Coulee City represents the western end of the Palouse River & Coulee City RR's northern line to Cheney. Formerly operated by the Eastern Washington Gateway, today's operation is owned by a Canadian firm. The blue SD40s of the former operator are gone, replaced by exCSX C40-8Ws. Luckily the LHF leader would shortly be joined by a correct-facing leader down the road.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist and political ethicist who employed nonviolent resistance to lead the successful campaign for India's independence from British rule. He inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. The honorific Mahātmā (from Sanskrit 'great-souled, venerable'), first applied to him in South Africa in 1914, is now used throughout the world.

 

Born and raised in a Hindu family in coastal Gujarat, Gandhi trained in the law at the Inner Temple in London, and was called to the bar in June 1891, at the age of 22. After two uncertain years in India, where he was unable to start a successful law practice, he moved to South Africa in 1893 to represent an Indian merchant in a lawsuit. He went on to live in South Africa for 21 years. There, Gandhi raised a family and first employed nonviolent resistance in a campaign for civil rights. In 1915, aged 45, he returned to India and soon set about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against discrimination and excessive land-tax.

 

Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, and, above all, achieving swaraj or self-rule. Gandhi adopted the short dhoti woven with hand-spun yarn as a mark of identification with India's rural poor. He began to live in a self-sufficient residential community, to eat simple food, and undertake long fasts as a means of both introspection and political protest. Bringing anti-colonial nationalism to the common Indians, Gandhi led them in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930 and in calling for the British to quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned many times and for many years in both South Africa and India.

 

Gandhi's vision of an independent India based on religious pluralism was challenged in the early 1940s by a Muslim nationalism which demanded a separate homeland for Muslims within British India. In August 1947, Britain granted independence, but the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious violence broke out, especially in the Punjab and Bengal. Abstaining from the official celebration of independence, Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to alleviate distress. In the months following, he undertook several hunger strikes to stop the religious violence. The last of these was begun in Delhi on 12 January 1948, when he was 78. The belief that Gandhi had been too resolute in his defense of both Pakistan and Indian Muslims spread among some Hindus in India. Among these was Nathuram Godse, a militant Hindu nationalist from Pune, western India, who assassinated Gandhi by firing three bullets into his chest at an interfaith prayer meeting in Delhi on 30 January 1948.

 

Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is commemorated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and worldwide as the International Day of Nonviolence. Gandhi is considered to be the Father of the Nation in post-colonial India. During India's nationalist movement and in several decades immediately after, he was also commonly called Bapu (Gujarati endearment for "father", roughly "papa", "daddy"[

 

Gandhi's father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi (1822–1885), served as the dewan (chief minister) of Porbandar state. His family originated from the then village of Kutiana in what was then Junagadh State. Although he only had been a clerk in the state administration and had an elementary education, Karamchand proved a capable chief minister.

 

During his tenure, Karamchand married four times. His first two wives died young, after each had given birth to a daughter, and his third marriage was childless. In 1857, he sought his third wife's permission to remarry; that year, he married Putlibai (1844–1891), who also came from Junagadh, and was from a Pranami Vaishnava family. Karamchand and Putlibai had four children: a son, Laxmidas (c. 1860–1914); a daughter, Raliatbehn (1862–1960); a second son, Karsandas (c. 1866–1913). and a third son, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi who was born on 2 October 1869 in Porbandar (also known as Sudamapuri), a coastal town on the Kathiawar Peninsula and then part of the small princely state of Porbandar in the Kathiawar Agency of the British Raj.

 

In 1874, Gandhi's father Karamchand left Porbandar for the smaller state of Rajkot, where he became a counsellor to its ruler, the Thakur Sahib; though Rajkot was a less prestigious state than Porbandar, the British regional political agency was located there, which gave the state's diwan a measure of security. In 1876, Karamchand became diwan of Rajkot and was succeeded as diwan of Porbandar by his brother Tulsidas. His family then rejoined him in Rajkot.

 

As a child, Gandhi was described by his sister Raliat as "restless as mercury, either playing or roaming about. One of his favourite pastimes was twisting dogs' ears." The Indian classics, especially the stories of Shravana and king Harishchandra, had a great impact on Gandhi in his childhood. In his autobiography, he states that they left an indelible impression on his mind. He writes: "It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number." Gandhi's early self-identification with truth and love as supreme values is traceable to these epic characters.

 

The family's religious background was eclectic. Mohandas was born into a Gujarati Hindu Modh Bania family. Gandhi's father Karamchand was Hindu and his mother Putlibai was from a Pranami Vaishnava Hindu family. Gandhi's father was of Modh Baniya caste in the varna of Vaishya. His mother came from the medieval Krishna bhakti-based Pranami tradition, whose religious texts include the Bhagavad Gita, the Bhagavata Purana, and a collection of 14 texts with teachings that the tradition believes to include the essence of the Vedas, the Quran and the Bible. Gandhi was deeply influenced by his mother, an extremely pious lady who "would not think of taking her meals without her daily prayers... she would take the hardest vows and keep them without flinching. To keep two or three consecutive fasts was nothing to her."

  

Gandhi (right) with his eldest brother Laxmidas in 1886

At age 9, Gandhi entered the local school in Rajkot, near his home. There, he studied the rudiments of arithmetic, history, the Gujarati language and geography. At the age of 11, he joined the High School in Rajkot, Alfred High School. He was an average student, won some prizes, but was a shy and tongue tied student, with no interest in games; his only companions were books and school lessons.

 

In May 1883, the 13-year-old Mohandas was married to 14-year-old Kasturbai Gokuldas Kapadia (her first name was usually shortened to "Kasturba", and affectionately to "Ba") in an arranged marriage, according to the custom of the region at that time. In the process, he lost a year at school but was later allowed to make up by accelerating his studies. His wedding was a joint event, where his brother and cousin were also married. Recalling the day of their marriage, he once said, "As we didn't know much about marriage, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives." As was the prevailing tradition, the adolescent bride was to spend much time at her parents' house, and away from her husband.

 

Writing many years later, Mohandas described with regret the lustful feelings he felt for his young bride: "even at school I used to think of her, and the thought of nightfall and our subsequent meeting was ever haunting me." He later recalled feeling jealous and possessive of her, such as when she would visit a temple with her girlfriends, and being sexually lustful in his feelings for her.

 

In late 1885, Gandhi's father Karamchand died. Gandhi, then 16 years old, and his wife of age 17 had their first baby, who survived only a few days. The two deaths anguished Gandhi. The Gandhi couple had four more children, all sons: Harilal, born in 1888; Manilal, born in 1892; Ramdas, born in 1897; and Devdas, born in 1900.

 

In November 1887, the 18-year-old Gandhi graduated from high school in Ahmedabad. In January 1888, he enrolled at Samaldas College in Bhavnagar State, then the sole degree-granting institution of higher education in the region. However, he dropped out, and returned to his family in Porbandar.

 

Gandhi had dropped out of the cheapest college he could afford in Bombay. Mavji Dave Joshiji, a Brahmin priest and family friend, advised Gandhi and his family that he should consider law studies in London. In July 1888, his wife Kasturba gave birth to their first surviving son, Harilal. His mother was not comfortable about Gandhi leaving his wife and family, and going so far from home. Gandhi's uncle Tulsidas also tried to dissuade his nephew. Gandhi wanted to go. To persuade his wife and mother, Gandhi made a vow in front of his mother that he would abstain from meat, alcohol and women. Gandhi's brother Laxmidas, who was already a lawyer, cheered Gandhi's London studies plan and offered to support him. Putlibai gave Gandhi her permission and blessing.

 

On 10 August 1888, Gandhi, aged 18, left Porbandar for Mumbai, then known as Bombay. Upon arrival, he stayed with the local Modh Bania community whose elders warned him that England would tempt him to compromise his religion, and eat and drink in Western ways. Despite Gandhi informing them of his promise to his mother and her blessings, he was excommunicated from his caste. Gandhi ignored this, and on 4 September, he sailed from Bombay to London, with his brother seeing him off. Gandhi attended University College, London, where he took classes in English literature with Henry Morley in 1888–1889.

 

He also enrolled at the Inns of Court School of Law in Inner Temple with the intention of becoming a barrister.[38] His childhood shyness and self-withdrawal had continued through his teens. He retained these traits when he arrived in London, but joined a public speaking practice group and overcame his shyness sufficiently to practise law.

 

He demonstrated a keen interest in the welfare of London's impoverished dockland communities. In 1889, a bitter trade dispute broke out in London, with dockers striking for better pay and conditions, and seamen, shipbuilders, factory girls and other joining the strike in solidarity. The strikers were successful, in part due to the mediation of Cardinal Manning, leading Gandhi and an Indian friend to make a point of visiting the cardinal and thanking him for his work.

 

Gandhi's time in London was influenced by the vow he had made to his mother. He tried to adopt "English" customs, including taking dancing lessons. However, he did not appreciate the bland vegetarian food offered by his landlady and was frequently hungry until he found one of London's few vegetarian restaurants. Influenced by Henry Salt's writing, he joined the London Vegetarian Society, and was elected to its executive committee under the aegis of its president and benefactor Arnold Hills. An achievement while on the committee was the establishment of a Bayswater chapter. Some of the vegetarians he met were members of the Theosophical Society, which had been founded in 1875 to further universal brotherhood, and which was devoted to the study of Buddhist and Hindu literature. They encouraged Gandhi to join them in reading the Bhagavad Gita both in translation as well as in the original.

 

Gandhi had a friendly and productive relationship with Hills, but the two men took a different view on the continued LVS membership of fellow committee member Thomas Allinson. Their disagreement is the first known example of Gandhi challenging authority, despite his shyness and temperamental disinclination towards confrontation.

 

Allinson had been promoting newly available birth control methods, but Hills disapproved of these, believing they undermined public morality. He believed vegetarianism to be a moral movement and that Allinson should therefore no longer remain a member of the LVS. Gandhi shared Hills' views on the dangers of birth control, but defended Allinson's right to differ. It would have been hard for Gandhi to challenge Hills; Hills was 12 years his senior and unlike Gandhi, highly eloquent. He bankrolled the LVS and was a captain of industry with his Thames Ironworks company employing more than 6,000 people in the East End of London. He was also a highly accomplished sportsman who later founded the football club West Ham United. In his 1927 An Autobiography, Vol. I, Gandhi wrote:

 

The question deeply interested me...I had a high regard for Mr. Hills and his generosity. But I thought it was quite improper to exclude a man from a vegetarian society simply because he refused to regard puritan morals as one of the objects of the society

 

A motion to remove Allinson was raised, and was debated and voted on by the committee. Gandhi's shyness was an obstacle to his defence of Allinson at the committee meeting. He wrote his views down on paper but shyness prevented him from reading out his arguments, so Hills, the President, asked another committee member to read them out for him. Although some other members of the committee agreed with Gandhi, the vote was lost and Allinson excluded. There were no hard feelings, with Hills proposing the toast at the LVS farewell dinner in honour of Gandhi's return to India.

 

Gandhi, at age 22, was called to the bar in June 1891 and then left London for India, where he learned that his mother had died while he was in London and that his family had kept the news from him. His attempts at establishing a law practice in Bombay failed because he was psychologically unable to cross-examine witnesses. He returned to Rajkot to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants, but he was forced to stop when he ran afoul of British officer Sam Sunny.

 

In 1893, a Muslim merchant in Kathiawar named Dada Abdullah contacted Gandhi. Abdullah owned a large successful shipping business in South Africa. His distant cousin in Johannesburg needed a lawyer, and they preferred someone with Kathiawari heritage. Gandhi inquired about his pay for the work. They offered a total salary of £105 (~$4,143.31 2023 money) plus travel expenses. He accepted it, knowing that it would be at least a one-year commitment in the Colony of Natal, South Africa, also a part of the British Empire.

 

In April 1893, Gandhi, aged 23, set sail for South Africa to be the lawyer for Abdullah's cousin. He spent 21 years in South Africa, where he developed his political views, ethics and politics.

 

Immediately upon arriving in South Africa, Gandhi faced discrimination because of his skin colour and heritage. He was not allowed to sit with European passengers in the stagecoach and told to sit on the floor near the driver, then beaten when he refused; elsewhere he was kicked into a gutter for daring to walk near a house, in another instance thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg after refusing to leave the first-class. He sat in the train station, shivering all night and pondering if he should return to India or protest for his rights. He chose to protest and was allowed to board the train the next day. In another incident, the magistrate of a Durban court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refused to do. Indians were not allowed to walk on public footpaths in South Africa. Gandhi was kicked by a police officer out of the footpath onto the street without warning.

 

When Gandhi arrived in South Africa, according to Herman, he thought of himself as "a Briton first, and an Indian second". However, the prejudice against him and his fellow Indians from British people that Gandhi experienced and observed deeply bothered him. He found it humiliating, struggling to understand how some people can feel honour or superiority or pleasure in such inhumane practices. Gandhi began to question his people's standing in the British Empire.

 

The Abdullah case that had brought him to South Africa concluded in May 1894, and the Indian community organised a farewell party for Gandhi as he prepared to return to India. However, a new Natal government discriminatory proposal led to Gandhi extending his original period of stay in South Africa. He planned to assist Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the right to vote, a right then proposed to be an exclusive European right. He asked Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary, to reconsider his position on this bill. Though unable to halt the bill's passage, his campaign was successful in drawing attention to the grievances of Indians in South Africa. He helped found the Natal Indian Congress in 1894, and through this organisation, he moulded the Indian community of South Africa into a unified political force. In January 1897, when Gandhi landed in Durban, a mob of white settlers attacked him and he escaped only through the efforts of the wife of the police superintendent. However, he refused to press charges against any member of the mob.

 

During the Boer War, Gandhi volunteered in 1900 to form a group of stretcher-bearers as the Natal Indian Ambulance Corps. According to Arthur Herman, Gandhi wanted to disprove the British colonial stereotype that Hindus were not fit for "manly" activities involving danger and exertion, unlike the Muslim "martial races". Gandhi raised eleven hundred Indian volunteers, to support British combat troops against the Boers. They were trained and medically certified to serve on the front lines. They were auxiliaries at the Battle of Colenso to a White volunteer ambulance corps. At the battle of Spion Kop Gandhi and his bearers moved to the front line and had to carry wounded soldiers for miles to a field hospital because the terrain was too rough for the ambulances. Gandhi and thirty-seven other Indians received the Queen's South Africa Medal.

 

In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a new Act compelling registration of the colony's Indian and Chinese populations. At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolving methodology of Satyagraha (devotion to the truth), or nonviolent protest, for the first time. According to Anthony Parel, Gandhi was also influenced by the Tamil moral text Tirukkuṛaḷ after Leo Tolstoy mentioned it in their correspondence that began with "A Letter to a Hindu". Gandhi urged Indians to defy the new law and to suffer the punishments for doing so. Gandhi's ideas of protests, persuasion skills and public relations had emerged. He took these back to India in 1915.

 

Gandhi focused his attention on Indians and Africans while he was in South Africa. He initially was not interested in politics. This changed, however, after he was discriminated against and bullied, such as by being thrown out of a train coach because of his skin colour by a white train official. After several such incidents with Whites in South Africa, Gandhi's thinking and focus changed, and he felt he must resist this and fight for rights. He entered politics by forming the Natal Indian Congress. According to Ashwin Desai and Goolam Vahed, Gandhi's views on racism are contentious in some cases, but that changed afterward.[further explanation needed] Gandhi suffered persecution from the beginning in South Africa. Like with other coloured people, white officials denied him his rights, and the press and those in the streets bullied and called him a "parasite", "semi-barbarous", "canker", "squalid coolie", "yellow man", and other epithets. People would spit on him as an expression of racial hate.

 

While in South Africa, Gandhi focused on the racial persecution of Indians before he started to focus on racism against Africans. In some cases, state Desai and Vahed, his behaviour was one of being a willing part of racial stereotyping and African exploitation. During a speech in September 1896, Gandhi complained that the whites in the British colony of South Africa were "degrading the Indian to the level of a raw Kaffir". Scholars cite it as an example of evidence that Gandhi at that time thought of Indians and black South Africans differently. As another example given by Herman, Gandhi, at the age of 24, prepared a legal brief for the Natal Assembly in 1895, seeking voting rights for Indians. Gandhi cited race history and European Orientalists' opinions that "Anglo-Saxons and Indians are sprung from the same Aryan stock or rather the Indo-European peoples", and argued that Indians should not be grouped with the Africans.

 

Years later, Gandhi and his colleagues served and helped Africans as nurses and by opposing racism. The Nobel Peace Prize winner Nelson Mandela is among admirers of Gandhi's efforts to fight against racism in Africa. The general image of Gandhi, state Desai and Vahed, has been reinvented since his assassination as though he was always a saint, when in reality his life was more complex, contained inconvenient truths, and was one that changed over time.[68] Scholars have also pointed the evidence to a rich history of co-operation and efforts by Gandhi and Indian people with nonwhite South Africans against persecution of Africans and the Apartheid.

 

In 1906, when the Bambatha Rebellion broke out in the colony of Natal, the then 36-year-old Gandhi, despite sympathising with the Zulu rebels, encouraged Indian South Africans to form a volunteer stretcher-bearer unit. Writing in the Indian Opinion, Gandhi argued that military service would be beneficial to the Indian community and claimed it would give them "health and happiness". Gandhi eventually led a volunteer mixed unit of Indian and African stretcher-bearers to treat wounded combatants during the suppression of the rebellion.

 

The medical unit commanded by Gandhi operated for less than two months before being disbanded.[72] After the suppression of the rebellion, the colonial establishment showed no interest in extending to the Indian community the civil rights granted to white South Africans. This led Gandhi to becoming disillusioned with the Empire and aroused a spiritual awakening with him; historian Arthur L. Herman wrote that his African experience was a part of his great disillusionment with the West, transforming him into an "uncompromising non-cooperator".

 

By 1910, Gandhi's newspaper, Indian Opinion, was covering reports on discrimination against Africans by the colonial regime. Gandhi remarked that the Africans are "alone are the original inhabitants of the land. … The whites, on the other hand, have occupied the land forcibly and appropriated it to themselves."

 

In 1910, Gandhi established, with the help of his friend Hermann Kallenbach, an idealistic community they named Tolstoy Farm near Johannesburg. There he nurtured his policy of peaceful resistance.

 

In the years after black South Africans gained the right to vote in South Africa (1994), Gandhi was proclaimed a national hero with numerous monuments.

 

At the request of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, conveyed to him by C. F. Andrews, Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He brought an international reputation as a leading Indian nationalist, theorist and community organiser.

 

Gandhi joined the Indian National Congress and was introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian people primarily by Gokhale. Gokhale was a key leader of the Congress Party best known for his restraint and moderation, and his insistence on working inside the system. Gandhi took Gokhale's liberal approach based on British Whiggish traditions and transformed it to make it look Indian.

 

Gandhi took leadership of the Congress in 1920 and began escalating demands until on 26 January 1930 the Indian National Congress declared the independence of India. The British did not recognise the declaration but negotiations ensued, with the Congress taking a role in provincial government in the late 1930s. Gandhi and the Congress withdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy declared war on Germany in September 1939 without consultation. Tensions escalated until Gandhi demanded immediate independence in 1942 and the British responded by imprisoning him and tens of thousands of Congress leaders. Meanwhile, the Muslim League did co-operate with Britain and moved, against Gandhi's strong opposition, to demands for a totally separate Muslim state of Pakistan. In August 1947 the British partitioned the land with India and Pakistan each achieving independence on terms that Gandhi disapproved.

 

In April 1918, during the latter part of World War I, the Viceroy invited Gandhi to a War Conference in Delhi. Gandhi agreed to actively recruit Indians for the war effort. In contrast to the Zulu War of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914, when he recruited volunteers for the Ambulance Corps, this time Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants. In a June 1918 leaflet entitled "Appeal for Enlistment", Gandhi wrote "To bring about such a state of things we should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is, the ability to bear arms and to use them... If we want to learn the use of arms with the greatest possible despatch, it is our duty to enlist ourselves in the army." He did, however, stipulate in a letter to the Viceroy's private secretary that he "personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe."

 

Gandhi's war recruitment campaign brought into question his consistency on nonviolence. Gandhi's private secretary noted that "The question of the consistency between his creed of 'Ahimsa' (nonviolence) and his recruiting campaign was raised not only then but has been discussed ever since."

 

In July 1918, Gandhi admitted that he couldn't persuade even one individual to enlist for the world war. "So far I have not a single recruit to my credit apart," Gandhi wrote. He added: "They object because they fear to die."

 

Gandhi's first major achievement came in 1917 with the Champaran agitation in Bihar. The Champaran agitation pitted the local peasantry against largely Anglo-Indian plantation owners who were backed by the local administration. The peasants were forced to grow indigo (Indigofera sp.), a cash crop for Indigo dye whose demand had been declining over two decades, and were forced to sell their crops to the planters at a fixed price. Unhappy with this, the peasantry appealed to Gandhi at his ashram in Ahmedabad. Pursuing a strategy of nonviolent protest, Gandhi took the administration by surprise and won concessions from the authorities.

 

In 1918, Kheda was hit by floods and famine and the peasantry was demanding relief from taxes. Gandhi moved his headquarters to Nadiad, organising scores of supporters and fresh volunteers from the region, the most notable being Vallabhbhai Patel. Using non-co-operation as a technique, Gandhi initiated a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of revenue even under the threat of confiscation of land. A social boycott of mamlatdars and talatdars (revenue officials within the district) accompanied the agitation. Gandhi worked hard to win public support for the agitation across the country. For five months, the administration refused, but by the end of May 1918, the Government gave way on important provisions and relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended. In Kheda, Vallabhbhai Patel represented the farmers in negotiations with the British, who suspended revenue collection and released all the prisoners.

 

In 1919, following World War I, Gandhi (aged 49) sought political co-operation from Muslims in his fight against British imperialism by supporting the Ottoman Empire that had been defeated in the World War. Before this initiative of Gandhi, communal disputes and religious riots between Hindus and Muslims were common in British India, such as the riots of 1917–18. Gandhi had already supported the British crown with resources and by recruiting Indian soldiers to fight the war in Europe on the British side. This effort of Gandhi was in part motivated by the British promise to reciprocate the help with swaraj (self-government) to Indians after the end of World War I. The British government had offered, instead of self-government, minor reforms instead, disappointing Gandhi. Gandhi announced his satyagraha (civil disobedience) intentions. The British colonial officials made their counter move by passing the Rowlatt Act, to block Gandhi's movement. The Act allowed the British government to treat civil disobedience participants as criminals and gave it the legal basis to arrest anyone for "preventive indefinite detention, incarceration without judicial review or any need for a trial".

 

Gandhi felt that Hindu-Muslim co-operation was necessary for political progress against the British. He leveraged the Khilafat movement, wherein Sunni Muslims in India, their leaders such as the sultans of princely states in India and Ali brothers championed the Turkish Caliph as a solidarity symbol of Sunni Islamic community (ummah). They saw the Caliph as their means to support Islam and the Islamic law after the defeat of Ottoman Empire in World War I. Gandhi's support to the Khilafat movement led to mixed results. It initially led to a strong Muslim support for Gandhi. However, the Hindu leaders including Rabindranath Tagore questioned Gandhi's leadership because they were largely against recognising or supporting the Sunni Islamic Caliph in Turkey.

