Caligula. A thesis...for the...Doctor of Philosophy. (1920)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. A propos de l'aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. Un aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Ritter, Hans-Werner. Adlocutio und Corona Civica unter Caligula und Tiberius. (1971)
Full Record: Kumpikevicius, Gordon C. A numismatic look at Gaius. (1979)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. La coerenza di Caligola nella gestione della moneta / Adriano Savio. (1988)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. Note su alcune monete di Gaio-Caligola. (1973)
Full Record: Stylow, Armin U. Die Quadranten des Caligula als Propaganda-münzen.münzen" aus der stdtischen sammlung zu Osnabrück. (1971)
Full Record: Schwartz, Jacques. Le Monnayage Snatorial entre 37 et 42 P.C. (1951)
Full Record: Rodolfo Martini, ed. Sylloge nummorum Romanorum. Italia. Milano, Civiche Raccolte Numismatiche Vol. 1 Giulio-Claudii / a cura di Rodolfo Martini. (1990)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Zur Julisch-Claudischen Münzprgung. (1979)
Full Record: Vedrianus. The Roman Imperial series. V. Gaius. (1963)
Full Record: Tietze, Christian M. Kaiser Cajus Caesar, genannt Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Wood, Susan. Diva Drusilla Panthea and the sisters of Caligula / Susan Wood. (1995)
Full Record: Sutherland, Carol Humphrey Vivian. Coinage in Roman imperial policy 31 B.C.-A.D. 68. (1951)
Full Record: Sutherland, C. H. V. The mints of Lugdunum and Rome under Gaius : an unsolved problem. (1981)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Familienpropaganda der Kaiser Caligula und Claudius : Agrippina Maior und Antonia Augusta auf Münzen. (1978)
Full Record: Voirol, August. Eine Warenumsatzsteuer im antiken Rom und der numismatische Beleg inher Aufhebung : Centesima rerum venalium. (1943)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Zur Münzprgung des Caligula von Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza). (1973)
This is not just a man running on the street, it is a stranger running from the cops. I was just walking and i had my camera with me, neck strap. Everything was set in the camera(Canon Powershot G10). I also had the camera on. Suddenly i hear a screaming in my local language , hey para! hey para! I turned around, and notice the man running from the cops, i immediately took action, grabbed my camera and waited for the perfect timing for this shot. This is the only shot i took of the
man running. After that he went to the left inside that wood wall they made for construction.
This is an unsolved case.
In total i captured 4 photo's.
Because i also captured when the cop went inside that construction wall.
And i went inside and saw how one of the cops was slapping the man with his hands in his face. He told the cop to stop, and the cop said, I CAN HIT YOU HOW MUCH I WANT.
After that i went to take a shot, but looks like there was a cop already inside and he notice i had a camera and he said the cop that was slapping the man to stop.
The 2 photo's i took inside , was taken really shaky because i just hanged it on the neck strap and didn't really hold to the eye, because i didn't want him to notice the camera. AND he didn't till the other cop came and noticed.
This happening is really strange, the man that was running, seems was working where he went in, as you can see on his hands , and shoes , he has white stuff all over. He is Spanish speaking.
After i captured this unforgettable moment, There was a kid that just came to me and told me that the man ran round the block and hid himself in a trashcan.
UPDATE!
''in the left arm, is what looks like a cellphone, maybe he tried to call someone to pick him up?''
Also many people around acted like nothing happened. They didn't question about it.
And for the kids it was a funny happening. I only saw one woman going in after the happening, and the kids went in also after i went in.
Hallelujah Mountains
•Location Information
oLocation: Pandora
oResidents: Mountain Banshee; Na’vi; Great Leonopteryx (possibly)
•Behind the Scenes:
oFirst Appearance: Avatar
The Hallelujah Mountains (Na’vi name: Ayram alusìng meaning “Floating Mountains”) are floating islands that circulate slowly in the magnetic currents like icebergs at sea, scraping against each other and the towering mesa-like mountains of the region. On Pandora, huge outcroppings of unobtanium rip loose from the surface and float in the magnetic vortices due to the Meissner Effect.
Physical Description
They are overgrown with foliage at the top and straggly beards of vines hang down beneath the mountains like the roots of air-ferns. Their sides are sheer cliffs. Waterfalls, originating on the mesa-like tops, stream down the sides and disperse into spray at the bottoms, like upside-down geysers. The mist then condenses on other floating mountains and flows over the side and disperses, renewing the process. The local peaks and mesas actually project above the level of the craggy undersides of the few floating mountains Jake Sully can see, so it seems obvious that collisions are inevitable.
It is also the place that Norm Spellman wants to visit the most on Pandora—his wish is fulfilled when Grace Augustine decides to move her avatar program operation to the region when she realizes Jake is being manipulated by Quaritch. Most human detection instruments are useless amidst the large magnetic fields. The mountains float like clouds among the fixed mountains and swirling cloud structures. When they are in clear sunlight they cast distinct shadows on the land below.
In Na’vi Culture
The mountains are home to several clans, including Ni’awve and the Tipani. The latter reside in the settlement of Vayaha Village. In 2154 the Omaticaya fled to the mountains, seeking sanctuary at the Tree of Souls. The tree is one of the most sacred sites on Pandora.
The Hallelujah Mountains are also where mountain banshees choose to roost. This location atop the 2,600m high Mons Veritatis makes the final challenge on the path to becoming a Na’vi hunter (known as Iknimaya) even more difficult and dangerous, as the route taken to the top of the mountains is treacherous. One wrong move will send a candidate plummeting to his or her death. The danger of wild mountain banshees is also present. The local Tipani also refer to the entire region around their village as Iknimaya.
Behind the Scenes
The mountains also bear a similar appearance to the Chinese Huang Shan Mountains. James Cameron said that it was the Huang Shan mountains that inspired him to create the Hallelujah Mountains, which would explain the similar appearance. On January 25, 2010 in China, hundreds of locals in ethnic Tujia costumes “officially” renamed the Qiankunzhu mountains after the Hallelujah Mountains as a tribute to Avatar.
Sacred Sites
The Hallelujah Mountains: Fragile Giants
For humans, the Hallelujah Mountains are a stunning vista, a true wonder of the natural world. For the Na’vi, they are so much more.
It’s hard to imagine. And trust us: pictures don’t do it justice.
Whole mountains lifted from the earth like children’s balloons. Billions of tons of rock floating in the air as though hung there deliberately—some the size of boulders, and some miles across. The Hallelujah Mountains are one of the definitive natural wonders of Pandora, objects of surreal delight for every human lucky enough to see them.
As enduring as they are in both fact and imagination, the truth is that the mountains perform a delicate balancing act within the region’s geology and ecology. Most significantly, they represent a cherished, essential part of Na’vi spiritual life. From their role in the iknimaya to the mysteries of Eywa herself, the mountains are a prime sacred site, offering a fascinating glimpse into indigenous belief.
But first, an answer to the question you’re all thinking.
Yes, They Really Float. But How?
Admittedly, it took some digging for RDA geologists to figure it out—literally. The intense magnetic fields covering Pandora—and clustering in this region in particular—were common knowledge during early exploration of the moon, and it was assumed they had something to do with how the mountains stayed in place. But it wasn’t until unobtanium was excavated that a full picture started to come together.
What we know is that, thanks to the superconductive properties of the unobtanium deposits within, each mountain is surrounded by its own magnetic field that effectively keeps the mass in place, as though fenced in. And conforming to the rules of a fence, the mountains can actually shift position within their boundaries—their occasional collisions inspired the Na’vi to nickname them “Thundering Mountains.”
The Eywa Theory
The alternate point of view belongs to the Na’vi. There is nothing unsolved in the Na’vi ontology: everything that exists does so within the system of interconnectedness controlled by Eywa. And by Na’vi accounts, the mountains were lifted as a part of Eywa’s plan. This puts things lightly; really, the Na’vi regard the mountains as one of the greatest symbols of Eywa’s organizing abilities. As we know, it’s extremely unlikely for a mountain to float. Isn’t the fact that these do prove that a higher power made it so?
One natural condition that gives the “sacred plan” idea credence is the interplay between life on the ground and life on the mountains, and how, depending how you look at it, the mountains almost need to be floating in order to sustain this interplay. Which brings us to one interplay in particular, which has risen to mythic levels on Pandora: that of the mainland Na’vi with the mountain banshee.
A Deadly Rite of Passage
A defining characteristic of the Na’vi is the ability to form neural links with some of the animal life of Pandora. And there is no bond more central to clan life—or that more captures the Na’vi imagination—than the one forged with the mountain banshee.
But this bond has to be earned. And that means a dangerous rite of passage called the iknimaya. When a young Omatikaya Na’vi comes of age, he or she may choose to make a long and treacherous solo climb up the vines connecting the floating mountains to the banshee rookeries found in the high peaks. There, the heart of the challenge begins. A banshee never relents to Na’vi bonding advances without resistance, and so the Na’vi only gets one chance; it will end either in free-fall or the banshee leaving its mountain habitat to nest near its rider, who now wears the title Ikran Makto—“Banshee Rider.”
Seeing the Mountains All Over Again
Obviously, the best way to feel the monumental power of the Hallelujah Mountains (and the other ranges of floating mountains on Pandora, such as the one hovering over the Mo’ara Valley) is to see them in person, in the way that the power of the Grand Canyon or the gorges of the Yangtze River can only be experienced when you’re really there. Like the Grand Canyon, the mountains are picturesque, often the first thing people think of when they think of Pandoran landscape. We love to look at the mountains—but to really see them, and all that they signify, you have to put them in perspective. Imagine if the Grand Canyon, in addition to being beautiful, defined how you entered into adulthood, in effect giving you your identity among friends and family. Imagine if the Grand Canyon represented an emblem of a spiritual force guiding every gesture of every day of your life—that its very existence was a spectacular visual proof of that force and its will. Do this, and you will have the briefest glimpse of what the mountains mean to the Na’vi, deeply and personally, and why we must do what we can to understand, respect, and celebrate them. When you consider the wonders of our two explored galaxies, they are literally irreplaceable.
Hallelujah Mountains
•Location Information
oLocation: Pandora
oResidents: Mountain Banshee; Na’vi; Great Leonopteryx (possibly)
•Behind the Scenes:
oFirst Appearance: Avatar
The Hallelujah Mountains (Na’vi name: Ayram alusìng meaning “Floating Mountains”) are floating islands that circulate slowly in the magnetic currents like icebergs at sea, scraping against each other and the towering mesa-like mountains of the region. On Pandora, huge outcroppings of unobtanium rip loose from the surface and float in the magnetic vortices due to the Meissner Effect.
Physical Description
They are overgrown with foliage at the top and straggly beards of vines hang down beneath the mountains like the roots of air-ferns. Their sides are sheer cliffs. Waterfalls, originating on the mesa-like tops, stream down the sides and disperse into spray at the bottoms, like upside-down geysers. The mist then condenses on other floating mountains and flows over the side and disperses, renewing the process. The local peaks and mesas actually project above the level of the craggy undersides of the few floating mountains Jake Sully can see, so it seems obvious that collisions are inevitable.
It is also the place that Norm Spellman wants to visit the most on Pandora—his wish is fulfilled when Grace Augustine decides to move her avatar program operation to the region when she realizes Jake is being manipulated by Quaritch. Most human detection instruments are useless amidst the large magnetic fields. The mountains float like clouds among the fixed mountains and swirling cloud structures. When they are in clear sunlight they cast distinct shadows on the land below.
In Na’vi Culture
The mountains are home to several clans, including Ni’awve and the Tipani. The latter reside in the settlement of Vayaha Village. In 2154 the Omaticaya fled to the mountains, seeking sanctuary at the Tree of Souls. The tree is one of the most sacred sites on Pandora.
The Hallelujah Mountains are also where mountain banshees choose to roost. This location atop the 2,600m high Mons Veritatis makes the final challenge on the path to becoming a Na’vi hunter (known as Iknimaya) even more difficult and dangerous, as the route taken to the top of the mountains is treacherous. One wrong move will send a candidate plummeting to his or her death. The danger of wild mountain banshees is also present. The local Tipani also refer to the entire region around their village as Iknimaya.
Behind the Scenes
The mountains also bear a similar appearance to the Chinese Huang Shan Mountains. James Cameron said that it was the Huang Shan mountains that inspired him to create the Hallelujah Mountains, which would explain the similar appearance. On January 25, 2010 in China, hundreds of locals in ethnic Tujia costumes “officially” renamed the Qiankunzhu mountains after the Hallelujah Mountains as a tribute to Avatar.
Sacred Sites
The Hallelujah Mountains: Fragile Giants
For humans, the Hallelujah Mountains are a stunning vista, a true wonder of the natural world. For the Na’vi, they are so much more.
It’s hard to imagine. And trust us: pictures don’t do it justice.
Whole mountains lifted from the earth like children’s balloons. Billions of tons of rock floating in the air as though hung there deliberately—some the size of boulders, and some miles across. The Hallelujah Mountains are one of the definitive natural wonders of Pandora, objects of surreal delight for every human lucky enough to see them.
As enduring as they are in both fact and imagination, the truth is that the mountains perform a delicate balancing act within the region’s geology and ecology. Most significantly, they represent a cherished, essential part of Na’vi spiritual life. From their role in the iknimaya to the mysteries of Eywa herself, the mountains are a prime sacred site, offering a fascinating glimpse into indigenous belief.
But first, an answer to the question you’re all thinking.
Yes, They Really Float. But How?
Admittedly, it took some digging for RDA geologists to figure it out—literally. The intense magnetic fields covering Pandora—and clustering in this region in particular—were common knowledge during early exploration of the moon, and it was assumed they had something to do with how the mountains stayed in place. But it wasn’t until unobtanium was excavated that a full picture started to come together.
What we know is that, thanks to the superconductive properties of the unobtanium deposits within, each mountain is surrounded by its own magnetic field that effectively keeps the mass in place, as though fenced in. And conforming to the rules of a fence, the mountains can actually shift position within their boundaries—their occasional collisions inspired the Na’vi to nickname them “Thundering Mountains.”
The Eywa Theory
The alternate point of view belongs to the Na’vi. There is nothing unsolved in the Na’vi ontology: everything that exists does so within the system of interconnectedness controlled by Eywa. And by Na’vi accounts, the mountains were lifted as a part of Eywa’s plan. This puts things lightly; really, the Na’vi regard the mountains as one of the greatest symbols of Eywa’s organizing abilities. As we know, it’s extremely unlikely for a mountain to float. Isn’t the fact that these do prove that a higher power made it so?
One natural condition that gives the “sacred plan” idea credence is the interplay between life on the ground and life on the mountains, and how, depending how you look at it, the mountains almost need to be floating in order to sustain this interplay. Which brings us to one interplay in particular, which has risen to mythic levels on Pandora: that of the mainland Na’vi with the mountain banshee.
A Deadly Rite of Passage
A defining characteristic of the Na’vi is the ability to form neural links with some of the animal life of Pandora. And there is no bond more central to clan life—or that more captures the Na’vi imagination—than the one forged with the mountain banshee.
But this bond has to be earned. And that means a dangerous rite of passage called the iknimaya. When a young Omatikaya Na’vi comes of age, he or she may choose to make a long and treacherous solo climb up the vines connecting the floating mountains to the banshee rookeries found in the high peaks. There, the heart of the challenge begins. A banshee never relents to Na’vi bonding advances without resistance, and so the Na’vi only gets one chance; it will end either in free-fall or the banshee leaving its mountain habitat to nest near its rider, who now wears the title Ikran Makto—“Banshee Rider.”
Seeing the Mountains All Over Again
Obviously, the best way to feel the monumental power of the Hallelujah Mountains (and the other ranges of floating mountains on Pandora, such as the one hovering over the Mo’ara Valley) is to see them in person, in the way that the power of the Grand Canyon or the gorges of the Yangtze River can only be experienced when you’re really there. Like the Grand Canyon, the mountains are picturesque, often the first thing people think of when they think of Pandoran landscape. We love to look at the mountains—but to really see them, and all that they signify, you have to put them in perspective. Imagine if the Grand Canyon, in addition to being beautiful, defined how you entered into adulthood, in effect giving you your identity among friends and family. Imagine if the Grand Canyon represented an emblem of a spiritual force guiding every gesture of every day of your life—that its very existence was a spectacular visual proof of that force and its will. Do this, and you will have the briefest glimpse of what the mountains mean to the Na’vi, deeply and personally, and why we must do what we can to understand, respect, and celebrate them. When you consider the wonders of our two explored galaxies, they are literally irreplaceable.
