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The artist Sir James Thornhill (1675-1734) designed the entire "Painted Hall" of the Royal Naval College. And he even painted every single square inch of the huge paintings all by himself which took about 19 years.
Want to see the entire Greenwich album? Go here:
www.flickr.com/photos/wwwuppertal/albums/72177720316970534
Curious to have a look at some of my other albums? Here's the link:
www.flickr.com/photos/wwwuppertal/albums/with/72177720316...
Fahrt von Gudvangen nach Innvik (Tag 5) auf der Autofähre Gudvangen - Kaupanger in der schmalsten Stelle (250m breit) des Nærøyfjords: der Wasserfall Tuftofossen des Flusses Tufteelvi
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La cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta è il duomo di Siena. Costruita in stile Romanico-Gotico italiano, è una delle più significative chiese realizzate in questo stile in Italia.
Nel luogo dove sorge la cattedrale, sarebbe sorto il castrum romano. Ancora nel Medioevo il toponimo era Piano Sancte Mariae e in questo luogo, tra l'attuale costruzione e la piazza che la circonda su due lati, sono stati effettuati degli scavi che hanno suffragato l'ipotesi di uno sviluppo dell'area in periodo longobardo e franco.
Si parla[senza fonte] di un accastellamento con quattro torri, di cui una sarebbe diventata la torre campanaria attuale. Questo edificio sarebbe stato fino al 913 la residenza del vescovo ed avrebbe contenuto una chiesa rivolta verso est, cioè verso l'attuale battistero. Nel XII secolo questa chiesa fu inglobata nella costruzione romanica che andava diventando la cattedrale, con la facciata rivolta a sud, cioè verso l'attuale "Facciatone", la facciata incompiuta del "duomo nuovo".
Finestra gotica sul fianco del duomoÈ tradizione, suffragata anche da deduzioni storiche[senza fonte], che il Duomo sia stato consacrato il 18 novembre 1179. Ci sono però opinioni contrastanti e notizie storiche che smentiscono questa datazione.[senza fonte] Infatti, solo nel XIII secolo (1229) il Duomo sarebbe stato trasformato in basilica, con la facciata rivolta ad ovest, verso l'ospedale di Santa Maria della Scala. I lavori vennero terminati solo alla fine del secolo successivo.
La cupola fu completata nel 1263 e il Rosso padellaio vi appose la "mela". La sua altezza è di 48 metri, inclusa la croce. L'attuale sistemazione dell'apice della cupola stessa è del 1667.
L'"Operaio del Duomo" che sovrintendeva all'amministrazione dei lavori era sempre scelto tra i canonici ma, dal 1258 agli inizi del Trecento, fu scelto tra i monaci dell'abbazia cistercense di San Galgano. Questi si erano segnalati come abili amministratori, tanto che lo stesso Comune di Siena gli aveva affidato gli uffici di Gabella e di Biccherna (gli uffici "entrate" e "uscite" della Repubblica di Siena).
Furono i monaci a chiamare Nicola Pisano e suo figlio Giovanni per i lavori. Giovanni lavorò alla facciata in quel periodo, utilizzando nella parte inferiore i rivestimenti marmorei (provenienti dalle vicine cave di Vallerano, comune di Murlo) che vediamo ancora oggi. Nicola creò il pulpito, terminato nel 1268.
La figura (forse derivata da Cimabue) del Cristo in croce, con le gambe avvitate, i piedi sovrapposti e trapassati da un unico chiodo e le braccia "ad ipsilon" è diventata un classico dell'iconografia. Sembra anche essere stata copiata da parte degli artisti che realizzarono gli affreschi scoperti di recente nella cripta sottostante il Duomo.
Nel 1313 viene terminato il campanile, alto circa 77 metri. Nel 1316 l'edificio venne ampliato sotto la direzione di Camaino di Crescentino, padre dello scultore Tino di Camaino.
Con Siena al massimo del suo splendore, dovette sembrare che il duomo fosse comunque troppo piccolo per la città. Si pensò quindi di ampliarlo in modo tale che l'attuale navata centrale diventasse solo il transetto e la facciata tornasse ad essere orientata a sud, in posizione molto più avanzata rispetto all'antico edificio. Il progetto fu affidato a Lando di Pietro (o "Lando di Piero") dopo la delibera del Consiglio Generale della Campana del 23 agosto 1339. I lavori passarono in seguito sotto la supervisione dello scultore ed architetto Giovanni di Agostino.
A causa della peste del 1348 e di alcuni crolli strutturali, nel giugno del 1357 si decise di interrompere i lavori, lasciando nell'attuale piazza Iacopo della Quercia i segni del fallimento: basamenti per le colonne e incastonamenti di queste nell'edificio dell'attuale Museo dell'Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, oltre alla facciata incompiuta (il "facciatone") dal quale è possibile oggi godere di un notevole panorama sulla città.
Dopo qualche anno, si affidarono di nuovo i lavori al capomastro Domenico di Agostino, fratello di Giovanni, morto nel 1366. Nel 1376, la costruzione della parte superiore della facciata venne affidata a Giovanni di Cecco (detto "Giovannino della Pietra"). Nel 1382 vennero alzate le volte della navata centrale e quest'anno può essere considerato quello di completamento del Duomo.
Nel 1870 un incendio distrusse la cupola estera in legno e parte della copertura lignea della navata che vennero ripristinate.
A Catedral de Siena ou Duomo di Siena, é a catedral medieval de Siena, na Itália.
A Catedral em si foi originalmente projetada e construída entre 1215 e 1263 no local de uma estrutura antiga. Tem a forma de uma cruz Latina, um cúpula e uma torre de sinos. A lanterna, no topo da cúpula, foi adicionada por Gian Lorenzo Bernini. O exterior e o interior são feitos de mármore preto e branco, as cores simbólicas de Siena, derivadas dos lendários cavalos dos fundadores da cidade, Senius e Aschius.
A fachada da Catedral foi construída em dois estágios. A parte inferior foi iniciada em 1284 e construída em estilo da Toscana, por Giovanni Pisano. A exuberante fachada representa profetas, filósofos e apóstolos. Em 1288, a janela em forma de rosa, um vitral redondo colocado em um limite quadrado foi instalado na área do coro, a partir de desenhos de Duccio. O trabalho na parte superior da fachada foram iniciados em 1376 por Giovanni di Cecco, a partir de um projeto inspirado na Catedral de Orvieto. A porta central de bronze é recente e data de 1958. Foi criada por Enrico Manfrini.
No canto esquerdo da fachada há uma inscrição do século XIV, marcando o túmulo de Giovanni Pisano. Ao lado está uma coluna com a loba amamentando Rômulo e Remo, símbolos de Siena. Conta a lenda que Senius e Aschius, filhos de Remo, fundaram Siena.
The Cathedral of Siena (Italian: Duomo di Siena), dedicated from its earliest days as a Roman Catholic Marian church and now to Santa Maria Assunta (Most Holy Mary of Assumption), is a medieval church in Siena, central Italy.
The cathedral itself was originally designed and completed between 1215 and 1263 on the site of an earlier structure. It has the form of a Latin cross with a slightly projecting transept, a dome and a bell tower. The dome rises from an octagonal base with supporting columns. The lantern atop the dome was added by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The nave is separated from the two aisles by semicircular arches. The exterior and interior are constructed of white and greenish-black marble in alternating stripes, with addition of red marble on the façade. Black and white are the symbolic colors of Siena, etiologically linked to black and white horses of the legendary city's founders, Senius and Aschius.
The origins of the first structure are obscure and shrouded in legend. There was a 9th century church with bishop's palace at the present location. In December 1058 a synod was held in this church resulting in the election of pope Nicholas II and the deposition of the antipope Benedict X.
In 1196 the cathedral masons’ guild, the Opera di Santa Maria, was put in charge of the construction of a new cathedral. By 1215 there were already daily masses said in the new church. There are records from 1226 onwards of the transport of black and white marble, probably for the construction of the façade and the bell tower. The vaults and the transept were constructed in 1259-1260. In 1259 Manuello di Ranieri and his son Parri carved some wooden choir stalls, which were replaced about 100 years later and have now disappeared. In 1264, Rosso Padellaio was paid for the copper sphere on top of the dome.
A second massive addition was planned in 1339. It would have more than doubled the size of the structure by means of an entirely new nave and two aisles ranged perpendicular to the existing nave and centred on the high altar. The construction was begun under the direction of Giovanni di Agostino, better known as a sculptor. Construction was halted by the Black Death in 1348. Basic errors in the construction were already evident by then, however, and the work was never resumed. The outer walls, remains of this extension, can now be seen to the south of the Duomo. The floor of the uncompleted nave now serves as a parking lot and museum, and, though unfinished, the remains are testament to Sienese power, ambition, and artistic achievement.
Underneath the choir of the Duomo, a narthex containing important late-13th century frescoes (probably about 1280) was found and excavated in 1999-2003. The frescoes depict scenes from the Old Testament and the life of Christ. This was part of the entrance of an earlier church. But when the baptistry was built, this under-church was filled with rubble. The narthex is now open to the public.
The façade of this cathedral was built in two stages. The lower part in polychrome marble was begun around 1284. It is built in Tuscan Gothic style by Giovanni Pisano, replete with gargoyles. Giovanni Pisano worked on the lower levels until 1296, when he suddenly left Siena. At that time, between 1270 and 1285, the nave of the church had been raised and a higher façade became necessary. Work at the façade continued for another fifteen years and was then stopped. Meanwhile in 1288, the rose window, a large circular stained-glass window, was installed in the choir, based on designs by Duccio di Buoninsegna.
The three portals, surmounted by lunettes and Gothic pediments, were designed by Giovanni Pisano. The columns between the portals are richly decorated with acanthus scrolls, allegorical figures and biblical scenes.
Work on the upper part of the façade only resumed in 1376 under the direction of Giovanni di Cecco, working on a new elaborate design, inspired by the Orvieto Cathedral. It was to be erected much higher than foreseen, because the nave had, once again, been raised. The division of the upper part does not match the division of the lower part. The pinnacles of the upper part do not continue over the columns flanking the central portal. The weight of the elegant side towers was reduced by adding windows.
The statues of the lavish façade were sculpted by Giovanni Pisano and assistants. They represent prophets, philosophers and apostles. The half-length statues of the patriarchs in the niches around the rose window are the work of other sculptors. Almost all the sculptures on view are copies. The originals are kept in the "Crypt of the Statues" in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo.
The bronze central door is recent and dates from 1958. It was made by Enrico Manfrini. The scenes on the door represent the Glorification of the Virgin. The three large mosaics on the gables of the façade were made in Venice in 1878. The large central mosaic, the Coronation of the Virgin, is the work of Luigi Mussini. The smaller mosaics on each side, Nativity of Jesus and Presentation of Mary in the Temple, were made by Alessandro Franchi.
On the left corner pier of the façade, a 14th century inscription can be found, marking the grave of Giovanni Pisano. Next to the façade stands a column with the she-wolf breast-feeding Romulus and Remus, symbol of Siena (and also of the contrade Lupa). According to legend, Senius and Aschius, sons of Remus, founded Siena. They had stolen the statue of the she-wolf from the Temple of Apollo in Rome.