 

The increasing Muslim support for Gandhi, after he championed the Caliph's cause, temporarily stopped the Hindu-Muslim communal violence. It offered evidence of inter-communal harmony in joint Rowlatt satyagraha demonstration rallies, raising Gandhi's stature as the political leader to the British. His support for the Khilafat movement also helped him sideline Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who had announced his opposition to the satyagraha non-co-operation movement approach of Gandhi. Jinnah began creating his independent support, and later went on to lead the demand for West and East Pakistan. Though they agreed in general terms on Indian independence, they disagreed on the means of achieving this. Jinnah was mainly interested in dealing with the British via constitutional negotiation, rather than attempting to agitate the masses.

 

In 1922 the Khilafat movement gradually collapsed following the end of the non-cooperation movement with the arrest of Gandhi. A number of Muslim leaders and delegates abandoned Gandhi and Congress. Hindu-Muslim communal conflicts reignited. Deadly religious riots re-appeared in numerous cities, with 91 in United Provinces of Agra and Oudh alone.

 

With his book Hind Swaraj (1909) Gandhi, aged 40, declared that British rule was established in India with the co-operation of Indians and had survived only because of this co-operation. If Indians refused to co-operate, British rule would collapse and swaraj (Indian independence) would come.

 

In February 1919, Gandhi cautioned the Viceroy of India with a cable communication that if the British were to pass the Rowlatt Act, he would appeal to Indians to start civil disobedience. The British government ignored him and passed the law, stating it would not yield to threats. The satyagraha civil disobedience followed, with people assembling to protest the Rowlatt Act. On 30 March 1919, British law officers opened fire on an assembly of unarmed people, peacefully gathered, participating in satyagraha in Delhi.

 

People rioted in retaliation. On 6 April 1919, a Hindu festival day, he asked a crowd to remember not to injure or kill British people, but to express their frustration with peace, to boycott British goods and burn any British clothing they owned. He emphasised the use of non-violence to the British and towards each other, even if the other side used violence. Communities across India announced plans to gather in greater numbers to protest. Government warned him to not enter Delhi. Gandhi defied the order. On 9 April, Gandhi was arrested.

 

On 13 April 1919, people including women with children gathered in an Amritsar park, and British Indian Army officer Reginald Dyer surrounded them and ordered troops under his command to fire on them. The resulting Jallianwala Bagh massacre (or Amritsar massacre) of hundreds of Sikh and Hindu civilians enraged the subcontinent, but was supported by some Britons and parts of the British media as a necessary response. Gandhi in Ahmedabad, on the day after the massacre in Amritsar, did not criticise the British and instead criticised his fellow countrymen for not exclusively using 'love' to deal with the 'hate' of the British government. Gandhi demanded that the Indian people stop all violence, stop all property destruction, and went on fast-to-death to pressure Indians to stop their rioting.

 

The massacre and Gandhi's non-violent response to it moved many, but also made some Sikhs and Hindus upset that Dyer was getting away with murder. Investigation committees were formed by the British, which Gandhi asked Indians to boycott.[109] The unfolding events, the massacre and the British response, led Gandhi to the belief that Indians will never get a fair equal treatment under British rulers, and he shifted his attention to swaraj and political independence for India. In 1921, Gandhi was the leader of the Indian National Congress. He reorganised the Congress. With Congress now behind him, and Muslim support triggered by his backing the Khilafat movement to restore the Caliph in Turkey, Gandhi had the political support and the attention of the British Raj.

 

Gandhi expanded his nonviolent non-co-operation platform to include the swadeshi policy – the boycott of foreign-made goods, especially British goods. Linked to this was his advocacy that khadi (homespun cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or poor, to spend time each day spinning khadi in support of the independence movement. In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British institutions and law courts, to resign from government employment, and to forsake British titles and honours. Gandhi thus began his journey aimed at crippling the British India government economically, politically and administratively.

 

The appeal of "Non-cooperation" grew, its social popularity drew participation from all strata of Indian society. Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years' imprisonment. He began his sentence on 18 March 1922. With Gandhi isolated in prison, the Indian National Congress split into two factions, one led by Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru favouring party participation in the legislatures, and the other led by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, opposing this move. Furthermore, co-operation among Hindus and Muslims ended as Khilafat movement collapsed with the rise of Atatürk in Turkey. Muslim leaders left the Congress and began forming Muslim organisations. The political base behind Gandhi had broken into factions. Gandhi was released in February 1924 for an appendicitis operation, having served only two years.

 

After his early release from prison for political crimes in 1924, over the second half of the 1920s Gandhi continued to pursue swaraj. He pushed through a resolution at the Calcutta Congress in December 1928 calling on the British government to grant India dominion status or face a new campaign of non-cooperation with complete independence for the country as its goal. After his support for World War I with Indian combat troops, and the failure of Khilafat movement in preserving the rule of Caliph in Turkey, followed by a collapse in Muslim support for his leadership, some such as Subhas Chandra Bose and Bhagat Singh questioned his values and non-violent approach. While many Hindu leaders championed a demand for immediate independence, Gandhi revised his own call to a one-year wait, instead of two.

 

The British did not respond favourably to Gandhi's proposal. British political leaders such as Lord Birkenhead and Winston Churchill announced opposition to "the appeasers of Gandhi" in their discussions with European diplomats who sympathised with Indian demands. On 31 December 1929, an Indian flag was unfurled in Lahore. Gandhi led Congress in a celebration on 26 January 1930 of India's Independence Day in Lahore. This day was commemorated by almost every other Indian organisation. Gandhi then launched a new Satyagraha against the British salt tax in March 1930. Gandhi sent an ultimatum in the form of a letter personally addressed to Lord Irwin, the viceroy of India, on 2 March. Gandhi condemned British rule in the letter, describing it as "a curse" that "has impoverished the dumb millions by a system of progressive exploitation and by a ruinously expensive military and civil administration...It has reduced us politically to serfdom." Gandhi also mentioned in the letter that the viceroy received a salary "over five thousand times India's average income." In the letter, Gandhi also stressed his continued adherence to non-violent forms of protest.

 

This was highlighted by the Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, where, together with 78 volunteers, he marched 388 kilometres (241 mi) from Ahmedabad to Dandi, Gujarat to make salt himself, with the declared intention of breaking the salt laws. The march took 25 days to cover 240 miles with Gandhi speaking to often huge crowds along the way. Thousands of Indians joined him in Dandi. On 5 May he was interned under a regulation dating from 1827 in anticipation of a protest that he had planned. The protest at Dharasana salt works on 21 May went ahead without him see. A horrified American journalist, Webb Miller, described the British response thus:

 

In complete silence the Gandhi men drew up and halted a hundred yards from the stockade. A picked column advanced from the crowd, waded the ditches and approached the barbed wire stockade... at a word of command, scores of native policemen rushed upon the advancing marchers and rained blows on their heads with their steel-shot lathis [long bamboo sticks]. Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off blows. They went down like ninepins. From where I stood I heard the sickening whack of the clubs on unprotected skulls... Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing with fractured skulls or broken shoulders.

 

This went on for hours until some 300 or more protesters had been beaten, many seriously injured and two killed. At no time did they offer any resistance.

 

This campaign was one of his most successful at upsetting British hold on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people. Congress estimates, however, put the figure at 90,000. Among them was one of Gandhi's lieutenants, Jawaharlal Nehru.

 

According to Sarma, Gandhi recruited women to participate in the salt tax campaigns and the boycott of foreign products, which gave many women a new self-confidence and dignity in the mainstream of Indian public life. However, other scholars such as Marilyn French state that Gandhi barred women from joining his civil disobedience movement because he feared he would be accused of using women as a political shield. When women insisted on joining the movement and participating in public demonstrations, Gandhi asked the volunteers to get permissions of their guardians and only those women who can arrange child-care should join him. Regardless of Gandhi's apprehensions and views, Indian women joined the Salt March by the thousands to defy the British salt taxes and monopoly on salt mining. After Gandhi's arrest, the women marched and picketed shops on their own, accepting violence and verbal abuse from British authorities for the cause in the manner Gandhi inspired.

 

Indian Congress in the 1920s appealed to Andhra Pradesh peasants by creating Telugu language plays that combined Indian mythology and legends, linked them to Gandhi's ideas, and portrayed Gandhi as a messiah, a reincarnation of ancient and medieval Indian nationalist leaders and saints. The plays built support among peasants steeped in traditional Hindu culture, according to Murali, and this effort made Gandhi a folk hero in Telugu speaking villages, a sacred messiah-like figure.

 

According to Dennis Dalton, it was Gandhi's ideas that were responsible for his wide following. Gandhi criticised Western civilisation as one driven by "brute force and immorality", contrasting it with his categorisation of Indian civilisation as one driven by "soul force and morality". Gandhi captured the imagination of the people of his heritage with his ideas about winning "hate with love". These ideas are evidenced in his pamphlets from the 1890s, in South Africa, where too he was popular among the Indian indentured workers. After he returned to India, people flocked to him because he reflected their values.

 

Gandhi also campaigned hard going from one rural corner of the Indian subcontinent to another. He used terminology and phrases such as Rama-rajya from Ramayana, Prahlada as a paradigmatic icon, and such cultural symbols as another facet of swaraj and satyagraha. During his lifetime, these ideas sounded strange outside India, but they readily and deeply resonated with the culture and historic values of his people.

 

The government, represented by Lord Irwin, decided to negotiate with Gandhi. The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931. The British Government agreed to free all political prisoners, in return for the suspension of the civil disobedience movement. According to the pact, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round Table Conference in London for discussions and as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference was a disappointment to Gandhi and the nationalists. Gandhi expected to discuss India's independence, while the British side focused on the Indian princes and Indian minorities rather than on a transfer of power. Lord Irwin's successor, Lord Willingdon, took a hard line against India as an independent nation, began a new campaign of controlling and subduing the nationalist movement. Gandhi was again arrested, and the government tried and failed to negate his influence by completely isolating him from his followers.

 

In Britain, Winston Churchill, a prominent Conservative politician who was then out of office but later became its prime minister, became a vigorous and articulate critic of Gandhi and opponent of his long-term plans. Churchill often ridiculed Gandhi, saying in a widely reported 1931 speech:

 

It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr Gandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace....to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor.

 

Churchill's bitterness against Gandhi grew in the 1930s. He called Gandhi as the one who was "seditious in aim" whose evil genius and multiform menace was attacking the British empire. Churchill called him a dictator, a "Hindu Mussolini", fomenting a race war, trying to replace the Raj with Brahmin cronies, playing on the ignorance of Indian masses, all for selfish gain. Churchill attempted to isolate Gandhi, and his criticism of Gandhi was widely covered by European and American press. It gained Churchill sympathetic support, but it also increased support for Gandhi among Europeans. The developments heightened Churchill's anxiety that the "British themselves would give up out of pacifism and misplaced conscience".

 

During the discussions between Gandhi and the British government over 1931–32 at the Round Table Conferences, Gandhi, now aged about 62, sought constitutional reforms as a preparation to the end of colonial British rule, and begin the self-rule by Indians. The British side sought reforms that would keep the Indian subcontinent as a colony. The British negotiators proposed constitutional reforms on a British Dominion model that established separate electorates based on religious and social divisions. The British questioned the Congress party and Gandhi's authority to speak for all of India. They invited Indian religious leaders, such as Muslims and Sikhs, to press their demands along religious lines, as well as B. R. Ambedkar as the representative leader of the untouchables. Gandhi vehemently opposed a constitution that enshrined rights or representations based on communal divisions, because he feared that it would not bring people together but divide them, perpetuate their status, and divert the attention from India's struggle to end the colonial rule.

 

The Second Round Table conference was the only time he left India between 1914 and his death in 1948. He declined the government's offer of accommodation in an expensive West End hotel, preferring to stay in the East End, to live among working-class people, as he did in India. He based himself in a small cell-bedroom at Kingsley Hall for the three-month duration of his stay and was enthusiastically received by East Enders. During this time he renewed his links with the British vegetarian movement.

 

After Gandhi returned from the Second Round Table conference, he started a new satyagraha. He was arrested and imprisoned at the Yerwada Jail, Pune. While he was in prison, the British government enacted a new law that granted untouchables a separate electorate. It came to be known as the Communal Award. In protest, Gandhi started a fast-unto-death, while he was held in prison. The resulting public outcry forced the government, in consultations with Ambedkar, to replace the Communal Award with a compromise Poona Pact.

 

In 1934 Gandhi resigned from Congress party membership. He did not disagree with the party's position but felt that if he resigned, his popularity with Indians would cease to stifle the party's membership, which actually varied, including communists, socialists, trade unionists, students, religious conservatives, and those with pro-business convictions, and that these various voices would get a chance to make themselves heard. Gandhi also wanted to avoid being a target for Raj propaganda by leading a party that had temporarily accepted political accommodation with the Raj.

 

Gandhi returned to active politics again in 1936, with the Nehru presidency and the Lucknow session of the Congress. Although Gandhi wanted a total focus on the task of winning independence and not speculation about India's future, he did not restrain the Congress from adopting socialism as its goal. Gandhi had a clash with Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been elected president in 1938, and who had previously expressed a lack of faith in nonviolence as a means of protest. Despite Gandhi's opposition, Bose won a second term as Congress President, against Gandhi's nominee, Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya. Gandhi declared that Sitaramayya's defeat was his defeat. Bose later left the Congress when the All-India leaders resigned en masse in protest of his abandonment of the principles introduced by Gandhi.

 

Gandhi opposed providing any help to the British war effort and he campaigned against any Indian participation in World War II. The British government responded with the arrests of Gandhi and many other Congress leaders and killed over 1,000 Indians who participated in this movement. A number of violent attacks were also carried out by the nationalists against the British government. While Gandhi's campaign did not enjoy the support of a number of Indian leaders, and over 2.5 million Indians volunteered and joined the British military to fight on various fronts of the Allied Forces, the movement played a role in weakening the control over the South Asian region by the British regime and it ultimately paved the way for Indian independence.

 

Gandhi's opposition to the Indian participation in World War II was motivated by his belief that India could not be party to a war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was denied to India itself. He also condemned Nazism and Fascism, a view which won endorsement of other Indian leaders. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, calling for the British to Quit India in a 1942 speech in Mumbai. This was Gandhi's and the Congress Party's most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from India. The British government responded quickly to the Quit India speech, and within hours after Gandhi's speech arrested Gandhi and all the members of the Congress Working Committee. His countrymen retaliated the arrests by damaging or burning down hundreds of government owned railway stations, police stations, and cutting down telegraph wires.

 

In 1942, Gandhi now nearing age 73, urged his people to completely stop co-operating with the imperial government. In this effort, he urged that they neither kill nor injure British people, but be willing to suffer and die if violence is initiated by the British officials. He clarified that the movement would not be stopped because of any individual acts of violence, saying that the "ordered anarchy" of "the present system of administration" was "worse than real anarchy." He urged Indians to karo ya maro ("do or die") in the cause of their rights and freedoms.

 

Gandhi's arrest lasted two years, as he was held in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. During this period, his long time secretary Mahadev Desai died of a heart attack, his wife Kasturba died after 18 months' imprisonment on 22 February 1944; and Gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack. While in jail, he agreed to an interview with Stuart Gelder, a British journalist. Gelder then composed and released an interview summary, cabled it to the mainstream press, that announced sudden concessions Gandhi was willing to make, comments that shocked his countrymen, the Congress workers and even Gandhi. The latter two claimed that it distorted what Gandhi actually said on a range of topics and falsely repudiated the Quit India movement.

 

Gandhi was released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing health and necessary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison and enrage the nation. He came out of detention to an altered political scene – the Muslim League for example, which a few years earlier had appeared marginal, "now occupied the centre of the political stage" and the topic of Jinnah's campaign for Pakistan was a major talking point. Gandhi and Jinnah had extensive correspondence and the two men met several times over a period of two weeks in September 1944 at Jinnah's house in Bombay, where Gandhi insisted on a united religiously plural and independent India which included Muslims and non-Muslims of the Indian subcontinent coexisting. Jinnah rejected this proposal and insisted instead for partitioning the subcontinent on religious lines to create a separate Muslim homeland (later Pakistan).These discussions continued through 1947.

 

While the leaders of Congress languished in jail, the other parties supported the war and gained organisational strength. Underground publications flailed at the ruthless suppression of Congress, but it had little control over events. At the end of the war, the British gave clear indications that power would be transferred to Indian hands. At this point Gandhi called off the struggle, and around 100,000 political prisoners were released, including the Congress's leadership.

 

Gandhi opposed the partition of the Indian subcontinent along religious lines. The Indian National Congress and Gandhi called for the British to Quit India. However, the All-India Muslim League demanded "Divide and Quit India". Gandhi suggested an agreement which required the Congress and the Muslim League to co-operate and attain independence under a provisional government, thereafter, the question of partition could be resolved by a plebiscite in the districts with a Muslim majority.

 

Jinnah rejected Gandhi's proposal and called for Direct Action Day, on 16 August 1946, to press Muslims to publicly gather in cities and support his proposal for the partition of the Indian subcontinent into a Muslim state and non-Muslim state. Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, the Muslim League Chief Minister of Bengal – now Bangladesh and West Bengal, gave Calcutta's police special holiday to celebrate the Direct Action Day. The Direct Action Day triggered a mass murder of Calcutta Hindus and the torching of their property, and holidaying police were missing to contain or stop the conflict. The British government did not order its army to move in to contain the violence. The violence on Direct Action Day led to retaliatory violence against Muslims across India. Thousands of Hindus and Muslims were murdered, and tens of thousands were injured in the cycle of violence in the days that followed. Gandhi visited the most riot-prone areas to appeal a stop to the massacres.

 

Archibald Wavell, the Viceroy and Governor-General of British India for three years through February 1947, had worked with Gandhi and Jinnah to find a common ground, before and after accepting Indian independence in principle. Wavell condemned Gandhi's character and motives as well as his ideas. Wavell accused Gandhi of harbouring the single minded idea to "overthrow British rule and influence and to establish a Hindu raj", and called Gandhi a "malignant, malevolent, exceedingly shrewd" politician. Wavell feared a civil war on the Indian subcontinent, and doubted Gandhi would be able to stop it.

 

The British reluctantly agreed to grant independence to the people of the Indian subcontinent, but accepted Jinnah's proposal of partitioning the land into Pakistan and India. Gandhi was involved in the final negotiations, but Stanley Wolpert states the "plan to carve up British India was never approved of or accepted by Gandhi".

 

The partition was controversial and violently disputed. More than half a million were killed in religious riots as 10 million to 12 million non-Muslims (Hindus and Sikhs mostly) migrated from Pakistan into India, and Muslims migrated from India into Pakistan, across the newly created borders of India, West Pakistan and East Pakistan.

 

Gandhi spent the day of independence not celebrating the end of the British rule but appealing for peace among his countrymen by fasting and spinning in Calcutta on 15 August 1947. The partition had gripped the Indian subcontinent with religious violence and the streets were filled with corpses. Gandhi's fasting and protests are credited for stopping the religious riots and communal violence.

 

At 5:17 pm on 30 January 1948, Gandhi was with his grandnieces in the garden of Birla House (now Gandhi Smriti), on his way to address a prayer meeting, when Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, fired three bullets into his chest from a pistol at close range. According to some accounts, Gandhi died instantly. In other accounts, such as one prepared by an eyewitness journalist, Gandhi was carried into the Birla House, into a bedroom. There he died about 30 minutes later as one of Gandhi's family members read verses from Hindu scriptures.

 

Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru addressed his countrymen over the All-India Radio saying:

 

Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me, but for millions and millions in this country.

 

Godse, a Hindu nationalist, with links to the Hindu Mahasabha and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, made no attempt to escape; several other conspirators were soon arrested as well. The accused were Nathuram Vinayak Godse, Narayan Apte, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Shankar Kistayya, Dattatraya Parchure, Vishnu Karkare, Madanlal Pahwa, and Gopal Godse.

 

The trial began on 27 May 1948 and ran for eight months before Justice Atma Charan passed his final order on 10 February 1949. The prosecution called 149 witnesses, the defense none. The court found all of the defendants except one guilty as charged. Eight men were convicted for the murder conspiracy, and others were convicted for violation of the Explosive Substances Act. Savarkar was acquitted and set free. Nathuram Godse and Narayan Apte were sentenced to death by hanging and the remaining six (including Godse's brother, Gopal) were sentenced to life imprisonment.

 

Gandhi's death was mourned nationwide. Over a million people joined the five-mile-long funeral procession that took over five hours to reach Raj Ghat from Birla house, where he was assassinated, and another million watched the procession pass by. Gandhi's body was transported on a weapons carrier, whose chassis was dismantled overnight to allow a high-floor to be installed so that people could catch a glimpse of his body. The engine of the vehicle was not used; instead four drag-ropes held by 50 people each pulled the vehicle. All Indian-owned establishments in London remained closed in mourning as thousands of people from all faiths and denominations and Indians from all over Britain converged at India House in London.

 

Gandhi was cremated in accordance with Hindu tradition. His ashes were poured into urns which were sent across India for memorial services. Most of the ashes were immersed at the Sangam at Allahabad on 12 February 1948, but some were secretly taken away. In 1997, Tushar Gandhi immersed the contents of one urn, found in a bank vault and reclaimed through the courts, at the Sangam at Allahabad. Some of Gandhi's ashes were scattered at the source of the Nile River near Jinja, Uganda, and a memorial plaque marks the event. On 30 January 2008, the contents of another urn were immersed at Girgaum Chowpatty. Another urn is at the palace of the Aga Khan in Pune (where Gandhi was held as a political prisoner from 1942 to 1944) and another in the Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in Los Angeles.

 

The Birla House site where Gandhi was assassinated is now a memorial called Gandhi Smriti. The place near Yamuna river where he was cremated is the Rāj Ghāt memorial in New Delhi. A black marble platform, it bears the epigraph "Hē Rāma" (Devanagari: हे ! राम or, Hey Raam). These are said to be Gandhi's last words after he was shot.

 

New York, often called New York City or simply NYC, is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each of which is coextensive with a respective county. It is a global city and a cultural, financial, high-tech, entertainment, and media center with a significant influence on commerce, health care, scientific output, life sciences, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, dining, art, fashion, and sports. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy, and is sometimes described as the world's most important city and the capital of the world.

 

With an estimated population in 2022 of 8,335,897 distributed over 300.46 square miles (778.2 km2), the city is the most densely populated major city in the United States. New York has more than double the population of Los Angeles, the nation's second-most populous city. New York is the geographical and demographic center of both the Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. by both population and urban area. With more than 20.1 million people in its metropolitan statistical area and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, New York City is one of the world's most populous megacities. The city and its metropolitan area are the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. In 2021, the city was home to nearly 3.1 million residents born outside the U.S., the largest foreign-born population of any city in the world.

