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Custom build with...
Shimano Alfine 11sp hub and crankset
Shimano XT hydraulic disc brakes and front hub
FSA Metropolis handlebars and stem
Chris King Headset
Schwalbe Marathon Mondial tyres
Frame :*SINGULAR CYCLES* peregrine
Rear Wheel :*VELOCITY* atlas rim × *VELO ORANGE* disc hub
Tires :*FAIRWEATHER* for cruise tire
Handle :*NITTO* rivendell b357 choco bar
Stem :*NITTO* MT-31 side clamp stem
Seatpost :*NITTO* S65 seatpost
Saddle :*BROOKS* b17 standard
Brake :*TRP* spyre
Brake Lever :*DIA-COMPE* mx-2 BL limited brake lever
Crank :*BLUE LUG* RMC-II multi speed crank
Front Rack :*NITTO* M-1B BL special front rack
Rear Rack :*NITTO* rivendell big back rack 33R
Pedal :*MKS* PAMBDA pedal
Grip :*BLUE LUG* cotton cloth bar tape
Headset :*PHILWOOD* 1-1/8 headset
Head Light :*SON NABENDYNAMO* Edelux II
Housing :*NISSEN*
La Semana Santa de Valladolid es uno de los principales acontecimientos culturales, religiosos y de atracción turística de la ciudad. Sus tallas se encuentran entre las de mayor valor artístico del mundo en escultura policromada, gracias sobre todo a imagineros como Juan de Juni y Gregorio Fernández, del periodo en que la ciudad fue Corte del Imperio Español. Actualmente en Valladolid se encuentra la sede del Museo Nacional de Escultura, que cede un total de 104 imágenes (distribuidas en los correspondientes pasos) como un hecho museístico singular en España.
Todo ello convierte sus procesiones en auténticas exposiciones de imaginería religiosa en la calle, poniendo de relieve el fuerte vínculo entre religión y arte. Esto, unido a la devoción, sobriedad, silencio y respeto de los cofrades y el público, y a las características singulares de otros actos como la Procesión General de la Sagrada Pasión del Redentor y el Sermón de las Siete Palabras de la Plaza Mayor, que recuerda a los autos de fe del siglo XVI, han motivado que esta celebración haya sido declarada de Interés Turístico Internacional en 1981.
La Semana Santa de Valladolid ha sido calificada, por todo ello, como la que representa con mayor fidelidad, rigor y detalle la Pasión. El Grupo de Teatro Corsario desarrolló en los años ochenta un espectáculo teatral llamado Pasión que recrea la Pasión escenificando los grandes pasos de la Semana Santa vallisoletana y que ha sido repuesto recientemente con gran éxito
Las primeras procesiones en las calles vallisoletanas se celebraron en el siglo XV, si bien anteriormente las hubo en el interior de los conventos, donde nacieron las cinco cofradías históricas: Vera Cruz, Angustias, Piedad, Sagrada Pasión y Jesús Nazareno, así como la Venerable Orden Tercera. En los siglos XVI y XVII llegó el mayor esplendor escultórico, iniciado con las obras de Juan de Juni y de Gregorio Fernández. Con el XVIII se entró en una etapa de decadencia, atemperada por la celebración de algunos actos de las cofradías penitenciales y, desde 1810, de la Procesión General de la Pasión, antecedente de la actual Procesión General de la Sagrada Pasión del Redentor, aunque de forma irregular.
En 1920, a instancias del Arzobispo de Valladolid, Remigio Gandásegui, quien contó con la colaboración del arquitecto e historiador Juan Agapito y Revilla y del entonces director del Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes (hoy Museo Nacional Colegio de San Gregorio) Francisco de Cossío, se recuperan los desfiles procesionales con la presencia de las cofradías penitenciales y de las imágenes que se habían ido conservando en el Museo. En las procesiones colaboran también asociaciones religiosas seglares, que pronto darán paso a la creación de numerosas nuevas cofradías, todas las cuales se irán incorporando a la renovada Procesión General del Viernes Santo, que adquiere la estructura que se ha mantenido hasta hoy. Ya desde finales del siglo XX las cofradías han impulsado la recuperación o renovación de su patrimonio imaginero y nuevas salidas procesionales.
Los actos de la Semana Santa actual comienzan por la tarde del viernes de la IV Semana de Cuaresma (nueve días antes del Domingo de Ramos), con el Pregón que se celebra en la Catedral y que pronuncia una personalidad con alguna relación con la Semana Santa o con Valladolid (en 2011 lo ha proclamado el presidente ejecutivo de Onda Cero, Javier González Ferrari).
Las 19 cofradías vallisoletanas alumbran un total de 54 pasos distintos, que se describen dentro de la cofradía propietaria de cada paso, y celebran un total de 33 procesiones
El Sermón de las Siete Palabras y la Procesión General de la Sagrada Pasión del Redentor son los acontecimientos más populares y concurridos. No obstante, la mayoría de procesiones, por su tradición, solemnidad y silencio, reflejan a la perfección el sentimiento y el alma de esta celebración.
Los actos se completan con las celebraciones litúrgicas en la Catedral, en las que también toman parte las cofradías: la Bendición de las Palmas a cargo del Arzobispo, el Domingo de Ramos por la mañana; la Misa Crismal el Jueves Santo por la mañana; la Misa de la Cena y la Celebración de la Pasión por la tarde del Jueves y Viernes; la Vigilia Pascual el Sábado Santo por la noche y la Misa Pascual el Domingo de Resurrección.
Las cinco cofradías históricas vallisoletanas, consignadas por el portugués Pinheiro da Veiga en su Fastiginia (1605), a las que hay que añadir la cofradía franciscana seglar, se formaron alrededor de las órdenes religiosas:
Cofradía de la Orden Franciscana Seglar (V.O.T.): Surgió en el desaparecido Convento de San Francisco, que se ubicaba en la Plaza Mayor y ya existía en el siglo XIII; la cofradía puede datar de finales del siglo XV. Según una escritura de 1661 se sabe que contaba con capilla propia, pero en el siglo XVII establecieron una nueva sede en el Convento de San Diego. Con el regreso de los franciscanos a Valladolid en 1924, se trasladan a sus conventos.
Cofradía Penitencial de la Santa Vera Cruz: vinculada al mismo convento, no consta la fecha de su fundación, pero sí que en 1498 el Ayuntamiento le otorgaba ayuda para la construcción de un Humilladero en la Puerta del Campo. Cuentan con su propia iglesia penitencial desde finales del s. XVI.