Breathtaking guided tour onto the top of Cologne Cathedral (UNESCO World Heritage site since 1996)
Atemberaubende Führung auf den Kölner Dom (UNESCO Welterbestätte seit 1996)
Lamb keystone in the two-bayed northern cloister of Kloster Walkenried (Walkenried Abbey), Göttingen district, southern Harz region, Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), Germany.
Kloster Walkenried was the third Cistercian abbey on German territory, founded in 1127. Being experts in water technology, the Cistercian monks put great effort into cultivation and land development, and were also very active in mining, smelting and charcoal works.
Since the Cistercian monks of Walkenried are regarded as the "fathers of the Upper Harz Water Regale", Kloster Walkenried is part of the UNESCO Cultural World Heritage Site Mines of Rammelsberg, Historic Town of Goslar and Upper Harz Water Management System.
The Gothic church from 1290 used to be one of the largest churches in Northern Germany but was greatly damaged in the 17th to 19th centuries so today there are only some ruins remaining.
The Gothic claustral buildings, however, including the chapter house, the lay brothers' room, the lavatorium and the partially two-bayed cloister, are well preserved and today house a museum.
Harz short trip April/May 2018.
Zarah Leander Schnulze (für den Armand): "Von der Puszta will ich träumen" (youtube)
Auf dem blauen Boden in der blauen Spiegelküche: Broschüre, Serviette, Rechnung "Gasthaus zum fröhlichen Arbeiter. Familie Tschida" Apetlon Quergasse, Feder. Kreis: Ölpastell Sennelier blau irisierend, Serviette im Nachhinein verschoben.
Part of: "an apple a day keeps the doctor away - An ENSO (Japanese: circle, Japanisch: Kreis) a day .... " Aktion Kreis Tagebuch A circle diary - Start of the 365-days Project: 1. September // Memory Photograph Album: Outing Lange Lacke // blue + yellow = green Blau + Gelb = Grün
Diptych:
DMC-G2 - P1860713 - 2014-11-21
DMC-G2 - P1860716 - 2014-11-21
People sitting on Piazza del Campo in the historic city of Siena, with the Palazzo Pubblico in the background, Tuscany, Italy
Some background information:
Piazza del Campo is the principal public space of the historic center of Siena. It is regarded as one of Europe's greatest medieval squares and renowned worldwide for its beauty and architectural integrity. The twice-a-year horse-race, Palio di Siena, is held around the edges of the piazza. At this race ten horses and riders compete with each other, bareback and dressed in the appropriate colours, representing ten of the town's seventeen contrade resp. city wards.
In 1169, a market place was established at the site. Until 1270, it was used for holding markets and fairs, while it subsequently evolved into the city’s second centre after Piazza del Duomo, Siena’s cathedral square. In 1297, the construction of the Palazzo Pubblico began. The impressive building with its bell tower Torre del Mangia (built between 1325 and 1344) served as the seat of the Republic of Siena’s government and naturally became the focal point of Piazza del Campo. The outside of the structure is an example of Italian medieval architecture with Gothic influences. The lower story is stone while the upper crenellated stories are made of brick. The facade of the palace is curved slightly inwards to reflect the outwards curve of Piazza del Campo.
With its about 54,000 residents, the city of Siena is the capital of the province of Siena in Tuscany. Siena is located about 70 km (44 miles) south of the city of Florence and about 180 km (112 miles) north of the Italian capital Rome. The town is situated in the central part of Tuscany, in the middle of a vast hilly landscape between the Arbia river valley (south), the Elsa valley (north), the Chianti hills (north-east), the Montagnola Senese (west) and the Crete Senesi (south-east). The city lies at 322 m above sea level.
Siena, like other Tuscan hill towns, was first settled in the time of the Etruscans (from 900 to 400 BC) when it was inhabited by a tribe called the Saina. The Etruscans were an ethnic group of advanced people who changed the face of central Italy through their use of irrigation to reclaim previously unfarmable land, and their custom of building their settlements in well-defended hill forts. In the time of the Emperor Augustus a Roman town called Saena Julia was founded at the site.
According to local legend, Siena was founded by Senius and Aschius, two sons of Remus and thus nephews of Romulus, after whom Rome was named. Supposedly after their father's murder by Romulus, they fled Rome, taking with them the statue of the she-wolf suckling the infants, thus appropriating that symbol for the town. Additionally they rode white and black horses, giving rise to the Balzana, or coat of arms of Siena with a white band atop a dark band. Some claim the name Siena derives from Senius. Other etymologies derive the name from the Etruscan tribe name Saina.
Under Roman rule Siena did not prosper. It was not sited near any major roads and lacked opportunities for trade. Its insular status meant that Christianity did not penetrate until the 4th century AD, and it was not until the Lombards invaded Siena and the surrounding territory that the town experienced prosperity. After the Lombard occupation, the old Roman roads of Via Aurelia and the Via Cassia passed through areas exposed to Byzantine raids, so the Lombards rerouted much of their trade between the Lombards' northern possessions and Rome along a more secure road through Siena. Siena prospered as a trading post, and the constant streams of pilgrims passing to and from Rome provided a valuable source of income in the centuries to come.
The oldest aristocratic families in Siena date their line to the Lombards' surrender in 774 to Charlemagne. At this point, the city was inundated with a swarm of Frankish overseers who married into the existing Sienese nobility and left a legacy that can be seen in the abbeys they founded throughout Sienese territory. Feudal power waned, however, and by the death of Countess Matilda in 1115 the border territory of the March of Tuscany which had been under the control of her family, the Canossa, broke up into several autonomous regions. This ultimately resulted in the foundation of the Republic of Siena.
The Republic existed for over four hundred years, from the 12th century until the year 1555. During the golden age of Siena before the Black Death in 1348, the city was home to 50,000 people. In the Italian War that lasted from 1551 to 1559, the republic was defeated by the rival Duchy of Florence in alliance with the Spanish crown. After 18 months of resistance, Siena surrendered to Spain on 17th April 1555, marking the end of the republic. However, a republican government of 700 Sienese families in the nearby town of Montalcino resisted until 1559. The new Spanish King Felipe II, owing huge sums to the Medici, ceded it to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to which it belonged until the unification of Italy in the 19th century.
In 1798, Siena was shaken by an 8.5 magnitude earthquake and several private as well as public buildings (such as churches) were damaged heavily. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte’s forces occupied the town. Not before 1814, the French troops left. However, in World War II, Siena suffered only minor damage. Only the Basilika dell’Osservanza was almost completely destroyed during a US bomb attack on 23rd January 1944.
In 1995, its historic city centre has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Siena is also one of the Italy’s most visited tourist attractions as it is considered to be one of Tuscany’s and also Italy’s most beautiful towns. Unlike Florence that is regarded as a prime example of Renaissance architecture, Siena has preserved its medieval appearance and hence, is considered a treasure of Italien Gothic architecture.
Siena’s 17 urban districts, the so-called contrade, are named after animals and do each have an animal symbol. The streets of the particular districts have unique street lamps with the amulets of that particular animal on the street crossings — indicating the boundaries of a contrada. These districts were historically set up to supply troops when Siena fought to defend itself from Florence between the 13th and 15th century. Today, the urban districts are still kept alive by sentiments and a great mutual rivalry that finds its expression in the horse race Palio di Siena. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that the Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena, Italy’s third biggest bank and also the oldest still existing bank around the world, has still its headquarters in Siena.
Escalator inside metro station Admiralteyskaya on the Frunzensko-Primorskaya Line (Line 5), Kirpichnyy Pereulok, Saint Petersburg, Russia
Some background information:
The Saint Petersburg Metro is the underground railway system of the city of Saint Petersburg. It has been open since 15th November 1955. Formerly known as the V.I. Lenin Order of Lenin Leningrad Metropoliten, the system exhibits many typical Soviet designs and features exquisite decorations and artwork making it one of the most attractive and elegant metros in the world, maybe only excelled by the Moscow Metro. Due to the city's unique geology, the Saint Petersburg Metro is also one of the deepest metro systems in the world and the deepest by the average depth of all the stations. The system's deepest station, Admiralteyskaya, is located 86 metres below ground. Serving 2.1 million passengers daily (resp. 763.1 million passengers per year), the Saint Petersburg Metro is the 19th busiest metro system in the world.
Opened on 28th December 2011, Admiralteyskaya metro station was designed to relieve congestion at the Nevsky Prospekt and Gostiny Dvor stations, as well as to provide a more direct link to the Hermitage and other notable museums. The station’s name originates from the Admiralty building, which is located nearby. Originally, Admiralteyskaya was going to be built on the Nevsko-Vasileostrovskaya Line, however the construction didn't go underway. Although the need for the station was apparent to the Metro planners for over three decades, the actual construction proved to be a difficult process, as the planners feared that the nearby museums and historical buildings would be adversely affected by construction. Determining the location of the exit proved to be a difficult task too. Finally, it was decided that the exit had to be built on the site of an apartment building on Kirpichnyy Pereulok (in English "Kirpichnyy Alley").
The station is connected to the ground with two consecutive escalators. Since it is very difficult to build escalators longer than 125 metres (410 feet), it was determined to build one long escalator with a length of 125 metres to the intermediate level. From this level a shorter escalator of 25 metres (82 feet) leads to the station. The total depth of the station is 86 metres (282 feet) which makes it the deepest metro station in Saint Petersburg.
In Saint Petersburg’s history, the question of building an underground transport system arose several times, the first time in 1820, when the idea was hatched to build an underground road in a tunnel. By the end of the 19th century, certain interested parties began discussing the possibility of opening the Russian Empire's first metropolitan railway system. Almost all pre-revolutionary designs featured the concept of an elevated metro system, similar to the Paris or Vienna metros. However, as was later discovered through the experience of operating open (ground-level) metro lines in the city, such schemes would likely have resulted in a poor metro service. Unfortunately, at the time, Russian engineers did not have sufficient expertise or technical resources for the construction of deep underground tunnels through the bedrock located far beneath St Petersburg. Hence, it was finally Moscow that got the first underground railway system in the Soviet Union in 1935.
In 1938 the question of building a metro for Saint Petersburg (by then renamed to Leningrad), resurfaced again. The initial project was designed by the Moscow institute 'Metrogiprotrans', but on 21st January 1941, "Construction Directorate № 5 of the People's Commissariat" was founded as a body to specifically oversee the design and construction of the Leningrad Metro. By April 1941, 34 shafts for the initial phase of construction had been finished. During the Second World War construction works were frozen due to severe lack of available funding, manpower and equipment. At this time, many of the metro construction workers were employed in the construction and repair of railheads and other objects vital to the besieged city.
In 1946 Lenmetroproyekt was created, to finish the construction of the metro first phase. A new version of the metro project, devised by specialists, identified two new solutions to the problems to be encountered during the metro construction. Firstly, stations were to be built at a level slightly raised above that of normal track so as to prevent drainage directly into them, whilst the average tunnel width was to be reduced from the 6 metres (20 feet) standard of the Moscow Metro to 5.5 metres (18 feet).
On 3rd September 1947, construction in the Leningrad subway began again and eight years later, on 7 October 1955, the electricity was turned on in the metro l. On 15th November 1955, the subway grand opening was held, with the first seven stations being put into public use. These stations later became part of the Kirovsko-Vyborgskaya Line, connecting the Moscow Rail Terminal in the city centre with the Kirovsky industrial zone in the southwest. Subsequent development included lines under the Neva River in 1958, and the construction of the Vyborgsky Radius in the mid-1970s to reach the new housing developments in the north. In 1978, the line was extended past the city limits into the Leningrad Oblast.