 

New York City traces its origins to Fort Amsterdam and a trading post founded on the southern tip of Manhattan Island by Dutch colonists in approximately 1624. The settlement was named New Amsterdam (Dutch: Nieuw Amsterdam) in 1626 and was chartered as a city in 1653. The city came under English control in 1664 and was renamed New York after King Charles II granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York. The city was temporarily regained by the Dutch in July 1673 and was renamed New Orange; however, the city has been named New York since November 1674. New York City was the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. The modern city was formed by the 1898 consolidation of its five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx, and Staten Island, and has been the largest U.S. city ever since.

 

Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the world's premier financial and fintech center and the most economically powerful city in the world. As of 2022, the New York metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan economy in the world with a gross metropolitan product of over US$2.16 trillion. If the New York metropolitan area were its own country, it would have the tenth-largest economy in the world. The city is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by market capitalization of their listed companies: the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. New York City is an established safe haven for global investors. As of 2023, New York City is the most expensive city in the world for expatriates to live. New York City is home to the highest number of billionaires, individuals of ultra-high net worth (greater than US$30 million), and millionaires of any city in the world

 

The written history of New York City began with the first European explorer, the Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524. European settlement began with the Dutch in 1608 and New Amsterdam was founded in 1624.

 

The "Sons of Liberty" campaigned against British authority in New York City, and the Stamp Act Congress of representatives from throughout the Thirteen Colonies met in the city in 1765 to organize resistance to Crown policies. The city's strategic location and status as a major seaport made it the prime target for British seizure in 1776. General George Washington lost a series of battles from which he narrowly escaped (with the notable exception of the Battle of Harlem Heights, his first victory of the war), and the British Army occupied New York and made it their base on the continent until late 1783, attracting Loyalist refugees.

 

The city served as the national capital under the Articles of Confederation from 1785 to 1789, and briefly served as the new nation's capital in 1789–90 under the United States Constitution. Under the new government, the city hosted the inauguration of George Washington as the first President of the United States, the drafting of the United States Bill of Rights, and the first Supreme Court of the United States. The opening of the Erie Canal gave excellent steamboat connections with upstate New York and the Great Lakes, along with coastal traffic to lower New England, making the city the preeminent port on the Atlantic Ocean. The arrival of rail connections to the north and west in the 1840s and 1850s strengthened its central role.

 

Beginning in the mid-19th century, waves of new immigrants arrived from Europe dramatically changing the composition of the city and serving as workers in the expanding industries. Modern New York traces its development to the consolidation of the five boroughs in 1898 and an economic and building boom following the Great Depression and World War II. Throughout its history, New York has served as a main port of entry for many immigrants, and its cultural and economic influence has made it one of the most important urban areas in the United States and the world. The economy in the 1700s was based on farming, local production, fur trading, and Atlantic jobs like shipbuilding. In the 1700s, New York was sometimes referred to as a breadbasket colony, because one of its major crops was wheat. New York colony also exported other goods included iron ore as a raw material and as manufactured goods such as tools, plows, nails and kitchen items such as kettles, pans and pots.

 

The a

The mosaic represents two masks leaning on a socle projecting out from two walls that meet at an angle, seen in perspective. Two flutes lean on one wall. Their shadows project onto the wall. The female mask depicts a woman with large eyes and wide-open mouth. A ribbon, knotted into a bow at the center of her brow, appears in her curly hair with long ringlets. The physiognomic features of the man are exaggerated and ridiculed. The mouth is enormous, the nose is large and squashed. The eyes bulge out, and the cheeks are wrinkled. On his head is a crown of ivy and berries, decoration associated with the cult of Dionysus, which was linked closely to the birth of the Greek theater.

 

en.museicapitolini.org/collezioni/percorsi_per_sale/palaz...

 

Adhaidvipa / Représentation de la cosmologie jaïna

Selon le jaînisme, cette peinture, qui est à la fois objet d’art, de culte et de pédagogie, représente le monde « médian », dans lequel les hommes vivent et peuvent atteindre la délivrance....Au centre, en jaune, le mont Meru est le cœur de l’île du Pommier rose. (lire la description complète à l'adresse suivante)

bnf.hal.science/BNF_MSS/hal-01763092v1

 

fin 19ème-début 20ème,

Gujarat, Inde

Peinture à la détrempe sur toile

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris

 

Peinture présentée dans l'exposition, "Une autre histoire du monde", Musée des Civilisations de l'Europe et de la Méditerranée, Marseille

 

Le Mucem propose de parcourir l’Histoire du monde du XIIIe au XXIe siècle en abandonnant la perspective occidentale. À travers sculptures, peintures, textiles, cartes, objets archéologiques, manuscrits et arts décoratifs, cette exposition révèle l’infinie diversité des expériences africaines, asiatiques, américaines et océaniennes. Elle donne à voir d’autres mondialisations, dont l’Europe n’est pas le seul moteur...

Extrait du site de l'exposition

www.mucem.org/programme/exposition-et-temps-forts/une-aut...

this japanese craft book brings a new and adorable idea to the world of needle felted goodness.

 

this book represents a trip around the world, including small needle-felted items representing 14 countries.

 

it includes small animals, food, motifs, decorations, holiday and other miniature scenes, and mini flags.

 

projects include:

a girl, wooden shoes, and windmill scene from holland: playful pandas from china; mama and baby koala and mama and baby kangaroo from australia; sheep from new zealand; matryoshka dolls from russia; mini donuts, hamburgers and coffee cups charms from the u.s.; a monkey with maracas and cactus from mexico; an elephant from india; tropical fish mobile from palau; a rabbit gondolier from italy; santa claus and bag of toys from finland, and a little house scene; bears and trees from canada; teddy bears and a castle from germany; bagette and eiffel tower charms from france; scottie dogs and bobbies and bus charms from the u.k.

 

all written directions are in japanese, but the excellent and detailed step by step photo instructions, and diagrams for each project that shows the shape and size of each part mean that if you are familiar with the basics of needle felting (which you probably could pick up in a couple hours with online directions) you should be able to do most of these projects.

 

a few techniques that are included are felting around a foam base (for the small vignettes with buildings); adding eyes (plastic, not felted) to teddy bears, and sewing a cord to make the small felted items into charms. the animals and characters are made with solid forms, and don't require any wire armature.

D'Austerlitz à La Chapelle, l'errance des migrants à Paris. Juin-Novembre 2015.

 

Sur le camp dit La Chapelle - Pajol, compte-rendu oral de la réunion des partis politiques de ce jour où des représentants de la Chapelle étaient présents.

De fin juin à fin juillet, jusqu'à plus de trois cents personnes sont installées sur l'esplanade de la halle Pajol dans la plus grande précarité.

Paris, 22 juin 2015.

  

Si les opérations dites de « mise à l'abri » se succèdent depuis juin 2015 en région parisienne, force est de constater qu'aucun dispositif d'accueil digne de ce nom n'est mis en place pour faire face à l'afflux de nouveaux arrivants à Paris et plus généralement en France.

  

Suite au démantèlement du campement de La Chapelle par les autorités le 2 juin 2015, les migrants non pris en compte pour les hébergements, harcelés par la police, errent plusieurs jours dans le XVIIIe arrondissement jusqu'à l'esplanade de la halle Pajol, où, le lundi 8 juin, une très violente rafle est menée par les forces de l'ordre.

 

Réfugiés pendant quelques jours au Bois Dormoy, un jardin collectif, les migrants et leurs soutiens le quittent le 11 juin pour partir occuper pour un soir la caserne désaffectée de sapeurs-pompiers du Xe. Ils obtiennent alors 110 places d'hébergement d'urgence.

 

Le soir même, un campement réapparait au parc Éole, avec ceux une nouvelle fois non pris en charge. Soit une soixantaine de personnes et plus encore les jours suivants, jusqu'à l'évacuation du 19 juin, avec la proposition de 220 places supplémentaires de la mairie, venue sur le campement accompagnée de l'OFPRA et de l'association Emmaüs. Les CRS suivront après le départ des migrants... Des dizaines de personnes sont laissées à la rue. Les migrants absents du camp ce matin-là, par exemple occupés à des démarches auprès d'une association ou de la préfecture, n'ont pas été pris en compte. Certains ont pris peur en arrivant sur les lieux d'hébergement et reviennent dans le quartier. D'autres encore ont refusé la proposition, doutant des promesses qui leur ont été faites sans garantie.

 

Le 20 juin, faute d'alternative, le campement se reforme sur l'esplanade de la halle Pajol avec quelques dizaines de personnes. Il atteint à nouveau plus de 200 personnes lorsque la mairie, toujours accompagnée de l'OFPRA et d'Emmaüs, mais sans la police, revient et procède à l'évacuation le 9 juillet de près de 200 personnes vers des centres d'hébergement d'urgence ou à l'hôtel. Des migrants ne sont pas pris en charge et le camp se reconstitue le soir même. Plus de 300 personnes y vivent dans la plus grande précarité lorsque la mairie, l'OFPRA, Emmaüs et le cabinet du ministère de l'Intérieur procèdent le 29 juillet à une nouvelle évacuation qui sera, elle, définitive.

 

Le lendemain, les migrants restés sur la carreau et leur soutiens partent alors occuper pacifiquement les locaux de l'association Ni putes ni soumises. Après une nuit sur place, ils s'installent le 31 juillet dans l'ancien lycée Jean Quarré, désaffecté depuis plusieurs années. Deux mois plus tard, ce sont plus de 600 personnes qui ont trouvé refuge au lycée occupé, dit désormais « Maison des Réfugiés ».

  

Pendant ce temps-là, les campements dits d'Austerlitz attendent tout l'été, dans l'incertitude, leur évacuation régulièrement annoncée par la rumeur depuis le démantèlement de La Chapelle le 2 juin... Apparus à l'hiver 2012-13 sur les quais le long de la Seine, aux alentours et sous la Cité de la mode et du design, ces camps passent de près de 200 à plus de 400 personnes entre juin et septembre 2015.

Le démantèlement des camps du quai d'Austerlitz a finalement lieu le 17 septembre.

 

Ce même 17 septembre, de façon simultanée est évacué le camp apparu devant la mairie du XVIIIe le 4 septembre avec les personnes laissées sur le carreau après le démantèlement du camp du square Jessaint de La Chapelle. En quinze jours, le camp de la mairie du XVIIIe était passé de 30 à plus de 200 personnes.

 

Au cours de cette double opération, le lycée Jean Quarré, déjà surpeuplé, est bouclé par les forces de l'ordre pour empêcher ses occupants de rallier les points d'évacuation.

 

Avec la fermeture des camps d'Austerlitz et de la mairie du XVIIIe, le lycée offre désormais la seule alternative à la rue.

Le 25 septembre le tribunal administratif, saisi par la mairie de Paris, propriétaire de l'ancien lycée Jean Quarré, en ordonne l'expulsion. Le nombre d'occupants continue dangereusement d'augmenter de semaine en semaine jusqu'à l'évacuation et la fermeture du lieu le 23 octobre 2015. Près de 1300 personnes sont alors évacuées vers des hébergements d'urgence.

 

Une nouvelle fois des laissés pour compte restent à la rue après l'opération. Un rassemblement le jour même devant l'Hôtel de ville de Paris permet d'obtenir 80 hébergements supplémentaires. Dès le lendemain un campement extrêmement précaire se reforme place de la République, régulièrement dispersé de force par la police au petit matin. Une première évacuation avec 88 hébergements a lieu le 30 octobre, puis une seconde, avec environ 350 hébergements, le 13 novembre.

 

Quelques heures plus tard, la place de la République devient l'épicentre des attentats qui frappent Paris. L'état d'urgence est décrété, les rassemblements et manifestations interdits.

 

C'est la dispersion...

 

Jusqu'aux prochains campements qui ne manquent pas de réapparaître dans les semaines suivantes...

pictureaday #578

Project 365: 212/365

"The Gothic tower of the Holy Gate, also called Mikulovická, represents one of the most important parts of the historical fortifications of the city of Kadana. It was the main gate, separating the Old Town of Kadaňské from the New Town on the west side.

 

The Holy Gate was built at the end of the 13th century as part of the massive city fortifications, which surrounded the entire royal city in two to three belts. During visits to Kadana, many Czech monarchs passed through the gate, such as Wenceslas II. (1287, 1295, 1297), Charles IV. (1367, 1374), Wenceslas IV. (1374), Ferdinand I. (1534, 1562), Maximilian II. (1562) and Joseph II. (1779). From the Holy Gate, the merchant route continued towards Přísečnica in the Ore Mountains and to Saxony, or Poohřím to Cheb and Nuremberg.

 

Around the year 1500, at the instigation of Jan Hasištejnský of Lobkowicz, a leading Czech aristocrat and humanist, the suburban district of Nové Město Kadaňské began to emerge right in front of the Holy Gate. At that time, the gate was still called Mikulovická, because the road leading from it led to Mikulovice . The name was changed to the Holy Gate only in 1532, because from there it was possible to reach the pilgrimage church of the Fourteen Saints. Helpers under the Holy Mountain in Kadani. On June 14, 1639, at two o'clock in the morning, the city of Kadaň was attacked by about 300 Swedish horsemen, who conquered the suburbs and began to attack the Holy Gate, setting fire to the straw in front of it and shelling it. After several attacks, the Swedes gave up the siege due to the large number of dead and wounded. However, the city later succumbed to the Swedes, even on March 25, 1641, General Johan Banér personally passed through the Holy Gate.

 

In the passage there is a latticed baroque niche. It originally housed a late-Gothic statue of the Black Mother of God (today in the Chomutov museum), which was installed here at his own expense in 1738 by the Kadanz burgher of arms, Franz Max Köllisch from Köllischsheim.

 

The Holy Gate used to have a complexly structured forecourt, popularly called Šance. This consisted of the first gate, which used to be decorated with a relief with a now unknown biblical motif. This gate was also covered by a circular bastion with eight embrasures. Between the first gate and the Holy Gate in the tower there was a second gate. The bastion was demolished together with the circular bastion in 1842. The Holy Gate got its present form between 1877 and 1878, when it was also supplemented with a new clockwork. A statue of Emperor Joseph II was erected in 1882 in the forecourt of the gate. and this public space has been called Josefské náměstí ever since.

 

Kadaň (Czech pronunciation: [ˈkadaɲ]; German: Kaaden) is a town in Chomutov District in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 18,000 inhabitants. It lies on the banks of the Ohře river. Kadaň is a tourist centre with highlights being the Franciscan Monastery and the historical square with late Gothic Town Hall Tower. The historic town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument reservation.

 

The name is most likely derived from the personal name Kadan, meaning "Kadan's (court)".

 

Kadaň is located about 13 kilometres (8 mi) southwest of Chomutov and 31 km (19 mi) northeast of Karlovy Vary. It lies on the border between the Most Basin and Doupov Mountains. The northern tip of the municipal territory extends into the Ore Mountains. The highest point is the hill Dubový vrch at 691 m (2,267 ft) above sea level, located on the southern border of the territory. A notable feature is also the Úhošť hill, which is together with its surroundings protected as a national nature reserve.

 

Kadaň is situated on the banks of the Ohře river. On the Ohře, there is Kadaň Reservoir with an area of 67.2 ha (166 acres). It was completed in 1972. Its main purpose is to ensure a minimum flow under the reservoir, but it also serves for the energy use and for recreation and water sports.

 

In the Bronze Age, the plateau on the Úhošť hill was inhabited, on which there was a Celtic hillfort. According to some theories, the Wogastisburg Castle stood here, which was the scene of the Battle of Wogastisburg between Franks and Slavs in 631.

 

The first written mention of Kadaň is from 1183. it was probably founded as a market settlement during the colonization of the area at the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries. In 1186, Duke Frederick donated the settlement to the Knights Hospitaller. Around 1260, Kadaň was promoted to a free royal town and the castle was built. An extensive fire in 1362 destroyed the town and the castle, but everything was restored and supplemented with better fortifications. However, King Charles IV granted it several municipal rights (a vineyard, and an annual market) that made it flourish again.

 

In 1421, during the Hussite Wars, the town was conquered by the Hussites, who controlled it until the end of the wars. From the mid-15th century, the town was pledged to various creditors of the royal chamber. The most notable of them was the Lobkowicz family, who held the town from 1469 to 1519. Jan Hasištejnský of Lobkowicz founded the Franciscan Monastery and the Church of the Fourteen Holy Helpers.

 

In 1534, "Kadaň religious peace" was negotiated here between Württemberg Protestants and Emperor Ferdinand I for the Catholic side. After the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, violent re-Catholicization began in Kadaň. During the Thirty Years' War, in 1631, 1635 and 1648, Kadaň suffered from fires and plundering by various armies. The Kadaň Castle remained a ruin until the second half of the 18th century, when it was rebuilt into barracks by Empress Maria Theresa.

 

The last great fire damaged the town in 1811. After the Revolution of 1848, the town became a district centre. The institute of the district town lasted in Kadaň for 110 years when it was affiliated with Chomutov District.

 

After Czechoslovakia was established in 1918 and Kadaň became its part, most of the Sudeten German disagreed with this decision. On 4 March 1919, they demonstrated for self determination and joining Austria. The Czechoslovak military forces were sent in and tried to control the crowd by shooting. The result of the so-called Kadaň massacre was at least 25 dead and dozens injured.

 

After the Munich Agreement in 1938, Kadaň was annexed by Nazi Germany and administered as part of Reichsgau Sudetenland. The local Czechs were forced to move to central Czechoslovakia and the Jewish community was sent to concentration camps in Germany. The synagogue was burned down during the Kristallnacht of 9 November 1939. According to Beneš decrees, after World War II, the German population was expelled and the area was re-settled by Czechs.

 

Bohemia (Latin Bohemia, German Böhmen, Polish Czechy) is a region in the west of the Czech Republic. Previously, as a kingdom, they were the center of the Czech Crown. The root of the word Czech probably corresponds to the meaning of man. The Latin equivalent of Bohemia, originally Boiohaemum (literally "land of Battles"), which over time also influenced the names in other languages, is derived from the Celtic tribe of the Boios, who lived in this area from the 4th to the 1st century BC Bohemia on it borders Germany in the west, Austria in the south, Moravia in the east and Poland in the north. Geographically, they are bounded from the north, west and south by a chain of mountains, the highest of which are the Krkonoše Mountains, in which the highest mountain of Bohemia, Sněžka, is also located. The most important rivers are the Elbe and the Vltava, with the fertile Polabean Plain extending around the Elbe. The capital and largest city of Bohemia is Prague, other important cities include, for example, Pilsen, Karlovy Vary, Kladno, Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, Hradec Králové, Pardubice and České Budějovice, Jihlava also lies partly on the historical territory of Bohemia." - info from Wikipedia.

 

Summer 2019 I did a solo cycling tour across Europe through 12 countries over the course of 3 months. I began my adventure in Edinburgh, Scotland and finished in Florence, Italy cycling 8,816 km. During my trip I took 47,000 photos.

 

Now on Instagram.

 

Become a patron to my photography on Patreon or donate.

Túmulo Trácio de Kazanlak, considerado Património Mundial pela UNESCO, construído em formato de colmeia abobadado de tijolos, que faz parte de uma grande Necrópole Trácia composta por uma câmara mortuária circular, decorada com murais (na foto) representando trácios num ritual funerário. (Press L for better view.)

Upper part represents the Eagle illustration from the kings tombs in Thebes by Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778-1823) from Plates illustrative of the researches and operations in Egypt and Nubia (1820).

When my family and I just arrived in the US I had this mindset that I am no longer a Filipino and I do not have to follow our culture anymore. I was so young and so stupid. Whenever my parents would talk about me not respecting our culture anymore I would think to myself "Why do I have to follow a stupid culture when I am no longer there?" Now that I am older, I do realize my mistakes and I am proud to be a Filipino. I finally understand what my parents were telling me. No matter where I am, I AM still a Filipino and always will be.

Les représentations de Bouddha ....... voir texte précédent.

En plus des grandes statues alignées tout autour du sanctuaire on trouve dans chaque niche creusée deux représentations de Bouddha en symbole de fécondité

 

Roman Holiday

En Belgique, 424.000 enfants vivent aujourd’hui sous le seuil de pauvreté. Ce qui représente une personne sur quatre en Wallonie et une sur trois à Bruxelles ! Ces familles se débattent dans des difficultés financières qui entraînent souvent une cascade d’autres problèmes en matière de santé, de logement, d’enseignement, d’emploi, de participation à la vie sociale… Et certaines sont encore plus exposées que d’autres, comme les familles monoparentales et les familles issues de l’immigration. Agir dès le plus jeune âge permet donc de donner à ces enfants de meilleures chances. Raison pour laquelle les bébés de 0 à 3 ans sont la priorité de l’opération Viva for Life.

Cette pauvreté a un impact direct sur le développement des enfants et le souhait de Viva for Life est d’apporter des moyens aux associations actives sur le terrain de la petite enfance et de la pauvreté. L’année passée, 33 d’entre elles ont été financées grâce à vous et ont permis de mettre sur pied des projets de renforcement de liens entre parents et enfants vivant cette situation. Pour cette nouvelle édition, l’accent est mis sur le périnatal et le préscolaire car il est important d’intervenir tôt pour aider ces familles en difficulté.

Cette opération est menée en partenariat avec les pouvoirs publics, l’ONE, la Fondation Roi Baudouin, la RTBF et CAP48. CAP48 participe à cette opération en apportant son expertise dans la gestion des dons et des financements aux associations. Les projets éligibles peuvent concerner différentes tranches d’âge mais leur action doit être significative envers les enfants âgés de 0 à 3 ans.

L’opération a pour vocation statutaire de soutenir divers projets, ayant le statut juridique d’association sans but lucratif, de fondation (sauf les fondations qui se limitent à l’activité de récoltes de fonds) ou de société coopérative à responsabilité limitée à finalité sociale, à l’exclusion de toute société commerciale et de toute institution créée et dirigée par les pouvoirs publics.

L’opération finance prioritairement le renforcement des associations actives sur le terrain de la petite enfance et de la pauvreté. Les projets éligibles peuvent concerner différentes tranches d’âge de 0 à 6 ans, mais leur action doit être significative envers les enfants âgés de 0 à 3 ans.

 

In Belgium, 424,000 children today live below the poverty line. This represents one in four in Wallonia and one in three in Brussels! These families are struggling with financial difficulties often lead to cascading other health problems, housing, education, employment, participation in social life ... And some are even more exposed than others such as single parents and families of immigrant. Acting at a young age makes it possible to give these children a better chance. Why babies from 0 to 3 years are the priority of the Viva for Life operation.

This poverty has a direct impact on child development and the desire to Viva for Life is to provide resources to organizations active in the field of early childhood and poverty. Last year, 33 of them were funded thanks to you and helped establish links building projects between parents and children living situation. For this new edition, the focus is on the perinatal and early childhood because it is important to intervene early to help those families in need.

This operation is conducted in partnership with governments, the ONE, the King Baudouin Foundation, RTBF and CAP48. CAP48 part in this by providing expertise in the management of grants and funding to associations. Eligible projects may involve different age groups but their action must be meaningful to children aged 0-3 years.