Cofradía Penitencial de la Sagrada Pasión de Cristo: vinculada a los trinitarios, fue fundada en 1531 y se agregó posteriormente a la Venerable Compañía de San Juan Bautista Degollado. La obra de misericordia que llevaba a cabo era la de ayudar y consolar a los condenados a muerte y disponerlos para el bien morir. Una profunda decadencia les llevó con el paso del tiempo a la pérdida de parte su patrimonio, incluida su iglesia penitencial.
Ilustre Cofradía Penitencial de Nuestra Señora de las Angustias: vinculada a los dominicos del convento de San Pablo, de la que sólo consta su existencia sin identidad jurídica en 1536, gracias a una bula del pontificado de Paulo III. Fue aprobada canónicamente en 1569 por el entonces abad de Valladolid, y se establecieron en su propia iglesia en esa misma época.
Cofradía de Nuestra Señora de la Piedad: vinculada con los mercedarios del desaparecido Convento de la Merced Calzada al ser refundada por los vallisoletanos en 1578. Anteriormente era conocida como cofradía de los Xinoveses, por ser sus cofrades exclusivamente banqueros y asentistas genoveses cercanos a la corte de Carlos I.
Cofradía Penitencial de Nuestro Padre Jesús Nazareno: vinculada con los agustinos del también desaparecido Convento de San Agustín. Nació en 1596, aunque hay indicios de su existencia anterior. A partir de 1676 se desliga de la Orden Agustina y se trasladan a un nuevo templo propio. Las relaciones con los agustinos fueron muy tensas, hasta el punto de serles reclamada la imagen titular, debiendo realizar la cofradía una nueva.
A raíz de la recuperación de las procesiones de Semana Santa en 1920, empezaron a fundarse una serie de cofradías: unas a partir de asociaciones piadosas, y más en concreto de sus secciones juveniles, y otras por iniciativa directa del arzobispo Gandásegui, con la finalidad principal de procesionar uno o varios de los nuevos pasos recuperados. Así se fueron creando hasta trece nuevas cofradías:
Venerable Cofradía de la Preciosísima Sangre de Nuestro Señor Jesucristo: Se fundó en 1929. Durante sus primeros años de existencia acompañaba el Cristo de los Carboneros y posteriormente un Crucificado de Juan de Juni. Finalmente en 1953, la cofradía alumbró por primera vez su imagen titular, obra del escultor Lázaro de Gumiel.
Cofradía de las Siete Palabras: Fundada en 1929 por un grupo de jóvenes deseosos de participar en las celebraciones de Semana Santa. En 1975 lograron su objetivo de tener siete pasos que representan cada una de las últimas palabras de Cristo en la Cruz. Organizan el Pregón y el Sermón de las Siete Palabras.
Hermandad Penitencial de Nuestro Padre Jesús atado a la Columna: En 1930 Remigio Gandásegui conociendo el interés devocional de los congregantes de San Estanislao de Kostka y de San Luis Gonzaga, les encomendó el alumbramiento de los pasos de La Flagelación del Señor, El Señor atado a la columna y Camino del Calvario. Esta sección desfilaba con insignias y distintivos propios de la Congregación Mariana, hasta que en 1942 adoptan el hábito actual.
Cofradía del Santo Entierro: En 1930 Gandásegui canaliza las inquietudes que un grupo de amigos, pertenecientes al Círculo de Recreo, tenían sobre la Semana Santa. En 1931 procesionan por primera vez alumbrando el Entierro de Cristo de Juan de Juni, que por su deficiente estado debieron sustituir por el Cristo Yacente de Gregorio Fernández. Estuvo a punto de desaparecer, pero ha recuperado cofrades en las últimas décadas.
Cofradía Penitencial de La Oración del Huerto y San Pascual Bailón: Fundada el 13 de marzo de 1939 por un grupo de hortelanos y jardineros, tuvo por fin primordial, alumbrar, acompañar y adornar con el mayor esplendor el paso La Oración del Huerto de Andrés de Solanes, que se conserva en la Iglesia Penitencial de la Santa Vera Cruz.
Cofradía del Descendimiento y Santísimo Cristo de la Buena Muerte: Creada el 26 de marzo de 1939 por un grupo de cofrades reunidos en la sacristía de San Miguel y San Julián para alumbrar el paso del mismo nombre, propiedad de la cofradía de la Santa Vera Cruz. Desfilan por primera vez en 1940 portando el mencionado paso.
Cofradía Penitencial y Sacramental de la Sagrada Cena: Fundada en 1940 por un grupo de personas amantes de la Eucaristía, al frente de los cuales se encontraba Andrés Gamboa Murcia. En la actualidad alumbra los pasos Jesús de la Esperanza y La Sagrada Cena.
Hermandad Universitaria del Santo Cristo de la Luz: A finales de 1940, el entonces rector de la Universidad de Valladolid, Cayetano Mergelina y Luna, impulsa una nueva cofradía formada por catedráticos y profesores de dicha institución, que procesionaba sin hábito y fue conocida como Cofradía de los Docentes. Tras décadas de inactividad, es refundada en 1993, admitiendo desde entonces también a alumnos o a personas no vinculadas con la Universidad.
Cofradía Penitencial del Santísimo Cristo Despojado, Cristo Camino del Calvario y Nuestra Señora de la Amargura: Creada en el seno de la Juventud Obrera Católica (JOC), como una sección más de la Organización. Data oficialmente del 23 de diciembre de 1943, aunque sus orígenes se remontan a fechas anteriores, cuando desde 1930 procesionaban de paisano el Viernes Santo los pasos El Despojo y La Verónica. Única Cofradía en Valladolid que no se cubre la cara con capirote. En los últimos años, han visto crecer su patrimonio con imágenes de gran factura, como son el Santísimo Cristo Despojado (1993), Nuestra Señora de la Amargura(2000) y Cristo Camino del Calvario (2009).
Cofradía de la Exaltación de la Santa Cruz y Nuestra Señora de los Dolores: Creada en 1944 en el seno de la Hermandad Ferroviaria de la Sagrada Familia, se conocen sus actividades en la Semana Santa desde 1938, en que acompañan al paso denominado Sitio. El arzobispo García y García anima a formar una sección de Semana santa que vistiera hábito penitencial y que alumbrara el paso de La Elevación de la Cruz. Es la única cofradía penitencial establecida fuera del centro histórico de Valladolid, concretamente en el barrio de Las Delicias.
Hermandad del Santo Cristo de los Artilleros: Conocida también como Cofradía del Santo Cristo de la Caña, no se sabe con exactitud la fecha en que el personal del Arma de Artillería empezó a acompañar la imagen del Ecce-Homo, pero en 1944 se constituyó como cofradía, entrando a formar parte de ella todos los artilleros y personal perteneciente al Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Armamento de la Fábrica Nacional.
Cofradía del Santo Sepulcro y Santísimo Cristo del Consuelo: Nacida en el año 1945 del entusiasmo de la activa Asociación Josefina, dirigida por José Antonio Carrasco, de la orden de los Carmelitas Descalzos.