Caligula and Divus Augustus. AR denarius (3.56 gm). Lugdunum, AD 37. C. CAESAR AVG GERM IMP TR POT COS, bare head of Caligula right / Radiate head of Divus Augustus right, between two stars. RIC 2. BMCRE 4. RSC 11. RCTV 1808.For more on Caligulan Numismatic Articles see: Coins courtesy cngoins.com
Related Articles of Caligula from American Numismatic Society Library Search
Library Catalog Search (Preliminary Version)
Full Record: Barrett, Anthony A. The invalidation of currency in the Roman Empire : the Claudian demonetization of Caligula's AES. (1999)
Full Record: Bost, Jean-Pierre. Routes, cits et ateliers montaires : quelques remarques sur les officines hispaniques entre les rgnes d'Auguste en de Caligula. (1999)
Full Record: Bibliothque Municipale d'Etude et d'Information de Grenoble. Grenoble : Bibliothque Municipale d'Etude et d'Information : catalogue des monnaies. II. Monnaies romaines. Monnaies impriales romaines. 2. Caligula - Neron . Index. / Bernard Rmy, Frdric Bontoux, Virginie Risler. (1998)
Full Record: Gainor, John R. The image of the Julio-Claudian dynasty from coins / by John R. Gainor.
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Monete romane imperiali del Museo G. B. Adriani. Parte 3, Caius (37-41 d.C.) / Rodolfo Martini. (2001)
Full Record: ACCLA privy to presentation by Richard Baker on Caligula. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 1. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 2. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 3. (2002)
Full Record: Kemmers, Fleur. Caligula on the Lower Rhine : Coin finds from the Roman Fort of Albaniana (The Netherlands) / Fleur Kemmers. (2004)
Full Record: Estiot, Sylviane. Le trsor de Meussia (Jura) : 399 monnaies d'argent d'poques rpublicaine et julio-claudienne / Sylviane Estiot, Isabelle Aymar. (2002)
Full Record: Gocht, Hans. Namenstilgungen an Bronzemünzen des Caligula und Claudius / Hans Gocht. (2003)
Full Record: Gomis Justo, Marivi. Ercavica : La emision de Caligula. Estimacion del numero de cunos originales.
Full Record: Sayles, Wayne G. Fakes on the Internet. (2002)
Full Record: Kemmers, Fleur. The coin finds from the Roman fort Albaniana, the Netherlands / Fleur Kemmers . (2005)
Full Record: Lopez Snchez, Fernando. La afirmacion soberana de Caligula y de Claudio y el fin de las acunaciones ciudadanas en occidente / Fernando Lopez Snchez. (2000)
Full Record: Besombes, Paul-Andr. Les monnaies hispaniques de Claude Ier des dpôts de la Vilaine (Rennes) et de Saint-Lonard (Mayenne) : tmoins de quel type de contact entre l'Armorique et la pninsule ibrique ? / Paul-Andr Besombes. (2005)
Full Record: Catalli, Fiorenzo. Le thesaurus de Sora / Fiorenzo Catalli et John Scheid.
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Faux deniers de Caligula de la Renaissance.
Full Record: Vermeule, Cornelius. Faces of Empire (Julius Caesar to Justinian). Part II(B), More young faces : Caligula again and Nero reborn / Cornelius Vermeule. (2005)
Full Record: Geranio, Joe. Portraits of Caligula : the seated figure? / Joe Geranio. (2007)
Full Record: Aguilera Hernandez, Alberto. Acerca de un as de Caligula hallado en Zaragoza / Alberto Aguilera Hernandez. (2007)
Full Record: Butcher, K. E. T. Caligula : the evil emperor. (1985)
Full Record: Fuchs, Michaela. Frauen um Caligula und Claudius : Milonia Caesonia, Drusilla und Messalina. (1990)
Full Record: Faur, Jean-Claude. Moneda de Caligula de Museo Arqueologico Provincial de Tarragona. (1979)
Full Record: British Museum. Dept. of coins and medals. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British museum. Vol. I: Augustus to Vitellius / by Harold Mattingly. (1976)
Full Record: Conrad, Edwin. A Caligula Isotope of Hadrian. (1968)
Full Record: Conrad, Edwin. The Metamorphosis of an Allegad 'As of Hadrian.' (1968)
Full Record: Bendall, Simon. A 'new' gold quinarius of Caligula. (1985)
Full Record: Cortellini, Nereo. Le monete di Caligola nel Cohen.
Full Record: Guey, Julien. Les "bains d'or" de Caligula "Immensi Avreorvm Acervi (Sutone, Cal., 42,3).
Full Record: Guey, J. Les "bains d'or" de Caligula : Sutone, Cal. 42, 3.
Full Record: Curry, Michael R. The Aes Quadrans of Caligula. (1968)
Full Record: Jonas, Elemr. L'emploi dar "damnatio memoriae" sur l'un des "dupondius" de Calgula. (1937)
Full Record: Julian, R. W. The coins of Caligula. (1994)
Full Record: Donciu, Ramiro. Cu privire la activitatea militara a lui Caius (Caligula) in anul 40 e.n. (1983)
Full Record: Hansen, Peter. A history of Caligula's Vesta. (1992)
Full Record: Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Augustus, Caligula oder Caludius? (1978)
Full Record: Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Die Organisation der Münzprgung Caligulas. (1987)
Full Record: Johansen, Flemming S. The sculpted portraits of Caligula. (1987)
Full Record: Carter, G. F. Chemical compositions of copper-based Roman coins. V : imitations of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero / G. F. Carter and others. (1978)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. L'atelier de Lyon sous Auguste : Tibre et Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Les missions d'or et d'argent de Caligula dans l'atelier de Lyon. (1976)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Le monnayage de l'atelier de Lyon des origines au rgne de Caligula (43 avant J.-C. - 41 aprs J.-C.). (1983)
Full Record: Nony, D. Quelques as d'imitation de Caligula trouves a Bordeaux (Gironde). (1981)
Full Record: Levy, Brooks Emmons. Caligula's radiate crown. (1988)
Full Record: Poulsen, Vagn. Un nouveau visage de Caligula. (1972)
Full Record: Price, Martin Jessop. Elephant in Crete? New light ona cistophorus of Caligula. (1973)
Full Record: MacInnis, H. Frank. Ego-driven emperor commits excesses. (1979)
Full Record: McKenna, Thomas P. The case of the curious coin of Caligula : a provincial bronze restruck with legend-only dies. (1994)
Full Record: Mowat, Robert. Bronzes remarquables de Tibre, de son fils, de ses petits-fils et de Caligula. (1911)
Full Record: Koenig, Franz E. Roma, monete dal Tevere : l'imperatore Gaio (Caligola). (1988)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. Caligula's coins profile despot. (1993)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. A numismatic mystery : "the Caligula quadrans." (1994)
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Osservazioni su contromarche ed erosioni su assi de Caligula. (1980)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Moneta Imperii Romani. Band 2 und 3. Die Münzprgung der Kaiser Tiberius und Caius (Caligula) 14/41 / von Wolfgang Szaivert. (1984)
Full Record: Boschung, Dietrich. Die Bildnisse des Caligula. Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Jucker, Hans. Deutsches Archaologisches Institut. Das Romische Herrscherbild. 1. Abt., Bd. 4, Die Bildnisse des Caligula / Dietrich Boschung ; mit einem Beitrag von Hans-Markus von Kaenel ; auf Grund der Vorarbeiten und Marterialsammlungen von Hans Jucker. (1989)
Full Record: Rosborough, Ruskin R. An epigraphic commentary on Suetonius's life of Gaius Caligula. A thesis...for the...Doctor of Philosophy. (1920)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. A propos de l'aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. Un aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Ritter, Hans-Werner. Adlocutio und Corona Civica unter Caligula und Tiberius. (1971)
Full Record: Kumpikevicius, Gordon C. A numismatic look at Gaius. (1979)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. La coerenza di Caligola nella gestione della moneta / Adriano Savio. (1988)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. Note su alcune monete di Gaio-Caligola. (1973)
Full Record: Stylow, Armin U. Die Quadranten des Caligula als Propaganda-münzen.münzen" aus der stdtischen sammlung zu Osnabrück. (1971)
Full Record: Schwartz, Jacques. Le Monnayage Snatorial entre 37 et 42 P.C. (1951)
Full Record: Rodolfo Martini, ed. Sylloge nummorum Romanorum. Italia. Milano, Civiche Raccolte Numismatiche Vol. 1 Giulio-Claudii / a cura di Rodolfo Martini. (1990)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Zur Julisch-Claudischen Münzprgung. (1979)
Full Record: Vedrianus. The Roman Imperial series. V. Gaius. (1963)
Full Record: Tietze, Christian M. Kaiser Cajus Caesar, genannt Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Wood, Susan. Diva Drusilla Panthea and the sisters of Caligula / Susan Wood. (1995)
Full Record: Sutherland, Carol Humphrey Vivian. Coinage in Roman imperial policy 31 B.C.-A.D. 68. (1951)
Full Record: Sutherland, C. H. V. The mints of Lugdunum and Rome under Gaius : an unsolved problem. (1981)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Familienpropaganda der Kaiser Caligula und Claudius : Agrippina Maior und Antonia Augusta auf Münzen. (1978)
Full Record: Voirol, August. Eine Warenumsatzsteuer im antiken Rom und der numismatische Beleg inher Aufhebung : Centesima rerum venalium. (1943)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Zur Münzprgung des Caligula von Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza). (1973)
Gaius (Caligula), with Agrippina Senior. AD 37-41. AV Aureus (7.67 g, 12h). Lugdunum (Lyon) mint. Struck AD 37-38. Laureate head of Gaius (Caligula) right / Draped bust of Agrippina Senior right. RIC I 13; Lyon 168/5 (D80/R104); Calicó 326. For more on Caligulan Numismatic Articles see: Coins courtesy cngoins.com
Related Articles of Caligula from American Numismatic Society Library Search
Library Catalog Search (Preliminary Version)
Full Record: Barrett, Anthony A. The invalidation of currency in the Roman Empire : the Claudian demonetization of Caligula's AES. (1999)
Full Record: Bost, Jean-Pierre. Routes, cits et ateliers montaires : quelques remarques sur les officines hispaniques entre les rgnes d'Auguste en de Caligula. (1999)
Full Record: Bibliothque Municipale d'Etude et d'Information de Grenoble. Grenoble : Bibliothque Municipale d'Etude et d'Information : catalogue des monnaies. II. Monnaies romaines. Monnaies impriales romaines. 2. Caligula - Neron . Index. / Bernard Rmy, Frdric Bontoux, Virginie Risler. (1998)
Full Record: Gainor, John R. The image of the Julio-Claudian dynasty from coins / by John R. Gainor.
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Monete romane imperiali del Museo G. B. Adriani. Parte 3, Caius (37-41 d.C.) / Rodolfo Martini. (2001)
Full Record: ACCLA privy to presentation by Richard Baker on Caligula. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 1. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 2. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 3. (2002)
Full Record: Kemmers, Fleur. Caligula on the Lower Rhine : Coin finds from the Roman Fort of Albaniana (The Netherlands) / Fleur Kemmers. (2004)
Full Record: Estiot, Sylviane. Le trsor de Meussia (Jura) : 399 monnaies d'argent d'poques rpublicaine et julio-claudienne / Sylviane Estiot, Isabelle Aymar. (2002)
Full Record: Gocht, Hans. Namenstilgungen an Bronzemünzen des Caligula und Claudius / Hans Gocht. (2003)
Full Record: Gomis Justo, Marivi. Ercavica : La emision de Caligula. Estimacion del numero de cunos originales.
Full Record: Sayles, Wayne G. Fakes on the Internet. (2002)
Full Record: Kemmers, Fleur. The coin finds from the Roman fort Albaniana, the Netherlands / Fleur Kemmers . (2005)
Full Record: Lopez Snchez, Fernando. La afirmacion soberana de Caligula y de Claudio y el fin de las acunaciones ciudadanas en occidente / Fernando Lopez Snchez. (2000)
Full Record: Besombes, Paul-Andr. Les monnaies hispaniques de Claude Ier des dpôts de la Vilaine (Rennes) et de Saint-Lonard (Mayenne) : tmoins de quel type de contact entre l'Armorique et la pninsule ibrique ? / Paul-Andr Besombes. (2005)
Full Record: Catalli, Fiorenzo. Le thesaurus de Sora / Fiorenzo Catalli et John Scheid.
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Faux deniers de Caligula de la Renaissance.
Full Record: Vermeule, Cornelius. Faces of Empire (Julius Caesar to Justinian). Part II(B), More young faces : Caligula again and Nero reborn / Cornelius Vermeule. (2005)
Full Record: Geranio, Joe. Portraits of Caligula : the seated figure? / Joe Geranio. (2007)
Full Record: Aguilera Hernandez, Alberto. Acerca de un as de Caligula hallado en Zaragoza / Alberto Aguilera Hernandez. (2007)
Full Record: Butcher, K. E. T. Caligula : the evil emperor. (1985)
Full Record: Fuchs, Michaela. Frauen um Caligula und Claudius : Milonia Caesonia, Drusilla und Messalina. (1990)
Full Record: Faur, Jean-Claude. Moneda de Caligula de Museo Arqueologico Provincial de Tarragona. (1979)
Full Record: British Museum. Dept. of coins and medals. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British museum. Vol. I: Augustus to Vitellius / by Harold Mattingly. (1976)
Full Record: Conrad, Edwin. A Caligula Isotope of Hadrian. (1968)
Full Record: Conrad, Edwin. The Metamorphosis of an Allegad 'As of Hadrian.' (1968)
Full Record: Bendall, Simon. A 'new' gold quinarius of Caligula. (1985)
Full Record: Cortellini, Nereo. Le monete di Caligola nel Cohen.
Full Record: Guey, Julien. Les "bains d'or" de Caligula "Immensi Avreorvm Acervi (Sutone, Cal., 42,3).
Full Record: Guey, J. Les "bains d'or" de Caligula : Sutone, Cal. 42, 3.