The operation has a statutory role to support various projects, having the legal status of non-profit association, foundation (excluding foundations which are limited to fund-raising activity) or cooperative company with limited liability purposes social, to the exclusion of any commercial company and any institution created and run by the government.

The operation primarily finances the strengthening associations active in the field of early childhood and poverty. Eligible projects may involve different age groups of 0-6 years, but their actions must be meaningful to children aged 0-3 years.

The theme this week is any song with Money as the title...well for me it has to be Money by Paul Revere and the Raiders.

It was a cover song, but they covered it with such amazing energy and life, it was one of my favorite songs when I was younger. It was on an album called "Here they come" and the first side was actually recorded live, and was my first taste of the raw energy of live music. And I loved it! I remember my mother telling me that she liked most of my albums...except for that one! I'm posting a link, and if you've never heard them, I hope you will understand that they were a big part of the 60's generation, I've heard that they were such an inspiration to many groups who followed, Jimi Hendrix was supposedly inspired by the style of their guitar player, Drake Levin. (who sadly passed away last year)

Mark Lindsay was my favorite singer.

The band was actually from the area I grew up in, so there is a tie in with this image. They are an Idaho band, and several of them grew up in Nampa, my home town. (So I featured an Idaho quarter...colored it gold to represent gold records : )

 

For Friday's Lyrical Imagery

Money: Paul Revere and the Raiders

 

They say the best things in life are free

But you can give them to the birds and bees

I want money, Oh I want some money, child

now stomp shout run it all out now

hey hey hey...hey...alright!

 

They say your lovin give me such a thrill

but now your lovin don't pay my bill

Give me money, yeah that's what I want

hey hey hey...hey...alright!

 

Now money don't get everything, it's true

But what it don't get, I can't use

I want money, yeah thats what I want, alright

that's what I want, want want, yeah, alright!

 

As they would say on American Bandstand...

It's got a great beat, and you can dance to it !!! : )

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=M7CeJnCd5hM

 

This also represents my week...learning how to get a good shot of coins! One of my toughest subjects yet! : )

  

View On Black

represent VAYU cyclone with help of firefly

Represent Festival Reutlingen 2016, Tag 1

2016 Michael Lamertz

Objet qui me représente (artiste peintre à l'acrylique)

La photo représente, encore en chantier, le nouveau bassin de 110 ha de Calais. Le phare rouge au premier plan est celui de la jetée Est à la sortie du port.Avec la construction d’une digue de plus de 3 kms et d’un immense terre-plein gagné sur la mer, c’est le plus grand chantier de toute la région des Hauts de France. S’il pouvait annoncer de nouveaux et beaux jours pour le port…

Voire une résurrection…

his painting represents the deep connection with our soul, our inner sun, and the journey of transformation we experience through significant life changes. Inspired by a newborn photo of myself and enhanced with a piece of lace that wrapped me as a baby, this artwork celebrates the inner light that shines within each of us.

 

📖 Discover the story behind this painting and its meaning in my latest blog post: ilariaberenice.com/en/birth-and-rebirth-blog/

🎨 This unique piece is available in my online shop, with free shipping and a certificate of authenticity.

Represent Festival Reutlingen 2016, Tag 1

2016 Michael Lamertz

Sculpture showing boat designs, four large steel chains and silhouettes of faces to represent the town's fishing fleet and blast furnace. It is the first of two of Randall's sculptures celebrating the history of fishing and steelmaking in Redcar, the first is Lifelines, standing 1 km to the east. The name Sinterlation, comes from sinter, a granulated material applied to the top of a blast furnace

 

Redcar is a seaside town on the Yorkshire Coast in the Redcar and Cleveland unitary authority in the ceremonial county of North Yorkshire, England. It is located 7 miles (11 km) east of Middlesbrough.

 

The Teesside built-up area's Redcar subdivision had a population of 37,073 at the 2011 Census. The town is made up of Coatham, Dormanstown, Kirkleatham, Newcomen, West Dyke, Wheatlands and Zetland.

 

It gained a town charter in 1922, from then until 1968 it was governed by the municipal borough of Redcar. Since the abolition of County Borough of Teesside, which existed from 1968 until 1974, the town has been unparished.

 

Redcar occupies a low-lying site by the sea; the second element of its name is from Old Norse kjarr, meaning 'marsh', and the first may be either Old English (Anglo-Saxon) rēad meaning 'red' or OE hrēod 'reed'. The town originated as a fishing hamlet in the 14th century, trading with the larger adjacent hamlet of Coatham. Until the mid-19th century it was within the parish of Marske-by-the-Sea – mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086.

 

Numerous ships have foundered off the Redcar coastline and many of their wrecks still exist. The Zetland is the world's oldest surviving lifeboat. It was built by Henry Greathead of South Shields and is housed in a volunteer-led sea-front museum. The lifeboat was first stationed at Redcar in 1802.

 

As seaside holidays became fashionable in the early 19th century, Redcar's facilities expanded. By 1841, Redcar had 794 inhabitants. In 1846, work was completed on the Middlesbrough and Redcar Railway and the presently named Redcar Central station, created to attract tourism and trade.

 

Redcar's population expansion corresponded with Middlesbrough's, with the discovery in 1850 of iron ore in the Eston area of Cleveland Hills. Redcar prospered as a seaside town drawing tourists attracted by eight miles of sands stretching from South Gare to Saltburn-by-the-Sea.

 

Plans for a pier were drawn up in 1866, but lay dormant until prompted by the announcement of plans to build a pier at Coatham in 1871. Coatham Pier was wrecked before it was completed when two sailing ships were driven through it in a storm. It had to be shortened because of the cost of repairs and was re-opened with an entrance with two kiosks and a roller-skating rink on the Redcar side, and a bandstand halfway along its length.

 

Redcar Racecourse was created in 1875. Redcar Pier, another pier as well as Coatham Pier, was built in the late 1870s. In October 1880 the brig Luna caused £1,000 worth of damage to this pier. In New Year's Eve 1885 SS Cochrane demolished the landing stage. and in 1897 the schooner Amarant went through the pier. A year later, its head and bandstand burned down.

 

In October 1898 the Coatham Pier was almost wrecked when the barque Birger struck it and the pier was thereafter allowed to disintegrate. An anchor from the Birger can be seen on the sea front pavement close to the Zetland Lifeboat Museum.

 

In 1907 a pavilion ballroom was built on Redcar Pier behind the entrance kiosks and in 1928 it was extended. A glass house for concerts was added to the remains of Coatham Pier's entrance. The presently named Redcar East railway station was built in 1929.

 

In 1929 Coatham Pier's glasshouse was replaced by the New Pavilion theatre. After the war, comedian and entertainer Larry Grayson coined his catchphrase "Shut that Door!" while performing there, since the stage door was open to the cold North Sea breeze.

 

Redcar Pier was deliberately breached (sectioned) in 1940 to prevent its use by enemy invasion forces. As a result of sectioning, damage by a mine explosion and deterioration it was never reconnected and instead allowed to become even more dilapidated.

 

In 1964 the New Pavilion Theatre was transformed into the Regent Cinema. The Redcar Pier pavilion continued in use after the war but storm damage led to it being declared unsafe and it was demolished in 1980–1981.

 

The town's main employers in the post-war era were the nearby Teesside Steelworks at Warrenby, founded by Dorman Long in 1917, and the ICI Wilton chemical works. The steel produced at Dorman Long was used to build the Sydney Harbour Bridge, Tyne Bridge, Auckland Harbour Bridge and many others. Both the Warrenby and Lackenby sites became part of Tata Steel when Corus was taken over in 2007, but continued to trade under the Corus name until at least February 2008. SSI bought the plant from Tata Steel in February 2011, for £320 million.

 

After a two-year hiatus following the mothballing of the plant in February 2010, steel was once again being made at Redcar. The Thai owners of the former Corus Plant at Lackenby, Sahaviriya Steel Industries (SSI), re-ignited the blast furnace, one of the largest in Europe, on 15 April 2012.

 

On 18 September 2015, production was paused due to the decline in steel prices. On 28 September 2015, the plant was "mothballed" amid poor steel trading conditions across the world and a drop in steel prices. On 2 October, the owner of the site, SSI UK, entered liquidation. On 12 October 2015 the administrator announced that there was no realistic prospect of finding a buyer and the ovens would be extinguished.

 

Wards periodically change, as of 2018 the town is made up of Coatham, Dormanstown, Kirkleatham, Newcomen, West Dyke, Wheatlands and Zetland. Redcar is made up of areas that do not lend their name to a ward: Warrenby, Lakes Estate, Redcar East, The Ings, Ings Farm, Mickledales and Westfield.

 

On 5 May 2011 Redcar elected its councillors to Redcar & Cleveland Borough Council. There was a by-election on 18 November 2011 for two vacant seats in the Zetland ward, held onto by the Liberal Democrats, and on 19 January 2012 there was a by-election for a vacant seat in Newcomen ward subsequently gained by Labour from the Liberal Democrats.

 

Redcar was formerly a township and chapelry in the parishes of Marske and Upleatham, in 1866 Redcar became a separate civil parish. A district in Redcar's name formed in 1885. Three years after the district was formed, the centuries-old Yorkshire authority was replaced by the North Riding of Yorkshire county council. The district became an urban district in 1894.

 

The settlement's town charter occurred in 1922, the district was able to be styled as a municipal borough and the settlement as a town. On 1 April 1974 the parish was abolished and merged with Teesside and Marske. On 1 April 1968 the municipal borough was abolished merged into the County Borough of Teesside, part also went to Saltburn and Marske by the Sea Urban District. This removed it from the administrative county however still ceremonially in the area. In 1961 the parish had a population of 31,460.

 

The 1974 reform created the non-metropolitan County of Cleveland, under the Langbaurgh non-metropolitan district. The county was also inserted into the North East England region. After further changes in 1996, the district became a unitary authority called Redcar & Cleveland in the ceremonial county of North Yorkshire, the county straddling two regions of England.

 

The North East England region was sub-divided into combined authorities, in May 2017 the Tees Valley area voted for their first mayor. The Conservative candidate, Ben Houchen, won the election and is now in his second term.

 

From 1987 to 2001, the local Member of Parliament (MP) was Mo Mowlam. From 2001 to 2010 the MP was Vera Baird. In the 2010 general election there was a swing to the Liberal Democrats with Ian Swales being elected. But, in the 2015 general election, Anna Turley, a Labour MP, won back Redcar. In the snap 2017 general election, Anna Turley held onto that seat. In the general election on 12 December 2019, Anna Turley lost her seat to Conservative candidate Jacob Young with a majority of 3,527 votes. Young becomes the third conservative MP to represent Redcar, the first being Royal Naval Commander Robert Tatton Bower 1931 to 1945 and Scarborough businessman Wilfred Proudfoot between 1959 and 1964 when Redcar was part of the Cleveland constituency.

 

The Palace Hub, on the beach front, was built by Redcar and Cleveland Council for the creative and cultural sector of the town. An art gallery and business start up centre are located in the building. The main library is in the Redcar Heart building in the centre of the town and there is a long-standing Redcar Literary Institute, which was founded in 1896.

 

Redcar is home to the Tuned In! Centre, which opened in 2011 and overlooks the sea front. The multi purpose venue hosts live music as well as creative workshops for young people. The annual event Clubland on the Beach, which showcases dance acts attracting visitors from across the country, has been held at Majuba Road in Redcar for the past three years.

 

The town has had several parks built for tourism: Coatham Enclosure, Locke Park, Zetland Park, Lily Park, an Amusement Park with a roller coaster, and a small sea front park known locally as Titty Bottle Park. The Amusement Park near the railway closed decades ago, and Titty Bottle Park was absorbed into the redeveloped sea front around Redcar Beacon.

 

At the west end of High Street is a Grade II listed clock tower, a memorial to King Edward VII who was a regular visitor to Redcar. The tower has now been refurbished.

 

Construction of the Redcar Beacon started in 2011. In 2013, when the building had been completed, it was nominated for the Building Design Carbuncle Cup for worst new building. It came third in the whole of the UK. In December 2015, the Beacon was damaged by winds from Storm Desmond, with several large pieces of panelling falling onto the beach below. It was also damaged in winter 2016, where a panel from the top fell off in a storm.

 

There are 23 listed buildings in Redcar. The Grade I Listed Sir William Turner's Hospital in Kirkleatham was built between 1674–1676 and listed on the 14 June 1952.

 

On the Esplanade is the Grade II-Listed Zetland Lifeboat Museum housing the world's oldest lifeboat Zetland Lifeboat.

 

The Victorian, former Coatham Hotel stands on Newcomen Terrace sea front.[36][37] The ballroom of the hotel was home to the Redcar Jazz Club, a venue for the up-and-coming bands of the late 1960s and early 1970s.

 

In the south-east of Redcar is an aircraft listening post built in 1916 during the First World War as part of a regional defence system to detect approaching aircraft, principally Zeppelins, and give early warning.It is an example of an acoustic mirror, of which other examples can be found along the east coast of Britain. The mirror was used up until the invention of radar and although it was built on open fields today a modern housing estate now surrounds it. Only the concrete sound mirror remains and is now a Grade II listed building.

 

To the east of Redcar is the grade II* listed Church of St Peter, designed by Ignatius Bonomi and built 1822–29. In 1818, Lord Dundas gave land for a church, St Peters. The foundation stone was laid by Lady Turner of Kirkleatham in 1823. Initially it was a daughter church of Marske, but became an independent parish in 1867. It has a window commemorating local benefactor Sir William Turner.

 

Redcar has two railway stations, on the Tees Valley line, with trains operated by Northern and TransPennine Express, namely Redcar Central and Redcar East. A third station Redcar British Steel, which closed in December 2019, served the steelworks.

 

The main roads through the town are the A1085 and the A1042, with the A174 bypassing. Redcar is served primarily by Arriva North East buses, connecting Redcar with the surrounding towns and villages.

 

The Pangea North and CANTAT-3 submarine telecommunication cables both come ashore between Redcar and Marske-by-the-Sea.

 

See also: List of schools in Redcar and Cleveland

The town's further education college is Redcar & Cleveland College.

 

The town's secondary schools are: Outwood Academy Redcar, Sacred Heart Catholic Secondary and Rye Hills Academy.

 

There are eleven primary schools in Redcar: Coatham, Dormanstown, Green Gates, Ings Farm, John E Batty, Lakes, Newcomen, Riverdale, St Benedict's, Wheatlands and Zetland.

 

Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North East and Cumbria and ITV Tyne Tees, the local television station TalkTeesside also broadcasts to the area. Television signals are received from the Bilsdale TV transmitter.

 

Local radio stations are BBC Radio Tees, Heart North East, Capital North East, Smooth North East, Greatest Hits Radio Teesside, and Zetland FM, a community based radio station which broadcast from its studios on Newcomen Terrace in the town.

 

The town is served by the local newspapers, East Cleveland Herald & Post which is published by the TeessideLive. The Northern Echo also covers the area.

 

In Coatham is Cleveland Golf Club, the first golf club to be formed in Yorkshire. It was established in 1887 and is a links course. Also in Coatham is Redcar Cricket Club, which play in the NYSD league, and Redcar Running Club.

 

In association football, Redcar Athletic currently compete in the Northern League Division One while Redcar Town play in Northern League Division Two. Redcar Rugby Union Football club play at Mackinlay Park.

 

Redcar Racecourse is one of nine thoroughbred horse racecourses in Yorkshire. There is also a motorcycle speedway racing team, the Redcar Bears racing in the SGB Championship. The race track is at the South Tees Motorsport Park in Southbank Street, South Bank and is unusual in that one bend is more highly banked than the other. The team was formerly captained by 1992 World Champion Gary Havelock and was formerly managed by his father Brian.

 

The town is set to host the 2022 Tour of Britain stage four, UCI Europe Tour cycling race. The town was previously set to host a stage of the Tour de Yorkshire, the event was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.

 

Notable people

Gertrude Bell, colonial administrator and contemporary of Lawrence of Arabia spent her youthful years at Red Barns House in Coatham,[ which became, for a time, the Red Barns Hotel and a listed building.

The surviving negatives of Redcar photographer Alfred Edward Graham (1882–1945) were acquired by Redcar Urban District Council's Library and Museum Committee and are now held by the Redcar and Cleveland Museum Service.

Rex Hunt, governor of the Falkland Islands during the 1982 invasion by Argentina, attended Coatham School.

The former Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Mo Mowlam, represented Redcar parliamentary constituency in the House of Commons.

Film and television actors Pip Donaghy June Laverick, and Wendy Hall, and actor/director/producer Robert Porter were all born in Redcar.

Actor and radio actor Felicity Finch, famous for her part in the Archers BBC Radio 4 drama series, playing Ruth Archer, was also born and grew up in Redcar.

Singer David Coverdale, lead singer with Deep Purple and Whitesnake lived in Redcar as a youth and worked in the Gentry clothes shop on Coatham Road.

Chris Norman, founder member and former lead singer of Smokie was born in Redcar.

Pete York, drummer with the Spencer Davis Group and session drummer was born in Redcar.

Paralympian, Baroness Tanni Grey-Thompson, originally from Wales, lived in Redcar for a number of years with her husband and daughter.

2011 and 2016 UCI Downhill World Champion Danny Hart was born in and currently lives in Redcar, he is frequently nicknamed "The Redcar Rocket" by commentators.

David Wheater, Bolton Wanderers and England national football team central defender, grew up and still lives in Redcar.

Snooker player Mike Dunn was born in Middlesbrough but lives in Redcar.[citation needed]

Jordan Jones, Rangers FC and Northern Ireland national football team midfielder was born in Redcar

Hayden Hackney, Middlesbrough F.C. midfielder was born in Redcar

Dylan Cartlidge, singer and multi-instrumentalist grew up in Redcar

 

Film and television

A location from the film Atonement

In 2006, Redcar was used as a location for the film adaptation of the Ian McEwan novel Atonement. The Coatham Hotel, Regent Cinema, a section of Newcomen Terrace and part of the beach were dressed as 1940s Dunkirk. Filming took place across three days in August 2006, with local men playing the soldiers.

 

In 2010, Redcar was featured on the Channel 4 television programme The Secret Millionaire. David Jamilly a humanitarian, philanthropist and self-made millionaire, visited the Redcar community and gave £25,000 to Zoë's Place for a sensory room, £25,000 to Redcar Amateur Boxing Club to start an Olympic fund, and £25,000 to Sid's Place for special counselling.

 

There was a subsequent visit on 14 May to a screening at Redcar's cinema, attended by the mayor and mayoress along with all the charities and people involved. The feature of the documentary involved the closure of the nearby Corus steelworks as well as the charities. On 9 December 2011, Jamilly opened the new Redcar Education Development centre in Park Avenue, Redcar. The centre provides day care for adults with learning difficulties. He also opened the Redcar Primary Care Hospital on 9 December 2011 and the new Sid's Place on 15 December 2011.

 

The town was filmed for the 2018 BBC television documentary The Mighty Redcar. The four-part series followed young people from Redcar and surrounding towns as they completed their studies and looked for work.

 

North Yorkshire is a ceremonial county in the Yorkshire and the Humber and North East regions of England. It borders County Durham to the north, the North Sea to the east, the East Riding of Yorkshire to the south-east, South Yorkshire to the south, West Yorkshire to the south-west, and Cumbria and Lancashire to the west. Northallerton is the county town.

 

The county is the largest in England by land area, at 9,020 km2 (3,480 sq mi), and has a population of 1,158,816. The largest settlements are Middlesbrough (174,700) in the north-east and the city of York (152,841) in the south. Middlesbrough is part of the Teesside built-up area, which extends into County Durham and has a total population of 376,663. The remainder of the county is rural, and the largest towns are Harrogate (73,576) and Scarborough (61,749). For local government purposes the county comprises four unitary authority areas — York, Middlesbrough, Redcar and Cleveland, and North Yorkshire — and part of a fifth, Stockton-on-Tees.

 

The centre of the county contains a wide plain, called the Vale of Mowbray in the north and Vale of York in the south. The North York Moors lie to the east, and south of them the Vale of Pickering is separated from the main plain by the Howardian Hills. The west of the county contains the Yorkshire Dales, an extensive upland area which contains the source of the River Ouse/Ure and many of its tributaries, which together drain most of the county. The Dales also contain the county's highest point, Whernside, at 2,415 feet (736 m).

 

North Yorkshire non-metropolitan and ceremonial county was formed on 1 April 1974 as a result of the Local Government Act 1972. It covered most of the North Riding of Yorkshire, as well as northern parts of the West Riding of Yorkshire, northern and eastern East Riding of Yorkshire and the former county borough of York. Northallerton, as the former county town for the North Riding, became North Yorkshire's county town. In 1993 the county was placed wholly within the Yorkshire and the Humber region.

 

Some areas which were part of the former North Riding were in the county of Cleveland for twenty-two years (from 1974 to 1996) and were placed in the North East region from 1993. On 1 April 1996, these areas (Middlesbrough, Redcar and Cleveland and Stockton borough south of the River Tees) became part of the ceremonial county as separate unitary authorities. These areas remain within the North East England region.

 

Also on 1 April 1996, the City of York non-metropolitan district and parts of the non-metropolitan county (Haxby and nearby rural areas) became the City of York unitary authority.

 

On 1 April 2023, the non-metropolitan county became a unitary authority. This abolished eight councils and extended the powers of the county council to act as a district council.

 

The York and North Yorkshire Combined Authority held its first meeting on 22 January 2024, assumed its powers on 1 February 2024 and the first mayor is to be elected in May 2024.

 

The geology of North Yorkshire is closely reflected in its landscape. Within the county are the North York Moors and most of the Yorkshire Dales, two of eleven areas in England and Wales to be designated national parks. Between the North York Moors in the east and the Pennine Hills. The highest point is Whernside, on the Cumbrian border, at 2,415 feet (736 m). A distinctive hill to the far north east of the county is Roseberry Topping.

 

North Yorkshire contains several major rivers. The River Tees is the most northerly, forming part of the border between North Yorkshire and County Durham in its lower reaches and flowing east through Teesdale before reaching the North Sea near Redcar. The Yorkshire Dales are the source of many of the county's major rivers, including the Aire, Lune, Ribble, Swale, Ure, and Wharfe.[10] The Aire, Swale, and Wharfe are tributaries of the Ure/Ouse, which at 208 km (129 mi) long is the sixth-longest river in the United Kingdom. The river is called the Ure until it meets Ouse Gill beck just below the village of Great Ouseburn, where it becomes the Ouse and flows south before exiting the county near Goole and entering the Humber estuary. The North York Moors are the catchment for a number of rivers: the Leven which flows north into the Tees between Yarm and Ingleby Barwick; the Esk flows east directly into the North Sea at Whitby as well as the Rye (which later becomes the Derwent at Malton) flows south into the River Ouse at Goole.

 

North Yorkshire contains a small section of green belt in the south of the county, which surrounds the neighbouring metropolitan area of Leeds along the North and West Yorkshire borders. It extends to the east to cover small communities such as Huby, Kirkby Overblow, and Follifoot before covering the gap between the towns of Harrogate and Knaresborough, helping to keep those towns separate.