By the time of the USSR's collapse, the Leningrad Metro comprised 54 stations and 94.2 kilometres (58.5 miles) of track. But development even continued in the modern, post-Soviet period. Today, the Saint Petersburg metro comprises five lines with altogether 69 stations and 118,6 kilometres (74 miles) of track. However, the present state is not meant to be the end of the story. Plans have been made to extend the Saint Petersburg Metro to nine lines with altogether 126 stations and 190 kilometres (118 miles) of track. But delays due to the difficult geology of the city's underground and to the insufficient funding have cut down these plans to 17 new stations and one new depot until 2025. At the same time, there are several short and mid-term projects on station upgrades, including escalator replacements and lighting upgrades.
On 3rd April 2017, a terrorist bombing caused an explosion on a train between Sennaya Ploshchad and Tekhnologicheski Institut stations, on the Line 2. 14 people died and over 50 sustained injuries, while Russian president Vladimir Putin was in the city, when the attack happened. On the same day, Russia's National anti-terrorist unit defused another explosive device at Ploshchad Vosstaniya station (which you can see on this picture).
Saint Petersburg (in Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг) is Russia's second-largest city after Moscow, with currently 5.3 million inhabitants, part of the Saint Petersburg agglomeration with a population of 6.2 million (2015). An important Russian port on the Baltic Sea, it has a status of a federal city. Saint Petersburg is also the fourth-largest city in Europe, only excelled by Istanbul, London and Moscow. Other famous European cities like Paris, Berlin, Rome and Madrid are smaller. Furthermore, Saint Petersburg is the world’s northernmost megapolis and called "The Venice of the North", due to its many channels that traverse the city.
Situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on 27th May 1703. On 1st September 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, on 26 January 1924 to Leningrad, and on 7 September 1991 back to Saint Petersburg. Between 1713 and 1728 and again between 1732 and 1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of Imperial Russia. In 1918, the central government bodies moved to Moscow, which is located about 625 kilometres (388 miles) to the south-east.
Saint Petersburg is also the cultural capital of Russia. "The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments" constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Saint Petersburg is home to the Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. Many foreign consulates, international corporations, banks and businesses have offices in Saint Petersburg. The multinational Gazprom company has its headquarters in the newly erected Lakhta Center.
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Die Niederungsburg 'alte Burg' ist eine ehemalige Wasserburg an der Mosel und steht in der Altstadt Koblenz. Sie ist wohl im 13. Jhd entstanden und steht auf einem romanischem Wohnbau von 1185. Die Burg gehört zum UNESCO-Welterbes 'Oberes Mittelrheintal' und ist geschütztes Kulturgut nach der Haager Konvention.
The lowland castle 'old castle' is a former moated castle on the Moselle and stands in the old town of Koblenz. It probably originated in the 13th century and stands on a Romanesque housing by 1185. The castle is a UNESCO World Heritage 'Upper Middle Rhine Valley' and is protected cultural objects under the Hague Convention.
Fahrt von Gudvangen nach Innvik (Tag 5) auf der Autofähre Gudvangen - Kaupanger in der schmalsten Stelle (250m breit) des Nærøyfjords
La cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta è il duomo di Siena. Costruita in stile Romanico-Gotico italiano, è una delle più significative chiese realizzate in questo stile in Italia.
Nel luogo dove sorge la cattedrale, sarebbe sorto il castrum romano. Ancora nel Medioevo il toponimo era Piano Sancte Mariae e in questo luogo, tra l'attuale costruzione e la piazza che la circonda su due lati, sono stati effettuati degli scavi che hanno suffragato l'ipotesi di uno sviluppo dell'area in periodo longobardo e franco.
Si parla[senza fonte] di un accastellamento con quattro torri, di cui una sarebbe diventata la torre campanaria attuale. Questo edificio sarebbe stato fino al 913 la residenza del vescovo ed avrebbe contenuto una chiesa rivolta verso est, cioè verso l'attuale battistero. Nel XII secolo questa chiesa fu inglobata nella costruzione romanica che andava diventando la cattedrale, con la facciata rivolta a sud, cioè verso l'attuale "Facciatone", la facciata incompiuta del "duomo nuovo".
Finestra gotica sul fianco del duomoÈ tradizione, suffragata anche da deduzioni storiche[senza fonte], che il Duomo sia stato consacrato il 18 novembre 1179. Ci sono però opinioni contrastanti e notizie storiche che smentiscono questa datazione.[senza fonte] Infatti, solo nel XIII secolo (1229) il Duomo sarebbe stato trasformato in basilica, con la facciata rivolta ad ovest, verso l'ospedale di Santa Maria della Scala. I lavori vennero terminati solo alla fine del secolo successivo.
La cupola fu completata nel 1263 e il Rosso padellaio vi appose la "mela". La sua altezza è di 48 metri, inclusa la croce. L'attuale sistemazione dell'apice della cupola stessa è del 1667.
L'"Operaio del Duomo" che sovrintendeva all'amministrazione dei lavori era sempre scelto tra i canonici ma, dal 1258 agli inizi del Trecento, fu scelto tra i monaci dell'abbazia cistercense di San Galgano. Questi si erano segnalati come abili amministratori, tanto che lo stesso Comune di Siena gli aveva affidato gli uffici di Gabella e di Biccherna (gli uffici "entrate" e "uscite" della Repubblica di Siena).
Furono i monaci a chiamare Nicola Pisano e suo figlio Giovanni per i lavori. Giovanni lavorò alla facciata in quel periodo, utilizzando nella parte inferiore i rivestimenti marmorei (provenienti dalle vicine cave di Vallerano, comune di Murlo) che vediamo ancora oggi. Nicola creò il pulpito, terminato nel 1268.
La figura (forse derivata da Cimabue) del Cristo in croce, con le gambe avvitate, i piedi sovrapposti e trapassati da un unico chiodo e le braccia "ad ipsilon" è diventata un classico dell'iconografia. Sembra anche essere stata copiata da parte degli artisti che realizzarono gli affreschi scoperti di recente nella cripta sottostante il Duomo.
Nel 1313 viene terminato il campanile, alto circa 77 metri. Nel 1316 l'edificio venne ampliato sotto la direzione di Camaino di Crescentino, padre dello scultore Tino di Camaino.
Con Siena al massimo del suo splendore, dovette sembrare che il duomo fosse comunque troppo piccolo per la città. Si pensò quindi di ampliarlo in modo tale che l'attuale navata centrale diventasse solo il transetto e la facciata tornasse ad essere orientata a sud, in posizione molto più avanzata rispetto all'antico edificio. Il progetto fu affidato a Lando di Pietro (o "Lando di Piero") dopo la delibera del Consiglio Generale della Campana del 23 agosto 1339. I lavori passarono in seguito sotto la supervisione dello scultore ed architetto Giovanni di Agostino.
A causa della peste del 1348 e di alcuni crolli strutturali, nel giugno del 1357 si decise di interrompere i lavori, lasciando nell'attuale piazza Iacopo della Quercia i segni del fallimento: basamenti per le colonne e incastonamenti di queste nell'edificio dell'attuale Museo dell'Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, oltre alla facciata incompiuta (il "facciatone") dal quale è possibile oggi godere di un notevole panorama sulla città.
Dopo qualche anno, si affidarono di nuovo i lavori al capomastro Domenico di Agostino, fratello di Giovanni, morto nel 1366. Nel 1376, la costruzione della parte superiore della facciata venne affidata a Giovanni di Cecco (detto "Giovannino della Pietra"). Nel 1382 vennero alzate le volte della navata centrale e quest'anno può essere considerato quello di completamento del Duomo.
Nel 1870 un incendio distrusse la cupola estera in legno e parte della copertura lignea della navata che vennero ripristinate.
A Catedral de Siena ou Duomo di Siena, é a catedral medieval de Siena, na Itália.
A Catedral em si foi originalmente projetada e construída entre 1215 e 1263 no local de uma estrutura antiga. Tem a forma de uma cruz Latina, um cúpula e uma torre de sinos. A lanterna, no topo da cúpula, foi adicionada por Gian Lorenzo Bernini. O exterior e o interior são feitos de mármore preto e branco, as cores simbólicas de Siena, derivadas dos lendários cavalos dos fundadores da cidade, Senius e Aschius.
A fachada da Catedral foi construída em dois estágios. A parte inferior foi iniciada em 1284 e construída em estilo da Toscana, por Giovanni Pisano. A exuberante fachada representa profetas, filósofos e apóstolos. Em 1288, a janela em forma de rosa, um vitral redondo colocado em um limite quadrado foi instalado na área do coro, a partir de desenhos de Duccio. O trabalho na parte superior da fachada foram iniciados em 1376 por Giovanni di Cecco, a partir de um projeto inspirado na Catedral de Orvieto. A porta central de bronze é recente e data de 1958. Foi criada por Enrico Manfrini.
No canto esquerdo da fachada há uma inscrição do século XIV, marcando o túmulo de Giovanni Pisano. Ao lado está uma coluna com a loba amamentando Rômulo e Remo, símbolos de Siena. Conta a lenda que Senius e Aschius, filhos de Remo, fundaram Siena.
The Cathedral of Siena (Italian: Duomo di Siena), dedicated from its earliest days as a Roman Catholic Marian church and now to Santa Maria Assunta (Most Holy Mary of Assumption), is a medieval church in Siena, central Italy.
The cathedral itself was originally designed and completed between 1215 and 1263 on the site of an earlier structure. It has the form of a Latin cross with a slightly projecting transept, a dome and a bell tower. The dome rises from an octagonal base with supporting columns. The lantern atop the dome was added by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The nave is separated from the two aisles by semicircular arches. The exterior and interior are constructed of white and greenish-black marble in alternating stripes, with addition of red marble on the façade. Black and white are the symbolic colors of Siena, etiologically linked to black and white horses of the legendary city's founders, Senius and Aschius.
The origins of the first structure are obscure and shrouded in legend. There was a 9th century church with bishop's palace at the present location. In December 1058 a synod was held in this church resulting in the election of pope Nicholas II and the deposition of the antipope Benedict X.
In 1196 the cathedral masons’ guild, the Opera di Santa Maria, was put in charge of the construction of a new cathedral. By 1215 there were already daily masses said in the new church. There are records from 1226 onwards of the transport of black and white marble, probably for the construction of the façade and the bell tower. The vaults and the transept were constructed in 1259-1260. In 1259 Manuello di Ranieri and his son Parri carved some wooden choir stalls, which were replaced about 100 years later and have now disappeared. In 1264, Rosso Padellaio was paid for the copper sphere on top of the dome.
A second massive addition was planned in 1339. It would have more than doubled the size of the structure by means of an entirely new nave and two aisles ranged perpendicular to the existing nave and centred on the high altar. The construction was begun under the direction of Giovanni di Agostino, better known as a sculptor. Construction was halted by the Black Death in 1348. Basic errors in the construction were already evident by then, however, and the work was never resumed. The outer walls, remains of this extension, can now be seen to the south of the Duomo. The floor of the uncompleted nave now serves as a parking lot and museum, and, though unfinished, the remains are testament to Sienese power, ambition, and artistic achievement.