Full Record: Curry, Michael R. The Aes Quadrans of Caligula. (1968)
Full Record: Jonas, Elemr. L'emploi dar "damnatio memoriae" sur l'un des "dupondius" de Calgula. (1937)
Full Record: Julian, R. W. The coins of Caligula. (1994)
Full Record: Donciu, Ramiro. Cu privire la activitatea militara a lui Caius (Caligula) in anul 40 e.n. (1983)
Full Record: Hansen, Peter. A history of Caligula's Vesta. (1992)
Full Record: Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Augustus, Caligula oder Caludius? (1978)
Full Record: Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Die Organisation der Münzprgung Caligulas. (1987)
Full Record: Johansen, Flemming S. The sculpted portraits of Caligula. (1987)
Full Record: Carter, G. F. Chemical compositions of copper-based Roman coins. V : imitations of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero / G. F. Carter and others. (1978)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. L'atelier de Lyon sous Auguste : Tibre et Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Les missions d'or et d'argent de Caligula dans l'atelier de Lyon. (1976)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Le monnayage de l'atelier de Lyon des origines au rgne de Caligula (43 avant J.-C. - 41 aprs J.-C.). (1983)
Full Record: Nony, D. Quelques as d'imitation de Caligula trouves a Bordeaux (Gironde). (1981)
Full Record: Levy, Brooks Emmons. Caligula's radiate crown. (1988)
Full Record: Poulsen, Vagn. Un nouveau visage de Caligula. (1972)
Full Record: Price, Martin Jessop. Elephant in Crete? New light ona cistophorus of Caligula. (1973)
Full Record: MacInnis, H. Frank. Ego-driven emperor commits excesses. (1979)
Full Record: McKenna, Thomas P. The case of the curious coin of Caligula : a provincial bronze restruck with legend-only dies. (1994)
Full Record: Mowat, Robert. Bronzes remarquables de Tibre, de son fils, de ses petits-fils et de Caligula. (1911)
Full Record: Koenig, Franz E. Roma, monete dal Tevere : l'imperatore Gaio (Caligola). (1988)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. Caligula's coins profile despot. (1993)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. A numismatic mystery : "the Caligula quadrans." (1994)
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Osservazioni su contromarche ed erosioni su assi de Caligula. (1980)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Moneta Imperii Romani. Band 2 und 3. Die Münzprgung der Kaiser Tiberius und Caius (Caligula) 14/41 / von Wolfgang Szaivert. (1984)
Full Record: Boschung, Dietrich. Die Bildnisse des Caligula. Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Jucker, Hans. Deutsches Archaologisches Institut. Das Romische Herrscherbild. 1. Abt., Bd. 4, Die Bildnisse des Caligula / Dietrich Boschung ; mit einem Beitrag von Hans-Markus von Kaenel ; auf Grund der Vorarbeiten und Marterialsammlungen von Hans Jucker. (1989)
Full Record: Rosborough, Ruskin R. An epigraphic commentary on Suetonius's life of Gaius Caligula. A thesis...for the...Doctor of Philosophy. (1920)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. A propos de l'aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. Un aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Ritter, Hans-Werner. Adlocutio und Corona Civica unter Caligula und Tiberius. (1971)
Full Record: Kumpikevicius, Gordon C. A numismatic look at Gaius. (1979)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. La coerenza di Caligola nella gestione della moneta / Adriano Savio. (1988)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. Note su alcune monete di Gaio-Caligola. (1973)
Full Record: Stylow, Armin U. Die Quadranten des Caligula als Propaganda-münzen.münzen" aus der stdtischen sammlung zu Osnabrück. (1971)
Full Record: Schwartz, Jacques. Le Monnayage Snatorial entre 37 et 42 P.C. (1951)
Full Record: Rodolfo Martini, ed. Sylloge nummorum Romanorum. Italia. Milano, Civiche Raccolte Numismatiche Vol. 1 Giulio-Claudii / a cura di Rodolfo Martini. (1990)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Zur Julisch-Claudischen Münzprgung. (1979)
Full Record: Vedrianus. The Roman Imperial series. V. Gaius. (1963)
Full Record: Tietze, Christian M. Kaiser Cajus Caesar, genannt Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Wood, Susan. Diva Drusilla Panthea and the sisters of Caligula / Susan Wood. (1995)
Full Record: Sutherland, Carol Humphrey Vivian. Coinage in Roman imperial policy 31 B.C.-A.D. 68. (1951)
Full Record: Sutherland, C. H. V. The mints of Lugdunum and Rome under Gaius : an unsolved problem. (1981)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Familienpropaganda der Kaiser Caligula und Claudius : Agrippina Maior und Antonia Augusta auf Münzen. (1978)
Full Record: Voirol, August. Eine Warenumsatzsteuer im antiken Rom und der numismatische Beleg inher Aufhebung : Centesima rerum venalium. (1943)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Zur Münzprgung des Caligula von Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza). (1973)
Agrippa. Died AD 12. Æ As (28mm, 10.39 g). Rome mint. Struck under Gaius (Caligula), AD 37-41. Head left, wearing rostral crown / Neptune standing left, holding dolphin and trident. RIC I 58 (Gaius); BMCRE 161 (Tiberius); Cohen 3.
If you are interested in Julio Claudian Iconography and portrait study you may enjoy these two links:
Julio Claudian Iconographic Association- Joe Geranio- Administrator at groups.yahoo.com/group/julioclaudian/
The Portraiture of Caligula- Joe Geranio- Administrator- at
Both are non-profit sites and for educational use only.For more on Caligulan Numismatic Articles see: Coins courtesy cngoins.com
Related Articles of Caligula from American Numismatic Society Library Search
Library Catalog Search (Preliminary Version)
Full Record: Barrett, Anthony A. The invalidation of currency in the Roman Empire : the Claudian demonetization of Caligula's AES. (1999)
Full Record: Bost, Jean-Pierre. Routes, cits et ateliers montaires : quelques remarques sur les officines hispaniques entre les rgnes d'Auguste en de Caligula. (1999)
Full Record: Bibliothque Municipale d'Etude et d'Information de Grenoble. Grenoble : Bibliothque Municipale d'Etude et d'Information : catalogue des monnaies. II. Monnaies romaines. Monnaies impriales romaines. 2. Caligula - Neron . Index. / Bernard Rmy, Frdric Bontoux, Virginie Risler. (1998)
Full Record: Gainor, John R. The image of the Julio-Claudian dynasty from coins / by John R. Gainor.
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Monete romane imperiali del Museo G. B. Adriani. Parte 3, Caius (37-41 d.C.) / Rodolfo Martini. (2001)
Full Record: ACCLA privy to presentation by Richard Baker on Caligula. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 1. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 2. (2002)
Full Record: Wend, David A. Caligula, the emperor as autocrat. Part 3. (2002)
Full Record: Kemmers, Fleur. Caligula on the Lower Rhine : Coin finds from the Roman Fort of Albaniana (The Netherlands) / Fleur Kemmers. (2004)
Full Record: Estiot, Sylviane. Le trsor de Meussia (Jura) : 399 monnaies d'argent d'poques rpublicaine et julio-claudienne / Sylviane Estiot, Isabelle Aymar. (2002)
Full Record: Gocht, Hans. Namenstilgungen an Bronzemünzen des Caligula und Claudius / Hans Gocht. (2003)
Full Record: Gomis Justo, Marivi. Ercavica : La emision de Caligula. Estimacion del numero de cunos originales.
Full Record: Sayles, Wayne G. Fakes on the Internet. (2002)
Full Record: Kemmers, Fleur. The coin finds from the Roman fort Albaniana, the Netherlands / Fleur Kemmers . (2005)
Full Record: Lopez Snchez, Fernando. La afirmacion soberana de Caligula y de Claudio y el fin de las acunaciones ciudadanas en occidente / Fernando Lopez Snchez. (2000)
Full Record: Besombes, Paul-Andr. Les monnaies hispaniques de Claude Ier des dpôts de la Vilaine (Rennes) et de Saint-Lonard (Mayenne) : tmoins de quel type de contact entre l'Armorique et la pninsule ibrique ? / Paul-Andr Besombes. (2005)
Full Record: Catalli, Fiorenzo. Le thesaurus de Sora / Fiorenzo Catalli et John Scheid.
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Faux deniers de Caligula de la Renaissance.
Full Record: Vermeule, Cornelius. Faces of Empire (Julius Caesar to Justinian). Part II(B), More young faces : Caligula again and Nero reborn / Cornelius Vermeule. (2005)
Full Record: Geranio, Joe. Portraits of Caligula : the seated figure? / Joe Geranio. (2007)
Full Record: Aguilera Hernandez, Alberto. Acerca de un as de Caligula hallado en Zaragoza / Alberto Aguilera Hernandez. (2007)
Full Record: Butcher, K. E. T. Caligula : the evil emperor. (1985)
Full Record: Fuchs, Michaela. Frauen um Caligula und Claudius : Milonia Caesonia, Drusilla und Messalina. (1990)
Full Record: Faur, Jean-Claude. Moneda de Caligula de Museo Arqueologico Provincial de Tarragona. (1979)
Full Record: British Museum. Dept. of coins and medals. Coins of the Roman Empire in the British museum. Vol. I: Augustus to Vitellius / by Harold Mattingly. (1976)
Full Record: Conrad, Edwin. A Caligula Isotope of Hadrian. (1968)
Full Record: Conrad, Edwin. The Metamorphosis of an Allegad 'As of Hadrian.' (1968)
Full Record: Bendall, Simon. A 'new' gold quinarius of Caligula. (1985)
Full Record: Cortellini, Nereo. Le monete di Caligola nel Cohen.
Full Record: Guey, Julien. Les "bains d'or" de Caligula "Immensi Avreorvm Acervi (Sutone, Cal., 42,3).
Full Record: Guey, J. Les "bains d'or" de Caligula : Sutone, Cal. 42, 3.
Full Record: Curry, Michael R. The Aes Quadrans of Caligula. (1968)
Full Record: Jonas, Elemr. L'emploi dar "damnatio memoriae" sur l'un des "dupondius" de Calgula. (1937)
Full Record: Julian, R. W. The coins of Caligula. (1994)
Full Record: Donciu, Ramiro. Cu privire la activitatea militara a lui Caius (Caligula) in anul 40 e.n. (1983)
Full Record: Hansen, Peter. A history of Caligula's Vesta. (1992)
Full Record: Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Augustus, Caligula oder Caludius? (1978)
Full Record: Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Die Organisation der Münzprgung Caligulas. (1987)
Full Record: Johansen, Flemming S. The sculpted portraits of Caligula. (1987)
Full Record: Carter, G. F. Chemical compositions of copper-based Roman coins. V : imitations of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero / G. F. Carter and others. (1978)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. L'atelier de Lyon sous Auguste : Tibre et Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Les missions d'or et d'argent de Caligula dans l'atelier de Lyon. (1976)
Full Record: Giard, Jean-Baptiste. Le monnayage de l'atelier de Lyon des origines au rgne de Caligula (43 avant J.-C. - 41 aprs J.-C.). (1983)
Full Record: Nony, D. Quelques as d'imitation de Caligula trouves a Bordeaux (Gironde). (1981)
Full Record: Levy, Brooks Emmons. Caligula's radiate crown. (1988)
Full Record: Poulsen, Vagn. Un nouveau visage de Caligula. (1972)
Full Record: Price, Martin Jessop. Elephant in Crete? New light ona cistophorus of Caligula. (1973)
Full Record: MacInnis, H. Frank. Ego-driven emperor commits excesses. (1979)
Full Record: McKenna, Thomas P. The case of the curious coin of Caligula : a provincial bronze restruck with legend-only dies. (1994)
Full Record: Mowat, Robert. Bronzes remarquables de Tibre, de son fils, de ses petits-fils et de Caligula. (1911)
Full Record: Koenig, Franz E. Roma, monete dal Tevere : l'imperatore Gaio (Caligola). (1988)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. Caligula's coins profile despot. (1993)
Full Record: Kollgaard, Ron. A numismatic mystery : "the Caligula quadrans." (1994)
Full Record: Martini, Rodolfo. Osservazioni su contromarche ed erosioni su assi de Caligula. (1980)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Moneta Imperii Romani. Band 2 und 3. Die Münzprgung der Kaiser Tiberius und Caius (Caligula) 14/41 / von Wolfgang Szaivert. (1984)
Full Record: Boschung, Dietrich. Die Bildnisse des Caligula. Kaenel, Hans-Markus von. Jucker, Hans. Deutsches Archaologisches Institut. Das Romische Herrscherbild. 1. Abt., Bd. 4, Die Bildnisse des Caligula / Dietrich Boschung ; mit einem Beitrag von Hans-Markus von Kaenel ; auf Grund der Vorarbeiten und Marterialsammlungen von Hans Jucker. (1989)
Full Record: Rosborough, Ruskin R. An epigraphic commentary on Suetonius's life of Gaius Caligula. A thesis...for the...Doctor of Philosophy. (1920)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. A propos de l'aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Richard, Jean-Claude. Un aureus de Caligula dcouvert Saint-Colomban-des-Villards (Savoie). (1982)
Full Record: Ritter, Hans-Werner. Adlocutio und Corona Civica unter Caligula und Tiberius. (1971)
Full Record: Kumpikevicius, Gordon C. A numismatic look at Gaius. (1979)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. La coerenza di Caligola nella gestione della moneta / Adriano Savio. (1988)
Full Record: Savio, Adriano. Note su alcune monete di Gaio-Caligola. (1973)
Full Record: Stylow, Armin U. Die Quadranten des Caligula als Propaganda-münzen.münzen" aus der stdtischen sammlung zu Osnabrück. (1971)
Full Record: Schwartz, Jacques. Le Monnayage Snatorial entre 37 et 42 P.C. (1951)
Full Record: Rodolfo Martini, ed. Sylloge nummorum Romanorum. Italia. Milano, Civiche Raccolte Numismatiche Vol. 1 Giulio-Claudii / a cura di Rodolfo Martini. (1990)
Full Record: Szaivert, Wolfgang. Zur Julisch-Claudischen Münzprgung. (1979)
Full Record: Vedrianus. The Roman Imperial series. V. Gaius. (1963)
Full Record: Tietze, Christian M. Kaiser Cajus Caesar, genannt Caligula. (1979)
Full Record: Wood, Susan. Diva Drusilla Panthea and the sisters of Caligula / Susan Wood. (1995)
Full Record: Sutherland, Carol Humphrey Vivian. Coinage in Roman imperial policy 31 B.C.-A.D. 68. (1951)
Full Record: Sutherland, C. H. V. The mints of Lugdunum and Rome under Gaius : an unsolved problem. (1981)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Familienpropaganda der Kaiser Caligula und Claudius : Agrippina Maior und Antonia Augusta auf Münzen. (1978)
Full Record: Voirol, August. Eine Warenumsatzsteuer im antiken Rom und der numismatische Beleg inher Aufhebung : Centesima rerum venalium. (1943)
Full Record: Trillmich, Walter. Zur Münzprgung des Caligula von Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza). (1973)
Bergen, historically Bjørgvin, is a city and municipality in Vestland county on the west coast of Norway. As of 2022, its population was roughly 289,330. Bergen is the second-largest city in Norway after national capital Oslo. The municipality covers 465 square kilometres (180 sq mi) and is located on the peninsula of Bergenshalvøyen. The city centre and northern neighbourhoods are on Byfjorden, 'the city fjord'. The city is surrounded by mountains, causing Bergen to be called the "city of seven mountains". Many of the extra-municipal suburbs are on islands. Bergen is the administrative centre of Vestland county. The city consists of eight boroughs: Arna, Bergenhus, Fana, Fyllingsdalen, Laksevåg, Ytrebygda, Årstad, and Åsane.
Trading in Bergen may have started as early as the 1020s. According to tradition, the city was founded in 1070 by King Olav Kyrre and was named Bjørgvin, 'the green meadow among the mountains'. It served as Norway's capital in the 13th century, and from the end of the 13th century became a bureau city of the Hanseatic League. Until 1789, Bergen enjoyed exclusive rights to mediate trade between Northern Norway and abroad, and it was the largest city in Norway until the 1830s when it was overtaken by the capital, Christiania (now known as Oslo). What remains of the quays, Bryggen, is a World Heritage Site. The city was hit by numerous fires over the years. The Bergen School of Meteorology was developed at the Geophysical Institute starting in 1917, the Norwegian School of Economics was founded in 1936, and the University of Bergen in 1946. From 1831 to 1972, Bergen was its own county. In 1972 the municipality absorbed four surrounding municipalities and became a part of Hordaland county.
The city is an international centre for aquaculture, shipping, the offshore petroleum industry and subsea technology, and a national centre for higher education, media, tourism and finance. Bergen Port is Norway's busiest in terms of both freight and passengers, with over 300 cruise ship calls a year bringing nearly a half a million passengers to Bergen, a number that has doubled in 10 years. Almost half of the passengers are German or British. The city's main football team is SK Brann and a unique tradition of the city is the buekorps, which are traditional marching neighbourhood youth organisations. Natives speak a distinct dialect, known as Bergensk. The city features Bergen Airport, Flesland and Bergen Light Rail, and is the terminus of the Bergen Line. Four large bridges connect Bergen to its suburban municipalities.
Bergen has a mild winter climate, though with significant precipitation. From December to March, Bergen can, in rare cases, be up to 20 °C warmer than Oslo, even though both cities are at about 60° North. In summer however, Bergen is several degrees cooler than Oslo due to the same maritime effects. The Gulf Stream keeps the sea relatively warm, considering the latitude, and the mountains protect the city from cold winds from the north, north-east and east.
History
Hieronymus Scholeus's impression of Bergen. The drawing was made in about 1580 and was published in an atlas with drawings of many different cities (Civitaes orbis terrarum).
The city of Bergen was traditionally thought to have been founded by king Olav Kyrre, son of Harald Hardråde in 1070 AD, four years after the Viking Age in England ended with the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Modern research has, however, discovered that a trading settlement had already been established in the 1020s or 1030s.
Bergen gradually assumed the function of capital of Norway in the early 13th century, as the first city where a rudimentary central administration was established. The city's cathedral was the site of the first royal coronation in Norway in the 1150s, and continued to host royal coronations throughout the 13th century. Bergenhus fortress dates from the 1240s and guards the entrance to the harbour in Bergen. The functions of the capital city were lost to Oslo during the reign of King Haakon V (1299–1319).