 

The belt adjoins the southernmost part of the Yorkshire Dales National Park, and the Nidderdale AONB. It extends into the western area of Selby district, reaching as far as Tadcaster and Balne. The belt was first drawn up from the 1950s.

 

The city of York has an independent surrounding belt area affording protections to several outlying settlements such as Haxby and Dunnington, and it too extends into the surrounding districts.

 

North Yorkshire has a temperate oceanic climate, like most of the UK. There are large climate variations within the county. The upper Pennines border on a Subarctic climate. The Vale of Mowbray has an almost Semi-arid climate. Overall, with the county being situated in the east, it receives below-average rainfall for the UK. Inside North Yorkshire, the upper Dales of the Pennines are one of the wettest parts of England, where in contrast the driest parts of the Vale of Mowbray are some of the driest areas in the UK.

 

Summer temperatures are above average, at 22 °C. Highs can regularly reach up to 28 °C, with over 30 °C reached in heat waves. Winter temperatures are below average, with average lows of 1 °C. Snow and Fog can be expected depending on location. The North York Moors and Pennines have snow lying for an average of between 45 and 75 days per year. Sunshine is most plentiful on the coast, receiving an average of 1,650 hours a year. It reduces further west in the county, with the Pennines receiving 1,250 hours a year.

 

The county borders multiple counties and districts:

County Durham's County Durham, Darlington, Stockton (north Tees) and Hartlepool;

East Riding of Yorkshire's East Riding of Yorkshire;

South Yorkshire's City of Doncaster;

West Yorkshire's City of Wakefield, City of Leeds and City of Bradford;

Lancashire's City of Lancaster, Ribble Valley and Pendle

Cumbria's Westmorland and Furness.

 

The City of York Council and North Yorkshire Council formed the York and North Yorkshire Combined Authority in February 2024. The elections for the first directly-elected mayor will take place in May 2024. Both North Yorkshire Council and the combined authority are governed from County Hall, Northallerton.

 

The Tees Valley Combined Authority was formed in 2016 by five unitary authorities; Middlesbrough, Redcar and Cleveland Borough both of North Yorkshire, Stockton-on-Tees Borough (Uniquely for England, split between North Yorkshire and County Durham), Hartlepool Borough and Darlington Borough of County Durham.

 

In large areas of North Yorkshire, agriculture is the primary source of employment. Approximately 85% of the county is considered to be "rural or super sparse".

 

Other sectors in 2019 included some manufacturing, the provision of accommodation and meals (primarily for tourists) which accounted for 19 per cent of all jobs. Food manufacturing employed 11 per cent of workers. A few people are involved in forestry and fishing in 2019. The average weekly earnings in 2018 were £531. Some 15% of workers declared themselves as self-employed. One report in late 2020 stated that "North Yorkshire has a relatively healthy and diverse economy which largely mirrors the national picture in terms of productivity and jobs.

 

Mineral extraction and power generation are also sectors of the economy, as is high technology.

 

Tourism is a significant contributor to the economy. A study of visitors between 2013 and 2015 indicated that the Borough of Scarborough, including Filey, Whitby and parts of the North York Moors National Park, received 1.4m trips per year on average. A 2016 report by the National Park, states the park area gets 7.93 million visitors annually, generating £647 million and supporting 10,900 full-time equivalent jobs.

 

The Yorkshire Dales have also attracted many visitors. In 2016, there were 3.8 million visits to the National Park including 0.48 million who stayed at least one night. The parks service estimates that this contributed £252 million to the economy and provided 3,583 full-time equivalent jobs. The wider Yorkshire Dales area received 9.7 million visitors who contributed £644 million to the economy. The North York Moors and Yorkshire Dales are among England's best known destinations.

 

York is a popular tourist destination. A 2014 report, based on 2012 data, stated that York alone receives 6.9 million visitors annually; they contribute £564 million to the economy and support over 19,000 jobs. In the 2017 Condé Nast Traveller survey of readers, York rated 12th among The 15 Best Cities in the UK for visitors. In a 2020 Condé Nast Traveller report, York rated as the sixth best among ten "urban destinations [in the UK] that scored the highest marks when it comes to ... nightlife, restaurants and friendliness".

 

During February 2020 to January 2021, the average property in North Yorkshire county sold for £240,000, up by £8100 over the previous 12 months. By comparison, the average for England and Wales was £314,000. In certain communities of North Yorkshire, however, house prices were higher than average for the county, as of early 2021: Harrogate (average value: £376,195), Knaresborough (£375,625), Tadcaster (£314,278), Leyburn (£309,165) and Ripon (£299,998), for example.

 

This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added for North Yorkshire at current basic prices with figures in millions of British pounds sterling.

 

Unemployment in the county was traditionally low in recent years, but the lockdowns and travel restrictions necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative effect on the economy during much of 2020 and into 2021. The UK government said in early February 2021 that it was planning "unprecedented levels of support to help businesses [in the UK] survive the crisis". A report published on 1 March 2021 stated that the unemployment rate in North Yorkshire had "risen to the highest level in nearly 5 years – with under 25s often bearing the worst of job losses".

 

York experienced high unemployment during lockdown periods. One analysis (by the York and North Yorkshire Local Enterprise Partnership) predicted in August 2020 that "as many as 13,835 jobs in York will be lost in the scenario considered most likely, taking the city's unemployment rate to 14.5%". Some critics claimed that part of the problem was caused by "over-reliance on the booming tourism industry at the expense of a long-term economic plan". A report in mid June 2020 stated that unemployment had risen 114 per cent over the previous year because of restrictions imposed as a result of the pandemic.

 

Tourism in the county was expected to increase after the restrictions imposed due the pandemic are relaxed. One reason for the expected increase is the airing of All Creatures Great and Small, a TV series about the vet James Herriot, based on a successful series of books; it was largely filmed within the Yorkshire Dales National Park. The show aired in the UK in September 2020 and in the US in early 2021. One source stated that visits to Yorkshire websites had increased significantly by late September 2020.

 

The East Coast Main Line (ECML) bisects the county stopping at Northallerton,Thirsk and York. Passenger service companies in the area are London North Eastern Railway, Northern Rail, TransPennine Express and Grand Central.

 

LNER and Grand Central operate services to the capital on the ECML, Leeds Branch Line and the Northallerton–Eaglescliffe Line. LNER stop at York, Northallerton and on to County Durham or spur over to the Tees Valley Line for Thornaby and Middlesbrough. The operator also branch before the county for Leeds and run to Harrogate and Skipton. Grand Central stop at York, Thirsk Northallerton and Eaglescliffe then over to the Durham Coast Line in County Durham.

 

Northern operates the remaining lines in the county, including commuter services on the Harrogate Line, Airedale Line and York & Selby Lines, of which the former two are covered by the Metro ticketing area. Remaining branch lines operated by Northern include the Yorkshire Coast Line from Scarborough to Hull, York–Scarborough line via Malton, the Hull to York Line via Selby, the Tees Valley Line from Darlington to Saltburn via Middlesbrough and the Esk Valley Line from Middlesbrough to Whitby. Last but certainly not least, the Settle-Carlisle Line runs through the west of the county, with services again operated by Northern.

 

The county suffered badly under the Beeching cuts of the 1960s. Places such as Richmond, Ripon, Tadcaster, Helmsley, Pickering and the Wensleydale communities lost their passenger services. Notable lines closed were the Scarborough and Whitby Railway, Malton and Driffield Railway and the secondary main line between Northallerton and Harrogate via Ripon.

 

Heritage railways within North Yorkshire include: the North Yorkshire Moors Railway, between Pickering and Grosmont, which opened in 1973; the Derwent Valley Light Railway near York; and the Embsay and Bolton Abbey Steam Railway. The Wensleydale Railway, which started operating in 2003, runs services between Leeming Bar and Redmire along a former freight-only line. The medium-term aim is to operate into Northallerton station on the ECML, once an agreement can be reached with Network Rail. In the longer term, the aim is to reinstate the full line west via Hawes to Garsdale on the Settle-Carlisle line.

 

York railway station is the largest station in the county, with 11 platforms and is a major tourist attraction in its own right. The station is immediately adjacent to the National Railway Museum.

 

The main road through the county is the north–south A1(M), which has gradually been upgraded in sections to motorway status since the early 1990s. The only other motorways within the county are the short A66(M) near Darlington and a small stretch of the M62 motorway close to Eggborough. The other nationally maintained trunk routes are the A168/A19, A64, A66 and A174.

 

Long-distance coach services are operated by National Express and Megabus. Local bus service operators include Arriva Yorkshire, Stagecoach, Harrogate Bus Company, The Keighley Bus Company, Scarborough & District (East Yorkshire), Yorkshire Coastliner, First York and the local Dales & District.

 

There are no major airports in the county itself, but nearby airports include Teesside International (Darlington), Newcastle and Leeds Bradford.

 

The main campus of Teesside University is in Middlesbrough, while York contains the main campuses of the University of York and York St John University. There are also two secondary campuses in the county: CU Scarborough, a campus of Coventry University, and Queen's Campus, Durham University in Thornaby-on-Tees.

 

Colleges

Middlesbrough College's sixth-form

Askham Bryan College of agriculture, Askham Bryan and Middlesbrough

Craven College, Skipton

Middlesbrough College

The Northern School of Art, Middlesbrough

Prior Pursglove College

Redcar & Cleveland College

Scarborough Sixth Form College

Scarborough TEC

Selby College

Stockton Riverside College, Thornaby

York College

 

Places of interest

Ampleforth College

Beningbrough Hall –

Black Sheep Brewery

Bolton Castle –

Brimham Rocks –

Castle Howard and the Howardian Hills –

Catterick Garrison

Cleveland Hills

Drax Power Station

Duncombe Park – stately home

Eden Camp Museum –

Embsay & Bolton Abbey Steam Railway –

Eston Nab

Flamingo Land Theme Park and Zoo –

Helmsley Castle –

Ingleborough Cave – show cave

John Smith's Brewery

Jorvik Viking Centre –

Lightwater Valley –

Lund's Tower

Malham Cove

Middleham Castle –

Mother Shipton's Cave –

National Railway Museum –

North Yorkshire Moors Railway –

Ormesby Hall – Palladian Mansion

Richmond Castle –

Ripley Castle – Stately home and historic village

Riverside Stadium

Samuel Smith's Brewery

Shandy Hall – stately home

Skipton Castle –

Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications –

Studley Royal Park –

Stump Cross Caverns – show cave

Tees Transporter Bridge

Theakston Brewery

Thornborough Henges

Wainman's Pinnacle

Wharram Percy

York Castle Museum –

Yorkshire Air Museum –

The Yorkshire Arboretum

Stele. On it are represented in bas-relief a flabellum and a small box containing an ointment-holder and a mirror - Tuff (2nd century BC) from Cuma - Inscription in oscan alphabet, written to right to left: "the bones of the buried one go into the earth, the soul up into the sky". - The depicted objects indicate that the stele originally belonged to a female burial - Epigraphic Collection - Naples, Archaeological Museum

La Procesión del Santo Entierro, que se celebra en la tarde noche del Viernes Santo, es el acto religioso de mayor trascendencia popular de todos los que se celebran durante la Semana Santa, estando íntimamente unida a las vicisitudes históricas de Zaragoza. Es un auténtico Vía Crucis esculturado que representa la totalidad de los misterios de la Pasión de Cristo. Su organización es competencia de la Muy Ilustre, Antiquísima y Real Hermandad de la Preciosísima Sangre de Cristo y Madre de Dios de Misericordia y en ella participan todas las cofradías zaragozanas. El encargado de coordinar todo el transcurso de la procesión es el Cetro General, cargo que es desempeñado por uno de los cincuenta hermanos receptores de la Sangre de Cristo siguiendo un riguroso orden de antigüedad, por lo que podemos asegurar que se ocupa este puesto una única vez en la vida. La mayor espectacularidad de la procesión radica en poder ver una tras otra las diferentes cofradías, cada una con su estilo y peculiaridades diferentes, portando sus pasos y tocando sus instrumentos con sus toques característicos. Nos encontramos ante la mayor concentración de tambores y bombos en una procesión que se da en toda España.

 

Es extraordinariamente complicado fijar el origen exacto de esta procesión. Sabemos que, al menos desde 1525, existía una gran devoción al grupo escultórico del Entierro de Cristo que se encontraba en el claustro del desaparecido Convento del Carmen. En esta capilla, instituyó don Juan de Funes y Villapando la procesión del Santo Entierro; posteriormente, en 1617, se produciría la unificación entre esta procesión, la que realizaban los franciscanos y la de la Hermandad de la Sangre de Cristo. Pocos años después, en 1622, tenemos otro documento en el que ya aparece la Sangre de Cristo como responsable y organizadora. Durante los siglos XVII y XVIII, la procesión se fue enriqueciendo con diversos elementos, propios de la estética barroca, que la hicieron cada vez más completa y espectacular. De 1666 se conserva una completa descripción del acto del Descendimiento, que se celebraba delante del Convento de San Francisco, y de los participantes y el orden de la procesión.

 

Los Sitios de Zaragoza supusieron la pérdida de la práctica totalidad del patrimonio procesional de la Hermandad. De los catorce pasos que formaban parte del Santo Entierro sólo se salvó uno: El Santo Cristo de la Cama. Una heroína de la que poco sabemos, María Blázquez, se internó entre las ruinas del Convento de San Francisco y, con la ayuda de unos hombres, rescató la venerada imagen. Arruinados, con su sede desparecida y con muchos hermanos fallecidos durante Los Sitios, los hermanos comenzaron la labor de reconstruir la Hermandad y el Santo Entierro. En 1813 se ubican en San Cayetano, donde permanecen hasta ahora, y al año siguiente ya sale de nuevo la procesión. Poco a poco irán encargando nuevos pasos, que sustituirán a los destruidos en la Guerra, obra de diferentes escultores aragoneses. La procesión recupera todo su antiguo esplendor y, en 1909, se convoca un concurso, impulsado por el Sindicato de Iniciativas de Aragón, para la renovación del Santo Entierro con el fin de darle mayor brillantez y fomentar la afluencia de forasteros en otra época diferente de las anuales fiestas del Pilar.

 

Los pasos eran llevados a hombros; en los varales de la peana, los labradores mayores y, en los laterales, los costaleros y mozos. Los cabeceros solían ser labradores o artesanos acomodados, siendo el cargo hereditario, y al finalizar la procesión eran los encargados de repartir a los fieles los ramos de olivo y de laurel que ornamentaban los pasos. A todos ellos se les llamaba terceroles, vestían túnicas negras ceñidas con un cíngulo también negro del que colgaban un pañuelo o sudario con el que se enjugaban el sudor. Durante la Segunda República no salió la procesión en los años 1932, 1933 y 1934; a partir de 1936, una huelga de los terceroles significó que muchos de los pasos se carrozaran poniendo ruedas. Diferentes asociaciones religiosas y grupos se ofrecieron a llevar los pasos y este fue el origen de la creación de las nuevas cofradías que fueron surgiendo a partir de 1937. Este hecho fue decisivo para nuestra Semana Santa y configuró el Santo Entierro actual, con su eclosión de hábitos y estilos diferentes.

 

La procesión del Santo Entierro conserva algunos elementos que delatan su antigüedad y le dan un sabor que recuerda a los antiguos autos sacramentales. Abre la procesión la bandera negra de la Hermandad (de espectacular tamaño) acompañada de las campanas (que anuncian la llegada de la procesión) y las escalerillas que son atributos de la pasión. A continuación, desfila un grupo de personajes bíblicos del Antiguo Testamento: Abraham, Isaac, Aarón, Moisés, Melquisedec y David. Se pueden identificar por los atributos que portan, algunos son muy curiosos como el arpa del rey David que es del siglo XVIII. Tras ellos desfilan doce hombres y mujeres portando banderas del siglo XIX en representación de las Doce Tribus de Israel. Entre las Cofradías de la Entrada y de la Eucaristía desfilan los doce Apóstoles portando palmas y la Samaritana con su ánfora. Delante de la carroza del Santo Sepulcro van doce hombres portando unos enormes hachones de cera roja, representan a los Santos Padres que Jesucristo sacó del seno de Abraham. Aunque siguen luciendo vestiduras blancas, antiguamente adornaban sus cabezas con coronas doradas. Escoltando al Cristo de la Cama va la Guardia Romana, sección de la Sangre de Cristo de gran antigüedad, que ambienta históricamente el momento de la Pasión. Sus uniformes reproducen fielmente los de la legión romana VIII, que estuvo establecida en Cesaraugusta. Otros elementos y personajes se han ido perdiendo a lo largo del tiempo, como las doce Sibilas que eran representadas por doce niñas, los estandartes de las cuatro partes del mundo, que no participan por estar muy deteriorados, o el palio de respeto que desfilaba tras la carroza del Santo Sepulcro.

119 Pictures in 2019 ... #85. Represent a well known advertising slogan

 

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Minolta 100-200m lens

Snowdonia, or Eryri is a mountainous region and national park in North Wales. It contains all 15 mountains in Wales over 3000 feet high, including the country's highest, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), which is 1,085 metres (3,560 ft) tall. These peaks are all part of the Snowdon, Glyderau, and Carneddau ranges in the north of the region. The shorter Moelwynion and Moel Hebog ranges lie immediately to the south.

 

The national park has an area of 823 square miles (2,130 km2) (the fourth-largest in the UK), and covers most of central and southern Gwynedd and the western part of Conwy County Borough. This is much larger than the area traditionally considered Snowdonia, and in addition to the five ranges above includes the Rhinogydd, Cadair Idris, and Aran ranges and the Dyfi Hills. It also includes most of the coast between Porthmadog and Aberdyfi. The park was the first of the three national parks of Wales to be designated, in October 1951, and the third in the UK after the Peak District and Lake District, which were established in April and May 1951 respectively. The park received 3.89 million visitors in 2015.

 

The name Snowdon means 'snow hill' and is derived from the Old English elements snāw and dūn, the latter meaning 'hill'. Snowdonia is simply taken from the name of the mountain.

 

The origins of Eryri are less clear. Two popular interpretations are that the name is related to eryr, 'eagle', and that it means 'highlands' and is related to the Latin oriri ('to rise'). Although eryri is not any direct form of the word eryr in the meaning 'eagle', it is a plural form of eryr in the meaning 'upland'.

 

Before the boundaries of the national park were designated, "Snowdonia" was generally used to refer to a smaller upland area of northern Gwynedd centred on the Snowdon massif. The national park covers an area more than twice that size, extending south into the Meirionnydd area.

 

This difference is apparent in books published before 1951. In George Borrow's 1907 Wild Wales he states that "Snowdon or Eryri is no single hill, but a mountainous region, the loftiest part of which is called Y Wyddfa", making a distinction between the summit of the mountain and the surrounding massif. The Mountains of Snowdonia by H. Carr & G. Lister (1925) defines "Eryri" as "composed of the two cantrefs of Arfon and Arllechwedd, and the two commotes of Nant Conwy and Eifionydd", which corresponds to Caernarfonshire with the exception of southwest Llŷn and the Creuddyn Peninsula. In Snowdonia: The National Park of North Wales (1949), F. J. North states that "When the Committee delineated provisional boundaries, they included areas some distance beyond Snowdonia proper".

 

Snowdonia National Park, also known as Eryri National Park in English and Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri in Welsh, was established in October 1951. It was the third national park in the United Kingdom, following the Peak District and Lake District in April and May of the same year. It covers 827 square miles (2,140 km2) in the counties of Gwynedd and Conwy, and has 37 miles (60 km) of coastline.

 

The park is governed by the Snowdonia National Park Authority, which has 18 members: 9 appointed by Gwynedd, 3 by Conwy, and 6 by the Welsh Government to represent the national interest. The authority's main offices are at Penrhyndeudraeth.

 

The park authority used Snowdonia and Snowdon when referring to the national park and mountain in English until February 2023, when it resolved to primarily use the Welsh names, Eryri and Yr Wyddfa. There will be a transitional period of approximately two years in which the authority will continue to use the English names in parentheses — for example "Yr Wyddfa (Snowdon)" — where the context requires.

 

Unlike national parks in other countries, national parks in the UK are made up of both public and private lands under a central planning authority. The makeup of land ownership in the national park is as follows:

 

More than 26,000 people live within the park, of whom 58.6% could speak Welsh in 2011. While most of the land is either open or mountainous land, there is a significant amount of agricultural activity within the park.

 

The national park does not include the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which forms a unique non-designated enclave within the park boundaries. The town was deliberately excluded from the park when it was established because of its slate quarrying industry. The boundaries of the Peak District National Park exclude the town of Buxton and its adjacent limestone quarries for a similar reason.

 

The geology of Snowdonia is key to the area's character. Glaciation during a succession of ice ages, has carved from a heavily faulted and folded succession of sedimentary and igneous rocks, a distinctive rocky landscape. The last ice age ended only just over 11,500 years ago, leaving a legacy of features attractive to visitors but which have also played a part in the development of geological science and continue to provide a focus for educational visits. Visiting Cwm Idwal in 1841 Charles Darwin realised that the landscape was the product of glaciation. The bedrock dates largely from the Cambrian and Ordovician periods with intrusions of Ordovician and Silurian age associated with the Caledonian Orogeny. There are smaller areas of Silurian age sedimentary rocks in the south and northeast and of Cenozoic era strata on the Cardigan Bay coast though the latter are concealed by more recent deposits. Low grade metamorphism of Cambrian and Ordovician mudstones has resulted in the slates, the extraction of which once formed the mainstay of the area's economy.

 

The principal ranges of the traditional Snowdonia are the Snowdon massif itself, the Glyderau, the Carneddau, the Moelwynion and the Moel Hebog range. All of Wales' 3000ft mountains are to be found within the first three of these massifs and are most popular with visitors. To their south within the wider national park are the Rhinogydd and the Cadair Idris and Aran Fawddwy ranges. Besides these well-defined areas are a host of mountains which are less readily grouped though various guidebook writers have assigned them into groups such as the 'Arenigs', the 'Tarrens' and the 'Dyfi hills'.

 

Snowdon's summit at 1085 metres (3560 feet) is the highest in Wales and the highest in Britain south of the Scottish Highlands. At 905 metres (2970 feet) Aran Fawddwy is the highest in Wales outside of northern Snowdonia; Cadair Idris, at 893 metres (2930 feet), is next in line.

 

Rivers draining the area empty directly into Cardigan Bay are typically short and steep. From north to south they include the Glaslyn and Dwyryd which share a common estuary, the Mawddach and its tributaries the Wnion and the Eden, the smaller Dysynni and on the park's southern margin the Dyfi. A series of rivers drain to the north coast. Largest of these is the Conwy on the park's eastern margin which along with the Ogwen drains into Conwy Bay. Further west the Seiont and Gwyrfai empty into the western end of the Menai Strait. A part of the east of the national park is within the upper Dee (Dyfrydwy) catchment and includes Bala Lake, the largest natural waterbody in Wales. A fuller list of the rivers and tributaries within the area is found at List of rivers of Wales.