Underneath the choir of the Duomo, a narthex containing important late-13th century frescoes (probably about 1280) was found and excavated in 1999-2003. The frescoes depict scenes from the Old Testament and the life of Christ. This was part of the entrance of an earlier church. But when the baptistry was built, this under-church was filled with rubble. The narthex is now open to the public.
The façade of this cathedral was built in two stages. The lower part in polychrome marble was begun around 1284. It is built in Tuscan Gothic style by Giovanni Pisano, replete with gargoyles. Giovanni Pisano worked on the lower levels until 1296, when he suddenly left Siena. At that time, between 1270 and 1285, the nave of the church had been raised and a higher façade became necessary. Work at the façade continued for another fifteen years and was then stopped. Meanwhile in 1288, the rose window, a large circular stained-glass window, was installed in the choir, based on designs by Duccio di Buoninsegna.
The three portals, surmounted by lunettes and Gothic pediments, were designed by Giovanni Pisano. The columns between the portals are richly decorated with acanthus scrolls, allegorical figures and biblical scenes.
Work on the upper part of the façade only resumed in 1376 under the direction of Giovanni di Cecco, working on a new elaborate design, inspired by the Orvieto Cathedral. It was to be erected much higher than foreseen, because the nave had, once again, been raised. The division of the upper part does not match the division of the lower part. The pinnacles of the upper part do not continue over the columns flanking the central portal. The weight of the elegant side towers was reduced by adding windows.
The statues of the lavish façade were sculpted by Giovanni Pisano and assistants. They represent prophets, philosophers and apostles. The half-length statues of the patriarchs in the niches around the rose window are the work of other sculptors. Almost all the sculptures on view are copies. The originals are kept in the "Crypt of the Statues" in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo.
The bronze central door is recent and dates from 1958. It was made by Enrico Manfrini. The scenes on the door represent the Glorification of the Virgin. The three large mosaics on the gables of the façade were made in Venice in 1878. The large central mosaic, the Coronation of the Virgin, is the work of Luigi Mussini. The smaller mosaics on each side, Nativity of Jesus and Presentation of Mary in the Temple, were made by Alessandro Franchi.
On the left corner pier of the façade, a 14th century inscription can be found, marking the grave of Giovanni Pisano. Next to the façade stands a column with the she-wolf breast-feeding Romulus and Remus, symbol of Siena (and also of the contrade Lupa). According to legend, Senius and Aschius, sons of Remus, founded Siena. They had stolen the statue of the she-wolf from the Temple of Apollo in Rome.
The artist Sir James Thornhill (1675-1734) designed the entire "Painted Hall" of the Royal Naval College. And he even painted every single square inch of the huge paintings all by himself which took about 19 years.
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Eisenach, Thüringen
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Cuxhaven, North Sea, Germany
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Die Großen Pyramiden auf dem Plateau von Gizeh:
Die Cheops-Pyramide (links), die Chephren-Pyramide (Mitte) und die Mykerinos-Pyramide mit ihrem Königinnenpyramiden.
Im Hintergrund Gizeh und Kairo,
Coastline at the fishing village of Manarola at the Riviera di Levante, Cinque Terre, Liguria, Italy
Some background information:
Manarola is a picturesque fishing village in the province of La Spezia. It is the second-smallest of the five Cinque Terre villages and the second village one meets when travelling north from the harbour city of La Spezia. Manarola has about 450 residents and a train station at the Genoa-Pisa railway.
The village is most likely the oldest of the five Cinque Terre villages. Its church San Lorenzo dates from 1160. The name "Manarola" is probably a dialectical evolution of the Latin, "magna rota", which means "large wheel", in reference to the mill wheel in the settlement. Manarola's primary industries have traditionally been fishing and wine-making. The local wine, called Sciacchetrà, is especially renowned. References from Roman writings already mention the high quality of the wine produced in the region.
Manarola’s neighbouring villages are Riomaggiore to the south and Corniglia to the north. The villages of Manarola and Riomaggiore are connected with each other by a trail along the coastline, the so-called Via dell'Amore (in English "Trail of Love"). The trail's name was inspired by the fact that it provided an easy connection for young lovers who lived in the two small towns, and who were previously separated by the mountainous terrain. In 2012, a rockslide injured four tourists and caused the trail to be shut down for repairs. Until the date we were there, it still hadn’t been completely re-opened, although it is one of the most important tourist attractions in the area and is an integral part of the Cinque Terre National Park.
The Cinque Terre (in English "Five Lands") is a rugged portion of coast on the Italian Riviera. It is located in the region Liguria, in the northwest of Italy and comprises the five villages of Monterosso al Mare, Vernazza, Corniglia, Manarola, and Riomaggiore (from north to south), that are situated at the coastline and nestlled to the coastal rocks. The coastline, the five villages, and the surrounding hillsides are all part of the Cinque Terre National Park. Together with the nearby more southerly situated harbour town of Porto Venere, the five villages were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. In its explanation the UNESCO described the Cinque Terre as a "particularly scenic coastal area with small towns built among the steep rugged terrain". Not just since then the Cinque Terre area is a very popular tourist destination.
Over the centuries, people have carefully built terraces on the rugged, steep landscape right up to the cliffs that overlook the sea. Part of its charm is the lack of visible corporate development. Paths, trains and boats connect the villages, and cars cannot reach them from the outside.
The first historical documents on Cinque Terre date back to the 11th century. Manarola, Monterosso and Vernazza sprang up first, while the other two villages grew later, under military and political supremacy of the Republic of Genoa. In the 16th century, to oppose the attacks of Turk forces, the inhabitants reinforced the old forts and built new defense towers. From the year 1600, Cinque Terre experienced a decline which reversed only in the 19th century, thanks to the construction of the Military Arsenal of La Spezia and the building of the railway line between Genoa and La Spezia. The railway allowed the inhabitants to escape their isolation, but also brought about abandonment of traditional activities. The consequence was an increase in poverty which pushed many to emigrate abroad, at least up to the 1970s, when the development of tourism brought back wealth.
In all five villages fishing always contributed to the sustenance of the residents, but only in Monterosso al Mare, fishing was used as the village’s main industry. In the other four villages the locals mainly lived off vineyards and olive cultivation Hence, the mountainsides of the Cinque Terre are heavily terraced and are used to cultivate grapes, olives, citrus fruits and cactus pears.
Given its location on the Mediterranean Sea, seafood is plentiful in the local cuisine. Anchovies of Monterosso are a local specialty designated with a Protected Designation of Origin status from the European Union. The Cinque Terre area, and the region of Liguria, as a whole, is known for pesto, a sauce made from basil leaves, garlic, salt, olive oil, pine nuts and pecorino cheese. And Focaccia is a particularly common locally baked bread product. Finally, Farinata, a typical snack found in bakeries and pizzerias, is a savoury and crunchy pancake made from a base of chick pea flour.
The grapes of the Cinque Terre are used to produce two locally made wines. The eponymous Cinque Terre and the Sciachetrà are both made using Bosco, Albarola, and Vermentino grapes. In addition to wines, other popular local drinks include grappa, a brandy made with the pomace left from winemaking, and limoncello, a sweet liqueur flavored with lemons.
Fahrt von Gudvangen nach Innvik (Tag 5) auf der Autofähre Gudvangen - Kaupanger in der schmalsten Stelle (250m breit) des Nærøyfjords
Two of the altogether ten 4.6 metres (15 feet) high atlases of the New Hermitage’s portico, Saint Petersburg, Russia
Some background information:
The New Hermitage is the last erected building of the word-renowned Hermitage ensemble. Of course, the most famous one is the so-called Winter Palace, built in 1711. The New Hermitage, situated in Millionnaya Street, next to the Winter Palace to the northeast of it, was planned by the Bavarian court architect Leo von Klentze and built between 1839 and 1852. It is the only one of von Klentze’s works that wasn’t influenced by the wishes of King Louis I of Bavaria. The New Hermitage is also the only building of the Hermitage ensemble that isn’t located right beside the Neva River.
As the Hermitage ensemble had already been transformed into a museum, when the New Hermitage was planned and erected, the new building was never meant to be a royal residential one. Instead, it was intended for hosting parts of the grown collection of art treasures. Amongst other things, a complete replica of a gangway is located inside, that was originally designed by Raphael for the Vatican.
Although the building was planned by von Klentze, the altogether ten atlases, that brace the portico, were designed by the Russian sculptor Alexander Terebènieff and accomplished by him and 150 other sculptors and stone carvers. The atlases have a height of 4.6 metres (15 feet) each (without the pedestal). Today, these atlases, made of grey Serdabol granite, are probably the most famous atlas sculptures of this kind all over the world.
Saint Petersburg (in Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг) is Russia's second-largest city after Moscow, with currently 5.3 million inhabitants, part of the Saint Petersburg agglomeration with a population of 6.2 million (2015). An important Russian port on the Baltic Sea, it has a status of a federal city. Saint Petersburg is also the fourth-largest city in Europe, only excelled by Istanbul, London and Moscow. Other famous European cities like Paris, Berlin, Rome and Madrid are smaller. Furthermore, Saint Petersburg is the world’s northernmost megapolis and called "The Venice of the North", due to its many channels that traverse the city.
Situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on 27th May 1703. On 1st September 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, on 26 January 1924 to Leningrad, and on 7 September 1991 back to Saint Petersburg. Between 1713 and 1728 and again between 1732 and 1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of Imperial Russia. In 1918, the central government bodies moved to Moscow, which is located about 625 kilometres (388 miles) to the south-east.
Saint Petersburg is also the cultural capital of Russia. "The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments" constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Saint Petersburg is home to the Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. Many foreign consulates, international corporations, banks and businesses have offices in Saint Petersburg. The multinational Gazprom company has its headquarters in the newly erected Lakhta Center.
il regio per Tirano passa a Bernina Lagalb diretto al passo. In testa la ABe 4/4 II 54 "Hakone" seguita dalla 56 "Corvaglia" ancora nella livrea commemorativa dei 100 anni della linea.
Regio train for Tirano switch Bernina Lagalb to direct the pass. At the head the ABe 4/4 II 54 "Hakone" followed by 56 "Corvaglia" still in the commemorative livery of the 100th anniversary of the line.
Album Timbres / Sammelalbum
Chocolats Peter / Cailler's / Kohler / Nestlé's
> Nestlé / Fête des Vignerons 1905 Vevey
(Lausanne / Schweiz; Bilder von 1923-1929)
ex ephemera-collection MTP
Smock mills (Dutch: achtkante bovenkruiers - German: Hollaenderwindmuehlen) at the Overwaard Polder at Kinderdijk-Elshout, Zuid-Holland (South Holland), Netherlands
Some background information:
The windmills at Kinderdijk are a group of altogether 19 windmills in the Alblasserwaard polder, in the province of South Holland, Netherlands. Almost all mills are part of the village of Kinderdijk in the municipality of Molenwaard, but one mill, De Blokker, is part of the municipality of Alblasserdam. Mostly built in 1738 and 1740, to keep water out of the polder, it is the largest concentration of old windmills in the Netherlands and one of the best-known Dutch tourist sites. The mills are listed as national monuments and the entire area is a protected village view since 1993. The mills have also been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997.
Kinderdijk lies in the Alblasserwaard, at the confluence of the Lek and Noord rivers. In the 13th century problems with water became more and more apparent in Alblasserwaard. Large canals called "weteringen" were dug to get rid of the excess water in the polders. However, the drained soil started setting, while the level of the river rose due to the river's sand deposits.