In the middle of the 14th century, North German merchants, who had already been present in substantial numbers since the 13th century, founded one of the four Kontore of the Hanseatic League at Bryggen in Bergen. The principal export traded from Bergen was dried cod from the northern Norwegian coast, which started around 1100. The city was granted a monopoly for trade from the north of Norway by King Håkon Håkonsson (1217–1263). Stockfish was the main reason that the city became one of North Europe's largest centres for trade.[11] By the late 14th century, Bergen had established itself as the centre of the trade in Norway. The Hanseatic merchants lived in their own separate quarter of the town, where Middle Low German was used, enjoying exclusive rights to trade with the northern fishermen who each summer sailed to Bergen. The Hansa community resented Scottish merchants who settled in Bergen, and on 9 November 1523 several Scottish households were targeted by German residents. Today, Bergen's old quayside, Bryggen, is on UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites.
In 1349, the Black Death was brought to Norway by an English ship arriving in Bergen. Later outbreaks occurred in 1618, 1629 and 1637, on each occasion taking about 3,000 lives. In the 15th century, the city was attacked several times by the Victual Brothers, and in 1429 they succeeded in burning the royal castle and much of the city. In 1665, the city's harbour was the site of the Battle of Vågen, when an English naval flotilla attacked a Dutch merchant and treasure fleet supported by the city's garrison. Accidental fires sometimes got out of control, and one in 1702 reduced most of the town to ashes.
Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, Bergen remained one of the largest cities in Scandinavia, and it was Norway's biggest city until the 1830s, being overtaken by the capital city of Oslo. From around 1600, the Hanseatic dominance of the city's trade gradually declined in favour of Norwegian merchants (often of Hanseatic ancestry), and in the 1750s, the Kontor, or major trading post of the Hanseatic League, finally closed. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Bergen was involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Bergen-based slave trader Jørgen Thormøhlen, the largest shipowner in Norway, was the main owner of the slave ship Cornelia, which made two slave-trading voyages in 1673 and 1674 respectively; he also developed the city's industrial sector, particularly in the neighbourhood of Møhlenpris, which is named after him. Bergen retained its monopoly of trade with northern Norway until 1789. The Bergen stock exchange, the Bergen børs, was established in 1813.
Modern history
Bergen was separated from Hordaland as a county of its own in 1831. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). The rural municipality of Bergen landdistrikt was merged with Bergen on 1 January 1877. The rural municipality of Årstad was merged with Bergen on 1 July 1915.
During World War II, Bergen was occupied on the first day of the German invasion on 9 April 1940, after a brief fight between German ships and the Norwegian coastal artillery. The Norwegian resistance movement groups in Bergen were Saborg, Milorg, "Theta-gruppen", Sivorg, Stein-organisasjonen and the Communist Party. On 20 April 1944, during the German occupation, the Dutch cargo ship Voorbode anchored off the Bergenhus Fortress, loaded with over 120 tons of explosives, and blew up, killing at least 150 people and damaging historic buildings. The city was subject to some Allied bombing raids, aimed at German naval installations in the harbour. Some of these caused Norwegian civilian casualties numbering about 100.
Bergen is also well known in Norway for the Isdal Woman (Norwegian: Isdalskvinnen), an unidentified person who was found dead at Isdalen ("Ice Valley") on 29 November 1970. The unsolved case encouraged international speculation over the years and it remains one of the most profound mysteries in recent Norwegian history.
The rural municipalities of Arna, Fana, Laksevåg, and Åsane were merged with Bergen on 1 January 1972. The city lost its status as a separate county on the same date, and Bergen is now a municipality, in the county of Vestland.
Fires
The city's history is marked by numerous great fires. In 1198, the Bagler faction set fire to the city in connection with a battle against the Birkebeiner faction during the civil war. In 1248, Holmen and Sverresborg burned, and 11 churches were destroyed. In 1413 another fire struck the city, and 14 churches were destroyed. In 1428 the city was plundered by the Victual Brothers, and in 1455, Hanseatic merchants were responsible for burning down Munkeliv Abbey. In 1476, Bryggen burned down in a fire started by a drunk trader. In 1582, another fire hit the city centre and Strandsiden. In 1675, 105 buildings burned down in Øvregaten. In 1686 another great fire hit Strandsiden, destroying 231 city blocks and 218 boathouses. The greatest fire in history was in 1702, when 90% of the city was burned to ashes. In 1751, there was a great fire at Vågsbunnen. In 1756, yet another fire at Strandsiden burned down 1,500 buildings, and further great fires hit Strandsiden in 1771 and 1901. In 1916, 300 buildings burned down in the city centre including the Swan pharmacy, the oldest pharmacy in Norway, and in 1955 parts of Bryggen burned down.
Toponymy
Bergen is pronounced in English /ˈbɜːrɡən/ or /ˈbɛərɡən/ and in Norwegian [ˈbæ̀rɡn̩] (in the local dialect [ˈbæ̂ʁɡɛn]). The Old Norse forms of the name were Bergvin [ˈberɡˌwin] and Bjǫrgvin [ˈbjɔrɡˌwin] (and in Icelandic and Faroese the city is still called Björgvin). The first element is berg (n.) or bjǫrg (n.), which translates as 'mountain(s)'. The last element is vin (f.), which means a new settlement where there used to be a pasture or meadow. The full meaning is then "the meadow among the mountains". This is a suitable name: Bergen is often called "the city among the seven mountains". It was the playwright Ludvig Holberg who felt so inspired by the seven hills of Rome, that he decided that his home town must be blessed with a corresponding seven mountains – and locals still argue which seven they are.
In 1918, there was a campaign to reintroduce the Norse form Bjørgvin as the name of the city. This was turned down – but as a compromise, the name of the diocese was changed to Bjørgvin bispedømme.
Bergen occupies most of the peninsula of Bergenshalvøyen in the district of Midthordland in mid-western Hordaland. The municipality covers an area of 465 square kilometres (180 square miles). Most of the urban area is on or close to a fjord or bay, although the urban area has several mountains. The city centre is surrounded by the Seven Mountains, although there is disagreement as to which of the nine mountains constitute these. Ulriken, Fløyen, Løvstakken and Damsgårdsfjellet are always included as well as three of Lyderhorn, Sandviksfjellet, Blåmanen, Rundemanen and Kolbeinsvarden. Gullfjellet is Bergen's highest mountain, at 987 metres (3,238 ft) above mean sea level. Bergen is far enough north that during clear nights at the solstice, there is borderline civil daylight in spite of the sun having set.
Bergen is sheltered from the North Sea by the islands Askøy, Holsnøy (the municipality of Meland) and Sotra (the municipalities of Fjell and Sund). Bergen borders the municipalities Alver and Osterøy to the north, Vaksdal and Samnanger to the east, Os (Bjørnafjorden) and Austevoll to the south, and Øygarden and Askøy to the west.
The city centre of Bergen lies in the west of the municipality, facing the fjord of Byfjorden. It is among a group of mountains known as the Seven Mountains, although the number is a matter of definition. From here, the urban area of Bergen extends to the north, west and south, and to its east is a large mountain massif. Outside the city centre and the surrounding neighbourhoods (i.e. Årstad, inner Laksevåg and Sandviken), the majority of the population lives in relatively sparsely populated residential areas built after 1950. While some are dominated by apartment buildings and modern terraced houses (e.g. Fyllingsdalen), others are dominated by single-family homes.
The oldest part of Bergen is the area around the bay of Vågen in the city centre. Originally centred on the bay's eastern side, Bergen eventually expanded west and southwards. Few buildings from the oldest period remain, the most significant being St Mary's Church from the 12th century. For several hundred years, the extent of the city remained almost constant. The population was stagnant, and the city limits were narrow. In 1702, seven-eighths of the city burned. Most of the old buildings of Bergen, including Bryggen (which was rebuilt in a mediaeval style), were built after the fire. The fire marked a transition from tar covered houses, as well as the remaining log houses, to painted and some brick-covered wooden buildings.
The last half of the 19th century saw a period of rapid expansion and modernisation. The fire of 1855 west of Torgallmenningen led to the development of regularly sized city blocks in this area of the city centre. The city limits were expanded in 1876, and Nygård, Møhlenpris and Sandviken were urbanized with large-scale construction of city blocks housing both the poor and the wealthy. Their architecture is influenced by a variety of styles; historicism, classicism and Art Nouveau. The wealthy built villas between Møhlenpris and Nygård, and on the side of Mount Fløyen; these areas were also added to Bergen in 1876. Simultaneously, an urbanization process was taking place in Solheimsviken in Årstad, at that time outside the Bergen municipality, centred on the large industrial activity in the area. The workers' homes in this area were poorly built, and little remains after large-scale redevelopment in the 1960s–1980s.
After Årstad became a part of Bergen in 1916, a development plan was applied to the new area. Few city blocks akin to those in Nygård and Møhlenpris were planned. Many of the worker class built their own homes, and many small, detached apartment buildings were built. After World War II, Bergen had again run short of land to build on, and, contrary to the original plans, many large apartment buildings were built in Landås in the 1950s and 1960s. Bergen acquired Fyllingsdalen from Fana municipality in 1955. Like similar areas in Oslo (e.g. Lambertseter), Fyllingsdalen was developed into a modern suburb with large apartment buildings, mid-rises, and some single-family homes, in the 1960s and 1970s. Similar developments took place beyond Bergen's city limits, for example in Loddefjord.
At the same time as planned city expansion took place inside Bergen, its extra-municipal suburbs also grew rapidly. Wealthy citizens of Bergen had been living in Fana since the 19th century, but as the city expanded it became more convenient to settle in the municipality. Similar processes took place in Åsane and Laksevåg. Most of the homes in these areas are detached row houses,[clarification needed] single family homes or small apartment buildings. After the surrounding municipalities were merged with Bergen in 1972, expansion has continued in largely the same manner, although the municipality encourages condensing near commercial centres, future Bergen Light Rail stations, and elsewhere.
As part of the modernisation wave of the 1950s and 1960s, and due to damage caused by World War II, the city government ambitiously planned redevelopment of many areas in central Bergen. The plans involved demolition of several neighbourhoods of wooden houses, namely Nordnes, Marken, and Stølen. None of the plans was carried out in its original form; the Marken and Stølen redevelopment plans were discarded and that of Nordnes only carried out in the area that had been most damaged by war. The city council of Bergen had in 1964 voted to demolish the entirety of Marken, however, the decision proved to be highly controversial and the decision was reversed in 1974. Bryggen was under threat of being wholly or partly demolished after the fire of 1955, when a large number of the buildings burned to the ground. Instead of being demolished, the remaining buildings were restored and accompanied by reconstructions of some of the burned buildings.
Demolition of old buildings and occasionally whole city blocks is still taking place, the most recent major example being the 2007 razing of Jonsvollskvartalet at Nøstet.
Billboards are banned in the city.
Culture and sports
Bergens Tidende (BT) and Bergensavisen (BA) are the largest newspapers, with circulations of 87,076 and 30,719 in 2006, BT is a regional newspaper covering all of Vestland, while BA focuses on metropolitan Bergen. Other newspapers published in Bergen include the Christian national Dagen, with a circulation of 8.936, and TradeWinds, an international shipping newspaper. Local newspapers are Fanaposten for Fana, Sydvesten for Laksevåg and Fyllingsdalen and Bygdanytt for Arna and the neighbouring municipality Osterøy. TV 2, Norway's largest private television company, is based in Bergen.
The 1,500-seat Grieg Hall is the city's main cultural venue, and home of the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra, founded in 1765, and the Bergen Woodwind Quintet. The city also features Carte Blanche, the Norwegian national company of contemporary dance. The annual Bergen International Festival is the main cultural festival, which is supplemented by the Bergen International Film Festival. Two internationally renowned composers from Bergen are Edvard Grieg and Ole Bull. Grieg's home, Troldhaugen, has been converted to a museum. During the 1990s and early 2000s, Bergen produced a series of successful pop, rock and black metal artists, collectively known as the Bergen Wave.
Den Nationale Scene is Bergen's main theatre. Founded in 1850, it had Henrik Ibsen as one of its first in-house playwrights and art directors. Bergen's contemporary art scene is centred on BIT Teatergarasjen, Bergen Kunsthall, United Sardines Factory (USF) and Bergen Center for Electronic Arts (BEK). Bergen was a European Capital of Culture in 2000. Buekorps is a unique feature of Bergen culture, consisting of boys aged from 7 to 21 parading with imitation weapons and snare drums. The city's Hanseatic heritage is documented in the Hanseatic Museum located at Bryggen.
SK Brann is Bergen's premier football team; founded in 1908, they have played in the (men's) Norwegian Premier League for all but seven years since 1963 and consecutively, except one season after relegation in 2014, since 1987. The team were the football champions in 1961–1962, 1963, and 2007,[155] and reached the quarter-finals of the Cup Winners' Cup in 1996–1997. Brann play their home games at the 17,824-seat Brann Stadion. FK Fyllingsdalen is the city's second-best team, playing in the Second Division at Varden Amfi. Its predecessor, Fyllingen, played in the Norwegian Premier League in 1990, 1991 and 1993. Arna-Bjørnar and Sandviken play in the Women's Premier League.
Bergen IK is the premier men's ice hockey team, playing at Bergenshallen in the First Division. Tertnes play in the Women's Premier Handball League, and Fyllingen in the Men's Premier Handball League. In athletics, the city is dominated by IL Norna-Salhus, IL Gular and FIK BFG Fana, formerly also Norrøna IL and TIF Viking. The Bergen Storm are an American football team that plays matches at Varden Kunstgress and plays in the second division of the Norwegian league.
Bergensk is the native dialect of Bergen. It was strongly influenced by Low German-speaking merchants from the mid-14th to mid-18th centuries. During the Dano-Norwegian period from 1536 to 1814, Bergen was more influenced by Danish than other areas of Norway. The Danish influence removed the female grammatical gender in the 16th century, making Bergensk one of very few Norwegian dialects with only two instead of three grammatical genders. The Rs are uvular trills, as in French, which probably spread to Bergen some time in the 18th century, overtaking the alveolar trill in the time span of two to three generations. Owing to an improved literacy rate, Bergensk was influenced by riksmål and bokmål in the 19th and 20th centuries. This led to large parts of the German-inspired vocabulary disappearing and pronunciations shifting slightly towards East Norwegian.
The 1986 edition of the Eurovision Song Contest took place in Bergen. Bergen was the host city for the 2017 UCI Road World Championships. The city is also a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the category of gastronomy since 2015.
Street art
Bergen is considered to be the street art capital of Norway. Famed artist Banksy visited the city in 2000 and inspired many to start creating street art. Soon after, the city brought up the most famous street artist in Norway: Dolk. His art can still be seen in several places in the city, and in 2009 the city council choose to preserve Dolk's work "Spray" with protective glass. In 2011, Bergen council launched a plan of action for street art in Bergen from 2011 to 2015 to ensure that "Bergen will lead the fashion for street art as an expression both in Norway and Scandinavia".
The Madam Felle (1831–1908) monument in Sandviken, is in honour of a Norwegian woman of German origin, who in the mid-19th century managed, against the will of the council, to maintain a counter of beer. A well-known restaurant of the same name is now situated at another location in Bergen. The monument was erected in 1990 by sculptor Kari Rolfsen, supported by an anonymous donor. Madam Felle, civil name Oline Fell, was remembered after her death in a popular song, possibly originally a folksong, "Kjenner Dokker Madam Felle?" by Lothar Lindtner and Rolf Berntzen on an album in 1977.
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway , is a Nordic , European country and an independent state in the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula . Geographically speaking, the country is long and narrow, and on the elongated coast towards the North Atlantic are Norway's well-known fjords . The Kingdom of Norway includes the main country (the mainland with adjacent islands within the baseline ), Jan Mayen and Svalbard . With these two Arctic areas, Norway covers a land area of 385,000 km² and has a population of approximately 5.5 million (2023). Mainland Norway borders Sweden in the east , Finland and Russia in the northeast .
Norway is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy , where Harald V has been king and head of state since 1991 , and Jonas Gahr Støre ( Ap ) has been prime minister since 2021 . Norway is a unitary state , with two administrative levels below the state: counties and municipalities . The Sami part of the population has, through the Sami Parliament and the Finnmark Act , to a certain extent self-government and influence over traditionally Sami areas. Although Norway has rejected membership of the European Union through two referendums , through the EEA Agreement Norway has close ties with the Union, and through NATO with the United States . Norway is a significant contributor to the United Nations (UN), and has participated with soldiers in several foreign operations mandated by the UN. Norway is among the states that have participated from the founding of the UN , NATO , the Council of Europe , the OSCE and the Nordic Council , and in addition to these is a member of the EEA , the World Trade Organization , the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and is part of the Schengen area .