Cofradía de Nuestro Padre Jesús Resucitado y María Santísima de la Alegría: Fundada el 30 de marzo de 1960. Tomó el nombre y los fines de otra que existía a mediados del siglo XVI y de la cual se encontró documentación hasta 1740 en la parroquia de Santiago, hoy en el archivo del Arzobispado de Valladolid.
En 2011, el Arzobispado de Valladolid aprobó la constitución canónica de una nueva penitencial bajo el nombre de Cofradía del Discípulo Amado y Jesús de Medinaceli. Se trata de una hermandad que procesionó entre 1950 y 1957, participando entonces en la Procesión del Santo Entierro (actual Procesión General de la Sagrada Pasión del Redentor) y que entonces estaba formada principalmente por periodistas y empleados de la prensa vallisoletana. La nueva cofradía tiene previsto solicitar su ingreso en la Junta de Cofradías y la organización de un desfile propio en la Semana Santa de 2012.
Durante los siglos XV y XVI se llamó imagineros a los escultores que tallaban en madera imágenes religiosas, preferentemente pasos y retablos. Sus figuras solían ser de tamaño mayor que el natural y por ello ahuecaban la madera en que trabajaban (generalmente madera de pino), con el fin de hacer más ligeros los pasos que eran transportados en andas. Junto a ellos trabajaban carpinteros, pintores y doradores que aportaban su trabajo y conocimientos en la elaboración completa de las obras.
Durante los periodos en que fue sede de la corte castellana (siglos XV y XVI) y después capital del Imperio español (1601-1606), Valladolid y sus alrededores se consolidaron como el principal centro de la escuela escultórica castellana, al instalarse aquí los talleres de destacados imagineros como Juan de Juni o Gregorio Fernández. Su situación geográfica impulsó el uso de los materiales típicos de la escuela, especialmente la madera de nogal y pino. También aportaron obras destacadas los seguidores de los grandes maestros, como Andrés de Solanes, Bernardo del Rincón, Francisco Fermín, Tudanca, etc.
En reconocimiento de la importante labor de estos escultores, en 2003 se inauguró el Monumento al Imaginero, obra del escultor vallisoletano Jesús Trapote Medina, situado muy cerca de la iglesia de las Angustias.
Desde mediados del siglo pasado, la Semana Santa se ha visto enriquecida de patrimonio con pasos y tallas que han ido completando diferentes pasajes de la Pasión de Cristo. Algunos de estos imagineros son: Juan Guraya Urrutia, José Antonio Hernández Navarro, Miguel Ángel González Jurado, Miguel Ángel Tapia, Ricardo Flecha, etcétera.
Tradiciones y Costumbres
La Semana Santa de Valladolid, como en otras de estas celebraciones que tienen lugar en Castilla se caracteriza por el silencio con el que se desarrollan las procesiones tan solo roto por las bandas de música o de cornetas y tambores participantes.
Todavía hoy algunas personas ponen sillas en las calles sobre todo para la contemplación de la Procesión General, recuerdo de las muchas que poblaban el recorrido de la procesión.
Algunos de los pasos desfilan sobre carrozas con ruedas por herencia de los autos sacramentales del Renacimiento. Los pasos propiedad del Museo Nacional de Escultura han de ser llevados a ruedas y con luz eléctrica por exigencia de éste, aunque poco a poco, mas pasos son procesionados a hombros.
Durante el Jueves Santo es tradición visitar siete iglesias para rezar ante los Monumentos que las cofradías exponen para su culto y donde están expuestos los pasos preparados para procesionar.
Aunque se trata de una tradición prácticamente desaparecida, durante el Domingo de Resurrección y los dos días siguientes, se celebraba la fiesta del Sudario. En el convento de Las Lauras, se veneraba una copia del Sudario en que fue envuelto el cuerpo de Jesús al ser enterrado en el sepulcro. Dicha copia se encuentra en la actualidad en el convento de Santa Catalina de Valladolid.
Al paso de El Descendimiento se le denomina el Reventón, ya que en 1741, al entrar en la Iglesia Penitencial de Nuestra Señora de la Vera Cruz, aplastó a un comisario. A partir de 1891 El Reventón se convirtió en el primer paso que fue alumbrado sobre una plataforma con ruedas.
La tradición afirma que El Señor Atado a la Columna preguntó a Gregorio Fernández, su autor: ¿Dónde me viste que tan bien me retrataste? a lo que el imaginero respondió: En mi corazón, Señor.
Set up is an homage to old school mountain biking. Flat bar, gears and knobby tires with a lugged frame and level TT. Plus I want to show the versatility of the frame.
Frame :*SINGULAR* peregrine
Headset :*CHRIS KING* nothreadset
Wheels:*VELOCITY* blunt ss × *VELO ORANGE* disc hub
Tire :*SCHWALBE* g-one
Handle :*WHISKY* No.7 12F aluminum drop handlebar
Stem :*RITCHEY* classic stem
Saddle :*BROOKS* b17 standard
Seat Post :*BL SELECT* slit seatpost
Bar tape:*LIZARD SKINS* DSP 2.5 V2 bartape
Rack:*NITTO* m-1B front rack
Bag:*SWIFT INDUSTRIES*
Fender:*VELO ORANGE* wavy fenders
Custom build with...
Shimano Alfine 11sp hub and crankset
Shimano XT hydraulic disc brakes and front hub
FSA Metropolis handlebars and stem
Chris King Headset
Schwalbe Marathon Mondial tyres
Frame :*SINGULAR* peregrine
Headset :*CHRIS KING* nothreadset
Wheels:*VELOCITY* blunt ss × *VELO ORANGE* disc hub
Tire :*SIM WORKS* the homage tire
Crankset :*WHITE INDUSTRIES* VBC road crank set
Handle :*SURLY* terminal handlebar
Stem :*FAIRWEATHER* UI-71 integrated stem
Brake :*TRP* spyre × *FORAGER CYCLES* cable cherries
Brake Lever :*PAUL* canti lever
Shifter:*RIVENDELL* S-2 thumb shifter
Saddle :*GILLES BERTHOUD* aravis leather saddle
Seat Post :*NITTO* 83 seatpost
Grip :*DIMENSION* cork mountain grip × *BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Pedal :*MKS* XC-III bear trap pedal
Custom build with...