After a few centuries, an additional way to keep the polders dry was required. It was decided to build a series of windmills, with a limited capacity to bridge water level differences, but just able to pump water into a reservoir at an intermediate level between the soil in the polder and the river. The reservoir could be pumped out into the river by other windmills whenever the river level was low enough. The river level has both seasonal and tidal variations. Although some of the windmills are still used, the main water works are provided by two diesel pumping stations near one of the entrances of the windmills site.
No longer being of use for bridging water level differences, some of the windmills were converted into private residences. Their owners keep them in good repair, gird them with beautiful, well-groomed gardens and therefore make them a lovely sight.
Kinderdijk is a village in the Netherlands, belonging to the municipality of Molenwaard, about 15 km (9 miles) east of Rotterdam. The name Kinderdijk is Dutch for "children dike" and derives from a folktale which is said to have been occurred during the Second Saint Elizabeth Flood of 1421.
In the course of this flood, the farming region Grote Hollandse Waard flooded, but the Alblasserwaard polder stayed unflooded. It is said that when the terrible storm had subsided, someone went on to the dike between these two areas, to see what could be saved. In the distance, he saw a wooden cradle floating on the waters. As it came nearer, some movement was detected. A cat was seen in the cradle trying to keep it in balance by jumping back and forth so that no water could get into it. As the cradle eventually came close enough to the dike for a bystander to pick it up, he saw that a baby was quietly sleeping inside it, nice and dry. The cat had kept the cradle balanced and afloat. By the way, this folktale and legend has been published as "The Cat and the Cradle" in English.
The Loire River at the village of Candes-Saint-Martin, Loire Valley, France
Some background information:
The Loire is the longest river in France and the 171st longest in the world. With a length of 1,012 kilometres (629 miles), it drains an area of 117,054 square kilometres (45,195 sqare miles), or more than a fifth of France's land area, while its average discharge is only half that of the Rhône.
It rises in the winter of the southeastern quarter of the French Massif Central in the Cévennes range (in the department of Ardèche) at 1,350 metres (4,430 feet) near Mont Gerbier de Jonc. It flows north through Nevers to Orléans, then west through Tours and Nantes until it reaches the Bay of Biscay (Atlantic Ocean) at Saint-Nazaire. Its main tributaries include the rivers Nièvre, Maine and Erdre on its right bank, and the rivers Allier, Cher, Indre, Vienne, and Sèvre Nantaise on the left bank.
The Loire gives its name to six departments: Loire, Haute-Loire, Loire-Atlantique, Indre-et-Loire, Maine-et-Loire, and Saône-et-Loire. The central part of the Loire Valley, located in the Pays de la Loire and Centre-Val de Loire regions, was added to the World Heritage Sites list of the UNESCO in 2000. Vineyards and châteaux are found along the banks of the river throughout this section and are a major tourist attraction.
The Loire Valley has been called the "Garden of France" and is studded with over a thousand châteaux, each with distinct architectural embellishments covering a wide range of variations, from the early medieval to the late Renaissance periods. They were originally created as feudal strongholds, over centuries past, in the strategic divide between southern and northern France. Later, many became privately owned, most often by noble French families.
Candes-Saint-Martin (Latin: Candia Sanctus Martinus) is a village in the Indre-et-Loire department in central France. It overlooks the confluence of the Vienne and Loire rivers from a steep hill on the left bank of the Loire. Belonging to the department of Indre-et-Loire, it also marks the boundary between the modern departments of Indre-et-Loire to the east, and Maine-et-Loire to the west. Candes-Saint-Martin is located about 50 km (31 miles) to the southwest of the city of Tours and has more than 200 residents.
The name "Candes" is thought to derive from a Gallic word for "confluence", and is found in several other similarly sited towns in the region. The termination Saint-Martin was formally added in 1949, although it had been in common usage for many years. The village takes this part of its name from the magnificent church which has succeeded the 4th century monastery where Saint Martin, Bishop of Tours and "Apostle to the Gauls", died in 397.
The church of Candes-Saint-Martin was erected exactly on the spot, where Martin of Tours had died. Hence, it isn’t surprising that it has become an important church of pilgrimage. It was donated by King Henry II of England in 1180 who ruled over the whole area at that time. With its 15th century crenellations and machicolations it conveys the impression of a medieval fortress. Taken as a whole, the church of Saint-Martin is considered to be an example of the vitality of medieval western French art.
Excavations have proven that the village itself was already populated in Roman times. However, not much is known about the settlement during this era. In medieval times many of the residents of Candes-Saint-Martin were specialised in producing linear pottery, while the village had already become a place of pilgrimage that was visited by powerful figures like King Charles the Bald and the queens Clotilde and Radegund.
In the 13th century, the settlement was fortified by two rings of town walls. A castle was built in the proximity of the walls, but it was dismantled in 1485 and replaced by a less protective, but more representative chateau. In the 15th century King Louis XI of France went on several journeys to Candes-Saint-Martin, most likely for reasons of pilgrimage. The 16th century wars of religion caused great harm to the village: The council’s charterhouse was destroyed, the church of Saint-Martin was plundered and many of its statues were beheaded.
In 1791, as a result of French Revolution, the church was closed for services and the remaining canons of Candes-Saint-Martin were scattered. In 1802, the church was finally reopened, but the 35 chapels in the municipal area were left abandoned. However, the village’s location at the confluence of the Vienne and Loire rivers consolidated its fortune and Candes-Saint-Martin stayed what it always had been: an important transshipment point at tne Loire River for goods like grapes, wines, pears, plums, Breton fish, salt and slate.
Only the appearance of the railway in the middle of the 19th century put an end to the village’s significance. But today, Candes-Saint-Martin is still a destination for pilgrims and also one for tourists. Because of its beauty and historical significance Candes-Saint-Martin was admitted into the association "The most beautiful villages of France" (in French: "Les Plus Beaux Villages de France"), which promotes small and picturesque French villages of quality heritage. Currently 155 villages throughout France with less than 2,000 residents are pooled under the umbrella of the organisation.
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Part of: "Trove" and "postmortem - a cemetery for the anonymous - ein Friedhof der Namenlosen" .
Ein Osterspaziergang, Lange Lacke,
DMC-G2 - P1330881 9.4.2012 #ausflug #trip #outing #spaziergang #rundgang #runde #ostern #easter #frühling #spring #vogel #bird #animal #tier #natur #nature #engel #angel
The company headquarters of the prominent champagne house Moët & Chandon (built with cellars) in the Avenue de Champagne, Épernay, Grand Est (Champagne), France
Some background information:
Moët & Chandon, also known simply as Moët, is a prominent French champagne house and as such one of the world's largest champagne producers. It is also the co-owner of the luxury goods company LVMH Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton SE. Moët et Chandon was established in 1743 by Claude Moët, and today owns 1,190 hectares (2,900 acres) of vineyards. It produces approximately 28 million bottles of champagne per year.
Moët has two different brands of champagne: "Moët & Chandon" and "Dom Perignon". The headquarters, production facilities and cellars of the company are all situated in the town of Épernay in the west of the French department of Marne. In 1959, Chandon founded an outpost winery in Argentina. In 1973, two more outpost wineries were established in Brasil and in the Napa Valley. The latter was the first French-owned sparkling wine venture in the United States. In 1986, another outpost was started in Australia, and in 2013 and 2014, outpost wineries were also established in China and India.
In 1743, Épernay wine trader Claude Moët founded the winery as Moët et Cie (in English: "Moët & Co."). He began shipping his wine from the Champagne region to Paris, where the reign of King Louis XV coincided with an increased demand for sparkling wine. Soon after its foundation, and after son Claude-Louis had joined Moët et Cie, the winery's clientele already included many nobles and aristocrats. After Claude-Louis Moët’s son Jean-Remy had taken the company’s lead in 1792, the winery was visited regularly by Napoleon Bonaparte, whom he had met in Paris several years before, when Napoleon was still a lieutenant-colonel. Napoleon became Jean-Remy’s close friend, whom he provided with lots of champagne. Recorded are Napoleon’s words: "Champagne! After a victory you deserve it. And after a defeat you need it."
In 1833, the company was renamed Moët & Chandon after Pierre-Gabriel Chandon de Briailles, Remy Moët's son-in-law, had joined the company as a partner of Jean-Remy Moët. Following the introduction of the concept of a vintage champagne in 1840, Moët marketed its first vintage in 1842. The company’s best-selling champagne, Brut Imperial, was introduced in the 1860s. In 1927, Moët & Chandon acquired the brand Dom Perignon from Champagne Mercier.
The brand is named after Dom Pierre Pérignon, a Benedictine monk who was an important quality pioneer for Champagne wine but who, contrary to popular myths, did not discover the champagne method for making sparkling wines. Dom Pérignon was the first prestige cuvée, an idea proposed by Englishman Laurence Venn. The first vintage of Dom Pérignon was 1921 and was only released for sale in 1936. Vintage means that it is only made in the best years, and all grapes used to make the vintage are harvested in the same year. Many champagnes, by contrast, are non-vintage, meaning that they are made from grapes harvested in various years.
In 1971, Moët & Chandon merged with Hennessy Cognac. In 1987, there was another merger, but this time with the luxury fashion house Louis Vuitton. Following the merger, the new umbrella company LVMH (Louis-Vuitton-Moët-Hennessy) was founded, which is still the largest luxury group in the world. In 2006, Moët et Chandon Brut Impérial issued an extremely limited bottling of its champagne named "Be Fabulous", a special release of its original bottle with decorative Swarovski crystals, marking the elegance of Moët et Chandon. Finally, it is also worth mentioning that Moët & Chandon was holding the royal warrant as supplier of champagne to Queen Elizabeth II.
The town of Épernay is located in the French Grand Est region, about 130 km (81 miles) north-east of Paris on the mainline railway to Strasbourg. It has more than 22,300 residents. The town sits on the left bank of the Marne at the extremity of the Cubry valley which crosses it. Épernay belonged to the archbishops of Reims from the 5th until the 10th century, when it came into the possession of the counts of Champagne. It was badly damaged during the Hundred Years' War, and was burned by King Francis I in 1544. In 1592, it resisted Henry of Navarre and his troops. In 1642 it was, along with Château-Thierry, named as a duchy and assigned to the Duke of Bouillon.
Épernay is best known as the principal "entrepôt" for champagne wines, which are bottled and kept in large cellars built into the chalk rock on which the town is built. The major grape varieties used in champagne are the pinot noir, pinot meunier and chardonnay. But the production of the equipment and raw materials used in the champagne industry is also a major source of local employment.
Many larger and smaller champagne houses have their headquarters in Épernay. That’s why the town is often named "the capital of champagne". A lot of them reside in noble mansions or villas alongside Epernay’s Avenue de Champagne, which is hence often called "the most valueable street of the world". The cellars of these champagne houses are right beneath the street and the champagne houses by its side. Merely the cellar tunnels of Moët & Chandon have a total length of 110 km (68 miles). Hence, one can imagine that the chalky soil, on which Épernay is built, is hollowed like Emmentaler cheese. Apart from Moët & Chandon with its second brand Dom Perignon, champagne houses in Épernay include Mercier, De Castellane, Boizel, Charles Mignon, Château Comtesse Lafond, A. Bergère, Pol Roger, Collard-Picard, Janisson-Baradon, Esterlin and Perrier-Jouet, to name just a few.