 

There are few natural waterbodies of any size in Wales; Snowdonia is home to most. Besides Bala Lake, a few lakes occupy glacial troughs including Llyn Padarn and Llyn Peris at Llanberis and Tal-y-llyn Lake south of Cadair Idris. Llyn Dinas, Llyn Gwynant, and Llyn Cwellyn to the south and west of Snowdon feature in this category as do Llyn Cowlyd and Llyn Ogwen on the margins of the Carneddau. There are numerous small lakes occupying glacial cirques owing to the former intensity of glacial action in Snowdonia. Known generically as tarns, examples include Llyn Llydaw, Glaslyn and Llyn Du'r Arddu on Snowdon, Llyn Idwal within the Glyderau and Llyn Cau on Cadair Idris.

 

There are two large wholly man-made bodies of water in the area, Llyn Celyn and Llyn Trawsfynydd whilst numerous of the natural lakes have had their levels artificially raised to different degrees. Marchlyn Mawr reservoir and Ffestiniog Power Station's Llyn Stwlan are two cases where natural tarns have been dammed as part of pumped storage hydro-electric schemes. A fuller list of the lakes within the area is found at List of lakes of Wales. In 2023, the park standardised its Welsh language lake names, to be also used in English.

 

The national park meets the Irish Sea coast within Cardigan Bay between the Dovey estuary in the south and the Dwyryd estuary. The larger part of that frontage is characterised by dune systems, the largest of which are Morfa Dyffryn and Morfa Harlech. These two locations have two of the largest sand/shingle spits in Wales. The major indentations of the Dovey, the Mawddach and Dwyryd estuaries, have large expanses of intertidal sands and coastal marsh which are especially important for wildlife: see #Natural history. The northern tip of the national park extends to the north coast of Wales at Penmaen-bach Point, west of Conwy, where precipitous cliffs have led to the road and railway negotiating the spot in tunnels.

 

There are only three towns within the park boundary, though there are several more immediately beyond it. Dolgellau is the most populous followed by Bala on the eastern boundary and then Harlech overlooking Tremadog Bay. More populous than these is the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which is within an exclave, that is to say it is surrounded by the national park but excluded from it, whilst the towns of Tywyn and Barmouth on the Cardigan Bay coast are within coastal exclaves. Llanrwst in the east, Machynlleth in the south and Porthmadog and Penrhyndeudraeth in the west are immediately beyond the boundary but still identified with the park; indeed the last of these hosts the headquarters of the Snowdonia National Park Authority. Similarly the local economies of the towns of Conwy, Bethesda, and Llanberis in the north are inseparably linked to the national park as they provide multiple visitor services. The lower terminus of the Snowdon Mountain Railway is at Llanberis. Though adjacent to it, Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr are less obviously linked to the park.

 

There are numerous smaller settlements within the national park: prominent amongst these are the eastern 'gateway' village of Betws-y-Coed, Aberdyfi on the Dovey (Dyfi) estuary and the small village of Beddgelert each of which attract large numbers of visitors. Other sizeable villages are Llanuwchllyn at the southwest end of Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid), Dyffryn Ardudwy, Corris, Trawsfynydd, Llanbedr, Trefriw and Dolwyddelan.

 

Six primary routes serve Snowdonia, the busiest of which is the A55, a dual carriageway which runs along the north coast and provides strategic road access to the northern part of the national park. The most important north–south route within the park is the A470 running from the A55 south past Betws-y-Coed to Blaenau Ffestiniog to Dolgellau. It exits the park a few miles to the southeast near Mallwyd. From Dolgellau, the A494 runs to Bala whilst the A487 connects with Machynlleth. The A487 loops around the northwest of the park from Bangor via Caernarfon to Porthmadog before turning in land to meet the A470 east of Maentwrog. The A5 was built as a mail coach road by Thomas Telford between London and Holyhead; it enters the park near Pentrefoelas and leaves it near Bethesda. Other A class roads provide more local links; the A493 down the Dovey valley from Machynlleth and up the coast to Tywyn then back up the Mawddach valley to Dolgellau, the A496 from Dolgellau down the north side of the Mawddach to Barmouth then north up the coast via Harlech to Maentwrog. The A4212 connecting Bala with Trawsfynydd is relatively modern having been laid out in the 1960s in connection with the construction of Llyn Celyn. Three further roads thread their often twisting and narrow way through the northern mountains; A4085 links Penrhyndeudraeth with Caernarfon, the A4086 links Capel Curig with Caernarfon via Llanberis and the A498 links Tremadog with the A4086 at Pen-y-Gwryd. Other roads of note include that from Llanuwchllyn up Cwm Cynllwyd to Dinas Mawddwy via the 545 metre (1788') high pass of Bwlch y Groes, the second highest tarmacked public road in Wales and the minor road running northwest and west from Llanuwchllyn towards Bronaber via the 531 metre (1742') high pass of Bwlch Pen-feidiog.

 

The double track North Wales Coast Line passes along the northern boundary of the park between Conwy and Bangor briefly entering it at Penmaen-bach Point where it is in tunnel. Stations serve the communities of Conwy, Penmaenmawr, Llanfairfechan and Bangor. The single-track Conwy Valley Line runs south from Llandudno Junction, entering the park north of Betws-y-coed which is served by a station then west up the Lledr valley by way of further stations at Pont-y-pant, Dolwyddelan and Roman Bridge. After passing through a tunnel the passenger line now terminates at Blaenau Ffestiniog railway station. Prior to 1961 the route continued as the Bala and Ffestiniog Railway via Trawsfynydd to Bala joining another former route along the Dee valley which ran southwest via Dolgellau to join the still extant coastal Cambrian Line south of Barmouth. The Pwllheli branch of the Cambrian Line splits from the Aberystwyth branch at Dovey Junction and continues via stations at Aberdovey, Tywyn, Tonfanau, Llwyngwril, Fairbourne and Morfa Mawddach to Barmouth where it crosses the Mawddach estuary by the Grade II* listed wooden Barmouth Bridge, a structure which also provides for walkers and cyclists. Further stations serve Llanaber, Tal-y-bont, Dyffryn Ardudwy, Llanbedr, Pensarn and Llandanwg before reaching Harlech. Tygwyn, Talsarnau and Llandecwyn stations are the last before the line exits the park as it crosses the Dwyryd estuary via Pont Briwet and turns westwards bound for Pwllheli via Penrhyndeudraeth, Porthmadog and Criccieth.

 

Many sections of dismantled railway are now used by walking and cycling routes and are described elsewhere. The Bala Lake Railway is a heritage railway which has been established along a section of the former mainline route between Bala and Llanuwchllyn. Other heritage railways occupy sections of former mineral lines, often narrow gauge and are described in a separate section.

 

The national park is served by a growing bus network, branded Sherpa'r Wyddfa (formerly Snowdon Sherpa). Together with the TrawsCymru network of buses this provides a car-free option to tourists and locals wishing to travel across the National Park.

 

The network was relaunched in July 2022 with a new brand, Sherpa'r Wyddfa, to reflect the National Park's new push for the promotion of Welsh place names. As such the publicity and websites for the newly branded service only use these Welsh names, even for English language users.

 

Snowdonia is one of the wettest parts of the United Kingdom; Crib Goch in Snowdonia is the wettest spot in the United Kingdom, with an average rainfall of 4,473 millimetres (176.1 in) a year over the 30-year period prior to the mid-2000s. (There is a rainfall gauge at 713 metres, 2340' on the slopes below Crib Goch.)

 

The earliest evidence for human occupation of the area dates from around 4000–3000 BCE with extensive traces of prehistoric field systems evident in the landscape. Within these are traces of irregular enclosures and hut circles. There are burial chambers of Neolithic and Bronze Age such as Bryn Cader Faner and Iron Age hillforts such as Bryn y Castell near Ffestiniog.

 

The region was finally conquered by the Romans by AD 77–78. Remains of Roman marching camps and practice camps are evident. There was a Roman fort and amphitheatre at Tomen y Mur. Roads are known to have connected with Segontium (Caernarfon) and Deva Victrix (Chester) and include the northern reaches of Sarn Helen.

 

There are numerous memorial stones of Early Christian affinity dating from the post-Roman period. The post-Roman hillfort of Dinas Emrys also dates to this time. Churches were introduced to the region in the 5th and 6th centuries. Llywelyn the Great and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd had various stone castles constructed to protect their borders and trade routes. Edward I built several castles around the margins including those at Harlech and Conwy for military and administrative reasons. Most are now protected within a World Heritage Site. Some of Snowdonia's many stone walls date back to this period too. In the Middle Ages, the title Prince of Wales and Lord of Snowdonia (Tywysog Cymru ac Arglwydd Eryri) was used by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd; his grandfather Llywelyn Fawr used the title Prince of north Wales and Lord of Snowdonia.

 

The 18th century saw the start of industrial exploitation of the area's resources, assisted by the appearance in the late part of the century of turnpike trusts making it more accessible. The engineer Thomas Telford left a legacy of road and railway construction in and around Snowdonia. A new harbour at Porthmadog linked to slate quarries at Ffestiniog via a narrow gauge railway. At its peak in the 19th century the slate industry employed around 12,000 men. A further 1000 were employed in stone quarrying at Graiglwyd and Penmaenmawr. Mining for copper, iron and gold was undertaken during the 18th and 19th centuries, leaving a legacy of mine and mill ruins today. Ruins of the gold industry are found at Cefn Coch on the Dolmelynllyn estate.

 

The Snowdonia Society is a registered charity formed in 1967; it is a voluntary group of people with an interest in the area and its protection.

 

Amory Lovins led the successful 1970s opposition to stop Rio Tinto digging up the area for a massive mine.

 

The park's entire coastline is a Special Area of Conservation, which runs from the Llŷn Peninsula down the mid-Wales coast, the latter containing valuable sand dune systems.

 

The park's natural forests are of the mixed deciduous type, the commonest tree being the Welsh oak. Birch, ash, mountain-ash and hazel are also common. The park also contains some large (planted) coniferous forested areas such as Gwydir Forest near Betws-y-Coed, although some areas, once harvested, are now increasingly being allowed to regrow naturally.

 

Northern Snowdonia is the only place in Britain where the Snowdon lily (Gagea serotina), an arctic–alpine plant, is found and the only place in the world where the Snowdonia hawkweed Hieracium snowdoniense grows.

 

One of the major problems facing the park in recent years has been the growth of Rhododendron ponticum. This fast-growing invasive species has a tendency to take over and stifle native species. It can form massive towering growths and has a companion fungus that grows on its roots producing toxins that are poisonous to any local flora and fauna for a seven-year period after the Rhododendron infestations have been eradicated. As a result, there are a number of desolate landscapes.

 

Mammals in the park include otters, polecats, feral goats, and pine martens. Birds include raven, red-billed chough, peregrine, osprey, merlin and the red kite. The rainbow-coloured Snowdon beetle (Chrysolina cerealis) is only found in northern Snowdonia.

 

Snowdonia has a particularly high number of protected sites in respect of its diverse ecology; nearly 20% of its total area is protected by UK and European law. Half of that area was set aside by the government under the European Habitats Directive as a Special Area of Conservation. There are a large number of Sites of special scientific interest (or 'SSSIs'), designated both for fauna and flora but also in some cases for geology. Nineteen of these sites are managed as national nature reserves by Natural Resources Wales. The park also contains twelve Special Areas of Conservation (or 'SACs'), three Special Protection Areas (or 'SPAs') and three Ramsar sites. Some are wholly within the park boundaries, others straddle it to various degrees.

 

There are numerous SSSIs within the park, the most extensive of which are Snowdonia, Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog, Berwyn, Cadair Idris, Llyn Tegid, Aber Mawddach / Mawddach Estuary, Dyfi, Morfa Dyffryn, Moel Hebog, Coedydd Dyffryn Ffestiniog and Coedydd Nanmor.

 

The following NNRs are either wholly or partly within the park: Allt y Benglog, Y Berwyn (in multiple parts), Cader Idris, Ceunant Llennyrch, Coed Camlyn, Coed Cymerau, Coed Dolgarrog, Coed Ganllwyd, Coed Gorswen, Coed Tremadog, Coedydd Aber, Coedydd Maentwrog (in 2 parts), Coed y Rhygen, Cwm Glas Crafnant, Cwm Idwal, Hafod Garregog, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog and Snowdon.

 

The twelve SACs are as follows: Snowdonia SAC which covers much of the Carneddau, Glyderau, and the Snowdon massif, Afon Gwyrfai a Llyn Cwellyn, Corsydd Eifionydd / Eifionydd Fens (north of Garndolbenmaen), the Coedydd Derw a Safleoedd Ystlumod Meirion / Meirionydd Oakwoods and Bat Sites - a series of sites between Tremadog, Trawsfynydd, and Ffestiniog and Beddgelert and extending up the Gwynant. It also includes many of the oakwoods of the Mawddach and its tributaries. Afon Eden – Cors Goch Trawsfynydd, Rhinog, Cadair Idris (in 2 parts), Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, River Dee and Afon Dyfrdwy a Llyn Tegid (Wales), Mwyngloddiau Fforest Gwydir / Gwydyr Forest Mines (north of Betws-y-Coed) and a part of the Berwyn a Mynyddoedd De Clwyd / Berwyn and South Clwyd Mountains SAC. The Pen Llyn a'r Sarnau / Lleyn Peninsula and the Sarnau SAC covers the entire Cardigan Bay coastline of the park and the sea area and extends above the high water mark at Morfa Harlech, Mochras and around the Dovey and Mawddach estuaries.

 

The three SPAs are Dovey Estuary / Aber Dyfi (of which a part is within the park), Berwyn (of which a part is within the park) and Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt.

 

The three designated Ramsar sites are the Dyfi Biosphere (Cors Fochno and Dyfi), Cwm Idwal and Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake).

 

The area's economy was traditionally centred upon farming and from the early 19th century increasingly on mining and quarrying. Tourism has become an increasingly significant part of Snowdonia's economy during the 20th and 21st centuries.

 

The extensive farming of sheep remains central to Snowdonia's farming economy.

 

Significant sections of the park were afforested during the 20th century for timber production. Major conifer plantations include Dyfi Forest, Coed y Brenin Forest between Dolgellau and Trawsfynydd, Penllyn Forest south of Bala, Beddgelert Forest and Gwydyr (or Gwydir) Forest near Betws-y-Coed which is managed as a forest park by Natural Resources Wales.

 

The region was once the most important producer of slate in the world. Some production continues but at a much reduced level from its peak. The park boundaries are drawn such that much of the landscape affected by slate quarrying and mining lies immediately outside of the designated area.

 

Construction of a nuclear power station beside Llyn Trawsfynydd began in 1959 with the first power produced in 1965. The site was operational until 1991 though it continues as an employer during its decommissioning phase. Pumped storage hydroelectric schemes are in operation at Llanberis and Ffestiniog.

 

Research indicates that there were 3.67 million visitors to Snowdonia National Park in 2013, with approximately 9.74 million tourist days spent in the park during that year. Total tourist expenditure was £433.6 million in 2013.

 

Many of the hikers in the area concentrate on Snowdon itself. It is regarded as a fine mountain, but at times gets very crowded; in addition the Snowdon Mountain Railway runs to the summit.

 

The other high mountains with their boulder-strewn summits as well as Tryfan, one of the few mountains in the UK south of Scotland whose ascent needs hands as well as feet are also very popular. However, there are also some spectacular walks in Snowdonia on the lower mountains, and they tend to be relatively unfrequented. Among hikers' favourites are Y Garn (east of Llanberis) along the ridge to Elidir Fawr; Mynydd Tal-y-Mignedd (west of Snowdon) along the Nantlle Ridge to Mynydd Drws-y-Coed; Moelwyn Mawr (west of Blaenau Ffestiniog); and Pen Llithrig y Wrach north of Capel Curig. Further south are Y Llethr in the Rhinogydd, and Cadair Idris near Dolgellau.

 

The park has 1,479 miles (2,380 km) of public footpaths, 164 miles (264 km) of public bridleways, and 46 miles (74 km) of other public rights of way. A large part of the park is also covered by right to roam laws.

 

The Wales Coast Path runs within the park between Machynlleth and Penrhyndeudraeth, save for short sections of coast in the vicinity of Tywyn and Barmouth which are excluded from the park. It touches the park boundary again at Penmaen-bach Point on the north coast. An inland alternative exists between Llanfairfechan and Conwy, wholly within the park. The North Wales Path, which predates the WCP, enters the park north of Bethesda and follows a route broadly parallel to the north coast visiting Aber Falls and the Sychnant Pass before exiting the park on the descent from Conwy Mountain. The Cambrian Way is a long-distance trail between Cardiff and Conwy that stays almost entirely within the national park from Mallwyd northwards. It was officially recognised in 2019, and is now depicted on Ordnance Survey maps.

 

The use of the English names for the area has been divisive, with an increase in protests against their use since 2020; these led to the national park authority deciding to use Welsh names as far as legally possible in November 2022. An early example of pressure to deprecate Snowdon and Snowdonia was a 2003 campaign by Cymuned, inspired by campaigns to refer to Ayers Rock as Uluru and Mount Everest as Qomolangma.

 

In 2020 an e-petition calling for the removal of the English names was put forward to the Senedd, but rejected as responsibility lies with the national park authority. In 2021 an e-petition on the same topic attracted more than 5,300 signatures and was presented to the national park authority.

 

On 28 April 2021 Gwynedd councillor John Pughe Roberts put forward a motion to use the Welsh names exclusively, calling this a "question of respect for the Welsh language". The motion was not considered and delayed, as the national park authority already appointed a "Welsh Place Names Task and Finish Group" to investigate the issue. The park authority however cannot compel other bodies and/or individuals to stop using the English names, with the proposals facing some criticism.

 

In May 2021, following the dismissal of the motion, YouGov conducted a poll on Snowdon's name. 60% of Welsh adults supported the English name Snowdon, compared to 30% wanting the Welsh name Yr Wyddfa. Separating by language, 59% of Welsh speakers preferred the Welsh name, but 37% of these still wanted Snowdon to be used as well. 69% of non-Welsh speakers firmly supported Snowdon as the Mountain's name. The proposals to rename Snowdon are usually accompanied with proposals to rename Snowdonia.

 

On 16 November 2022, Members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority committee voted to use the Welsh names Yr Wyddfa and Eryri to refer to the mountain and the national park, rather than the English names, in materials produced by the authority. The national park authority described the decision as "decisive action" and the authority's head of culture heritage stated that Welsh place names were part of the area's "special qualities" and that other public bodies, English-language press and filming companies have used the Welsh-language names. Before the decision the park had already prioritised the Welsh names by using them first and giving the English names in parentheses. The name "Snowdonia" cannot be abandoned entirely, as it is set in law and so must be used in statutory documents. The authority announced a review of the authority's branding in 2023 to adapt to the new approach to Welsh place names.

 

Gwynedd is a county in the north-west of Wales. It borders Anglesey across the Menai Strait to the north, Conwy, Denbighshire, and Powys to the east, Ceredigion over the Dyfi estuary to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west. The city of Bangor is the largest settlement, and the administrative centre is Caernarfon. The preserved county of Gwynedd, which is used for ceremonial purposes, includes the Isle of Anglesey.

 

Gwynedd is the second largest county in Wales but sparsely populated, with an area of 979 square miles (2,540 km2) and a population of 117,400. After Bangor (18,322), the largest settlements are Caernarfon (9,852), Bethesda (4,735), and Pwllheli (4,076). The county has the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in Wales, at 64.4%, and is considered a heartland of the language.

 

The geography of Gwynedd is mountainous, with a long coastline to the west. Much of the county is covered by Snowdonia National Park (Eryri), which contains Wales's highest mountain, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa; 3,560 feet, 1,090 m). To the west, the Llŷn Peninsula is flatter and renowned for its scenic coastline, part of which is protected by the Llŷn AONB. Gwynedd also contains several of Wales's largest lakes and reservoirs, including the largest, Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid).

 

The area which is now the county has played a prominent part in the history of Wales. It formed part of the core of the Kingdom of Gwynedd and the native Principality of Wales, which under the House of Aberffraw remained independent from the Kingdom of England until Edward I's conquest between 1277 and 1283. Edward built the castles at Caernarfon and Harlech, which form part of the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd World Heritage Site. During the Industrial Revolution the slate industry rapidly developed; in the late nineteenth century the neighbouring Penrhyn and Dinorwic quarries were the largest in the world, and the Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales is now a World Heritage Site. Gwynedd covers the majority of the historic counties of Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire.

 

In the past, historians such as J. E. Lloyd assumed that the Celtic source of the word Gwynedd meant 'collection of tribes' – the same root as the Irish fine, meaning 'tribe'. Further, a connection is recognised between the name and the Irish Féni, an early ethnonym for the Irish themselves, related to fían, 'company of hunting and fighting men, company of warriors under a leader'. Perhaps *u̯en-, u̯enə ('strive, hope, wish') is the Indo-European stem. The Irish settled in NW Wales, and in Dyfed, at the end of the Roman era. Venedotia was the Latin form, and in Penmachno there is a memorial stone from c. AD 500 which reads: Cantiori Hic Iacit Venedotis ('Here lies Cantiorix, citizen of Gwynedd'). The name was retained by the Brythons when the kingdom of Gwynedd was formed in the 5th century, and it remained until the invasion of Edward I. This historical name was revived when the new county was formed in 1974.

 

Gwynedd was an independent kingdom from the end of the Roman period until the 13th century, when it was conquered by England. The modern Gwynedd was one of eight Welsh counties created on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. It covered the entirety of the historic counties of Anglesey and Caernarfonshire, and all of Merionethshire apart from Edeirnion Rural District (which went to Clwyd); and also a few parishes of Denbighshire: Llanrwst, Llansanffraid Glan Conwy, Eglwysbach, Llanddoged, Llanrwst and Tir Ifan.

 

The county was divided into five districts: Aberconwy, Arfon, Dwyfor, Meirionnydd and Anglesey.

 

The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 abolished the 1974 county (and the five districts) on 1 April 1996, and its area was divided: the Isle of Anglesey became an independent unitary authority, and Aberconwy (which included the former Denbighshire parishes) passed to the new Conwy County Borough. The remainder of the county was constituted as a principal area, with the name Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire, as it covers most of the areas of those two historic counties. As one of its first actions, the Council renamed itself Gwynedd on 2 April 1996. The present Gwynedd local government area is governed by Gwynedd Council. As a unitary authority, the modern entity no longer has any districts, but Arfon, Dwyfor and Meirionnydd remain as area committees.

 

The pre-1996 boundaries were retained as a preserved county for a few purposes such as the Lieutenancy. In 2003, the boundary with Clwyd was adjusted to match the modern local government boundary, so that the preserved county now covers the two local government areas of Gwynedd and Anglesey. Conwy county borough is now entirely within Clwyd.

 

A Gwynedd Constabulary was formed in 1950 by the merger of the Anglesey, Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire forces. A further amalgamation took place in the 1960s when Gwynedd Constabulary was merged with the Flintshire and Denbighshire county forces, retaining the name Gwynedd. In one proposal for local government reform in Wales, Gwynedd had been proposed as a name for a local authority covering all of north Wales, but the scheme as enacted divided this area between Gwynedd and Clwyd. To prevent confusion, the Gwynedd Constabulary was therefore renamed the North Wales Police.