Shimano Alfine 11sp hub and crankset
Shimano XT hydraulic disc brakes and front hub
FSA Metropolis handlebars and stem
Chris King Headset
Schwalbe Marathon Mondial tyres
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
Frame :*SINGULAR* peregrine
Headset :*CHRIS KING* nothreadset
Wheels:*VELOCITY* blunt ss × *VELO ORANGE* disc hub
Tire :*SIM WORKS* the homage tire
Crankset :*WHITE INDUSTRIES* VBC road crank set
Handle :*SURLY* terminal handlebar
Stem :*FAIRWEATHER* UI-71 integrated stem
Brake :*TRP* spyre × *FORAGER CYCLES* cable cherries
Brake Lever :*PAUL* canti lever
Shifter:*RIVENDELL* S-2 thumb shifter
Saddle :*GILLES BERTHOUD* aravis leather saddle
Seat Post :*NITTO* 83 seatpost
Grip :*DIMENSION* cork mountain grip × *BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Pedal :*MKS* XC-III bear trap pedal
Frame :*SINGULAR CYCLES* peregrine
Rims:*VELOCITY* nobs rim
Stem :*SIM WORKS* tomboy stem
Handlebar :*VELO ORANGE* granola handlebar
Brake Lever :*DIA-COMPE* SS-6 brake lever
Brake :*PAUL* klamper post mount disc calliper
Pedal:*MKS* sylvan gordito pedal
Grip:*ERGON* GP1 ergo grips small × *BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Rack :*NITTO* rivendell R14 top rack
Stem bag:*FAIRWEATHER* stem bag
Saddle cover :*BLUE LUG* saddle cover
Frame pad:*BLUE LUG* frame pad nano
Frame :*SINGULAR* peregrine
Headset :*CHRIS KING* nothreadset
Wheels:*VELOCITY* blunt ss × *VELO ORANGE* disc hub
Tire :*SIM WORKS* the homage tire
Crankset :*WHITE INDUSTRIES* VBC road crank set
Handle :*SURLY* terminal handlebar
Stem :*FAIRWEATHER* UI-71 integrated stem
Brake :*TRP* spyre × *FORAGER CYCLES* cable cherries
Brake Lever :*PAUL* canti lever
Shifter:*RIVENDELL* S-2 thumb shifter
Saddle :*GILLES BERTHOUD* aravis leather saddle
Seat Post :*NITTO* 83 seatpost
Grip :*DIMENSION* cork mountain grip × *BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Pedal :*MKS* XC-III bear trap pedal
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La Catedral de Morelia es un recinto religioso sede de la Arquidiócesis de Morelia de la Iglesia católica en México. Se encuentra ubicada como su nombre propiamente lo dice en la ciudad de Morelia, capital del estado de Michoacán, México. La catedral se localiza en el primer cuadro de la ciudad, conformando la traza del Centro Histórico de Morelia. El edificio fue construido en el siglo XVIII en la época de la Colonia Española, es de estilo barroco y esta realizado en cantera rosada que le da un color peculiar y característico.
# Arquitectónicamente la Catedral de Morelia comparándose con otras Catedrales de México, es similar a la Catedral Metropolitana de la Ciudad de México, Catedral de Puebla, e inclusive en su interior a la Catedral de Guadalajara.
# La catedral es la edificación más emblemática y representativa de Morelia dada su altura, ya que cuenta con dos altas torres, que se divisan por todo el valle de la ciudad. Por su altura, las torres de la Catedral de Morelia (66.8 m) son las cuartas más altas de México, después de las torres del Santuario Guadalupano (Catedral Inconclusa) en Zamora de Hidalgo (105 m), de la catedral de Villahermosa (80 m) y del Santuario de Guadalupe, en San Luis Potosí (68 m).
# Cuenta con una Iluminación escénica de singular belleza colocada por la empresa que iluminó la Torre Eiffel de París. Los fines de semana la catedral ofrece un espectáculo de luz y sonido con esta iluminación.
# La catedral está dedicada a la Transfiguración y en su interior alberga dos imágenes muy veneradas, Sagrado Corazón de Jesús que es el santo patrono de la ciudad, y el Señor de la Sacristía un Cristo muy antiguo realizado en pasta de caña de maíz. El cual es muy visitado y querido por la feligresía.
# Su belleza arquitectónica y su historia son otras razones por las cuales se ha convertido en un icono de la ciudad.
# En su interior este recinto dada su belleza, sonorización acústica y espaciosidad, figura como escenario de diversos eventos artísticos y culturales como el Festival Internacional de Órgano de Morelia, y el Festival Internacional de Música de Morelia.
La actual catedral de Morelia no ha sido la única catedral que ha tenido la ciudad, ya que en 1580, cuando los poderes civiles y eclesiásticos de Michoacán fueron trasladados de Pátzcuaro a Valladolid (anterior nombre de Morelia), se inauguró una catedral, muy inferior a la actual en tamaño y valor artístico. Esa construcción se ubicaba en la esquina de las actuales calles de Corregidora y Abasolo. Sin embargo, debido al crecimiento que experimentó la ciudad a finales del s. XVI e inicios del XVII, así como por causa de un incendio que en 1584 afectó severamente el anterior edificio catedralicio, se hizo necesario pensar en otro templo, más grande, sólido e importante. Por ello es que a inicios del s. XVII el cabildo catedralicio comenzó las gestiones para la construcción de la nueva catedral.
Muchos proyectos fueron propuestos, pero hasta mediados de ese siglo fue aceptado el proyecto del arquitecto italiano Vicenzo Barrochio, también conocido como Vicente Barroso de la Escayola por parte del Virrey Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, Duque de Alburquerque el 22 de marzo de 1660 concluyendo continuos trámites y proyectos de construcción durante un largo período de casi 80 años.
El día 6 de mayo de 1660 la primera piedra de la construcción fue colocada por el obispo Fray Marcos Ramírez del Prado. La construcción estuvo a cargo del propio Vicenzo Barrochio hasta el año de su muerte, acaecida en 1692, razón por la cual el gran arquitecto no pudo ver concluida su obra monumental. Sin embargo, solo 52 años después del deceso del maestro, sus discípulos lograron terminar la titánica tarea arquitectónica, por lo que la magnífica obra fue concluida en 1744.
La catedral sufrió diversos saqueos por parte del ejército independentista, en el año de 1810. Hacia fines del siglo XIX se construyó la reja perimetral que delimita el atrio. A finales de los años 90 del siglo XX se efectuaron diversas obras de restauración exteriores e interiores, con lo cual se preservó mejor la belleza del edificio. También, en los primeros años del siglo XXI, se inauguró la nueva iluminación escénica de esta catedral de Morelia.
The Cathedral of Morelia is a religious compound headquarters of the Archdiocese of Morelia of the Catholic Church in Mexico. It is located as the name itself says it in the city of Morelia, capital of Michoacan, Mexico. The cathedral is located on the first frame of the city, forming the trace of the Historic Center of Morelia. The building was built in the eighteenth century the Spanish colonial times, is in Baroque style and is made of pink quarry which gives it a distinctive and characteristic color.