In 2015, the whole Champagne area was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was named "Champagne Hillsides, Houses and Cellars" and was admitted into the World Heritage List for being the site, where the method of producing sparkling wines was developed.
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Eisenach, Thüringen
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Town houses on Piazza del Campo in the historic city of Siena, with the steeple of the cathedral in the background, Tuscany, Italy
Some background information:
Piazza del Campo is the principal public space of the historic center of Siena. It is regarded as one of Europe's greatest medieval squares and renowned worldwide for its beauty and architectural integrity. The twice-a-year horse-race, Palio di Siena, is held around the edges of the piazza. At this race ten horses and riders compete with each other, bareback and dressed in the appropriate colours, representing ten of the town's seventeen contrade resp. city wards.
With its about 54,000 residents, the city of Siena is the capital of the province of Siena in Tuscany. Siena is located about 70 km (44 miles) south of the city of Florence and about 180 km (112 miles) north of the Italian capital Rome. The town is situated in the central part of Tuscany, in the middle of a vast hilly landscape between the Arbia river valley (south), the Elsa valley (north), the Chianti hills (north-east), the Montagnola Senese (west) and the Crete Senesi (south-east). The city lies at 322 m above sea level.
Siena, like other Tuscan hill towns, was first settled in the time of the Etruscans (from 900 to 400 BC) when it was inhabited by a tribe called the Saina. The Etruscans were an ethnic group of advanced people who changed the face of central Italy through their use of irrigation to reclaim previously unfarmable land, and their custom of building their settlements in well-defended hill forts. In the time of the Emperor Augustus a Roman town called Saena Julia was founded at the site.
According to local legend, Siena was founded by Senius and Aschius, two sons of Remus and thus nephews of Romulus, after whom Rome was named. Supposedly after their father's murder by Romulus, they fled Rome, taking with them the statue of the she-wolf suckling the infants, thus appropriating that symbol for the town. Additionally they rode white and black horses, giving rise to the Balzana, or coat of arms of Siena with a white band atop a dark band. Some claim the name Siena derives from Senius. Other etymologies derive the name from the Etruscan tribe name Saina.
Under Roman rule Siena did not prosper. It was not sited near any major roads and lacked opportunities for trade. Its insular status meant that Christianity did not penetrate until the 4th century AD, and it was not until the Lombards invaded Siena and the surrounding territory that the town experienced prosperity. After the Lombard occupation, the old Roman roads of Via Aurelia and the Via Cassia passed through areas exposed to Byzantine raids, so the Lombards rerouted much of their trade between the Lombards' northern possessions and Rome along a more secure road through Siena. Siena prospered as a trading post, and the constant streams of pilgrims passing to and from Rome provided a valuable source of income in the centuries to come.
The oldest aristocratic families in Siena date their line to the Lombards' surrender in 774 to Charlemagne. At this point, the city was inundated with a swarm of Frankish overseers who married into the existing Sienese nobility and left a legacy that can be seen in the abbeys they founded throughout Sienese territory. Feudal power waned, however, and by the death of Countess Matilda in 1115 the border territory of the March of Tuscany which had been under the control of her family, the Canossa, broke up into several autonomous regions. This ultimately resulted in the foundation of the Republic of Siena.
The Republic existed for over four hundred years, from the 12th century until the year 1555. During the golden age of Siena before the Black Death in 1348, the city was home to 50,000 people. In the Italian War that lasted from 1551 to 1559, the republic was defeated by the rival Duchy of Florence in alliance with the Spanish crown. After 18 months of resistance, Siena surrendered to Spain on 17th April 1555, marking the end of the republic. However, a republican government of 700 Sienese families in the nearby town of Montalcino resisted until 1559. The new Spanish King Felipe II, owing huge sums to the Medici, ceded it to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to which it belonged until the unification of Italy in the 19th century.
In 1798, Siena was shaken by an 8.5 magnitude earthquake and several private as well as public buildings (such as churches) were damaged heavily. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte’s forces occupied the town. Not before 1814, the French troops left. However, in World War II, Siena suffered only minor damage. Only the Basilika dell’Osservanza was almost completely destroyed during a US bomb attack on 23rd January 1944.
In 1995, its historic city centre has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Siena is also one of the Italy’s most visited tourist attractions as it is considered to be one of Tuscany’s and also Italy’s most beautiful towns. Unlike Florence that is regarded as a prime example of Renaissance architecture, Siena has preserved its medieval appearance and hence, is considered a treasure of Italien Gothic architecture.
Siena is also well-known for its Palio di Siena, a horse race, that is hold on the city’s central plaza Piazza del Campo twice a year. At this race that has a centrality for the town since the Middle Ages, Siena’s 17 urban districts compete with each other. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that the Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena, Italy’s third biggest bank and also the oldest still existing bank around the world, has still its headquarters in Siena.
Siena’s 17 urban districts, the so-called contrade, are named after animals and do each have an animal symbol. The streets of the particular districts have unique street lamps with the amulets of that particular animal on the street crossings — indicating the boundaries of a contrada. These districts were historically set up to supply troops when Siena fought to defend itself from Florence between the 13th and 15th century. Today, the urban districts are still kept alive by sentiments and a great mutual rivalry that finds its expression in the horse race Palio di Siena. By the way, the street lamp on my picture represents the contrade Aquila (in English: "eagle") in Siena's historic city centre.
Smock mills (Dutch: achtkante bovenkruiers - German: Hollaenderwindmuehlen) at the Overwaard Polder at Kinderdijk-Elshout, Zuid-Holland (South Holland), Netherlands
Some background information:
The windmills at Kinderdijk are a group of altogether 19 windmills in the Alblasserwaard polder, in the province of South Holland, Netherlands. Almost all mills are part of the village of Kinderdijk in the municipality of Molenwaard, but one mill, De Blokker, is part of the municipality of Alblasserdam. Mostly built in 1738 and 1740, to keep water out of the polder, it is the largest concentration of old windmills in the Netherlands and one of the best-known Dutch tourist sites. The mills are listed as national monuments and the entire area is a protected village view since 1993. The mills have also been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997.
Kinderdijk lies in the Alblasserwaard, at the confluence of the Lek and Noord rivers. In the 13th century problems with water became more and more apparent in Alblasserwaard. Large canals called "weteringen" were dug to get rid of the excess water in the polders. However, the drained soil started setting, while the level of the river rose due to the river's sand deposits.
After a few centuries, an additional way to keep the polders dry was required. It was decided to build a series of windmills, with a limited capacity to bridge water level differences, but just able to pump water into a reservoir at an intermediate level between the soil in the polder and the river. The reservoir could be pumped out into the river by other windmills whenever the river level was low enough. The river level has both seasonal and tidal variations. Although some of the windmills are still used, the main water works are provided by two diesel pumping stations near one of the entrances of the windmills site.
No longer being of use for bridging water level differences, some of the windmills were converted into private residences. Their owners keep them in good repair, gird them with beautiful, well-groomed gardens and therefore make them a lovely sight.
Kinderdijk is a village in the Netherlands, belonging to the municipality of Molenwaard, about 15 km (9 miles) east of Rotterdam. The name Kinderdijk is Dutch for "children dike" and derives from a folktale which is said to have been occurred during the Second Saint Elizabeth Flood of 1421.
In the course of this flood, the farming region Grote Hollandse Waard flooded, but the Alblasserwaard polder stayed unflooded. It is said that when the terrible storm had subsided, someone went on to the dike between these two areas, to see what could be saved. In the distance, he saw a wooden cradle floating on the waters. As it came nearer, some movement was detected. A cat was seen in the cradle trying to keep it in balance by jumping back and forth so that no water could get into it. As the cradle eventually came close enough to the dike for a bystander to pick it up, he saw that a baby was quietly sleeping inside it, nice and dry. The cat had kept the cradle balanced and afloat. By the way, this folktale and legend has been published as "The Cat and the Cradle" in English.
Interior of the Café Majestic in Porto’s main shopping street Rua Santa Catarina in the city‘s historic old town, Porto, Portugal
Some background information:
The Café Majestic is a coffeehouse located in the city of Porto, dating back to the late Belle Époque era. In 1916, the café’s building was constructed on Rua de Santa Catarina, a shopping street paved with traditional Portuguese cobblestones. In 1921, the Café Elite opened in this building, designed to look like a Parisian cafe in the Art Nouveau style by the architect José Pinto de Oliveira. It was originally an exclusive and upmarket cafe that acted as a place for the elitist members of the society to meet. However, the city's intellectual elite of the time found the name unsuitable as it did not align with the progressive spirit of the First Portuguese Republic, proclaimed in 1910.
Subsequently, under the lasting influence of the French Belle Époque, the café was renamed "Majestic". Its guests included notable figures such as Gago Coutinho and Beatriz Costa, as well as intellectuals like Júlio Resende, José Régio, Teixeira de Pascoaes, and Leonardo Coimbra. During the 1960s, the café experienced a period of decline, paralleling Portugal's increasingly repressive societal climate under the authoritarian Estado Novo regime. In 1983, the Barrias family acquired the café, which was granted heritage protection status in the same year.
It wasn't until 1992 that the Barrias family decided to undertake a comprehensive restoration of the café. Using old photographs as references, the café was meticulously restored, including the installation of a new floor. It reopened in 1994. With its richly decorated details, chandeliers, and Art Nouveau mirror hall - where a pianist occasionally performs - the Majestic Café is now one of Porto's major tourist attractions.
But its beautiful Art Nouveau appearance is not the only reason for the café’s great appeal: The British author Joanne K. Rowling frequently visited the café during her time in Porto in the early 1990s and wrote the first chapters of the Harry Potter book series at the Café Majestic. That’s why the Café Majestic is still a must see for Harry Potter fans and they keep flocking to this place, particularly in the mornings and afternoons. As far as I’m concerned, I am no fan of the Harry Potter book series and found this spot just by chance. However, one has to acknowledge that the author and her protagonists came to worldwide fame.
Porto, also known as Oporto, is the second largest city in Portugal, after Lisbon. It is located along the Douro River estuary in northern Portugal, about 280 km (174 miles) north of Lisbon. With an estimated pospulation of 250,000, Porto’s city center is rather small, compared to its metropolitan area, which has around 1.8 million residents. Porto has one of the oldest European centres. Its core was proclaimed a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1996, as the "Historic Centre of Porto, Luiz I Bridge and Monastery of Serra do Pilar".
Port wine, one of Portugal's most famous exports, is named after Porto, since the metropolitan area, and in particular the cellars of Porto’s quarter Vila Nova de Gaia, were responsible for the packaging, transport, and export of fortified wine. It is typically a sweet red wine, often served with dessert, although it also comes in dry, semi-dry, and white varieties. Famous port wine brands are among others Sandeman, Cockburn’s, Graham’s, Fonseca, Offley, Ferreira and Quinta do Noval.
Proto-Celtic and Celtic people were among the first known inhabitants of the area of Porto. Archaeological findings from the 8th century BC also hint at a Phoenician trading settlement. During the Roman era, the city developed as an important commercial port, primarily in the trade between Olissipona (the modern Lisbon) and Bracara Augusta (the modern Braga).