Norway is rich in many natural resources such as oil , gas , minerals , timber , seafood , fresh water and hydropower . Since the beginning of the 20th century, these natural conditions have given the country the opportunity for an increase in wealth that few other countries can now enjoy, and Norwegians have the second highest average income in the world, measured in GDP per capita, as of 2022. The petroleum industry accounts for around 14% of Norway's gross domestic product as of 2018. Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and gas per capita outside the Middle East. However, the number of employees linked to this industry fell from approx. 232,000 in 2013 to 207,000 in 2015.
In Norway, these natural resources have been managed for socially beneficial purposes. The country maintains a welfare model in line with the other Nordic countries. Important service areas such as health and higher education are state-funded, and the country has an extensive welfare system for its citizens. Public expenditure in 2018 is approx. 50% of GDP, and the majority of these expenses are related to education, healthcare, social security and welfare. Since 2001 and until 2021, when the country took second place, the UN has ranked Norway as the world's best country to live in . From 2010, Norway is also ranked at the top of the EIU's democracy index . Norway ranks third on the UN's World Happiness Report for the years 2016–2018, behind Finland and Denmark , a report published in March 2019.
The majority of the population is Nordic. In the last couple of years, immigration has accounted for more than half of population growth. The five largest minority groups are Norwegian-Poles , Lithuanians , Norwegian-Swedes , Norwegian-Syrians including Syrian Kurds and Norwegian-Pakistani .
Norway's national day is 17 May, on this day in 1814 the Norwegian Constitution was dated and signed by the presidency of the National Assembly at Eidsvoll . It is stipulated in the law of 26 April 1947 that 17 May are national public holidays. The Sami national day is 6 February. "Yes, we love this country" is Norway's national anthem, the song was written in 1859 by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson (1832–1910).
Norway's history of human settlement goes back at least 10,000 years, to the Late Paleolithic , the first period of the Stone Age . Archaeological finds of settlements along the entire Norwegian coast have so far been dated back to 10,400 before present (BP), the oldest find is today considered to be a settlement at Pauler in Brunlanes , Vestfold .
For a period these settlements were considered to be the remains of settlers from Doggerland , an area which today lies beneath the North Sea , but which was once a land bridge connecting today's British Isles with Danish Jutland . But the archaeologists who study the initial phase of the settlement in what is today Norway reckon that the first people who came here followed the coast along what is today Bohuslân. That they arrived in some form of boat is absolutely certain, and there is much evidence that they could easily move over large distances.
Since the last Ice Age, there has been continuous settlement in Norway. It cannot be ruled out that people lived in Norway during the interglacial period , but no trace of such a population or settlement has been found.
The Stone Age lasted a long time; half of the time that our country has been populated. There are no written accounts of what life was like back then. The knowledge we have has been painstakingly collected through investigations of places where people have stayed and left behind objects that we can understand have been processed by human hands. This field of knowledge is called archaeology . The archaeologists interpret their findings and the history of the surrounding landscape. In our country, the uplift after the Ice Age is fundamental. The history of the settlements at Pauler is no more than fifteen years old.
The Fosna culture settled parts of Norway sometime between 10,000–8,000 BC. (see Stone Age in Norway ). The dating of rock carvings is set to Neolithic times (in Norway between 4000 BC to 1700 BC) and show activities typical of hunters and gatherers .
Agriculture with livestock and arable farming was introduced in the Neolithic. Swad farming where the farmers move when the field does not produce the expected yield.
More permanent and persistent farm settlements developed in the Bronze Age (1700 BC to 500 BC) and the Iron Age . The earliest runes have been found on an arrowhead dated to around 200 BC. Many more inscriptions are dated to around 800, and a number of petty kingdoms developed during these centuries. In prehistoric times, there were no fixed national borders in the Nordic countries and Norway did not exist as a state. The population in Norway probably fell to year 0.
Events in this time period, the centuries before the year 1000, are glimpsed in written sources. Although the sagas were written down in the 13th century, many hundreds of years later, they provide a glimpse into what was already a distant past. The story of the fimbul winter gives us a historical picture of something that happened and which in our time, with the help of dendrochronology , can be interpreted as a natural disaster in the year 536, created by a volcanic eruption in El Salvador .
In the period between 800 and 1066 there was a significant expansion and it is referred to as the Viking Age . During this period, Norwegians, as Swedes and Danes also did, traveled abroad in longships with sails as explorers, traders, settlers and as Vikings (raiders and pirates ). By the middle of the 11th century, the Norwegian kingship had been firmly established, building its right as descendants of Harald Hårfagre and then as heirs of Olav the Holy . The Norwegian kings, and their subjects, now professed Christianity . In the time around Håkon Håkonsson , in the time after the civil war , there was a small renaissance in Norway with extensive literary activity and diplomatic activity with Europe. The black dew came to Norway in 1349 and killed around half of the population. The entire state apparatus and Norway then entered a period of decline.
Between 1396 and 1536, Norway was part of the Kalmar Union , and from 1536 until 1814 Norway had been reduced to a tributary part of Denmark , named as the Personal Union of Denmark-Norway . This staff union entered into an alliance with Napoléon Bonaparte with a war that brought bad times and famine in 1812 . In 1814, Denmark-Norway lost the Anglophone Wars , part of the Napoleonic Wars , and the Danish king was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January of that year. After a Norwegian attempt at independence, Norway was forced into a loose union with Sweden, but where Norway was allowed to create its own constitution, the Constitution of 1814 . In this period, Norwegian, romantic national feeling flourished, and the Norwegians tried to develop and establish their own national self-worth. The union with Sweden was broken in 1905 after it had been threatened with war, and Norway became an independent kingdom with its own monarch, Haakon VII .
Norway remained neutral during the First World War , and at the outbreak of the Second World War, Norway again declared itself neutral, but was invaded by National Socialist Germany on 9 April 1940 .
Norway became a member of the Western defense alliance NATO in 1949 . Two attempts to join the EU were voted down in referendums by small margins in 1972 and 1994 . Norway has been a close ally of the United States in the post-war period. Large discoveries of oil and natural gas in the North Sea at the end of the 1960s led to tremendous economic growth in the country, which is still ongoing. Traditional industries such as fishing are also part of Norway's economy.
Stone Age (before 1700 BC)
When most of the ice disappeared, vegetation spread over the landscape and due to a warm climate around 2000-3000 BC. the forest grew much taller than in modern times. Land uplift after the ice age led to a number of fjords becoming lakes and dry land. The first people probably came from the south along the coast of the Kattegat and overland into Finnmark from the east. The first people probably lived by gathering, hunting and trapping. A good number of Stone Age settlements have been found which show that such hunting and trapping people stayed for a long time in the same place or returned to the same place regularly. Large amounts of gnawed bones show that they lived on, among other things, reindeer, elk, small game and fish.
Flintstone was imported from Denmark and apart from small natural deposits along the southern coast, all flintstone in Norway is transported by people. At Espevær, greenstone was quarried for tools in the Stone Age, and greenstone tools from Espevær have been found over large parts of Western Norway. Around 2000-3000 BC the usual farm animals such as cows and sheep were introduced to Norway. Livestock probably meant a fundamental change in society in that part of the people had to be permanent residents or live a semi-nomadic life. Livestock farming may also have led to conflict with hunters.
The oldest traces of people in what is today Norway have been found at Pauler , a farm in Brunlanes in Larvik municipality in Vestfold . In 2007 and 2008, the farm has given its name to a number of Stone Age settlements that have been excavated and examined by archaeologists from the Cultural History Museum at UiO. The investigations have been carried out in connection with the new route for the E18 motorway west of Farris. The oldest settlement, located more than 127 m above sea level, is dated to be about 10,400 years old (uncalibrated, more than 11,000 years in real calendar years). From here, the ice sheet was perhaps visible when people settled here. This locality has been named Pauler I, and is today considered to be the oldest confirmed human traces in Norway to date. The place is in the mountains above the Pauler tunnel on the E18 between Larvik and Porsgrunn . The pioneer settlement is a term archaeologists have adopted for the oldest settlement. The archaeologists have speculated about where they came from, the first people in what is today Norway. It has been suggested that they could come by boat or perhaps across the ice from Doggerland or the North Sea, but there is now a large consensus that they came north along what is today the Bohuslän coast. The Fosna culture , the Komsa culture and the Nøstvet culture are the traditional terms for hunting cultures from the Stone Age. One thing is certain - getting to the water was something they mastered, the first people in our country. Therefore, within a short time they were able to use our entire long coast.
In the New Stone Age (4000 BC–1700 BC) there is a theory that a new people immigrated to the country, the so-called Stone Ax People . Rock carvings from this period show motifs from hunting and fishing , which were still important industries. From this period, a megalithic tomb has been found in Østfold .
It is uncertain whether there were organized societies or state-like associations in the Stone Age in Norway. Findings from settlements indicate that many lived together and that this was probably more than one family so that it was a slightly larger, organized herd.
Finnmark
In prehistoric times, animal husbandry and agriculture were of little economic importance in Finnmark. Livelihoods in Finnmark were mainly based on fish, gathering, hunting and trapping, and eventually domestic reindeer herding became widespread in the Middle Ages. Archaeological finds from the Stone Age have been referred to as the Komsa culture and comprise around 5,000 years of settlement. Finnmark probably got its first settlement around 8000 BC. It is believed that the coastal areas became ice-free 11,000 years BC and the fjord areas around 9,000 years BC. after which willows, grass, heather, birch and pine came into being. Finnmarksvidda was covered by pine forest around 6000 BC. After the Ice Age, the land rose around 80 meters in the inner fjord areas (Alta, Tana, Varanger). Due to ice melting in the polar region, the sea rose in the period 6400–3800 BC. and in areas with little land elevation, some settlements from the first part of the Stone Age were flooded. On Sørøya, the net sea level rise was 12 to 14 meters and many residential areas were flooded.
According to Bjørnar Olsen , there are many indications of a connection between the oldest settlement in Western Norway (the " Fosnakulturen ") and that in Finnmark, but it is uncertain in which direction the settlement took place. In the earliest part of the Stone Age, settlement in Finnmark was probably concentrated in the coastal areas, and these only reflected a lifestyle with great mobility and no permanent dwellings. The inner regions, such as Pasvik, were probably used seasonally. The archaeologically proven settlements from the Stone Age in inner Finnmark and Troms are linked to lakes and large watercourses. The oldest petroglyphs in Alta are usually dated to 4200 BC, that is, the Neolithic . Bjørnar Olsen believes that the oldest can be up to 2,000 years older than this.
From around 4000 BC a slow deforestation of Finnmark began and around 1800 BC the vegetation distribution was roughly the same as in modern times. The change in vegetation may have increased the distance between the reindeer's summer and winter grazing. The uplift continued slowly from around 4000 BC. at the same time as sea level rise stopped.
According to Gutorm Gjessing, the settlement in Finnmark and large parts of northern Norway in the Neolithic was semi-nomadic with movement between four seasonal settlements (following the pattern of life in Sami siida in historical times): On the outer coast in summer (fishing and seal catching) and inland in winter (hunting for reindeer, elk and bear). Povl Simonsen believed instead that the winter residence was in the inner fjord area in a village-like sod house settlement. Bjørnar Olsen believes that at the end of the Stone Age there was a relatively settled population along the coast, while inland there was less settlement and a more mobile lifestyle.
Bronze Age (1700 BC–500 BC)
Bronze was used for tools in Norway from around 1500 BC. Bronze is a mixture of tin and copper , and these metals were introduced because they were not mined in the country at the time. Bronze is believed to have been a relatively expensive material. The Bronze Age in Norway can be divided into two phases:
Early Bronze Age (1700–1100 BC)
Younger Bronze Age (1100–500 BC)
For the prehistoric (unwritten) era, there is limited knowledge about social conditions and possible state formations. From the Bronze Age, there are large burial mounds of stone piles along the coast of Vestfold and Agder, among others. It is likely that only chieftains or other great men could erect such grave monuments and there was probably some form of organized society linked to these. In the Bronze Age, society was more organized and stratified than in the Stone Age. Then a rich class of chieftains emerged who had close connections with southern Scandinavia. The settlements became more permanent and people adopted horses and ard . They acquired bronze status symbols, lived in longhouses and people were buried in large burial mounds . Petroglyphs from the Bronze Age indicate that humans practiced solar cultivation.
Finnmark
In the last millennium BC the climate became cooler and the pine forest disappears from the coast; pine forests, for example, were only found in the innermost part of the Altafjord, while the outer coast was almost treeless. Around the year 0, the limit for birch forest was south of Kirkenes. Animals with forest habitats (elk, bear and beaver) disappeared and the reindeer probably established their annual migration routes sometime at that time. In the period 1800–900 BC there were significantly more settlements in and utilization of the hinterland was particularly noticeable on Finnmarksvidda. From around 1800 BC until year 0 there was a significant increase in contact between Finnmark and areas in the east including Karelia (where metals were produced including copper) and central and eastern Russia. The youngest petroglyphs in Alta show far more boats than the earlier phases and the boats are reminiscent of types depicted in petroglyphs in southern Scandinavia. It is unclear what influence southern Scandinavian societies had as far north as Alta before the year 0. Many of the cultural features that are considered typical Sami in modern times were created or consolidated in the last millennium BC, this applies, among other things, to the custom of burying in brick chambers in stone urns. The Mortensnes burial ground may have been used for 2000 years until around 1600 AD.
Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 1050 AD)
The Einangsteinen is one of the oldest Norwegian runestones; it is from the 4th century
Simultaneous production of Vikings
Around 500 years BC the researchers reckon that the Bronze Age will be replaced by the Iron Age as iron takes over as the most important material for weapons and tools. Bronze, wood and stone were still used. Iron was cheaper than bronze, easier to work than flint , and could be used for many purposes; iron probably became common property. Iron could, among other things, be used to make solid and sharp axes which made it much easier to fell trees. In the Iron Age, gold and silver were also used partly for decoration and partly as means of payment. It is unknown which language was used in Norway before our era. From around the year 0 until around the year 800, everyone in Scandinavia (except the Sami) spoke Old Norse , a North Germanic language. Subsequently, several different languages developed in this area that were only partially mutually intelligible. The Iron Age is divided into several periods:
Early Iron Age
Pre-Roman Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 0)
Roman Iron Age (c. 0–c. AD 400)
Migration period (approx. 400–600). In the migration period (approx. 400–600), new peoples came to Norway, and ruins of fortress buildings etc. are interpreted as signs that there has been talk of a violent invasion.
Younger Iron Age
Merovingian period (500–800)
The Viking Age (793–1066)
Norwegian Vikings go on plundering expeditions and trade voyages around the coastal countries of Western Europe . Large groups of Norwegians emigrate to the British Isles , Iceland and Greenland . Harald Hårfagre starts a unification process of Norway late in the 8th century , which was completed by Harald Hardråde in the 1060s . The country was Christianized under the kings Olav Tryggvason , fell in the battle of Svolder ( 1000 ) and Olav Haraldsson (the saint), fell in the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 .
Sources of prehistoric times
Shrinking glaciers in the high mountains, including in Jotunheimen and Breheimen , have from around the year 2000 uncovered objects from the Viking Age and earlier. These are objects of organic material that have been preserved by the ice and that elsewhere in nature are broken down in a few months. The finds are getting older as the melting makes the archaeologists go deeper into the ice. About half of all archaeological discoveries on glaciers in the world are made in Oppland . In 2013, a 3,400-year-old shoe and a robe from the year 300 were found. Finds at Lomseggen in Lom published in 2020 revealed, among other things, well-preserved horseshoes used on a mountain pass. Many hundreds of items include preserved clothing, knives, whisks, mittens, leather shoes, wooden chests and horse equipment. A piece of cloth dated to the year 1000 has preserved its original colour. In 2014, a wooden ski from around the year 700 was found in Reinheimen . The ski is 172 cm long and 14 cm wide, with preserved binding of leather and wicker.