# Architecturally, the Cathedral of Morelia compared against other Cathedrals in Mexico is similar to the Metropolitan Cathedral in Mexico City, Puebla Cathedral, and even inside the Cathedral of Guadalajara.
# The cathedral is the most emblematic and representative buildings of Morelia given their height, since it has two tall towers that can be seen throughout the valley of the city. For his height, the towers of the Catedral de Morelia (66.8 m) are the fourth highest in Mexico after the towers of the Sanctuary of Guadalupe (Cathedral Unfinished) in Zamora de Hidalgo (105 m) of the cathedral in Villahermosa (80 m) and the Sanctuary of Guadalupe, San Luis Potosi (68 m).
# Has a unique scenic beauty lighting placed by the company that lit the Eiffel Tower in Paris. On weekends, the cathedral offers a sound and light show with this lighting.
# The cathedral is dedicated to the Transfiguration and its interior houses two highly venerated image, Sacred Heart of Jesus who is the patron saint of the city, and the Lord of the Sacristy a Christ very old paste made of cornstalks. Which is much visited and loved by the congregation.
# Its beautiful architecture and history are other reasons why it has become an icon of the city.
# Inside this enclosure because of its beauty, sound and spacious sound, set for a variety of artistic and cultural events as the International Organ Festival in Morelia, and the International Music Festival of Morelia.
The current cathedral of Morelia was not the only cathedral in the city has had since 1580, when civil and ecclesiastical powers were transferred from Patzcuaro Michoacan to Valladolid (Morelia previous name), opened a cathedral, much lower the current size and artistic value. That building was located on the corner of the present streets of Corregidor and Abasolo. However, due to growth experienced by the city at the end of s. Sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, and because of a fire in 1584 severely affected the former cathedral building, it became necessary to think of another temple, larger, robust and important. That is why at the beginning of s. XVII the cathedral chapter began efforts to build the new cathedral.
Many projects were proposed, but until mid-century the project was accepted by the Italian architect Vincenzo Barrochio, also known as the Plaster Vicente Barroso by the Viceroy Francisco Fernandez de la Cueva, Duke of Albuquerque on March 22, 1660 concluding continuous procedures and construction projects over a long period of almost 80 years.
On May 6, 1660 the first stone of the building was laid by Bishop Fray Marcos Ramírez del Prado. The building itself was given by Vicenzo Barrochio until his death in 1692, why the great architect could not see completed his monumental work. However, only 52 years after the death of the teacher, his pupils got through the daunting task of architecture, so that the magnificent work was completed in 1744.
The cathedral suffered several raids by the army for independence, in the year 1810. By the end of the nineteenth century built the perimeter fence that marks the atrium. In the late 90s of the twentieth century restoration work carried out various internal and external, thereby better preserved the beauty of the building. Also, in the early twenty-first century, opened the new stage lighting of the cathedral of Morelia.
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Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
Shot in near-total-dark directly into an old plastic bucket just before I was about to clean the floors.
These cases where nature produces singularities (the sharp point on the lighted line that looks like a butt) has always fascinated me.
Se fx.
* www.math.harvard.edu/archive/21a_spring_06/exhibits/coffe...
* Or the obligatory wikipedia link: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caustic_(optics)
Frame:*SINGULAR CYCLES* peregrine
Rims:*VELO ORANGE* voyager rim
Tires:*CONTINENTAL* terra speed tire
Handle:*NITTO* LOSCO bar
Stem:*NITTO* rivendell lugged ahead stem
Brake lever:*DIA-COMPE* SS-6 brake lever
Seatpost:*BL SELECT* slit seatpost
Saddle:*BROOKS* b17 standard
Crank:*BLUE LUG* RMC multi speed crank
Pedals:*MKS* promenade pedal
Headset*VELO ORANGE* grand cru headset
Bar tape:*BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Housing:*NISSEN*
Frame :*SINGULAR* peregrine
Headset :*CHRIS KING* nothreadset
Wheels:*VELOCITY* blunt ss × *VELO ORANGE* disc hub
Tire :*SIM WORKS* the homage tire
Crankset :*WHITE INDUSTRIES* VBC road crank set
Handle :*SURLY* terminal handlebar
Stem :*FAIRWEATHER* UI-71 integrated stem
Brake :*TRP* spyre × *FORAGER CYCLES* cable cherries
Brake Lever :*PAUL* canti lever
Shifter:*RIVENDELL* S-2 thumb shifter
Saddle :*GILLES BERTHOUD* aravis leather saddle
Seat Post :*NITTO* 83 seatpost
Grip :*DIMENSION* cork mountain grip × *BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Pedal :*MKS* XC-III bear trap pedal
SINGULAR DEATH AT THE HOSPITAL.
THE USE OF MORPHIA.
AN UNSATISFIED JURY ADJOURNS.
At the Auckland Hospital, on Saturday afternoon, an inquest was held before Dr. Philson, coroner, on the body of George Oxley, an old man who was found dead in bed at the Hospital the same morning.
Dr. John Somerville, resident medical officer at the Hospital, said deceased was a pensioner who had long been at the Hospital as a kind of assistant. He got about 1s a week for tobacco and pocket money. Deceased's duties were to assist with the linen. He had been a patient at the Hospital, and suffered from chronic rheumatism, which caused great distortion of his limbs. Originally deceased had been a bank clerk. He had been first admitted on December 10, 1869. Since witness had known him he had had several fainting fits. For rheumatic pains deceased took immense doses of morphia. Deceased had told witness that he sometimes took as much as six grains five or six times a day.
Dr. Philson : Thirty grains a day.-Witness : Yes.
Where did he get the morphia?—l don't know. He did not get it at the Hospital. He has had two grains at the Hospital, but he said it did him no good.
Continuing, Dr. Somerville said deceased had told him a friend brought him the morphia. It did not seem to have much effect, but deceased was sometimes stupid. Deceased slept at the porter's lodge. At half-past six that morning, Henry Maitland, another occupant of the porter's lodge, told witness deceased had been found dead in bed. On going down, witness found the body quite cold. In a locker near the bed a bottle and a packet containing morphia were found. There were about ten grains in the bottle, which would originally contain about half an ounce. There was no label on the bottle. The packet had about two drachms of morphia. There was no label on this packet. This morphia was not obtained from the hospital. Witness had made a post-mortem examination. Deceased was immensely stout, weighing about 16 stone. At the postmortem, witness found the heart greatly enlarged ; it weighed 22¾ oz, and was about twice the natural size. Witness found no smell of morphia or any other poison on the body. He attributed death to failure of the heart, caused by fatty degeneration. He was not able to say whether morphia had assisted death or not, but he did not think it. Had no reason to suppose witness had taken more than he usually did. Witness did not think deceased could have poisoned himself with morphia, unless he took a fearful amount.