Following the Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, Porto fell under Muslim control in 716, but was reconquered by Alfonso I of Asturias in 741. Thus Porto became a border settlement, occasionally invaded and conquered by the Muslim Moors. In 1092, during the so-called Reconquista, the area finally came under Christian rule, initially as part of the Kingdom of León. In 1093, Teresa of León, illegitimate daughter of the king Alfonso VI of Castile, married Henry of Burgundy, bringing the County of Portugal as dowry.
After eventually expanding its current frontiers and conquering additonal territory inhabited by the Moors for centuries, the county became the independent Kingdom of Portugal at the beginning of the 12th century. At that time, Porto also became one of the hubs of the Reconquista led by Afonso I Henriques, the first King of Portugal. In 1370, during the reign of King Ferdinand I, the new, expanded, and reinforced city walls, known as the Muralhas Fernandinas (in English: "Ferdinandine Walls"), were completed.
In 1387, Porto was the site of the marriage of John I of Portugal and Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt. This marital bond symbolized a long-standing military alliance between Portugal and England. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Porto's shipyards contributed to the development of Portuguese shipbuilding. In 1415, Prince Henry the Navigator embarked from the port of Porto on the conquest of the Moorish port of Ceuta in northern Morocco. This expedition was followed by navigation and exploration along the western coast of Africa, initiating the Portuguese Age of Discovery.
By the 13th century, the wine produced in the nearby Douro valley had already been transported to Porto in so-called barcos rabelos (flat sailing vessels). In 1703, the Methuen Treaty established trade relations between Portugal and England and strengthened both countries‘ military alliance. The production of port wine then gradually passed into the hands of a few English firms.
To counter this dominance, the Portuguese Prime Minister Marquis of Pombal established a monopolistic Portuguese firm, the Douro Wine Company in 1756 to receive all the wines from the Douro valley. He demarcated the region for the production of port, to ensure the wine's quality, which was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe, almost a century ahead of a similar exercise in Bordeaux. The small winegrowers revolted against his strict policies on Shrove Tuesday, burning down the buildings of the Douro Wine Company. The revolt became known as the Revolta dos Borrachos (in English: "Revolt of the Drunkards").
During the 18th and 19th centuries, the city became an important industrial center and hence, its size and population increased. The invasion of the Napoleonic troops in Portugal brought war to the city of Porto. In 1809, when the population fled from the advancing French troops and tried to cross the river Douro over the Ponte das Barcas, the bridge collapsed under the weight of the people and almost 4,000 residents of Porto died in the floods of the Douro river. In the Second Battle of Porto, which took place still in the same year, the French Army was thrown out of the city by Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, and his Anglo-Portuguese Army.
In 1820, the Liberal Revolution began in Porto. The revolutionaries demanded the return of King John VI of Portugal, who had transferred the royal court to the Portuguese colony of Brazil since the French invasions, and also a constitutional monarchy to be set up in Portugal. But after the new constitution had been accepted in 1822, the new Portuguese King Miguel I rejected this constitution in 1828 and reigned as an anti-liberal, absolutist monarch.
Porto rebelled again and had to undergo a siege of eighteen months by the absolutist army. After successfully resisting the siege in 1833, King Miguel I had to abdicate and the liberal constitution was re-established. However, not bevore 1910, the monarchy was overthrown and Portugal became a republic. In 1919, forces favorable to the restoration of the monarchy launched a counter-revolution in Porto known as the Monarchy of the North. During this time, Porto was the capital of the restored kingdom, but the monarchy was deposed less than a month later and no other monarchist revolution in Portugal happened again.
Today, Porto is the most important industrial city in the country, thanks to its textile, leather goods, metal, food, and chemical industries, its oil refinery as well as the overseas port Porto de Leixões. The university, the art academy, museums, theaters, and the opera also emphasise Porto's status as a major cultural and scientific center. But it’s mainly the export of port wine and its beautiful UNESCO-protected old town, to which Porto ows its appeal to visitors from everywhere.
Gabled houses in Glockengießerstraße (bell founders' street), Hanseatic City of Lübeck, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.
The old city center of Lübeck is in great parts inscribed in the World Heritage List of the UNESCO. A plan of the inscribed zones can be found here: whc.unesco.org/download.cfm?id_document=102311
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Lübeck – the former capital and Queen City of the Hanseatic League – was founded in the 12th century and prospered until the 16th century as the major trading centre for northern Europe. It has remained a centre for maritime commerce to this day, particularly with the Nordic countries. Despite the damage it suffered during the Second World War, the basic structure of the old city, consisting mainly of 15th- and 16th-century patrician residences, public monuments (the famous Holstentor brick gate), churches and salt storehouses, remains unaltered.
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July 2017.
Siena è un comune di 54.391 abitanti della Toscana centrale, capoluogo dell'omonima provincia.
La città è universalmente conosciuta per il suo patrimonio artistico e per la sostanziale unità stilistica del suo arredo urbano medievale, nonché per il suo famoso Palio; il centro storico è stato infatti dichiarato dall'UNESCO patrimonio dell'umanità nel 1995.
Siena fu fondata come colonia romana al tempo dell'Imperatore Augusto e prese il nome di Saena Iulia.
All'interno del centro storico senese sono stati ritrovati dei siti di epoca etrusca, che possono far pensare alla fondazione della città da parte degli etruschi.
Il primo documento noto in cui viene citata la comunità senese risale al 70 e porta la firma di Tacito che, nel IV libro delle Historiae, riporta il seguente episodio: il senatore Manlio Patruito riferì a Roma di essere stato malmenato e ridicolizzato con un finto funerale durante la sua visita ufficiale a Saena Iulia, piccola colonia militare della Tuscia. Il Senato romano decise di punire i principali colpevoli e di richiamare severamente i senesi a un maggiore rispetto verso l'autorità.
Dell'alto Medioevo non si hanno documenti che possano illuminare intorno ai casi della vita civile a Siena. C'è qualche notizia relativa alla istituzione del vescovado e della diocesi, specialmente per le questioni sorte fra il Vescovo di Siena e quello di Arezzo, a causa dei confini della zona giurisdizionale di ciascuno: questioni nelle quali intervenne il re longobardo Liutprando, pronunziando sentenza a favore della diocesi aretina. Ma i senesi non furono soddisfatti e pertanto nell'anno 853, quando l'Italia passò dalla dominazione longobarda a quella franca, riuscirono ad ottenere l'annullamento della sentenza emanata dal re Liutprando. Pare, dunque, che al tempo dei Longobardi, Siena fosse governata da un gastaldo, rappresentante del re: Gastaldo che fu poi sostituito da un Conte imperiale dopo l'incoronazione di Carlo Magno. Il primo conte di cui si hanno notizie concrete fu Winigi, figlio di Ranieri, nel 867. Dopo il 900 regnava a Siena l'imperatore Ludovico III, il cui regno non durò così a lungo, dal momento che nel 903 le cronache raccontano di un ritorno dei conti al potere sotto il nuovo governo del re Berengario.
Siena si ritrova nel X secolo al centro di importanti vie commerciali che portavano a Roma e, grazie a ciò divenne un'importante città medievale. Nel XII secolo la città si dota di ordinamenti comunali di tipo consolare, comincia a espandere il proprio territorio e stringe le prime alleanze. Questa situazione di rilevanza sia politica che economica, portano Siena a combattere per i domini settentrionali della Toscana, contro Firenze. Dalla prima metà del XII secolo in poi Siena prospera e diventa un importante centro commerciale, tenendo buoni rapporti con lo Stato della Chiesa; i banchieri senesi erano un punto di riferimento per le autorità di Roma, ai quali si rivolgevano per prestiti o finanziamenti.
Alla fine del XII secolo Siena, sostenendo la causa ghibellina (anche se non mancavano, le famiglie senesi di parte guelfa, in sintonia con Firenze), si ritrovò nuovamente contro Firenze di parte guelfa: celebre è la vittoria sui toscani guelfi nella battaglia di Montaperti, del 1260, celebrata anche da Dante Alighieri. Ma dopo qualche anno i senesi ebbero la peggio nella battaglia di Colle Val d'Elsa, del 1269, che portò in seguito, nel 1287, alla ascesa del Governo
dei Nove, di parte guelfa. Sotto questo nuovo governo, Siena raggiunse il suo massimo splendore, sia economico che culturale.
Dopo la peste del 1348, cominciò la lenta decadenza della Repubblica di Siena, che comunque non precluse la strada all'espansione territoriale senese, che fino al giorno della caduta della Repubblica comprendeva un terzo della toscana. La fine della Repubblica Senese, forse l'unico Stato occidentale ad attuare una democrazia pura a favore del popolo, avvenne il 25 aprile 1555, quando la città, dopo un assedio di oltre un anno, dovette arrendersi stremata dalla fame, all'impero di Carlo V, spalleggiato dai fiorentini, che cedette in feudo il territorio della Repubblica ai Medici, Signori di Firenze, per ripagarli delle spese sostenute durante la guerra. Per l'ennesima volta i cittadini senesi riuscirono a tenere testa ad un imperatore, che solo grazie alle proprie smisurate risorse poté piegare la fiera resistenza di questa piccola Repubblica e dei suoi cittadini.
Dopo la caduta della Repubblica pochi senesi guidati peraltro dall'esule fiorentino Piero Strozzi, non volendo accettare la caduta della Repubblica, si rifugiarono in Montalcino, creando la Repubblica di Siena riparata in Montalcino, mantenendo l'alleanza con la Francia, che continuò ad esercitare il proprio potere sulla parte meridionale del territorio della Repubblica, creando notevoli problemi alle truppe degli odiati fiorentini. Essa visse fino al 31 maggio del 1559 quando fu tradita dagli alleati francesi, che Siena aveva sempre sostenuto, che concludendo la pace di Cateau-Cambrésis con l'imperatore Carlo V, cedettero di fatto la Repubblica ai fiorentini.
Lo stemma di Siena è detto "balzana". È uno scudo diviso in due porzioni orizzontali: quella superiore è bianca, quella inferiore nera,con la Lupa che allatta Senio e Ascanio. Secondo la leggenda, starebbe a simboleggiare il fumo nero e bianco scaturito dalla pira augurale che i leggendari fondatori della città, Senio e Ascanio, figli di Remo, avrebbero acceso per ringraziare gli dei dopo la fondazione della città di Siena. Un'altra leggenda riporta che la balzana derivi dai colori dei cavalli, uno bianco ed uno nero, che Senio e Ascanio usarono nella fuga dallo zio Romolo che li voleva uccidere e con i quali giunsero a Siena. Per il loro presunto carattere focoso che, si dice, rasenta la pazzia, anche i senesi sono definiti spesso "balzani".
Siena (em português também conhecida como Sena) é uma cidade e sede de comuna italiana na região da Toscana, província do mesmo nome, com cerca de 52.775 (ISTAT 2003) habitantes. Estende-se por uma área de 118 km2, tendo uma densidade populacional de 447 hab/km2. Faz fronteira com Asciano, Castelnuovo Berardenga, Monteriggioni, Monteroni d'Arbia e Sovicille.
Siena é universalmente conhecida pelo seu património artístico e pela notável unidade estilística do seu centro histórico, classificado pela UNESCO como Património da Humanidade.