Pytheas from Massalia is the oldest known account of what was probably the coast of Norway, perhaps somewhere on the coast of Møre. Pytheas visited Britannia around 325 BC. and traveled further north to a country by the "Ice Sea". Pytheas described the short summer night and the midnight sun farther north. He wrote, among other things, that people there made a drink from grain and honey. Caesar wrote in his work about the Gallic campaign about the Germanic tribe Haruders. Other Roman sources around the year 0 mention the land of the Cimbri (Jutland) and the Cimbri headlands ( Skagen ) and that the sources stated that Cimbri and Charyds lived in this area. Some of these peoples may have immigrated to Norway and there become known as hordes (as in Hordaland). Sources from the Mediterranean area referred to the islands of Scandia, Scandinavia and Thule ("the outermost of all islands"). The Roman historian Tacitus wrote around the year 100 a work about Germania and mentioned the people of Scandia, the Sviones. Ptolemy wrote around the year 150 that the Kharudes (Hordes) lived further north than all the Cimbri, in the north lived the Finnoi (Finns or Sami) and in the south the Gutai (Goths). The Nordic countries and Norway were outside the Roman Empire , which dominated Europe at the time. The Gothic-born historian Jordanes wrote in the 5th century about 13 tribes or people groups in Norway, including raumaricii (probably Romerike ), ragnaricii ( Ranrike ) and finni or skretefinni (skrid finner or ski finner, i.e. Sami) as well as a number of unclear groups. Prokopios wrote at the same time about Thule north of the land of the Danes and Slavs, Thule was ten times as big as Britannia and the largest of all the islands. In Thule, the sun was up 40 days straight in the summer. After the migration period , southern Europeans' accounts of northern Europe became fuller and more reliable.
Settlement in prehistoric times
Norway has around 50,000 farms with their own names. Farm names have persisted for a long time, over 1000 years, perhaps as much as 2000 years. The name researchers have arranged different types of farm names chronologically, which provides a basis for determining when the place was used by people or received a permanent settlement. Uncompounded landscape names such as Haug, Eid, Vik and Berg are believed to be the oldest. Archaeological traces indicate that some areas have been inhabited earlier than assumed from the farm name. Burial mounds also indicate permanent settlement. For example, the burial ground at Svartelva in Løten was used from around the year 0 to the year 1000 when Christianity took over. The first farmers probably used large areas for inland and outland, and new farms were probably established based on some "mother farms". Names such as By (or Bø) show that it is an old place of residence. From the older Iron Age, names with -heim (a common Germanic word meaning place of residence) and -stad tell of settlement, while -vin and -land tell of the use of the place. Farm names in -heim are often found as -um , -eim or -em as in Lerum and Seim, there are often large farms in the center of the village. New farm names with -city and -country were also established in the Viking Age . The first farmers probably used the best areas. The largest burial grounds, the oldest archaeological finds and the oldest farm names are found where the arable land is richest and most spacious.
It is unclear whether the settlement expansion in Roman times, migrations and the Iron Age is due to immigration or internal development and population growth. Among other things, it is difficult to demonstrate where in Europe the immigrants have come from. The permanent residents had both fields (where grain was grown) and livestock that grazed in the open fields, but it is uncertain which of these was more important. Population growth from around the year 200 led to more utilization of open land, for example in the form of settlements in the mountains. During the migration period, it also seems that in parts of the country it became common to have cluster gardens or a form of village settlement.
Norwegian expansion northwards
From around the year 200, there was a certain migration by sea from Rogaland and Hordaland to Nordland and Sør-Troms. Those who moved settled down as a settled Iron Age population and became dominant over the original population which may have been Sami . The immigrant Norwegians, Bumen , farmed with livestock that were fed inside in the winter as well as some grain cultivation and fishing. The northern border of the Norwegians' settlement was originally at the Toppsundet near Harstad and around the year 500 there was a Norwegian settlement to Malangsgapet. That was as far north as it was possible to grow grain at the time. Malangen was considered the border between Hålogaland and Finnmork until around 1400 . Further into the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, there was immigration and settlement of Norwegian speakers along the coast north of Malangen. Around the year 800, Norwegians lived along the entire outer coast to Vannøy . The Norwegians partly copied Sami livelihoods such as whaling, fur hunting and reindeer husbandry. It was probably this area between Malangen and Vannøy that was Ottar from the Hålogaland area. In the Viking Age, there were also some Norwegian settlements further north and east. East of the North Cape are the scattered archaeological finds of Norwegian settlement in the Viking Age. There are Norwegian names for fjords and islands from the Viking Age, including fjord names with "-anger". Around the year 1050, there were Norwegian settlements on the outer coast of Western Finnmark. Traders and tax collectors traveled even further.
North of Malangen there were Norse farming settlements in the Iron Age. Malangen was considered Finnmark's western border until 1300. There are some archaeological traces of Norse activity around the coast from Tromsø to Kirkenes in the Viking Age. Around Tromsø, the research indicates a Norse/Sami mixed culture on the coast.
From the year 1100 and the next 200–300 years, there are no traces of Norwegian settlement north and east of Tromsø. It is uncertain whether this is due to depopulation, whether it is because the Norwegians further north were not Christianized or because there were no churches north of Lenvik or Tromsø . Norwegian settlement in the far north appears from sources from the 14th century. In the Hanseatic period , the settlement was developed into large areas specialized in commercial fishing, while earlier (in the Viking Age) there had been farms with a combination of fishing and agriculture. In 1307 , a fortress and the first church east of Tromsø were built in Vardø . Vardø became a small Norwegian town, while Vadsø remained Sami. Norwegian settlements and churches appeared along the outermost coast in the Middle Ages. After the Reformation, perhaps as a result of a decline in fish stocks or fish prices, there were Norwegian settlements in the inner fjord areas such as Lebesby in Laksefjord. Some fishing villages at the far end of the coast were abandoned for good. In the interior of Finnmark, there was no national border for a long time and Kautokeino and Karasjok were joint Norwegian-Swedish areas with strong Swedish influence. The border with Finland was established in 1751 and with Russia in 1826.
On a Swedish map from 1626, Norway's border is indicated at Malangen, while Sweden with this map showed a desire to control the Sami area which had been a common area.
The term Northern Norway only came into use at the end of the 19th century and administratively the area was referred to as Tromsø Diocese when Tromsø became a bishopric in 1840. There had been different designations previously: Hålogaland originally included only Helgeland and when Norse settlement spread north in the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, Hålogaland was used for the area north approximately to Malangen , while Finnmark or "Finnmarken", "the land of the Sami", lay outside. The term Northern Norway was coined at a cafe table in Kristiania in 1884 by members of the Nordlændingernes Forening and was first commonly used in the interwar period as it eventually supplanted "Hålogaland".
State formation
The battle in Hafrsfjord in the year 872 has long been regarded as the day when Norway became a kingdom. The year of the battle is uncertain (may have been 10-20 years later). The whole of Norway was not united in that battle: the process had begun earlier and continued a couple of hundred years later. This means that the geographical area became subject to a political authority and became a political unit. The geographical area was perceived as an area as it is known, among other things, from Ottar from Hålogaland's account for King Alfred of Wessex around the year 880. Ottar described "the land of the Norwegians" as very long and narrow, and it was narrowest in the far north. East of the wasteland in the south lay Sveoland and in the north lay Kvenaland in the east. When Ottar sailed south along the land from his home ( Malangen ) to Skiringssal, he always had Norway ("Nordveg") on his port side and the British Isles on his starboard side. The journey took a good month. Ottar perceived "Nordveg" as a geographical unit, but did not imply that it was a political unit. Ottar separated Norwegians from Swedes and Danes. It is unclear why Ottar perceived the population spread over such a large area as a whole. It is unclear whether Norway as a geographical term or Norwegians as the name of a ethnic group is the oldest. The Norwegians had a common language which in the centuries before Ottar did not differ much from the language of Denmark and Sweden.
According to Sverre Steen, it is unlikely that Harald Hårfagre was able to control this entire area as one kingdom. The saga of Harald was written 300 years later and at his death Norway was several smaller kingdoms. Harald probably controlled a larger area than anyone before him and at most Harald's kingdom probably included the coast from Trøndelag to Agder and Vestfold as well as parts of Viken . There were probably several smaller kingdoms of varying extent before Harald and some of these are reflected in traditional landscape names such as Ranrike and Ringerike . Landscape names of "-land" (Rogaland) and "-mark" (Hedmark) as well as names such as Agder and Sogn may have been political units before Harald.
According to Sverre Steen, the national assembly was completed at the earliest at the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 and the introduction of Christianity was probably a significant factor in the establishment of Norway as a state. Håkon I the good Adalsteinsfostre introduced the leasehold system where the "coastal land" (as far as the salmon went up the rivers) was divided into ship raiders who were to provide a longship with soldiers and supplies. The leidange was probably introduced as a defense against the Danes. The border with the Danes was traditionally at the Göta älv and several times before and after Harald Hårfagre the Danes had control over central parts of Norway.
Christianity was known and existed in Norway before Olav Haraldson's time. The spread occurred both from the south (today's Denmark and northern Germany) and from the west (England and Ireland). Ansgar of Bremen , called the "Apostle of the North", worked in Sweden, but he was never in Norway and probably had little influence in the country. Viking expeditions brought the Norwegians of that time into contact with Christian countries and some were baptized in England, Ireland and northern France. Olav Tryggvason and Olav Haraldson were Vikings who returned home. The first Christians in Norway were also linked to pre-Christian local religion, among other things, by mixing Christian symbols with symbols of Odin and other figures from Norse religion.
According to Sverre Steen, the introduction of Christianity in Norway should not be perceived as a nationwide revival. At Mostratinget, Christian law was introduced as law in the country and later incorporated into the laws of the individual jurisdictions. Christianity primarily involved new forms in social life, among other things exposure and images of gods were prohibited, it was forbidden to "put out" unwanted infants (to let them die), and it was forbidden to have multiple wives. The church became a nationwide institution with a special group of officials tasked with protecting the church and consolidating the new religion. According to Sverre Steen, Christianity and the church in the Middle Ages should therefore be considered together, and these became a new unifying factor in the country. The church and Christianity linked Norway to Roman Catholic Europe with Church Latin as the common language, the same time reckoning as the rest of Europe and the church in Norway was arranged much like the churches in Denmark, Sweden and England. Norway received papal approval in 1070 and became its own church province in 1152 with Archbishop Nidaros .
With Christianity, the country got three social powers: the peasants (organized through the things), the king with his officials and the church with the clergy. The things are the oldest institution: At allthings all armed men had the right to attend (in part an obligation to attend) and at lagthings met emissaries from an area (that is, the lagthings were representative assemblies). The Thing both ruled in conflicts and established laws. The laws were memorized by the participants and written down around the year 1000 or later in the Gulationsloven , Frostatingsloven , Eidsivatingsloven and Borgartingsloven . The person who had been successful at the hearing had to see to the implementation of the judgment themselves.
Early Middle Ages (1050s–1184)
The early Middle Ages is considered in Norwegian history to be the period between the end of the Viking Age around 1050 and the coronation of King Sverre in 1184 . The beginning of the period can be dated differently, from around the year 1000 when the Christianization of the country took place and up to 1100 when the Viking Age was over from an archaeological point of view. From 1035 to 1130 it was a time of (relative) internal peace in Norway, even several of the kings attempted campaigns abroad, including in 1066 and 1103 .
During this period, the church's organization was built up. This led to a gradual change in religious customs. Religion went from being a domestic matter to being regulated by common European Christian law and the royal power gained increased power and influence. Slavery (" servitude ") was gradually abolished. The population grew rapidly during this period, as the thousands of farm names ending in -rud show.
The urbanization of Norway is a historical process that has slowly but surely changed Norway from the early Viking Age to today, from a country based on agriculture and sea salvage, to increasingly trade and industry. As early as the ninth century, the country got its first urban community, and in the eleventh century we got the first permanent cities.
In the 1130s, civil war broke out . This was due to a power struggle and that anyone who claimed to be the king's son could claim the right to the throne. The disputes escalated into extensive year-round warfare when Sverre Sigurdsson started a rebellion against the church's and the landmen's candidate for the throne , Magnus Erlingsson .
Emergence of cities
The oldest Norwegian cities probably emerged from the end of the 9th century. Oslo, Bergen and Nidaros became episcopal seats, which stimulated urban development there, and the king built churches in Borg , Konghelle and Tønsberg. Hamar and Stavanger became new episcopal seats and are referred to in the late 12th century as towns together with the trading places Veøy in Romsdal and Kaupanger in Sogn. In the late Middle Ages, Borgund (on Sunnmøre), Veøy (in Romsdalsfjorden) and Vågan (in Lofoten) were referred to as small trading places. Urbanization in Norway occurred in few places compared to the neighboring countries, only 14 places appear as cities before 1350. Stavanger became a bishopric around 1120–1130, but it is unclear whether the place was already a city then. The fertile Jæren and outer Ryfylke were probably relatively densely populated at that time. A particularly large concentration of Irish artefacts from the Viking Age has been found in Stavanger and Nord-Jæren.
It has been difficult to estimate the population in the Norwegian medieval cities, but it is considered certain that the cities grew rapidly in the Middle Ages. Oscar Albert Johnsen estimated the city's population before the Black Death at 20,000, of which 7,000 in Bergen, 3,000 in Nidaros, 2,000 in Oslo and 1,500 in Tunsberg. Based on archaeological research, Lunden estimates that Oslo had around 1,500 inhabitants in 250 households in the year 1300. Bergen was built up more densely and, with the concentration of exports there, became Norway's largest city in a special position for several hundred years. Knut Helle suggests a city population of 20,000 at most in the High Middle Ages, of which almost half in Bergen.
The Bjarkøyretten regulated the conditions in cities (especially Bergen and Nidaros) and in trading places, and for Nidaros had many of the same provisions as the Frostating Act . Magnus Lagabøte's city law replaced the bjarkøretten and from 1276 regulated the settlement in Bergen and with corresponding laws also drawn up for Oslo, Nidaros and Tunsberg. The city law applied within the city's roof area . The City Act determined that the city's public streets consisted of wide commons (perpendicular to the shoreline) and ran parallel to the shoreline, similarly in Nidaros and Oslo. The roads were small streets of up to 3 cubits (1.4 metres) and linked to the individual property. From the Middle Ages, the Norwegian cities were usually surrounded by wooden fences. The urban development largely consisted of low wooden houses which stood in contrast to the relatively numerous and dominant churches and monasteries built in stone.
The City Act and supplementary provisions often determined where in the city different goods could be traded, in Bergen, for example, cattle and sheep could only be traded on the Square, and fish only on the Square or directly from the boats at the quayside. In Nidaros, the blacksmiths were required to stay away from the densely populated areas due to the risk of fire, while the tanners had to stay away from the settlements due to the strong smell. The City Act also attempted to regulate the influx of people into the city (among other things to prevent begging in the streets) and had provisions on fire protection. In Oslo, from the 13th century or earlier, it was common to have apartment buildings consisting of single buildings on a couple of floors around a courtyard with access from the street through a gate room. Oslo's medieval apartment buildings were home to one to four households. In the urban farms, livestock could be kept, including pigs and cows, while pastures and fields were found in the city's rooftops . In the apartment buildings there could be several outbuildings such as warehouses, barns and stables. Archaeological excavations show that much of the buildings in medieval Oslo, Trondheim and Tønsberg resembled the oblong farms that have been preserved at Bryggen in Bergen . The land boundaries in Oslo appear to have persisted for many hundreds of years, in Bergen right from the Middle Ages to modern times.
High Middle Ages (1184–1319)
After civil wars in the 12th century, the country had a relative heyday in the 13th century. Iceland and Greenland came under the royal authority in 1262 , and the Norwegian Empire reached its greatest extent under Håkon IV Håkonsson . The last king of Haraldsätten, Håkon V Magnusson , died sonless in 1319 . Until the 17th century, Norway stretched all the way down to the mouth of Göta älv , which was then Norway's border with Sweden and Denmark.
Just before the Black Death around 1350, there were between 65,000 and 85,000 farms in the country, and there had been a strong growth in the number of farms from 1050, especially in Eastern Norway. In the High Middle Ages, the church or ecclesiastical institutions controlled 40% of the land in Norway, while the aristocracy owned around 20% and the king owned 7%. The church and monasteries received land through gifts from the king and nobles, or through inheritance and gifts from ordinary farmers.