The Coroner said anyone who had read De Quincy's confessions of an opium eater, would know what quantities could be consumed.
Witness (to a juror) : The average dose is about ¼ to ½ a grain.
A Juror: Did it ever strike you the quantity he took was too much?— Witness; I knew it was.
Did you ever warn him?—l told him it was no good. He got the morphia without my knowledge. I often told him to stop it, but he could not. He could not have got the morphia without the knowledge of myself or the dispenser from the hospital dispensary.
Another Juror: He was only getting 1s a week, and yet he got these large quantities of morphia. How could he do it ?
Witness: He said a friend gave it him. You do not think it was your province to prevent him taking so much ?— I could not. He was not a patient. Deceased sometimes fits of despondency.
You say you had no direct control over him ?— No, he was under the house steward. He had nothing to do with the medical men of the Hospital.
The Coroner: You do not think he committed suicide ?—I do not think so. He may have done so, but there is nothing to warrant the assumption. I always found deceased a sober, steady man.
A Juror: Morphia would not cause failure of the heart ? —No; he had no signs of being poisoned by morphia. He may have taken an overdose, but not with the intention of committing suicide.
The Coroner: I suppose a spoonful would have killed him ?—l cannot say. I believe he could take almost any quantity. He could evidently get the morphia from a chemist without signing a book.
The Coroner: The chemists in the town knowing he was an old hand would give him any amount.
A Juror: Did you ever ask him where he got the morphia?— No. I never asked him, but he said a friend brought it to him. After death the pupils of the eyes were dilated; that raised a strong presumption that deceased did not die from morphia.
Henry Maitland, an inmate of the porters' lodge, said he had heard nothing from the deceased during the night. A man named Crimmings slept in the same room as Oxley. Crimmings had gone to Onehunga for the day. He had not gone because he thought an inquest was to be held.
A Juror: He ought not to have been allowed to go. Witness: He had arranged to go yesterday; the house steward had given him a holiday.
The Coroner: How did the deceased get the morphia?—I don't know.
How often did he go to town ?—Not very often I don't think he has been to town for over 12 months.
What! Then how did he get the morphia? I do not know, but he did not fetch it himself.
A Juror: Did any friends come to see him ever?— Witness: I do not know anybody; old patients might ask him how he was.
The Coroner : Did you ever see him in a state of coma?l remember he was lying once for several hours in a very peculiar state. That was five or six years ago.
Did he use hyperdermic injections?—I have known him do it, but very seldom. A patient had a syringe here once, and I have seen him give it to deceased.
Witness continuing, said it was a mistake to say deceased only got 1s a week; he got 2s.
A Juror: It's a strange thing how he got this morphia?— Witness : I could not say, but I may have my impression.
Witness said there were bottles like the one found in deceased's room in the dispensary, but there was nothing unusual in their appearance.
The Coroner, in answer to a juror, said there was about ½oz of morphia in the packet found in deceased's room. Thirty grains would cost about 6d, perhaps 3d.
A Juror : Would you not have thought the man Crimmings would have been detained here?
The Coroner : One would have thought so.
A Juror said they could not complete their work until this man was forthcoming. Perhaps he had been sent away; his evidence was of as much importance as any they had heard. He (the juror) would not sign his name to any of the evidence until he had greater satisfaction. He wanted to know how deceased got the morphia. It was said a friend had brought it. Other people at the Hospital had friends, and it seemed they might be able to poison themselves if they chose.
Another Juror reminded his colleague that deceased was not a patient.
The Juror replied that that might be, but if friends could bring morphia to the Hospital they might bring any other poison. Could it be told whether & person had died from morphia? The Coroner replied not unless morphia had been, found in the stomach; it left no marks.
Another Juror: I wonder, then, more do not use it in preference to prussic acid and that sort of thing if it is not traceable.
Mr. Edwin Howe, temporary dispenser at the Hospital, said deceased had obtained medicines from him. Witness had given him liquid morphia on the order of Dr. Somerville. Deceased had not had any the day before his death, unless he had gone to the dispensary in witness's absence. The poison cupboard was kept locked. The last time deceased was at the dispensary was on Wednesday, when he had 2oz of liquid morphia.
A Juror : Would he have to get an order from the doctor ?— Witness: Yes, he had an order. The Coroner: How much pure morphia I would be in the solution? —Witness : Nine grains. Witness, continuing, said he had never given deceased any morphia in powder like that produced. Dr. Somerville had given witness a verbal order to give deceased the morphia. Had written no directions on the bottle, as the doctor said deceased knew how to take it. Witness had only been in the Hospital a fortnight. On Monday last witness had supplied the deceased with 1oz. That, too, was by Dr. Somerville a orders. Deceased had used that up, and the doctor told witness to give him the 2oz. The 1oz bottle would contain 4½ grains of morphia.
A Juror: That is 13½ grains in two days? —Witness : Yes.
Another Juror asked that the house steward should be called, seeing that the man sleeping in deceased's room was away.
P. C. Hinton (in charge of the case): He has gone to Otahuhu. (Laughter.) A Juror asked Mr. Howe if deceased would have had any chance of getting morphia before he (Mr. Howe) went to the Hospital.
Mr. Howe replied that some time had certainly elapsed between his going to the Hospital and his predecessor leaving.
A juror said he would like the previous dispenser called. Dr. Somerville had mentioned two grains as the dose he had given deceased. Mr. Howe said he had given 13½ grains in two days.
The Coroner said he did not think deceased could have died from morphia. Dr. Somerville had told them the pupils of deceased's eyes were dilated. He (the coroner) had never seen a death from morphia where the pupils were not contracted almost to a point. There being dilation, he could not understand deceased dying from morphia.
The Juror: There are lots of things I do not understand, but I mean to before I have done with this inquiry. If deceased had been in the habit of taking 30 grains, he might have taken a bottle full. If people can get bottles of poison without anyone knowing where it comes from, then it is time the information is obtained.
Another Juror said there certainly seemed something radically wrong somewhere.
The inquest was then adjourned until this afternoon.
paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/NZH18930515.2.34
STRANGE DEATH AT THE HOSPITAL.
INQUEST CONTINUED.
"ENOUGH TO KILL A HORSE."
LAX POISON REGULATIONS.