Segundo a mitologia romana, Siena foi fundada por Sénio, filho de Remo, e podem-se encontrar numerosas estátuas e obras de arte mostrando, tal como em Roma, os irmãos amamentados pela loba. Foi um povoamento etrusco e depois colónia romana (Saena Julia) refundada pelo imperador Augusto. Era, contudo, uma pequena povoação, longe das rotas principais do Império. No século V, torna-se sede de uma diocese cristã.
As antigas famílias aristocráticas de Siena reclamam origem nos Lombardos e à data da submissão da Lombardia a Carlos Magno (774). A grande influência da cidade como pólo cultural, artístico e político é iniciada no século XII, quando se converte num burgo autogovernado de cariz republicano, substituindo o esquema feudal.
Todavia, o esquema político conduziu sempre a lutas internas entre nobres e externas com a cidade rival de Florença. Data do século XIII a ruptura entre as facções rivais dos Guibelinos de Siena e dos Guelfos de Florença, que seria argumento para a Divina Comédia de Dante.
Em 4 de Setembro de 1260, os Guibelinos apoiaram as forças do rei Manfredo da Sicília e derrotaram os Guelfos em Montaperti, que tinham um exército muito superior em armas e homens. Antes da batalha, toda a cidade fora consagrada à Virgem Maria e confiada à sua protecção. Hoje, essa protecção é recordada e renovada, lembrando os sienenses da ameaça dos aliados da Segunda Guerra Mundial de bombardearam a cidade em 1944, o que felizmente não veio a acontecer.
Siena rivalizou no campo das artes durante o período medieval até o século XIV com as cidades vizinhas. Porém, devastada em 1348 pela Peste Negra, nunca recuperou o seu esplendor, perdendo também a sua rivalidade interurbana com Florença. A Siena actual tem um aspecto muito semelhante ao dos séculos XIII-XIV. Detém uma universidade fundada em 1203, famosa pelas faculdades de Direito e Medicina, e que é uma das mais prestigiadas universidades italianas.
Em 1557 perde a independência e é integrada nas formações políticas e administrativas da Toscana.
Siena também deu vários Papas, sendo eles: Alexandre III, Pio II, Pio III e Alexandre VII.
Os dois grandes santos de Siena são Santa Catarina (1347-1380) e São Bernardino (1380-1444). Catarina Benincasa, filha de um humilde tintureiro, fez-se irmã na Ordem Terceira dominicana (para leigos)e viveu como monja na casa dos pais. É famosa pelo intercâmbio interior com o próprio Cristo, que num êxtase lhe disse: "Eu sou aquele que é e tú és aquela que não é". Apesar da origem modesta, influenciou papas e príncipes com sua sabedoria e seu exemplo, conseguindo inclusive convencer o papa de então, contra a maioria dos cardeais, a regressar a Roma do exílio de Avinhon na França. Quanto ao franciscano São Bernardino, ele é célebre por ter sido o maior expoente, no Catolicismo, da via espiritual de invocação do Nome Divino, que encontra similares em todas as grandes religiões, do Budismo (nembutsu) ao Islã ([[dhikr]]) e ao Hinduísmo (mantra). Os sermões que Bernbardino fez na praça central de Siena provocaram tal fervor religioso e devoção ao nome de Jesus que o conselho municipal decidiu colocar o monograma do nome de Jesus (composto pelas letras IHS, significando "Jesus salvador dos homens")na fachada do prédio do governo. Do mesmo modo, muitos cidadãos o pintaram sobre as fachadas de suas casas, como até hoje se pode ver na cidade.
Siena also widely spelled Sienna in English) is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena.
The historic centre of Siena has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. It is one of the nation's most visited tourist attractions, with over 163,000 international arrivals in 2008.[1] Siena is famous for its cuisine, art, museums, medieval cityscape and the palio.
Siena, like other Tuscan hill towns, was first settled in the time of the Etruscans (c. 900–400 BC) when it was inhabited by a tribe called the Saina. The Etruscans were an advanced people who changed the face of central Italy through their use of irrigation to reclaim previously unfarmable land, and their custom of building their settlements in well-defended hill-forts. A Roman town called Saena Julia was founded at the site in the time of the Emperor Augustus. The first document mentioning it dates from AD 70. Some archaeologists assert that Siena was controlled for a period by a Gaulish tribe called the Saenones.
The Roman origin accounts for the town's emblem: a she-wolf suckling infants Romulus and Remus. According to legend, Siena was founded by Senius, son of Remus, who was in turn the brother of Romulus, after whom Rome was named. Statues and other artwork depicting a she-wolf suckling the young twins Romulus and Remus can be seen all over the city of Siena. Other etymologies derive the name from the Etruscan family name "Saina," the Roman family name of the "Saenii," or the Latin word "senex" ("old") or the derived form "seneo", "to be old".
Siena did not prosper under Roman rule. It was not sited near any major roads and lacked opportunities for trade. Its insular status meant that Christianity did not penetrate until the 4th century AD, and it was not until the Lombards invaded Siena and the surrounding territory that it knew prosperity. After the Lombard occupation, the old Roman roads of Via Aurelia and the Via Cassia passed through areas exposed to Byzantine raids, so the Lombards rerouted much of their trade between the Lombards' northern possessions and Rome along a more secure road through Siena. Siena prospered as a trading post, and the constant streams of pilgrims passing to and from Rome provided a valuable source of income in the centuries to come.
The oldest aristocratic families in Siena date their line to the Lombards' surrender in 774 to Charlemagne. At this point, the city was inundated with a swarm of Frankish overseers who married into the existing Sienese nobility and left a legacy that can be seen in the abbeys they founded throughout Sienese territory. Feudal power waned however, and by the death of Countess Matilda in 1115 the border territory of the Mark of Tuscia which had been under the control of her family, the Canossa, broke up into several autonomous regions.
Siena prospered as a city-state, becoming a major centre of money lending and an important player in the wool trade. It was governed at first directly by its bishop, but episcopal power declined during the 12th century. The bishop was forced to concede a greater say in the running of the city to the nobility in exchange for their help during a territorial dispute with Arezzo, and this started a process which culminated in 1167 when the commune of Siena declared its independence from episcopal control. By 1179, it had a written constitution.
This period was also crucial in shaping the Siena we know today. It was during the early 13th century that the majority of the construction of the Siena Cathedral (Duomo) was completed. It was also during this period that the Piazza del Campo, now regarded as one of the most beautiful civic spaces in Europe, grew in importance as the centre of secular life. New streets were constructed leading to it, and it served as the site of the market and the location of various sporting events (perhaps better thought of as riots, in the fashion of the Florentine football matches that are still practised to this day). A wall was constructed in 1194 at the current site of the Palazzo Pubblico to stop soil erosion, an indication of how important the area was becoming as a civic space.
In the early 12th century a self-governing commune replaced the earlier aristocratic government. The consuls who governed the republic slowly became more inclusive of the poblani, or common people, and the commune increased its territory as the surrounding feudal nobles in their fortified castles submitted to the urban power. Siena's republic, struggling internally between nobles and the popular party, usually worked in political opposition to its great rival, Florence, and was in the 13th century predominantly Ghibelline in opposition to Florence's Guelph position (this conflict formed the backdrop for some of Dante's Commedia).
On 4 September 1260 the Sienese Ghibellines, supported by the forces of King Manfred of Sicily, defeated the Florentine Guelphs in the Battle of Montaperti. Before the battle, the Sienese army of around 20,000 faced a much larger Florentine army of around 33,000. Prior to the battle, the entire city was dedicated to the Virgin Mary (this was done several times in the city's history, most recently in 1944 to guard the city from Allied bombs). The man given command of Siena for the duration of the war, Bonaguida Lucari, walked barefoot and bareheaded, a halter around his neck, to the Duomo. Leading a procession composed of all the city's residents, he was met by all the clergy. Lucari and the bishop embraced, to show the unity of church and state, then Lucari formally gave the city and contrade to the Virgin. Legend has it that a thick white cloud descended on the battlefield, giving the Sienese cover and aiding their attack. The reality was that the Florentine army launched several fruitless attacks against the Sienese army during the day, then when the Sienese army countered with their own offensive, traitors within the Florentine army killed the standard bearer and in the resulting chaos, the Florentine army broke up and fled the battlefield. Almost half the Florentine army (some 15,000 men) were killed as a result. So crushing was the defeat that even today if the two cities meet in any sporting event, the Sienese supporters are likely to exhort their Florentine counterparts to “Remember Montaperti!”.
The limits on the Roman town, were the earliest known walls to the city. During the 10th and 11th centuries, the town grew to the east and later to the north, in what is now the Camollia district. Walls were built to totally surround the city, and a second set was finished by the end of the 13th century. Much of these walls still exist today.[2]
Siena's university, founded in 1240 and famed for its faculties of law and medicine, is still among the most important Italian universities. Siena rivalled Florence in the arts throughout the 13th and 14th centuries: the important late medieval painter Duccio di Buoninsegna (1253–1319) was a Sienese, but worked across the peninsula, and the mural of "Good Government" by Ambrogio Lorenzetti in the Palazzo Pubblico, or town hall, is a magnificent example of late-Medieval/early Renaissance art as well as a representation of the utopia of urban society as conceived during that period. Siena was devastated by the Black Death of 1348, and also suffered from ill-fated financial enterprises. In 1355, with the arrival of Charles IV of Luxembourg in the city, the population rose and suppressed the government of the Nove (Nine), establishing that Dodici (Twelve) nobles assisted by a council with a popular majority. This was also short-lived, being replaced by the Quindici (Fifteen) reformers in 1385, the Dieci (Ten, 1386–1387), Undici (Eleven, 1388–1398) and Twelve Priors (1398–1399) who, in the end, gave the city's seigniory to Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan in order to defend it from the Florentine expansionism.
In 1404 the Visconti were expelled and a government of Ten Priors established, in alliance with Florence against King Ladislas of Naples. With the election of the Sienese Pius II as Pope, the Piccolomini and other noble families were allowed to return to the government, but after his death the control returned into popular hands. In 1472 the Republic founded the Monte dei Paschi, a bank that is still active today and is the oldest surviving bank in the world. The noble factions returned in the city under Pandolfo Petrucci in 1487, with the support of Florence and of Alfonso of Calabria; Petrucci exerted an effective rule on the city until his death in 1512, favouring arts and sciences, and defending it from Cesare Borgia. Pandolfo was succeeded by his son Borghese, who was ousted by his cousin Raffaello, helped by the Medici Pope Leo X. The last Petrucci was Fabio, exiled in 1523 by the Sienese people. Internal strife resumed, with the popular faction ousting the Noveschi party supported by Clement VII: the latter sent an army, but was defeated at Camollia in 1526. Emperor Charles V took advantage of the chaotic situation to put a Spanish garrison in Siena. The citizens expelled it in 1552, allying with France: this was unacceptable for Charles, who sent his general Gian Giacomo Medici to lay siege to it with a Florentine-Imperial army.
The Sienese government entrusted its defence to Piero Strozzi. When the latter was defeated at the Battle of Marciano (August 1554), any hope of relief was lost. After 18 months of resistance, it surrendered to Spain on 17 April 1555, marking the end of the Republic of Siena. The new Spanish King Philip, owing huge sums to the Medici, ceded it (apart a series of coastal fortress annexed to the State of Presidi) to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to which it belonged until the unification of Italy in the 19th century. A Republican government of 700 Sienese families in Montalcino resisted until 1559.
The picturesque city remains an important cultural centre, especially for humanist disciplines