 

The Snowdonia National Park was formed in 1951. After the 1974 local authority reorganisation, the park fell entirely within the boundaries of Gwynedd, and was run as a department of Gwynedd County Council. After the 1996 local government reorganisation, part of the park fell under Conwy County Borough, and the park's administration separated from the Gwynedd council. Gwynedd Council still appoints nine of the eighteen members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority; Conwy County Borough Council appoints three; and the Welsh Government appoints the remaining six.

 

There has been considerable inwards migration to Gwynedd, particularly from England. According to the 2021 census, 66.6% of residents had been born in Wales whilst 27.1% were born in England.

 

The county has a mixed economy. An important part of the economy is based on tourism: many visitors are attracted by the many beaches and the mountains. A significant part of the county lies within the Snowdonia National Park, which extends from the north coast down to the district of Meirionnydd in the south. But tourism provides seasonal employment and thus there is a shortage of jobs in the winter.

 

Agriculture is less important than in the past, especially in terms of the number of people who earn their living on the land, but it remains an important element of the economy.

 

The most important of the traditional industries is the slate industry, but these days only a small percentage of workers earn their living in the slate quarries.

 

Industries which have developed more recently include TV and sound studios: the record company Sain has its HQ in the county.

 

The education sector is also very important for the local economy, including Bangor University and Further Education colleges, Coleg Meirion-Dwyfor and Coleg Menai, both now part of Grŵp Llandrillo Menai.

 

The proportion of respondents in the 2011 census who said they could speak Welsh.

Gwynedd has the highest proportion of people in Wales who can speak Welsh. According to the 2021 census, 64.4% of the population aged three and over stated that they could speak Welsh,[7] while 64.4% noted that they could speak Welsh in the 2011 census.

 

It is estimated that 83% of the county's Welsh-speakers are fluent, the highest percentage of all counties in Wales.[9] The age group with the highest proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd were those between ages 5–15, of whom 92.3% stated that they could speak Welsh in 2011.

 

The proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd declined between 1991 and 2001,[10] from 72.1% to 68.7%, even though the proportion of Welsh speakers in Wales as a whole increased during that decade to 20.5%.

 

The Annual Population Survey estimated that as of March 2023, 77.0% of those in Gwynedd aged three years and above could speak Welsh.

 

Notable people

Leslie Bonnet (1902–1985), RAF officer, writer; originated the Welsh Harlequin duck in Criccieth

Sir Dave Brailsford (born 1964), cycling coach; grew up in Deiniolen, near Caernarfon

Duffy (born 1984), singer, songwriter and actress; born in Bangor, Gwynedd

Edward II of England (1284–1327), born in Caernarfon Castle

Elin Fflur (born 1984), singer-songwriter, TV and radio presenter; went to Bangor University

Bryn Fôn (born 1954), actor and singer-songwriter; born in Llanllyfni, Caernarfonshire.

Wayne Hennessey (born 1987), football goalkeeper with 108 caps for Wales; born in Bangor, Gwynedd

John Jones (c. 1530 – 1598), a Franciscan friar, Roman Catholic priest and martyr; born at Clynnog

Sir Love Jones-Parry, 1st Baronet (1832–1891), landowner and politician, co-founder of the Y Wladfa settlement in Patagonia

T. E. Lawrence (1888–1935), archaeologist, army officer and inspiration for Lawrence of Arabia, born in Tremadog

David Lloyd George (1863–1945), statesman and Prime Minister; lived in Llanystumdwy from infancy

Sasha (born 1969), disc jockey, born in Bangor, Gwynedd

Sir Bryn Terfel (born 1965), bass-baritone opera and concert singer from Pant Glas

Sir Clough Williams-Ellis (1883–1978), architect of Portmeirion

Owain Fôn Williams, (born 1987), footballer with 443 club caps; born and raised in Penygroes, Gwynedd.

Hedd Wyn (1887–1917), poet from the village of Trawsfynydd; killed in WWI

Panda representing on a Veteran's Shirt on Memorial Day!

#goodpandacontest

Empereur Charles V.

Leone Leoni (c. 1509-1590)

Milan, 1555, bronze

Charles V ici se fit représenter dans cette armure qu'il avait porté dans la bataille à Mühlberg 1547, pour lui victorieuse. Les figures au socle se référent au victorieux et sage Imperator (aigle, Mars, Minerva). Rudolf II acquit le buste pour son Kunstkammer (chambre d'art) et il le choisit comme modèle pour son propre portrait.

 

Kaiser Karl V.

Leone Leoni (um 1509 - 1590)

Mailand, um 1555

Bronze

Karl V. ließ sich hier in jener Rüstung darstellen, die er in der für ihn siegreichen Schlacht bei Mühlberg 1547 getragen hatte. Die Figuren am Sockel nehmen Bezug auf den siegreichen und weisen Imperator (Adler, Mars, Minerva). Rudolf II. erwarb die Büste für seine Kunstkammer und wählte sie als Vorbild für sein eigenes Bildnis.

  

Chamber of Art Vienna

The Chamber of Art of Vienna is a collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museum of Art History) in Vienna. It is the portrayal of the art and curiosities chambers of the late Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Baroque period and it mainly goes back to the earlier collections of the Habsburgs.

Look into the Vienna Chamber of Art

Marble sculpture of the Giulia Albani degli Abati Olivieri by Camillo Rusconi (Rome, 1719 ) in the Chamber of Art of Vienna

Equipment for perspective drawing of Jost Bürgi (Kassel, 1604) in the Chamber of Art of Vienna

Ivory statuette "Apollo and Daphne" by Jakob Auer (Vienna, 1688/90) in the Chamber of Art of Vienna

Collection History

The Chamber of Art of Vienna grew out of several individual collections, which have been collected by various clients. The following collections are the foundation for today's Chamber of Art:

The Chamber of Art and Curiosities of Ferdinand II of Tyrol (1529-1595). It was originally housed at Schloss Ambras near Innsbruck. From this stems the larger part of the surviving pieces from older collections of Emperors Frederick III, Maximilian I and Ferdinand I.

The Kunstkammer of Rudolf II (1552-1612), which was compiled in Prague. Many of the treasures of Rudolph went lost in the Thirty Years War in the sack of the Prague Castle, but this were enriched from the previously to Vienna transported collections with works of the goldsmithing and gem carving art of the time around 1600 as well as to bronzes.

In the 17th century the collections from the Kunstkammer of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm (1614-1662) have been added. He is considered as one of the fathers of today in the Cultural History Museum housed paintings gallery, but also acquired Renaissance bronzes mostly of Italian origin and small sculptures made ​​of stone and wood.

Into the Treasury Chamber in the Swiss Wing of the Vienna Hofburg in the 17th century also came at that time popular works of semi-precious stones, fine works of ivory, rhinoceros horn carvings and miniature-like wax models.

The collection at Ambras Castle in 1806 in front of Napoleon's troops was brought to Vienna in safety, where it initially in the Lower Belvedere Palace kept its independence. Only the under the reign of Emperor Franz Joseph I from 1875 tackled major reform of the imperial collections finally united all the Treasure Chamber collections in the 1891 opened Kunsthistorisches Museum and left only the objects with insignia character and those that are reminiscent of members of the imperial family in the Treasury Chamber.

The newly formed collection found its place on the mezzanine floor of the building and was initially referred to as "collection of art industrial objects". In 1919, it was named "collection for sculpture and arts and crafts". Since this collection but only to a small extent contains large sculptures and objects for a specific purpose of arts and crafts, this name was considered to be inappropriate and in 1990 it was decided to return to the naming of "Kunstkammer".

After the collapse of the monarchy in 1918 the collections of the sideline Austria-Este was affiliated to the Viennese Kunstkammer, in 1921 the Tapisseriensammlung (collection of tapestries) consisting of 800 tapestries was added, which originally had served the design of the imperial palaces. This collection is in addition to the one in possession of the Spanish crown one of the most important of its kind. In 1938 Gustav von Benda with a bequest the collection donated more important works of the Florentine Early Renaissance. The Second World War the art collection survived with very low losses. Only parts of the Tapisseriensammlung, which had to be given as a loan to Berlin and to the the facilities of Goering's hunting lodge Carin Hall, since the end of war are considered to be lost.

Since 1963, all stores of the collection are reunited in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. 2002 the structural and technical conditions required the temporary closure of the Kunstkammer. This was followed by a major renovation and expansion of the premises as well as the restructuring and up-to-date presentation of the objects. To the artistically significant exhibits belong gold works like the famous Saliera by Benvenuto Cellini, sculptures such as the Madonna of Krumlov, bronze figures, ivory objects and stone vessels, but also watches, mechanical machines, scientific instruments, gadgets and much more.

After in December 2012 in a public premiere presentation the first room of the museum could be visited, the as one of the most important art collections of the world considered Vienna Chamber of Art on 1 March 2013 was reopened. In the future, on an area of ​​around 2,700 m² more than 2,200 objects can be seen, which are presented in 20 theme rooms.

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstkammer_Wien

 

Austria Kunsthistorisches Museum

Federal Museum

Logo KHM

Regulatory authority (ies)/organs to the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture

Founded 17 October 1891

Headquartered Castle Ring (Burgring), Vienna 1, Austria

Management Sabine Haag

www.khm.at website

Main building of the Kunsthistorisches Museum at Maria-Theresa-Square

The Kunsthistorisches Museum (KHM abbreviated) is an art museum in Vienna. It is one of the largest and most important museums in the world. It was opened in 1891 and 2012 visited of 1.351.940 million people.

The museum

The Kunsthistorisches Museum is with its opposite sister building, the Natural History Museum (Naturhistorisches Museum), the most important historicist large buildings of the Ringstrasse time. Together they stand around the Maria Theresa square, on which also the Maria Theresa monument stands. This course spans the former glacis between today's ring road and 2-line, and is forming a historical landmark that also belongs to World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Vienna.

History

Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in his Gallery

The Museum came from the collections of the Habsburgs, especially from the portrait and armor collections of Ferdinand of Tyrol, the collection of Emperor Rudolf II (most of which, however scattered) and the art collection of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm into existence. Already In 1833 asked Joseph Arneth, curator (and later director) of the Imperial Coins and Antiquities Cabinet, bringing together all the imperial collections in a single building .

Architectural History

The contract to build the museum in the city had been given in 1858 by Emperor Franz Joseph. Subsequently, many designs were submitted for the ring road zone. Plans by August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Null planned to build two museum buildings in the immediate aftermath of the Imperial Palace on the left and right of the Heroes' Square (Heldenplatz). The architect Ludwig Förster planned museum buildings between the Schwarzenberg Square and the City Park, Martin Ritter von Kink favored buildings at the corner Währingerstraße/ Scots ring (Schottenring), Peter Joseph, the area Bellariastraße, Moritz von Loehr the south side of the opera ring, and Ludwig Zettl the southeast side of the grain market (Getreidemarkt).

From 1867, a competition was announced for the museums, and thereby set their current position - at the request of the Emperor, the museum should not be too close to the Imperial Palace, but arise beyond the ring road. The architect Carl von Hasenauer participated in this competition and was able the at that time in Zürich operating Gottfried Semper to encourage to work together. The two museum buildings should be built here in the sense of the style of the Italian Renaissance. The plans got the benevolence of the imperial family. In April 1869, there was an audience with of Joseph Semper at the Emperor Franz Joseph and an oral contract was concluded, in July 1870 was issued the written order to Semper and Hasenauer.

Crucial for the success of Semper and Hasenauer against the projects of other architects were among others Semper's vision of a large building complex called "Imperial Forum", in which the museums would have been a part of. Not least by the death of Semper in 1879 came the Imperial Forum not as planned for execution, the two museums were built, however.

Construction of the two museums began without ceremony on 27 November 1871 instead. Semper moved to Vienna in the sequence. From the beginning, there were considerable personal differences between him and Hasenauer, who finally in 1877 took over sole construction management. 1874, the scaffolds were placed up to the attic and the first floor completed, built in 1878, the first windows installed in 1879, the Attica and the balustrade from 1880 to 1881 and built the dome and the Tabernacle. The dome is topped with a bronze statue of Pallas Athena by Johannes Benk.

The lighting and air conditioning concept with double glazing of the ceilings made ​​the renunciation of artificial light (especially at that time, as gas light) possible, but this resulted due to seasonal variations depending on daylight to different opening times .

Kuppelhalle

Entrance (by clicking the link at the end of the side you can see all the pictures here indicated!)

Grand staircase

Hall

Empire

The Kunsthistorisches Museum was on 17 October 1891 officially opened by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Since 22 October 1891 , the museum is accessible to the public. Two years earlier, on 3 November 1889, the collection of arms, Arms and Armour today, had their doors open. On 1 January 1890 the library service resumed its operations. The merger and listing of other collections of the Highest Imperial Family from the Upper and Lower Belvedere, the Hofburg Palace and Ambras in Tyrol will need another two years.

189, the farm museum was organized in seven collections with three directorates:

Directorate of coins, medals and antiquities collection

The Egyptian Collection

The Antique Collection

The coins and medals collection

Management of the collection of weapons, art and industrial objects

Weapons collection

Collection of industrial art objects

Directorate of Art Gallery and Restaurieranstalt (Restoration Office)

Collection of watercolors, drawings, sketches, etc.

Restoration Office

Library

Very soon the room the Court Museum (Hofmuseum) for the imperial collections was offering became too narrow. To provide temporary help, an exhibition of ancient artifacts from Ephesus in the Theseus Temple was designed. However, additional space had to be rented in the Lower Belvedere.

1914, after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, his " Estonian Forensic Collection " passed to the administration of the Court Museum. This collection, which emerged from the art collection of the house of d' Este and world travel collection of Franz Ferdinand, was placed in the New Imperial Palace since 1908. For these stocks, the present collection of old musical instruments and the Museum of Ethnology emerged.

The First World War went by, apart from the oppressive economic situation without loss. The farm museum remained during the five years of war regularly open to the public.

Until 1919 the K.K. Art Historical Court Museum was under the authority of the Oberstkämmereramt (head chamberlain office) and belonged to the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The officials and employees were part of the royal household.

First Republic

The transition from monarchy to republic, in the museum took place in complete tranquility. On 19 November 1918 the two imperial museums on Maria Theresa Square were placed under the state protection of the young Republic of German Austria. Threatening to the stocks of the museum were the claims raised in the following weeks and months of the "successor states" of the monarchy as well as Italy and Belgium on Austrian art collection. In fact, it came on 12th February 1919 to the violent removal of 62 paintings by armed Italian units. This "art theft" left a long time trauma among curators and art historians.

It was not until the Treaty of Saint-Germain of 10 September 1919, providing in Article 195 and 196 the settlement of rights in the cultural field by negotiations. The claims of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Italy again could mostly being averted in this way. Only Hungary, which presented the greatest demands by far, was met by more than ten years of negotiation in 147 cases.

On 3 April 1919 was the expropriation of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine by law and the acquisition of its property, including the "Collections of the Imperial House" , by the Republic. Of 18 June 1920 the then provisional administration of the former imperial museums and collections of Este and the secular and clergy treasury passed to the State Office of Internal Affairs and Education, since 10 November 1920, the Federal Ministry of the Interior and Education. A few days later it was renamed the Art History Court Museum in the "Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna State", 1921 "Kunsthistorisches Museum" . Of 1st January 1921 the employees of the museum staff passed to the state of the Republic.

Through the acquisition of the former imperial collections owned by the state, the museum found itself in a complete new situation. In order to meet the changed circumstances in the museum area, designed Hans Tietze in 1919 the "Vienna Museum program". It provided a close cooperation between the individual museums to focus at different houses on main collections. So dominated exchange, sales and equalizing the acquisition policy in the interwar period. Thus resulting until today still valid collection trends. Also pointing the way was the relocation of the weapons collection from 1934 in its present premises in the New Castle, where since 1916 the collection of ancient musical instruments was placed.

With the change of the imperial collections in the ownership of the Republic the reorganization of the internal organization went hand in hand, too. Thus the museum was divided in 1919 into the

Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection (with the Oriental coins)

Collection of Classical Antiquities

Collection of ancient coins

Collection of modern coins and medals

Weapons collection

Collection of sculptures and crafts with the Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments

Picture Gallery

The Museum 1938-1945

Count Philipp Ludwig Wenzel Sinzendorf according to Rigaud. Clarisse 1948 by Baroness de Rothschildt "dedicated" to the memory of Baron Alphonse de Rothschildt; restituted to the Rothschilds in 1999, and in 1999 donated by Bettina Looram Rothschild, the last Austrian heiress.

With the "Anschluss" of Austria to the German Reich all Jewish art collections such as the Rothschilds were forcibly "Aryanised". Collections were either "paid" or simply distributed by the Gestapo at the museums. This resulted in a significant increase in stocks. But the KHM was not the only museum that benefited from the linearization. Systematically looted Jewish property was sold to museums, collections or in pawnshops throughout the empire.

After the war, the museum struggled to reimburse the "Aryanised" art to the owners or their heirs. They forced the Rothschild family to leave the most important part of their own collection to the museum and called this "dedications", or "donations". As a reason, was the export law stated, which does not allow owners to perform certain works of art out of the country. Similar methods were used with other former owners. Only on the basis of international diplomatic and media pressure, to a large extent from the United States, the Austrian government decided to make a change in the law (Art Restitution Act of 1998, the so-called Lex Rothschild). The art objects were the Rothschild family refunded only in the 1990s.

The Kunsthistorisches Museum operates on the basis of the federal law on the restitution of art objects from the 4th December 1998 (Federal Law Gazette I, 181 /1998) extensive provenance research. Even before this decree was carried out in-house provenance research at the initiative of the then archive director Herbert Haupt. This was submitted in 1998 by him in collaboration with Lydia Grobl a comprehensive presentation of the facts about the changes in the inventory levels of the Kunsthistorisches Museum during the Nazi era and in the years leading up to the State Treaty of 1955, an important basis for further research provenance.

The two historians Susanne Hehenberger and Monika Löscher are since 1st April 2009 as provenance researchers at the Kunsthistorisches Museum on behalf of the Commission for Provenance Research operating and they deal with the investigation period from 1933 to the recent past.

The museum today

Today the museum is as a federal museum, with 1st January 1999 released to the full legal capacity - it was thus the first of the state museums of Austria, implementing the far-reaching self-financing. It is by far the most visited museum in Austria with 1.3 million visitors (2007).

The Kunsthistorisches Museum is under the name Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum with company number 182081t since 11 June 1999 as a research institution under public law of the Federal virtue of the Federal Museums Act, Federal Law Gazette I/115/1998 and the Museum of Procedure of the Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum, 3 January 2001, BGBl II 2/ 2001, in force since 1 January 2001, registered.

In fiscal 2008, the turnover was 37.185 million EUR and total assets amounted to EUR 22.204 million. In 2008 an average of 410 workers were employed.

Management

1919-1923: Gustav Glück as the first chairman of the College of science officials

1924-1933: Hermann Julius Hermann 1924-1925 as the first chairman of the College of the scientific officers in 1925 as first director

1933: Arpad Weixlgärtner first director

1934-1938: Alfred Stix first director

1938-1945: Fritz Dworschak 1938 as acting head, from 1938 as a chief in 1941 as first director

1945-1949: August von Loehr 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections in 1949 as general director of the historical collections of the Federation

1945-1949: Alfred Stix 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections in 1949 as general director of art historical collections of the Federation

1949-1950: Hans Demel as administrative director

1950: Karl Wisoko-Meytsky as general director of art and historical collections of the Federation

1951-1952: Fritz Eichler as administrative director

1953-1954: Ernst H. Buschbeck as administrative director

1955-1966: Vincent Oberhammer 1955-1959 as administrative director, from 1959 as first director

1967: Edward Holzmair as managing director

1968-1972: Erwin Auer first director

1973-1981: Friderike Klauner first director

1982-1990: Hermann Fillitz first director

1990: George Kugler as interim first director

1990-2008: Wilfried Seipel as general director

Since 2009: Sabine Haag as general director

Collections

To the Kunsthistorisches Museum are also belonging the collections of the New Castle, the Austrian Theatre Museum in Palais Lobkowitz, the Museum of Ethnology and the Wagenburg (wagon fortress) in an outbuilding of Schönbrunn Palace. A branch office is also Ambras in Innsbruck.

Kunsthistorisches Museum (main building)

Picture Gallery

Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection

Collection of Classical Antiquities

Vienna Chamber of Art

Numismatic Collection

Library

New Castle

Ephesus Museum

Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments

Arms and Armour

Archive

Hofburg

The imperial crown in the Treasury

Imperial Treasury of Vienna

Insignia of the Austrian Hereditary Homage

Insignia of imperial Austria

Insignia of the Holy Roman Empire

Burgundian Inheritance and the Order of the Golden Fleece

Habsburg-Lorraine Household Treasure

Ecclesiastical Treasury

Schönbrunn Palace

Imperial Carriage Museum Vienna

Armory in Ambras Castle

Ambras Castle

Collections of Ambras Castle

Major exhibits

Among the most important exhibits of the Art Gallery rank inter alia:

Jan van Eyck: Cardinal Niccolò Albergati, 1438

Martin Schongauer: Holy Family, 1475-80

Albrecht Dürer : Trinity Altar, 1509-16

Portrait Johann Kleeberger, 1526

Parmigianino: Self Portrait in Convex Mirror, 1523/24

Giuseppe Arcimboldo: Summer 1563

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary 1606/ 07

Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary (1606-1607)

Titian: Nymph and Shepherd to 1570-75

Portrait of Jacopo de Strada, 1567/68

Raffaello Santi: Madonna of the Meadow, 1505 /06

Lorenzo Lotto: Portrait of a young man against white curtain, 1508

Peter Paul Rubens: The altar of St. Ildefonso, 1630-32

The Little Fur, about 1638

Jan Vermeer: The Art of Painting, 1665/66

Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Fight between Carnival and Lent, 1559

Kids, 1560

Tower of Babel, 1563

Christ Carrying the Cross, 1564

Gloomy Day (Early Spring), 1565

Return of the Herd (Autumn), 1565

Hunters in the Snow (Winter) 1565

Bauer and bird thief, 1568

Peasant Wedding, 1568/69

Peasant Dance, 1568/69

Paul's conversion (Conversion of St Paul), 1567

Cabinet of Curiosities:

Saliera from Benvenuto Cellini 1539-1543

Egyptian-Oriental Collection:

Mastaba of Ka Ni Nisut

Collection of Classical Antiquities:

Gemma Augustea

Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós

Gallery: Major exhibits

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum

 

In 2013 Thierry Geoffroy / Colonel is represented at the Malives pavilion at the Venice Biennale and then went further and received hospitality at the Zimbabwe pavilion with the Emergency Room Mobile .

He ask in his installationmade of different steps : "IS CLIMATE CHANGE STILL AN EMERGENCY ? "

www.emergencyrooms.org/biennalist.html .