The inquest on the body of George Oxley, a pensioner, of the Hospital, who was found dead in his bed on Saturday morning, was concluded yesterday, before Dr. Philson, when the following additional evidence was adduced :—
Samuel Schofield, House Steward of the Hospital, deposed that he had known deceased for some eight years. He was employed some time ago as a helper to the matron, but of late he had been too unwell to perform these duties. Deceased occupied a room with fire and other attaches. Witness had never seen deceased under the influence of liquor. He was aware, by rumour only, that deceased was in the habit of taking morphia. He had often observed that deceased seemed drowsy at times. Witness last saw Oxley alive on Friday afternoon. Some years ago deceased was in the habit of going to the dispensary, but the practice had been stopped, as the nurse in charge objected to it. He could not state definitely what Oxley went for, but he heard that morphia had been missed. Upon being informed of the death of deceased, witness visited the room and searched the same, finding three bottles, one labelled, "Oxide of Zinc " (produced), another bottle (produced) containing a small quantity of white powder.
Dr. Philson : You have spoken of three bottles. There are only two here. Where is the other?
Witness: I gave it to Dr. Somerville.
Dr. Philson: We must have it.
Constable Hinton was then despatched for the bottle. Upon his return it was seen that the bottle in question was a small, dark blue one, labelled "Liq. Morp. Mur. —Poison."
Witness identified it as the one he discovered in the locker. Deceased was not at all melancholy in disposition, in fact, rather a cheerful man. Witness did not believe that deceased came by his death by suicide.
By the foreman: The bottles were wrapped up carefully in a cupboard by deceased's bedside.
By Mr Gadge: The labels the bottles now bore were the same as those upon them when discovered by witness. He was sure the blue bottle was the same, A man employed at the Hospital could not leave for a day without obtaining leave. It was painful to see deceased. Witness at this stage produced a purse and contents found in deceased's trousers pockets. There was 6s 6d in silver, and three memorandum sheets. One bore the words on one side,"Mr Gilbert, 92, Queen-street, Auckland," and on the other side the words, "This lot will make 15s worth you owe me." Another bore the words, "You owe me at present 15a 6d." The thick piece of paper was headed "Memo. Mr Oxley, I have instructed my assistant to send only the value of the money sent, so that when you send small sums he will only send you the quantity it will purchase." This was initialled "S. G."
By the foreman: He did not think deceased had any personal visiting friends. Deceased had opportunities of getting drugs from town. He had heard that drugs had been procured for him by Brighton the porter, and a housemaid at the Hospital.
By Sergeant Clarke: The locker at decaased's bed could be got at by anyone, as it was common to all in the room.
George Trimming, next called, deposed that he was an upholsterer and saddler, and maker of splints for the Hospital; He had known deceased for twelve years. He last saw deceased alive about 8.30 on Friday night. Deceased was then in bed in the same room as witness, and seemed more
HAPPY AND CHEERFUL
than witness had known him to be for years. He was very talkative. Deceased was quite sensible. Witness had not the least suspicion that deceased committed suicide. He had frequently seen deceased take what he (deceased) termed his "nobblers." The "nobbler " consisted of a mixture of white powder with water. All the occupants of the lodge were under the impression that the stuff he took was morphia. Upon rising next morning witness discovered that Oxley was dead. Witness thought that deceased met his death by fainting away.
By the foreman: He had not noticed any friends bringing drugs to deceased.
By the coroner: He had never brought morphia to deceased.
By Mr Gadge: The fainting fits experienced by deceased used to come on at all times of the day. They had been very frequent lately. Witness had visited Onehunga on Saturday after obtaining the necessary permission. If the police had wanted to see him they could have found him easily and brought him back, and it was well known where he was.
Sergt. Clarke stated, upon the conclusion of witness's examination, that the police had no knowledge of the inquest until 12 o'clock on Saturday, so that they had really no time to bring witness in in time to give evidence by 2.30 at the inquest.
M. Fitzpatrick, former dispenser at the Hospital, deposed that he had known deceased for nearly twelve months. He was aware that deceased was in the habit of taking morphia. Deceased had applied personally to witness once for morphia, when he told witness that he had been
A MORPHIA EATER
for 15 years, and that as morphia was very expensive outside, he
WANTED TO MAKE FRIEND
with him. Witness refused the request upon that occasion, but subsequently, at the order of Dr. Forbes, he served him out a little less than 30 grains. Witness was annoyed at having to give deceased the drug saying to him upon that occasion that he would be found dead in his store some day. About four months after this, Dr Forbes told witness to repeat the dose. Deceased used to suffer greatly from rheumatic pains; he had sent for witness on several such occasions, but he had refused to attend.
By the foreman: There is no telling how much would constitute an overdose in the case of a man taking morphia for a number of years. He did not believe that a quantity sufficient to fill the bottle labelled "morphia," would kill a man like Oxley. Witness and the coroner then proceeded to test the contents of the bottle labelled "morphia." and the contents of that one labelled "zinc," with the result that they both declared the contents to be what they professed.
Stephen Gilbert, who was next called, deposed that he was a chemist and druggist He had known deceased for 15 or 20 years. He last saw deceased at the Hospital Lodge some time ago. Deceased told him then that it was contemplated to shift him to Costley's Home. Witness was a friend of deceased, and used to visit him every Sunday. He constantly supplied him with morphia. He did not charge deceased anything for the drug in many cases. The quantity on each occasion was perhaps half-a-drachrn. Witness used to warn deceased to be careful in the use of the drug. The bottle produced was like one deceased used to have. Witness had not entered in his register of poisons the quantity he had supplied deceased with. He was not aware that he was compelled by law to enter the poison applied in such a way. If he sold the poisons he was required so to do. Witness Identified the initials on the papers found in deceased's purse as his own. He had tried
by means of these notes to put the break on his morphiaeating.
By the foreman: He did not think that the doses given deceased would cause death.
By Mr Gadge: Deceased had told witness that he had obtained morphia from another source. Deceased was not depressed at the idea of going to the Costley Home.
By Mr Donnor: Witness had last supplied deceased with morphia on Thursday or Friday last, when he gave him ½ drachm.
By Sergeant Clarke: He had never made a direct sale of morphia to deceased. Witness would not supply anyone he did not know with the amount of morphia he did deceased without a doctor's order and without entering the sale in the Poisons book.
By the coroner: He would not have supplied deceased with an ounce, ½ ounce or a ¼ ounce at the most he might have given him 2 drachms.
Coroner: Why, that is enough to
KILL A HORSE.
Witness: I have known men to take 8 ounces of laudanum.
Dr. Philson : Laudanum is a very different thing to morphia.
This concluded the evidence.
Dr. Philson said he had not the least suspicion that the deceased died from morphia, but the jury must find their own verdict.
After a retirement of about 15 minutes the foreman of the jury announced that they had arrived at the following verdict:— "That deceased had died of fatty degeneration of the heart."
paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/AS18930516.2.3
Plot 30: George H. Oxley (63) 13/5/1893 – Clerk – Heart (Ang.)
William Evans (89) 14/5/1893 – at Costley Home – Senile decay (Ang.)