Settlement and demography in the Middle Ages
Before the Black Death, there were more and more farms in Norway due to farm division and clearing. The settlement spread to more marginal agricultural areas higher inland and further north. Eastern Norway had the largest areas to take off and had the most population growth towards the High Middle Ages. Along the coast north of Stad, settlement probably increased in line with the extent of fishing. The Icelandic Rimbegla tells around the year 1200 that the border between Finnmark (the land of the Sami) and resident Norwegians in the interior was at Malangen , while the border all the way out on the
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Queen Rania of Jordan pictured in front of a painting during a reception of the German President at Bellevue Castle in Berlin, 22 October 2002. The 32-year-old queen warned against a war with Iraq as it would only add to the frustrations of many Arabs and therefore lead to more terrorist attacks. The cause for the frustrations in the Middle East countries derives from the unsolved problems in Palestine, unjustice and 'bad work of the governments' in the region, the queen stated. Political remarks by female members of Arabian royal houses are extremely rare. Queen Rania and her family are on a three-day state visit to Germany
Homicide Memorial for 27 year old James Arroyo aka "Elmo" who was gunned down a few feet away from this location, at the Coastal gas station, located at 19th street and Walnut Avenue in Niagara Falls, New York. Many of his friends, family and several members of the Bloods gang community laid down red rags and food in his memory. His murder case is currently unsolved and no suspects have been named.
Link:
www.wgrz.com/mb/news/local/overnight-homicide-in-niagara-...
Disclaimer: Niagara Falls residents deny gang activity in Niagara Falls New York. Most residents will tell you there are no such things as gangs in Niagara Falls NY.
#compton #bompton #watts #inglewood #bloods #crips #blood #crip #losangeles #LA #southcentral #southLA #philadelphia #westcoast #losangelesconfidential #gang #ganggang #chiraq #brooklyn #bronx #harlem #queens #chicago #bloodgang #cripgang #meekmill #newyork #nyc #newyorkcity #houston
Non / Where: Donostia / San Sebastian (Kursaal)(Gipuzkoa / Basque Country)
Noiz / When: 2007-03-12 (18:00)
Kamara / Camera: CANON EOS350D
Objetiboa / Lens: CANON EFS 18-55mm (17mm)
ISO: 100
Programa / Program: Av (Aperture priority)
Exposizioa / Exposition time: 1/80"
F zenbakia / number F: 10
Software: Digital Photo Profesional (RAW)
Software: Photoshop CS (Txuri beltza / BW)
Gran Kursaal eraikina 1921eko abuztuaren 15ean inauguratu zuten, eta mendearen lehenengo laurdenean hirian egindako obra publiko handienetako bat izan zen. Bere irudia Belle Epoque garaiko hiri ludiko, kosmopolita eta harrotiaren erakusgarri izan zen. Hiru urte beranduago, 1924ko urriaren 31n, Primo de Riveraren diktaduraren erdian, jokoa galaraztea agindu zuten dekretuz eta kasinoak ateak itxi behar izan zituen.
Gran Kursaal eraikinak, jokoa galarazita zegoenez, jarduera desberdinen behin-behineko egoitza izatera mugatu behar izan zuen 1972an eraistera erabaki zuten arte.
Orubea, bi hamarkadatan geraldian egon ondoren, udalak hartu zuen jabetzan. Hura abagune ona izan zen hiria, sustapen publikoaren bidez, Auditorio eta Kongresu Jauregi batez hornitzeko. 1989an, Kontsulta Tekniko baten deialdia egin ondoren, nazioartean ezagunak diren sei arkitekto gonbidatu zituzten: Mario Botta, Norman Foster, Arata Isozaki, Rafael Moneo, Juan Navarro Baldeweg eta Luis Peña Ganchegui.
Azkenik, 1990ean, eta sei proposamenen artean, Rafael Moneorena aukeratu zuten " ondo asmatu duelako K orubea Urumea ibaiahoaren akzidente geografiko gisa hartzean, espazio publikoak itsasora zabalik dauden plataforma gisa askatzean eta, batez ere, proposamena sendoa, ausarta eta originala delako" , dio epaiaren ebazpenak. 1991 eta 1994 urte bitartean, burutzapen-proiektua idatzi zuten eta 1995 urtean behin betiko onespena lortu zuten obrak hasteko. Obrak 1995eko maiatzaren 19an hasi ziren. 1999ko ekainaren 3an, Ganbara Aretoa estreinatu zen. Bertan, teknologia berrien eremuko enpresen sorkuntzari buruzko lehenengo kongresua izan zen. Urte bereko abuztuaren 23an, multzo arkitektonikoaren inaugurazio ofizialaren egunean, aldi berean kontzertu batzuk eman ziren. Auditorio berriaren eszenatokirako antolatutako kontzertua Euskadiko Orkestra Sinfonikoak eta Ainhoa Arteta sopranoak eskaini zuten.
ENGLISH
The Kursaal Congress Palace and Auditorium is an architectonic complex comprising several spaces: a great auditorium, many-use halls and exhibition halls. It was projected by Navarre architect Rafael Moneo, and is located in Donostia (Basque Country). It opened in 1999.
The Gran Kursaal building was opened on 15th August 1921 , and was one of the most important constructions in the city during the first quarter of the century. Its image is one of the factors that best represent the fun-loving, cosmopolitan and slightly arrogant city that was San Sebastián during the Belle Époque. Three years later, at midnight on the 31st October 1924 gambling was declared forbidden during Primo de Rivera's dictatorship, and the casino closed its doors. In view of this prohibition, the Gran Kursaal resigned itself to becoming the provisional headquarters for a series of .different activities until, in 1972, its owners agreed to its demolition. This site, a matter that remained unsolved for two decades, eventually became municipal property, thereby offering an unique chance to offer the city, by means of public tender, a Convention Centre and Auditorium. In 1989 six internationally famous architects were invited to present projects for the site: Mario Botta, Norman Foster, Arata Isozaki, Rafael Moneo, Jaun Navarro Baldeweg and Luis Peña Ganchegui. Finally, in 1990, the version presented by Rafael Moneo was chosen from among the six projects presented, due, according to the note accompanying the jury's decision: " tohaving considered the Kursaal site as a geographical feature at the mouth of the River Urumea, for the openness of its public areas such as the platforms looking out towards the sea and particularly for the rotundity, courage and originality of the proposal" . The plan of construction was drawn up from 1991 until 1994, and in 1995 final approval was given for the work to start, which it did on 19th May of the same year. On 3rd June 1999 the first meeting was held in the Sala de Cámara , the theme of which which was precisely the creation of companies in the field of new technologies. On 23rd August of that same year, the architectural complex was officially inaugurated with a series of simultaneous concerts. On the stage of the new Auditorium were the Euskadi Symphony Orchestra and the soprano Aihnoa Arteta.
More information:
www.kursaal.org (Basque, English, Français, Spanish)
www.donostia.org (Basque, English, Français, Spanish)
did this until i get my editing program and more picture of my friend.....Unknown artist: Dedicated song??? those someone know the artist???
This knifing murder is still unsolved as of January 2009.
Teen fatally knifed & pal hurt in fight
By Matthew Lysiak and Wil Cruz
DAILY NEWS WRITERS
Friday, October 24th 2008
Two teens were stabbed, one fatally, when a fight in Washington Heights turned violent, police said Friday.
Brian Maldonado, 17, was stabbed in the chest Thursday, October 23, 2008, at 11:30 p.m. near Audubon Ave. and West 187th Street after he and a friend were scrapping with another group.
The friend, an unidentified 16-year-old, was knifed in the arm and back, police said.
Police did not say why the groups were brawling.
By the end of the fight, Maldonado and his friend staggered to a nearby bodega, where the owner called 911.
"The two kids were just lying near the sidewalk and there was a lot of blood," said the bodega owner, who asked not to be identified. "It looked like a movie."
The victims were taken to Harlem Hospital.
Maldonado, of the Bronx, was pronounced dead at 2:15 a.m. Friday.
The 16-year-old was listed in stable condition, police said.
The suspects have not been caught. Police said they fled in a dark-colored minivan.
Labels: crime, Washington Heights
manhattankids.blogspot.com/2009/01/washington-heights-cri...
Rest in peace Brian "eze" Maldonado January 19th, 1991 - October 24th, 2008....he would have been 18 years old this month.....If you have any information on the stabbing and murder of Brian Maldonado 17 yrs old...please call the New York Police Department. let these killers face justices... brian a good friend of mine R.I.P...i still remember smoking bud with you and BEZ at 5 Pointz/Phun Factory Queens
Seeing a cold & foggy December sunrise in the city. I can't believe that it's already December! This year has been something else indeed... Pic taken from around San Jose, CA. (Tuesday early morning, December 1, 2020; 7:55 a.m.)
*“When life is foggy, path is unclear and mind is dull, remember your breath. It has the power to give you the peace. It has the power to resolve the unsolved equations of life.” ― Amit Ray, Beautify your Breath - Beautify your Life
Crown Bar and Grill, 1005 E Street, NW (Henry J. Blauvelt, 1906, demolished 1996 w/facade preserved) ca. 1988.
The crew gutting this building solved a 30 year old mystery in 1996:
Washington Post - January 5, 1997
DISCOVERY MAY END A 30-YEAR MYSTERY - BONES BELIEVED TO BE THOSE OF VANISHED SOLDIER
Ruben Castaneda, Washington Post Staff Writer
American cities were exploding in race riots. Lyndon B. Johnson was president, and the Vietnam War was escalating. The District's budget was so healthy that it was growing annually by millions of dollars. The date was Aug. 1, 1967. At Fort Myer, in Arlington, Pfc. Allen Lee Adams failed to report for duty. The Army declared Adams, 20, absent without leave, and he was never heard from again.
Nearly 30 years later, the question of Adams's whereabouts apparently was answered the week before Christmas. A work crew demolishing a vacant downtown building at 1005 E St . NW found a human leg bone and pelvis in a pair of jeans. Inside the pants pockets, police found dog tags and other Army identification belonging to Adams.
Homicide detectives and Adams's parents are all but certain that the young private was slain and that his body was placed in the now-demolished building. DNA testing will tell for sure whether the body is Adams's, authorities say.
One mystery solved, another opened: How did Adams die? If he was killed, who did it, and why?
The discovery brought a measure of closure to Adams's parents, Elizabeth and Darrel, who live in Hickory, N.C., but it also brought another layer of grief, piled on nearly 30 years of longing and heartache.
"It's been absolutely one nightmare that's never-ending," Elizabeth Adams said. "You go to bed each night and you think, Maybe I'm just dreaming.' And you wake up the next morning, and it's the same thing." For all those years, Elizabeth and Darrel Adams clung to the dwindling hope that Allen Lee, one of four children and their oldest son, would reenter their lives. To no avail, they tried to get the Army to look for their son, or, later to get the TV show "Unsolved Mysteries" to do a segment on him.
The building where the bones were found had been vacant since the late 1980s. Demolition workers were tearing it down to make way for an office building when they discovered the bones just after noon Dec. 18. At the time Adams disappeared, the building had the Crown Bar and Grill on the first floor and the Apex Billiard Parlor on the second. The third floor was vacant, and there was an attic above that, said homicide Lt. James Boteler, who is leading the investigation.
It is likely the body was on the third floor or in the attic until the demolition brought it down amid rubble, Boteler said. Police investigators summoned forensic anthropologists from the Smithsonian Institution to comb the rubble for more remains. The anthropologists were unable to find other evidence, and some of the rubble had been hauled off by the time they got to it. Although the cause of death has not been determined -- and may never be, forensically, given the dearth of physical evidence -- police are required to investigate all unexplained deaths.
Adams was last seen by family members in late July 1967, when he visited his parents in West Palm Beach, Fla., and other relatives in Indiana. Boteler theorized that Adams may have gone to the billiard parlor to shoot pool and gotten into a dispute there. Elizabeth and Darrel Adams said their son enjoyed playing pool.
People who owned and ran businesses in the neighborhood during the 1960s said that the Crown Bar and Grill was a popular lunch spot for federal workers and that patrons of the nearby National Theater went there for evening meals. "It was a neighborhood place. It wasn't a rough crowd," said Richard Danker, who owned a restaurant near the site where the remains were found. "It was like Cheers.' Everybody knew everybody."
It is that kind of neighborhood coziness that police hope will help them discover what happened to Adams. "We'd like to talk to anyone who owned, worked in or frequented the two businesses that were in the building" when Adams disappeared, Boteler said. Detectives also are awaiting Army records that may help them find people who were soldiers in Adams's engineering company.
Meanwhile, the Adams family is doing its best to cope. At Christmas, Allen Lee Adams's siblings -- Beverly Adams Peterson, 56, David Adams, 48, and Pamela Adams Rockwell, 36 -- gathered at their parents' home. They remembered their brother, how he doted on Pamela, then held each other and cried. He would have been 49.
At the time Adams was reported AWOL, the Vietnam War was wrenching the country apart, and many soldiers were deserting. A month after declaring Adams AWOL, the Army discharged him dishonorably. Through the decades, Elizabeth and Darrel Adams never wavered in their belief that their son was not a deserter. After all, he had reenlisted a couple of months before.
"I asked him once, What if you have to go to Vietnam?' " Darrel Adams said. "He said, That's part of the deal: If I have to go, I'll go.' He said he'd do his duty." Soon, they should find out whether the body in the building is their son's.
On Monday, a nurse will draw a blood sample from Elizabeth Adams. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology will conduct DNA tests, comparing the genetic material in the bones with that in Elizabeth Adams's blood. Results are expected within the month.
Elizabeth Adams has shifted from hoping her son returns to hoping the story of his death is revealed. She said she will petition the Army to clear his name if there is evidence he did not desert. "I hope and pray that somebody will remember something and help the police," she said. "I haven't known for 30 years, and I might never know."
Washington Post - May 22, 1999
BURIED IN THE PAST - After 30 Years, Elizabeth Adams Finally Knows Her Son's Fate. But His Life Remains A Mystery.
Frank Ahrens, Washington Post Staff Writer
It was Elizabeth Adams's 64th birthday, and Christmas was coming. On the cool afternoon of Dec. 18, 1996, she hung holiday decorations inside her red brick home in Hickory, N.C., and waited for her older daughter to swing by. They were going shopping, to buy Mom a birthday present.
Just as her daughter came in the front door, the phone rang. Adams picked up. Birthday wishes from a friend, she figured. No. It was the police calling, from Washington, D.C.
Mrs. Adams, they said. We found your son Allen's billfold and dog tags here, in the pockets of some bluejeans. We found them in the rubble of a building that's being torn down. And we found some bones. We're 99 percent sure they're your son's . . .
The policeman's words stopped making sense to Adams. She handed the phone to her daughter. Sat down. Began to cry. All she could think was: Thirty years. My son has been missing 30 years. Now they've found him. And they're telling me he's dead.
"I liked to went crazy," says Adams, now 66 and retired to South Florida with her husband, Darrel, 71. "I mostly remember crying for an awful long time. People asked me, 'Why are you crying so much? At least now you know.' I told them, 'Now I don't have any hope. As long as I didn't find him, I had hope.'"
On Aug. 1, 1967, Pfc. Allen Lee Adams, 20, went missing from Fort Myer in Arlington. A month later, the Army gave him a less-than-honorable discharge. For three decades, his mother had written hundreds of letters--including ones to each president--trying to find her son, the oldest of four children. Now, a bulldozer had given her the terrible answer.
Even after Allen Adams's remains were found--and received a military burial with honors--his mother kept up the fusillade of letters, now to police and prosecutors. One caught the attention of local prosecutors. A homicide detective is on the case. A grand jury has convened. Suspects have been identified. The case will be profiled on national TV tonight.
In the course of the investigation, Elizabeth Adams has learned some disturbing facts about her son. Things she didn't know--or didn't want to know. Maybe soon, she can find out the truth about her son. Wherever it may have been hidden.
The Scene of the Crime?
Detective Clarence Muse, a D.C. homicide investigator, is discussing what kind of man Allen Adams was. Typical 20-year-old, he says. Liked cars, interested in girls. Is there anything else?
"Just he had a bad temper when he got to drinking. He got into a couple of scraps [in the Army]. He happened to be drinking when got into problems a couple of times," Muse says.
In 1967, the nation was in turmoil over the Vietnam War. But Adams, a supply specialist, demonstrated no internal conflict about the war. He had left high school early to join the Army and had recently reenlisted. He'd already had a 16-month tour in Korea and told his father--a Navy man in World War II--that if he were ordered to Vietnam, he would go. Adams didn't seem like the deserting type.
On July 31, 1967, Adams left Fort Myer for downtown Washington. He ended up, police think, at the Apex Billiard Parlor at 1005 E St. NW, one floor above the popular Crown Bar and Grill. The building's third floor was empty.
That area of downtown had been a destination for soldiers and sailors since World War II. A Marine barracks was a few blocks away. There were restaurants, shops and peep shows. The Apex had its share of scuffles, police say, but it wasn't a rough joint. The Crown Bar and Grill catered mostly to a lunch crowd. There was a rotisserie in the front window.
Muse believes the soldier was playing pool and got into a fight that turned fatal. The killer, or killers, dragged him out of the pool hall and up the stairs to the vacant third floor, where they shoved his body into the ceiling or a wall. The Army declared Adams AWOL when he didn't return to the base that night. On Aug. 30, it "dropped him from the rolls . . . as a deserter," reads a letter to his mother.
In December 1996, a demolition crew was razing 1005 E St., which had been vacant since the late '80s. The work halted when someone spotted a grayed, flaking femur, wrapped in shredded jeans in the shovel of a bulldozer. Nearby was a pelvis. The other bones may have been lost among the chunks of concrete and plaster.
The pants were full of documentation--Adams's wallet, dog tags, a watch, money, papers--a promising guide for investigators, says Ken Kohl, the assistant U.S. attorney assigned to the case. "There are clues from the paperwork of the people he came in contact with and the things he was doing on the day he disappeared."
'The Smell of Rats'
But the contents of Allen Adams's pockets didn't answer a lot of questions. The cause of death, for instance, is tough to determine, given the lack of physical evidence. Equally perplexing is why no one noticed the body upstairs. After all, it was summer in Washington--what about the stench from a decomposing corpse?
"I don't have an explanation for that," says Muse, a 30-year police veteran, "knowing what I know about dead bodies." There were never any rumors about a body upstairs, report tenants of the time. But one did tell Kohl: Sometimes the building had "the smell of rats."
There's another key question: What about witnesses? That's where Kohl pins his hopes of ending this mystery. "Over the years, people make admissions," he says. "Friendships that may have kept witnesses silent no longer exist."
The grand jury has started to hear evidence. Kohl's office has subpoenaed Army records, and Muse has a list of about 35 people who knew or worked with Adams whom he hopes to interview. He has a couple of suspects. Both Kohl and Muse are confident it was a homicide.
"People don't die of natural causes and hide themselves in the walls of a building," Kohl says.
Not the Son She Knew
Perhaps more disturbing to Elizabeth Adams than the unanswered questions are the unanticipated answers. It revealed to the grieving mother that there was much about her son she did not know. She didn't know about his drinking. She didn't know about the fights. And she didn't know about the consequences of the two.
In a photograph of Allen Adams that his mother has, he is kneeling beside a row of tents in a khaki uniform. He is trim and confident-looking. On his left sleeve are two chevrons, designating the rank of corporal. But the Allen Adams that died in 1967 was a private first class.
"I think he had hit an officer or some such thing," says his mother. "I asked Detective Muse about it and that's what he told me he had found out. It wasn't too serious; they always take your stripes." So. Cpl. Adams was busted down to Pfc. Adams. For striking an officer. And his mother only found out three decades after his death.
"The kids are not going to come to me and say, 'I'm in trouble,' " Elizabeth Adams says. "But we didn't ever have any serious problems with the kids." But this seems unlike her son, Elizabeth Adams says. When he was a boy growing up in West Palm Beach, Fla., where the family lived at the time, Allen was into fishing, not fighting. Sure, he and his brother, David, tussled a bit, but no different from any other brothers. As a young man, he was good to his two younger sisters. He got good grades and never was sent to the principal's office.
"I was very, very, very strict with the kids," says Elizabeth Adams. "They knew that if they got in trouble in school, they'd be in more trouble when they got home."
One Burden Too Many
Every morning after Adams rises, she reads her Bible for consolation. It's not hard to see why. As the oldest of 12 children growing up in the hills of Kentucky, she "learned to cook as soon as she could see over the cookstove," says her younger daughter, Pamela Rockwell, who lives in Indiana. Adams had her first child when she was 14. As a wife in Florida, she helped her husband build their new house.
"I was hanging drywall when I was 13," laughs Rockwell. "She taught us how to do this. I could hang drywall and paint and lay carpet. I thought all mothers knew how to do this." But her oldest son's disappearance was one burden too many.
"The possibility that Allen was dead--that was never acceptable conversation in our house," says Beverly Peterson, Elizabeth Adams's older daughter. "It caused her such pain that she really could not speak about it. "You could see a gaping hole there. Just a pain," Peterson continues. Rockwell describes another scene of her mother failing to cope.
"She would get a long-distance call and it would be staticky and she couldn't tell who it was, but she knew it was him," Rockwell says. "She made it up in her mind that he was alive and either had amnesia or was somewhere where he couldn't get home." Maybe Allen had a parachuting accident that resulted in a broken leg; maybe he'd hit his head, too, the mother rationalized.
Kohl would like to solve this case, mostly for the sake of the mother. "We owe it to Mrs. Adams," Kohl says. "The Army said their son was a deserter and they experienced the shame of that, of being treated as the family of a deserter."
He began working on the case a couple of months ago, thanks in part to the efforts of WTOP radio reporter Paul Wagner. Wagner covered the discovery of Allen's remains, befriended Elizabeth Adams and, when she asked him for advice, suggested she write to the U.S. attorney's office. Why not, she figured. She'd written to everyone else.
The case landed on Kohl's desk. He contacted Wagner and told him: We need some national publicity because the homicide is 30 years old and the people who knew Adams are probably spread out all over the country.
So Wagner called "America's Most Wanted," the Fox TV show that seeks to hunt down criminals by telling the stories of their crimes, sometimes with re-creations. The show is popular with law enforcement officials, who see it as a way to cast a nationwide dragnet. The show bit on the Adams mystery. The episode is scheduled for 9 tonight.
In an April 1967 letter to his mother--three months before his disappearance--Adams writes of the beauty of Washington's cherry blossoms, a couple of civilian girls he was interested in and so on. Then, toward the end of the letter, he says:
"I haven't been in to [sic] much trouble lately. I decided to try and make something here because I've only got 18 months left in the Army before I'll be trying to make a living as a civilian and I've been in enough trouble to make it difficult without getting into any more. I should have stopped to think a few years ago I know but it's not to [sic] late I hope."
What did this mean? "We've been through that many times and I wonder what it means," Elizabeth Adams says, starting to cry again. "I thought it just meant he was ready to settle down and start getting serious. It never dawned on me that it might mean anything." She stops to cry some more. "I wish now I had asked him."
Photographer unidentified - Historic American Buildings Survey. 1988 color shot of this block.
New York Times - February 5, 1997
Long Missing and Misjudged, A Soldier is Buried
For 30 years Pfc. Allen L. Adams was branded a deserter, thought by the Army to be yet another soldier who had fled to avoid being sent to Vietnam. But six weeks ago, when workers in Washington, D.C., found human bones in the rubble of a building they were demolishing, that easy assumption was undone: the remains were those of Private Adams, and the authorities now believe that he disappeared in the summer of 1967 not because he had deserted, but because he had been killed.
This weekend, Private Adams was buried here with full military honors beneath a leafless willow in a section of a country cemetery known as the Garden of Peace. His parents, Darrel and Elizabeth Adams, who retired to Hickory five years ago, wept softly as seven soldiers raised M-16's in a salute and a bugler played taps.
''It was a 30-year nightmare that just never ended,'' said Mrs. Adams, 64. ''I always had kind of a hope in my heart, but I knew something terrible had happened to him. He was a good kid, and I miss him.''
Though the uncertainty is over, friends and family say many questions remain: Why was the body not discovered in all this time? Why did the Army not fully investigate Private Adams's disappearance? Why did the Army assume that he had deserted, especially since he had just re-enlisted?
The police in Washington, meanwhile, face their own puzzles as they investigate a homicide three decades old. The task is particularly daunting because records have been lost and investigators recovered only Private Adams's pelvic bone and one femur, encased in a pair of blue jeans. His dog tags and a wallet containing money were found in a pocket.
Private Adams was stationed at Fort Myer, in the Washington suburb of Arlington, Va., when he disappeared on July 31, 1967. His remains were found on Dec. 18 in the rubble of a long-abandoned pool hall that was being torn down to make way for a new sports arena. Investigators believe that he died shortly after disappearing from the base.
Positive identification was made in January by comparing DNA from the remains with blood taken from Mrs. Adams.
The case is like a trip back in time, to a decade dominated by an unpopular war.
Allen Lee Adams was the eldest of four children. He enlisted in 1965, nine months after dropping out of high school in Palm Beach, Fla.
He served at Fort Knox, Ky., and in Korea before being assigned to Fort Myer, where he was learning to work in a field that was just emerging: data processing. Three months before he disappeared, he wrote a letter to his family and told them about the amazing new computers he was working on.
''He enjoyed life, and he enjoyed challenge,'' said his sister Beverly Peterson, who was 9 when he disappeared.
His family assumes that Private Adams had been in the building where his remains were found to enjoy one of his pastimes, playing pool. The building, vacant since the 1980's, housed a pool hall and restaurant in 1967.
Investigators surmise that Private Adams's body was hidden in the attic. They are looking for leads in property tax records and have interviewed the property's owner at the time, but a fire has destroyed Army personnel records that would have helped them find soldiers who served with Mr. Adams.
The Adamses learned in August 1967 that their son, then 20 years old, was missing. Over the years, Army officials, still trying to track down a man they thought had deserted, visited the Adamses' West Palm Beach home to see if their son had shown up. Once, a soldier waited in line at the dress shop where Mrs. Adams worked. When his turn at the cash register came, he said: ''Where's Allen? I know you know where he is.''
The Adamses never believed that their son had shirked his duty, yet they wished that he would surprise them by coming home unannounced, just as he had done many times before when he had leave. The Army discharged him in 1983.
''What we did at the time was based on the best information available and the guidelines and rules we have,'' said Lieut. Col. Anda Strauss, of the Army Personnel Command in Northern Virginia. At that time, the country was absorbed in a passionate debate over the United States' increasing involvement in Vietnam. Many soldiers went absent without leave to avoid assignment there.
But Private Adams had not received orders to go overseas, and his father said his son had told him that he would go if he had to.
''He was a jolly sort who was connected to his family,'' Mrs. Peterson said. ''He even called my mother from Korea on Mother's Day. He didn't miss sending cards. He came home every Thanksgiving and Christmas. They thought he must be dead.''
Nevertheless, Mrs. Adams spent 30 years searching for her son's face in crowds and scouring letters received at her church from missionaries overseas for her son's handwriting. When she heard once that someone had picked up a confused soldier, she wondered: Could it be Allen?
When word came that Private Adams was in fact dead, Mrs. Adams cried for hours.
''There was no hope left,'' she said in an interview after the burial, crying again.
Sgt. 1st Class Andra Powell, who was part of the 14-member military honor guard here for Private Adams's funeral, said of the 30-year military mystery, ''I wish it hadn't started like it did.''
Sergeant Powell's unit from Fort Bragg was here to make sure that the chapter ended with dignity. The family will get the back pay owed to Private Adams -- the amount is not yet known -- and $10,000 from a life insurance policy, all with interest.
Sergeant Powell, 33, handed the American flag to Mr. and Mrs. Adams, who shuddered with silent sobs. He told them that it was presented on behalf of a grateful nation.
As the family turned to leave the grave, David Adams, born two years after Allen Adams and now gray-haired and retired from a job as a firefighter, stopped and tucked a piece of paper inside his brother's steel-gray coffin.
It was a letter he had scratched out in the solitude of his pickup truck in the days before the funeral. He wrote about the times he had shared with his brother, the times he had tagged along. He, too, served in the Army, he told his brother. Now he wished he had tagged along one last time, on that night in the pool hall.
David Adams concluded his letter by saying, ''The Army might have given up on you, but your family never did.''
Maria Ridulph was kidnapped on a street corner in Sycamore, Illinois, on December 3, 1957. She was 7 years old at the time. Her body was discovered in a field 5 months later. The case went cold for 55 years until Jack McCullough, formerly John Tessier, was arrested in July 2011. It is believed that the case involved the oldest unsolved murder resulting in an arrest in the United States.
McCullough, then John Tessier (17 years old at the time), befriended Ridulph in Sycamore, Illinois when she was 7 years old. She disappeared from a street corner in Sycamore on December 3, 1957. According to the prosecutors in his case, McCullough choked Ridulph with a wire and stabbed her. The case received nation-wide interest; the FBI was involved under J. Edgar Hoover and it reportedly received attention from Dwight D. Eisenhower.
The case was reopened when Janet Tessier, McCullough's half sister, believing McCullough was involved, asked the Illinois State Police to look into it. Janet Tessier made the decision to come to the police after spending time as the caretaker to the mother of author Mark Lemberger, who wrote "Crimes of Magnitude," a story of an unsolved murder of a seven-year-old girl. Mark Lemberger, upon hearing her speak of her mother's deathbed confession, encouraged Tessier to try to contact a law enforcement agency one more time. Tessier did just that, contacting the Illinois State Police via e-mail. McCullough was arrested in a retirement community in Seattle where he lived and worked as a security guard in July 2011. Ridulph's body was exhumed that same month
At the trial, Kathy Chapman, a childhood friend who was with Ridulph on the day of her disappearance, testified against McCullough. She said that a man, who called himself Johnny, had walked up to them and had given Ridulph a piggyback ride. Chapman went home briefly to get mittens, and upon her return both Johnny and Maria were gone. Based on a 1957 photo, she identified McCullough as the man who had walked up to them. McCullough was convicted of the crime in September 2012 and later received a life sentence with the possibility of parole after 20 years. He was 73 at the time he received his sentence. Although his request for a new trial was denied at the time of sentencing, his appeal continues, as of 2013.
You can watch the documentary on Maria Ridulph case ' 48 Hours Mystery Cold As Ice The Abduction and Murder of 7 Yr Old Maria Ridulph Case' and there is a CNN story on Maria. RIP little girl it's horrible how someone can murder a innocent small child.
Homicide Candle Memorial for John Gonzalez. Gonzalez was found deceased from a gunshot wound in this alley on June 6th 2016. The alley is called "Osborne Alley" and is located between Hudson Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. Gonzalez was the 17th homicide victim of 2016. His case is unsolved. Buffalo NY 2016.
links
wivb.com/2016/06/06/fatal-shooting-reported-on-lower-west...
#vice #viceland #fusion #netflix #sundance #worldstar #wshh #worldstarhiphop #noisey #netflixoriginal #toronto #newyork #google #compton #nyc #brooklyn #chicago #canada #newyorkcity #facebook #atlanta #houston #neworleans #miami #flint #detroit #memphis #oakland #losangeles #camden
* this painting originated while working on my "hotel room series" The title has been "borrowed" from a book by Agatha Christie who commissioned a British artist to "paint" the cover for her book which I own and which has inspired the above painting.
Neither the book nor the cover have anything to do with the "Murder in the library" I have been trying to describe above, for the former is a "portrait of fiction" mine is unfortunately real for it describes the mutilated body of German-Iranian poet, writer, singer, movie star and T.V. host of Jay Leno fame in Iran and Germany, the one and only Fereydoun Farrokhzad, who's mutilated body was found in the artist's library by his neighbor in 1992. The murder to this day has not been solved and revolves around much speculation having been committed by a jealous lover or the work of Iranian extremists /most unlikely for his body was slashed over forty times/
Fereydoun is the holder of the Berlin poetry award, the "Silver Carnation" and was married to German poet and writer Ania Buchkowski* and acted brilliantly in the film: "I love Vienna"
Fereydon is thoroughly missed by anyone who read his poetry or listened to his songs.
The above is my humble attempt to call attention to this horrendous "unsolved" crime.
On August 2, 1998, a truck loaded with gasoline and explosives was crashed into the eastern entrance of the Tippecanoe County Courthouse in Lafayette, Indiana. The truck caught fire, but there was no explosion or significant damage to the building. No arrests were ever made in connection with the incident and it remains unsolved. Concrete barriers were placed around the building to discourage a similar attack.