Anglican divisions M and N are what is known as ‘Potters Fields’, they were used to bury some of the people whose families were unable to afford funeral costs, were institutionalised or unidentified at the time of burial. These plots were common graves with many having several individuals interred in each. They were narrower and closer together and, because they were not paid for, permanent grave markers were not permitted to be erected.
It is now no longer known where either Anglican Division M or N starts let alone the rows or individual plots which have now been protected by ghost gums, native trees & flax.
However it is believed that Division M starts closest to Waitakere View Rd & that single rows were used for both areas.
Costley Home for the Aged Poor
nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Cyc02Cycl-t1-body1-...
Image of Costley Home
manawatuheritage.pncc.govt.nz/item/88c78623-cd79-4dcd-a22...
Frame:*SINGULAR CYCLES* peregrine
Rims:*VELO ORANGE* voyager rim
Tires:*CONTINENTAL* terra speed tire
Handle:*NITTO* LOSCO bar
Stem:*NITTO* rivendell lugged ahead stem
Brake lever:*DIA-COMPE* SS-6 brake lever
Seatpost:*BL SELECT* slit seatpost
Saddle:*BROOKS* b17 standard
Crank:*BLUE LUG* RMC multi speed crank
Pedals:*MKS* promenade pedal
Headset*VELO ORANGE* grand cru headset
Bar tape:*BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Housing:*NISSEN*
Frame:*SINGULAR* peregrine
Front wheel:*SON NABENDYNAMO* SON 28 disc × *VELO ORANGE* voyager rim
Rear wheel:*VELO ORANGE* disc hub × *VELO ORANGE* voyager rim
Tire:*PANARACER* gravel king SK
Handle:*NITTO* b355 kite bar
Stem:*NITTO* UI-75 stem
Grip:*RIVENDELL* Miesha's Portuguese Tree Cork Grips
Saddle:*GILLES BER* aspin leather saddle
Crank:*BLUE LUG* RMC track crank
Brake lever:*VELO ORANGE* cru brake lever
Brake:*TRP* spyre
Headset:*PHILWOOD*
Shifter:*RIVENDELL* S-2 bar end
Rack:*NITTO* M-1B BL special front rack × *WALD* front 137 basket small
Head light:*SON* Edelux II
Frame :*SINGULAR CYCLES* peregrine
Rims:*VELOCITY* nobs rim
Stem :*SIM WORKS* tomboy stem
Handlebar :*VELO ORANGE* granola handlebar
Brake Lever :*DIA-COMPE* SS-6 brake lever
Brake :*PAUL* klamper post mount disc calliper
Pedal:*MKS* sylvan gordito pedal
Grip:*ERGON* GP1 ergo grips small × *BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Rack :*NITTO* rivendell R14 top rack
Stem bag:*FAIRWEATHER* stem bag
Saddle cover :*BLUE LUG* saddle cover
Frame pad:*BLUE LUG* frame pad nano
Palmera Canaria del Jardín Botánico de Madrid. www.rjb.csic.es/jardinbotanico/jardin/index.php?Cab=5&...
Este ejemplar está incluido en el Catálogo de Árboles Singulares de la Comunidad de Madrid.
Palmera Canaria (Phoenix canariensis)
Distribución: Islas Canarias
Muy parecida a la palmera datilera, se distingue de ésta por su tronco más corto y grueso, sus hojas anchas y por sus dátiles, ovoides y mucho más pequeños. En su hábitat puede alcanzar hasta 20 m de altura y vivir casi 400 años. Es una especie dioica: los ejemplares son masculinos o femeninos.
Hoy en día es una especie protegida en Canarias y su tala está prohibida.
Datos del ejemplar:
Altura: 14 m
Diámetro: 0,50 m
Edad: 100 años aprox.
Custom build with...
Shimano Alfine 11sp hub and crankset
Shimano XT hydraulic disc brakes and front hub
FSA Metropolis handlebars and stem
Chris King Headset
Schwalbe Marathon Mondial tyres
A camera can sometimes dictate what you shoot. I have been trying to turn that around and shoot what I want no matter the camera.
I love the sharpness of my RB67, but sometimes I choose to shoot things JUST to show off that sharpness. This time I decided to use it in my [Singularity] series. This one is one of my favorites, but I didn't know it until later that the bottom lock had flipped to unlock and I was getting light leaks. It's still interesting, but not what I wanted.
I wish I could afford to get a digital back to the RB67, I would use it MUCH more.
Frame:*SINGULAR CYCLES* peregrine
Rims:*VELO ORANGE* voyager rim
Tires:*CONTINENTAL* terra speed tire
Handle:*NITTO* LOSCO bar
Stem:*NITTO* rivendell lugged ahead stem
Brake lever:*DIA-COMPE* SS-6 brake lever
Seatpost:*BL SELECT* slit seatpost
Saddle:*BROOKS* b17 standard
Crank:*BLUE LUG* RMC multi speed crank
Pedals:*MKS* promenade pedal
Headset*VELO ORANGE* grand cru headset
Bar tape:*BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Housing:*NISSEN*
Frame :*SINGULAR* peregrine
Headset :*CHRIS KING* nothreadset
Wheels:*VELOCITY* blunt ss × *VELO ORANGE* disc hub
Tire :*SIM WORKS* the homage tire
Crankset :*WHITE INDUSTRIES* VBC road crank set
Handle :*SURLY* terminal handlebar
Stem :*FAIRWEATHER* UI-71 integrated stem
Brake :*TRP* spyre × *FORAGER CYCLES* cable cherries
Brake Lever :*PAUL* canti lever
Shifter:*RIVENDELL* S-2 thumb shifter
Saddle :*GILLES BERTHOUD* aravis leather saddle
Seat Post :*NITTO* 83 seatpost
Grip :*DIMENSION* cork mountain grip × *BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Pedal :*MKS* XC-III bear trap pedal
Frame :*SINGULAR* peregrine
Headset :*CHRIS KING* nothreadset
Wheels:*VELOCITY* blunt ss × *VELO ORANGE* disc hub
Tire :*SIM WORKS* the homage tire
Crankset :*WHITE INDUSTRIES* VBC road crank set
Handle :*SURLY* terminal handlebar
Stem :*FAIRWEATHER* UI-71 integrated stem
Brake :*TRP* spyre × *FORAGER CYCLES* cable cherries
Brake Lever :*PAUL* canti lever
Shifter:*RIVENDELL* S-2 thumb shifter
Saddle :*GILLES BERTHOUD* aravis leather saddle
Seat Post :*NITTO* 83 seatpost
Grip :*DIMENSION* cork mountain grip × *BLUE LUG* acrylic cloth bar tape
Pedal :*MKS* XC-III bear trap pedal