He also converge with his work on emergencies : www.emergencyrooms.org

The exhibition update is from the 25/9/2013( please ask permission for use of photos =1@colonel.dk )

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lists of artists participating at the Venice Biennale :

Hilma af Klint, Victor Alimpiev, Ellen Altfest, Paweł Althamer, Levi Fisher Ames, Yuri Ancarani, Carl Andre, Uri Aran, Yüksel Arslan, Ed Atkins, Marino Auriti, Enrico Baj, Mirosław Bałka, Phyllida Barlow, Morton Bartlett, Gianfranco Baruchello, Hans Bellmer, Neïl Beloufa, Graphic Works of Southeast Asia and Melanesia, Hugo A. Bernatzik Collection, Ștefan Bertalan, Rossella Biscotti, Arthur Bispo do Rosário, John Bock, Frédéric Bruly Bouabré, Geta Brătescu, KP Brehmer, James Lee Byars, Roger Caillois, Varda Caivano, Vlassis Caniaris, James Castle, Alice Channer, George Condo, Aleister Crowley & Frieda Harris, Robert Crumb, Roberto Cuoghi, Enrico David, Tacita Dean, John De Andrea, Thierry De Cordier, Jos De Gruyter e Harald Thys, Walter De Maria, Simon Denny, Trisha Donnelly, Jimmie Durham, Harun Farocki, Peter Fischli & David Weiss, Linda Fregni Nagler, Peter Fritz, Aurélien Froment, Phyllis Galembo, Norbert Ghisoland, Yervant Gianikian & Angela Ricci Lucchi, Domenico Gnoli, Robert Gober, Tamar Guimarães and Kasper Akhøj, Guo Fengyi, João Maria Gusmão & Pedro Paiva, Wade Guyton, Haitian Vodou Flags, Duane Hanson, Sharon Hayes, Camille Henrot, Daniel Hesidence, Roger Hiorns, Channa Horwitz, Jessica Jackson Hutchins, René Iché, Hans Josephsoh, Kan Xuan, Bouchra Khalili, Ragnar Kjartansson, Eva Kotátková, Evgenij Kozlov, Emma Kunz, Maria Lassnig, Mark Leckey, Augustin Lesage, Lin Xue, Herbert List, José Antonio Suárez Londoño, Sarah Lucas, Helen Marten, Paul McCarthy, Steve McQueen, Prabhavathi Meppayil, Marisa Merz, Pierre Molinier, Matthew Monahan, Laurent Montaron, Melvin Moti, Matt Mullican, Ron Nagle, Bruce Nauman, Albert Oehlen, Shinro Ohtake, J.D. ‘Okhai Ojeikere, Henrik Olesen, John Outterbridg, Paño Drawings, Marco Paolini, Diego Perrone, Walter Pichler, Otto Piene, Eliot Porter, Imran Qureshi, Carol Rama, Charles Ray, James Richards, Achilles G. Rizzoli, Pamela Rosenkranz, Dieter Roth, Viviane Sassen, Shinichi Sawada, Hans Schärer, Karl Schenker, Michael Schmidt, Jean-Frédéric Schnyder, Friedrich Schröder-Sonnenstern, Tino Sehgal, Richard Serra, Shaker Gift Drawings, Jim Shaw, Cindy Sherman, Laurie Simmons e Allan McCollum, Drossos P. Skyllas, Harry Smith, Xul Solar, Christiana Soulou, Eduard Spelterini, Rudolf Steiner, Hito Steyerl, Papa Ibra Tall, Dorothea Tanning, Anonymous Tantric Paintings, Ryan Trecartin, Rosemarie Trockel, Andra Ursuta, Patrick Van Caeckenbergh, Stan VanDerBeek, Erik van Lieshout, Danh Vo, Eugene Von Bruenchenhein, Günter Weseler, Jack Whitten, Cathy Wilkes, Christopher Williams, Lynette Yiadom-Boakye, Kohei YoshiyUKi, Sergey Zarva, Anna Zemánková, Jakub Julian Ziółkowski ,Artur Żmijewski.

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other pavilions at Venice Biennale

 

Andorra Artists: Javier Balmaseda, Samantha Bosque, Fiona Morrison

Commissioner: Henry Périer Deputy Commissioners: Francesc Rodríguez, Ermengol Puig, Ruth Casabella

Curators: Josep M. Ubach, Paolo De GrandisAngola Artist: Edson Chagas Commissioner: Ministry of Culture

Curators: Beyond Entropy (Paula Nascimento, Stefano Rabolli Pansera), Jorge Gumbe, Feliciano dos Santos

Argentina Artist: Nicola Costantino Commissioner: Magdalena Faillace Curator: Fernando Farina

Armenia Artist: Ararat SarkissianCurator: Arman Grogoryan /AustraliaArtist: Simryn Gill Commissioner: Simon Mordant Deputy Commissioner: Penelope Seidler Curator: Catherine de Zegher /AustriaArtist: Mathias Poledna ,Curator: Jasper Sharp /AzerbaijanArtists: Rashad Alakbarov, Sanan Aleskerov, Chingiz Babayev, Butunay Hagverdiyev, Fakhriyya Mammadova, Farid Rasulov /Commissioner: Heydar Aliyev FoundationCurator: Hervé Mikaeloff

Bahamas Artist: Tavares Strachan Commissioner: Nalini Bethel, Ministry of Tourism Curators: Jean Crutchfield, Robert HobbsDeputy Curator: Stamatina Gregory/BangladeshChhakka Artists’ Group: Mokhlesur Rahman, Mahbub Zamal, A. K. M. Zahidul Mustafa, Ashok Karmaker, Lala Rukh Selim, Uttam Kumar Karmaker. Dhali Al Mamoon, Yasmin Jahan Nupur, Gavin Rain, Gianfranco Meggiato, Charupit School/Commissioner/Curator: Francesco Elisei. , Curator: Fabio Anselmi./BahrainArtists: Mariam Haji, Waheeda Malullah, Camille Zakharia /Commissioner: Mai bint Mohammed Al Khalifa, Minister of Culture /Curator: Melissa Enders-Bhatiaa/BelgiumArtist: Berlinde De Bruyckere

Commissioner: Joke Schauvliege, Flemish Minister for Environment, Nature and Culture .Curator: J. M. Coetzee ,Deputy Curator: Philippe Van Cauteren /Bosnia and Herzegovina

Artist: Mladen Miljanovic .Commissioners: Sarita Vujković, Irfan Hošić

Brazil Artists: Hélio Fervenza, Odires Mlászho, Lygia Clark, Max Bill, Bruno Munari

Commissioner: Luis Terepins, Fundação Bienal de São Paulo,Curator: Luis Pérez-Oramas ,Deputy Curator: André Severo

CanadaArtist: Shary Boyle /Commissioner: National Gallery of Canada / Musée des beaux-arts du Canada ,Curator: Josée Drouin-Brisebois/Central AsiaArtists: Vyacheslav Akhunov, Sergey Chutkov, Saodat Ismailova, Kamilla Kurmanbekova, Ikuru Kuwajima, Anton Rodin, Aza Shade, Erlan Tuyakov

Commissioner: HIVOS (Humanist Institute for Development Cooperation)

Deputy Commissioner: Dean Vanessa Ohlraun (Oslo National Academy of the Arts/The Academy of Fine Art)

Curators: Ayatgali Tuleubek, Tiago Bom

Scientific Committee: Susanne M. Winterling

ChileArtist: Alfredo JaarCommissioner: CNCA, National Council of Culture and the Arts Curator: Madeleine Grynsztejn

ChinaArtists: He Yunchang, Hu Yaolin, Miao Xiaochun, Shu Yong, Tong Hongsheng, Wang Qingsong, Zhang Xiaotao

Commissioner: China Arts and Entertainment Group (CAEG) ,Curator: Wang Chunchen

Costa Rica Artists: Priscilla Monge, Esteban Piedra, Rafael Ottón Solís, Cinthya Soto

Commissioner: Francesco EliseiCurator: Francisco Córdoba, Museo de Arte y Diseño Contemporáneo (Fiorella Resenterra)

Croatia Artist: Kata Mijatovic ,Commissioner/Curator: Branko Franceschi.

CubaArtists: Liudmila and Nelson, Maria Magdalena Campos & Neil Leonard, Sandra Ramos, Glenda León, Lázaro Saavedra, Tonel, Hermann Nitsch, Gilberto Zorio, Wang Du, H.H.Lim, Pedro Costa, Rui Chafes, Francesca Leone ,Commissioner: Miria ViciniCurators: Jorge Fernández Torres, Giacomo Zaza

CyprusArtists: Lia Haraki, Maria Hassabi, Phanos Kyriacou, Constantinos Taliotis, Natalie Yiaxi, Morten Norbye Halvorsen, Jason Dodge, Gabriel Lester, Dexter Sinister /Louli Michaelidou

Deputy Commissioners: Angela Skordi, Marika Ioannou/Curator: Raimundas Malašauskas

Czech Republic & Slovak RepublicArtists: Petra Feriancova, Zbynek Baladran ,Commissioner: Monika Palcova, Curator: Marek Pokorny /DenmarkArtist: Jesper Just in collaboration with Project ProjectsEgypt

Artists: Mohamed Banawy, Khaled Zaki

EstoniaArtist: Dénes Farkas ,Commissioner: Maria Arusoo ,Curator: Adam Budak

FinlandArtist: Antti Laitinen , Commissioner: Raija Koli , Curators: Marko Karo, Mika Elo, Harri Laakso

FranceArtist: Anri Sala ,Curator: Christine Macel

GeorgiaArtists: Bouillon Group,Thea Djordjadze, Nikoloz Lutidze, Gela Patashuri with Ei Arakawa and Sergei Tcherepnin, Gio Sumbadze/Commissioner: Marine Mizandari, First Deputy Minister of Culture Curator: Joanna Warsza

GermanyArtists: Ai Weiwei, Romuald Karmakar, Santu Mofokeng, Dayanita Singh Commissioner/Curator: Susanne Gaensheimer /Great BritainArtist: Jeremy Deller ,Commissioner: Andrea Rose , Curator: Emma Gifford-Mead

Holy SeeArtists: Lawrence Carroll, Josef Koudelka, Studio Azzurro ,Curator: Antonio Paolucci

Hungary , Artist: Zsolt Asztalos , Curator: Gabriella Uhl

Iceland , Artist: Katrín Sigurðardóttir ,Commissioner: Dorotheé Kirch

Curators: Mary Ceruti , Ilaria Bonacossa/IndonesiaArtists: Albert Yonathan Setyawan, Eko Nugroho, Entang Wiharso, Rahayu Supanggah, Sri Astari, Titarubi

Deputy Commissioner: Achille Bonito Oliva , Assistant Commissioner: Mirah M. Sjarif

Curators: Carla Bianpoen, Rifky Effendy

IraqArtists: Abdul Raheem Yassir, Akeel Khreef, Ali Samiaa, Bassim Al-Shaker, Cheeman Ismaeel, Furat al Jamil, Hareth Alhomaam, Jamal Penjweny, Kadhim Nwir, WAMI (Yaseen Wami, Hashim Taeeh)

Commissioner: Tamara Chalabi (Ruya Foundation for Contemporary Culture)Curator: Jonathan Watkins.

IrelandArtist: Richard MosseCommissioner, Curator: Anna O’Sullivan

Israel , Artist: Gilad Ratman , Commissioners: Arad Turgeman, Michael GovCurator: Sergio Edelstein

ItalyArtists: Francesco Arena, Massimo Bartolini, Gianfranco Baruchello, Elisabetta Benassi, Flavio Favelli, Luigi Ghirri, Piero Golia, Francesca Grilli, Marcello Maloberti, Fabio Mauri, Giulio Paolini, Marco Tirelli, Luca Vitone, Sislej Xhafa ,Commissioner: Maddalena Ragni

Curator: Bartolomeo Pietromarchi /Ivory Coast Artists: Frédéric Bruly Bouabré, Tamsir Dia, Jems Koko Bi, Franck Fanny

Commissioner: Paolo De Grandis , Curator: Yacouba Konaté

Japan ,Artist: Koki Tanaka ,Curator: Mika Kuraya

KenyaArtists: Kivuthi Mbuno, Armando Tanzini, Chrispus Wangombe Wachira, Fan Bo, Luo Ling & Liu Ke, Lu Peng, Li Wei, He Weiming, Chen Wenling, Feng Zhengjie, César MeneghettiCommissioner: Paola Poponi ,Curators: Sandro Orlandi, Paola Poponi /Korea (Republic of)Artist: Kimsooja

KosovoArtist: Petrit Halilaj ,Commissioner: Erzen Shkololli ,Curator: Kathrin Rhomberg

KuwaitArtists: Sami Mohammad, Tarek Al-Ghoussein

Commissioner: Mohammed Al-Asoussi ,Curator: Ala Younis /Latin AmericaIstituto Italo-Latino Americano

Artists:Marcos Agudelo, Miguel Alvear & Patricio Andrade, Susana Arwas, François Bucher, Fredi Casco, Colectivo Quintapata (Pascal Meccariello, Raquel Paiewonsky, Jorge Pineda, Belkis Ramírez), Humberto Díaz, Sonia Falcone, León & Cociña, Lucía Madriz, Jhafis Quintero, Martín Sastre, Guillermo Srodek-Hart, Juliana Stein, Simón Vega, Luca Vitone, David Zink Yi. /Harun Farocki & Antje Ehmann. In collaboration with: Cristián Silva-Avária, Anna Azevedo, Paola Barreto, Fred Benevides, Anna Bentes, Hermano Callou, Renata Catharino, Patrick Sonni Cavalier, Lucas Ferraço Nassif, Luiz Garcia, André Herique, Bruna Mastrogiovanni, Cezar Migliorin, Felipe Ribeiro, Roberto Robalinho, Bruno Vianna, Beny Wagner, Christian Jankowski ,Commissioner: Sylvia Irrazábal ,Curator: Alfons Hug

Deputy Curator: Paz Guevara /Latvia Artists: Kaspars Podnieks, Krišs Salmanis ,Commissioners: Zane Culkstena, Zane Onckule ,Curators: Anne Barlow, Courtenay Finn, Alise Tifentale

LithuaniaArtist: Gintaras Didžiapetris, Elena Narbutaite, Liudvikas Buklys, Kazys Varnelis, Vytaute Žilinskaite, Morten Norbye Halvorsen, Jason Dodge, Gabriel Lester, Dexter SinisterCommissioners: Jonas Žokaitis, Aurime Aleksandraviciute Curator: Raimundas Malašauskas /LuxembourgArtist: Catherine LorentCommissioner: Clément Minighetti Curator: Anna Loporcaro /MexicoArtist: Ariel Guzik ,Commissioner: Gastón Ramírez Feltrín ,Curator: Itala Schmelz

Montenegro ,Artist: Irena Lagator Pejovic .Commissioner/Curator: Nataša Nikcevic

The Netherlands ,Artist: Mark Manders

Commissioner: Mondriaan Fund ,Curator: Lorenzo Benedetti

New Zealand Artist: Bill Culbert ,Commissioner: Jenny Harper ,Deputy Commissioner: Heather Galbraith ,Curator: Justin Paton /Finland: ,Artist: Terike Haapoja ,Commissioner: Raija Koli ,Curators: Marko Karo, Mika Elo, Harri Laakso

Norway:Artists: Edvard Munch, Lene Berg

Curators: Marta Kuzma, Pablo Lafuente, Angela Vettese

Paraguay Artists: Pedro Barrail, Felix Toranzos, Diana Rossi, Daniel Milessi ,Commissioner: Elisa Victoria Aquino Laterza

Deputy Commissioner: Nori Vaccari Starck , Curator: Osvaldo González Real

Poland Artist: Konrad Smolenski Commissioner: Hanna Wróblewska Curators: Agnieszka Pindera, Daniel Muzyczuk

Portugal Artist: Joana Vasconcelos Curator: Miguel Amado

RomaniaArtists: Maria Alexandra Pirici, Manuel Pelmus Commissioner: Monica Morariu Deputy Commissioner: Alexandru Damia Curator: Raluca VoineaArtists: Anca Mihulet, Apparatus 22 (Dragos Olea, Maria Farcas,Erika Olea), Irina Botea, Nicu Ilfoveanu, Karolina Bregula, Adi Matei, Olivia Mihaltianu, Sebastian MoldovanCommissioner: Monica Morariu ,Deputy Commissioner: Alexandru Damian ,Curator: Anca Mihulet

Russia Artist: Vadim Zakharov ,Commissioner: Stella Kasaeva ,Curator: Udo Kittelmann

Serbia Artists: Vladimir Peric, Miloš Tomic .Commissioner: Maja Ciric

SloveniaArtist: Jasmina CibicCommissioner: Blaž Peršin ,Curator: Tevž Logar

South Africa Commissioner: Saul Molobi ,Curator: Brenton Maart

Spain Artist: Lara Almarcegui , Commissioner/Curator: Octavio Zaya

Switzerland Artist: Valentin Carron Commissioners: Pro Helvetia - Sandi Paucic and Marianne Burki

Curator: Giovanni CarmineVenue: Pavilion at Giardini

Syrian Arab RepublicArtists: Giorgio De Chirico, Miro George, Makhowl Moffak, Al Samman Nabil, Echtai Shaffik, Giulio Durini, Dario Arcidiacono, Massimiliano Alioto, Felipe Cardena, Roberto Paolini, Concetto Pozzati, Sergio Lombardo, Camilla Ancilotto, Lucio Micheletti, Lidia Bachis, Cracking Art Group, Hannu Palosuo

Commissioner: Christian Maretti Curator: Duccio Trombadori

Taiwan Artists: Bernd Behr, Chia-Wei Hsu, Kateřina Šedá + BATEŽO MIKILU Curator: Esther Lu

Thailand Artists: Wasinburee Supanichvoraparch, Arin Rungjang

Curators: Penwadee Nophaket Manont, Worathep Akkabootara

Turkey Artist: Ali Kazma Commissioner: Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts Curator: Emre Baykal

Ukraine Artists: Ridnyi Mykola, Zinkovskyi Hamlet, Kadyrova Zhanna Commissioner: Victor Sydorenko

Curators: Soloviov Oleksandr, Burlaka Victoria

United Arab Emirates Artist: Mohammed Kazem /Commissioner: Dr. Lamees Hamdan Curator: Reem Fadda

Uruguay Artist: Wifredo Díaz Valdéz

Commissioner: Ricardo Pascale Curators: Carlos Capelán, Verónica Cordeiro

USA Artist: Sarah Sze Commissioners/Curators: Carey Lovelace, Holly Block

Venezuela Colectivo de Artistas Urbanos Venezolanos , Commissioner: Edgar Ernesto González Curator: Juan Calzadilla

 

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Encyclopedic Palace is curated by Massimiliano Gioni

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Other Biennales (Biennials ) : Venice Biennial , Documenta Havana Biennial,Istanbul Biennial ( Istanbuli),Biennale de Lyon ,Dak'Art Berlin Biennial,Mercosul Visual Arts Biennial ,Bienal do Mercosul Porto Alegre.,Berlin Biennial ,Echigo-Tsumari Triennial .Yokohama Triennial Aichi Triennale,manifesta ,Copenhagen Biennale,Aichi Triennale

Yokohama Triennial,Echigo-Tsumari Triennial.Sharjah Biennial ,Biennale of Sydney, Liverpool , São Paulo Biennial ; Athens Biennale , Bienal do Mercosul ,Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art

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in preparation of the COP 19 to be held in Warsaw Poland 2013 ( climate change conference on global warming ) . Can artist performa and activate a debate ?

 

My original avatar is from 2004, and since I still have access to that avatar, I consider that my rezday still. It's really awesome going around the History Walk and remembering all the incredible innovations

 

Taken at SL10B History Walk, SL10B Beguile (91, 97, 28)

Paper birch trees represent the state of New Hampshire in the grove of the 50-state trees in the National Arboretum, DC.

William Alexander Madocks (1773-1828) was an English landowner who represented Boston, Lincolnshire in Parliament. He also became interested in Wales, where his family had held property since the 12th century, and decided to develop the Glaslyn estuary. He dammed the river with a mile-long causeway called the Cob, reclaiming Traeth Mawr and forcing the redirected Glaslyn river to naturally dredge out a deep port. The new city, Portmadoc (Porthmadog), became a major slate exporter after Madocks got his plan for a railway from Blaenau Ffestiniog to Portmadoc approved by Parliament, defeating rival railways proposed by George Overton, William Provis, and Meyer Rothschild. Madocks also built the "model town" of Tremadog, an early planned community. However, Madocks did not live to see his dream fully realized, as he died of jaundice while visiting Paris on family vacation around Europe. His wife and children returned to Britain to resolve his debts, and did see the Ffestiniog Railway open. This bust of Madocks stands at the Porthmadog end of the Cob next to the old customs house and the Ffestiniong Railway's Porthmadog Harbour Station.

 

Porthmadog is a coastal town and community in the Eifionydd area of Gwynedd, Wales, and the historic county of Caernarfonshire. It lies 5 miles (8 km) east of Criccieth, 11 miles (18 km) south-west of Blaenau Ffestiniog, 25 miles (40 km) north of Dolgellau and 20 miles (32 km) south of Caernarfon. The community population of 4,185 in the 2011 census was put at 4,134 in 2019. It grew in the 19th century as a port for local slate, but as the trade declined, it continued as a shopping and tourism centre, being close to Snowdonia National Park and the Ffestiniog Railway. The 1987 National Eisteddfod was held there. It includes nearby Borth-y-Gest, Morfa Bychan and Tremadog.

 

Porthmadog came about after William Madocks built a sea wall, the Cob, in 1808–1811 to reclaim much of Traeth Mawr from the sea for farming use. Diversion of the Afon Glaslyn caused it to scour out a new natural harbour deep enough for small ocean-going sailing ships, and the first public wharves appeared in 1825. Quarry companies followed, with wharves along the shore almost to Borth-y-Gest, while slate was carted from Ffestiniog down to quays along the Afon Dwyryd, then boated to Porthmadog for transfer to seagoing vessels.

 

In the later 19th-century, Porthmadog flourished as a port, its population rising from 885 in 1821 to over 3,000 by 1861. The rapidly growing cities of England needed high-quality roofing slate, which was brought to the new port by tramway from quarries in Ffestiniog and Llanfrothen.[6] The Ffestiniog Railway opened in 1836, followed by the Gorseddau Tramway in 1856 and the Croesor Tramway in 1864. By 1873 over 116,000 tons (117,800 t) were exported through Porthmadog in over a thousand ships. Several shipbuilders were active at this time. They were known particularly for their three-masted schooners called Western Ocean Yachts, the last of which was launched in 1913.

 

By 1841 the trackway across the reclaimed land had been straightened. It would develop into Stryd Fawr, the main commercial street of the town, with a range of shops and public houses and a post office, but the open green retained. A mineral railway to Tremadog ran along what would become Heol Madog. To the north was an industrial area of foundries, timber saw mills, slate works, a flour mill, a soda-pop plant and gasworks.

 

Porthmadog's role as a commercial port, already reduced by the opening of the Aberystwith and Welsh Coast Railway in 1867, was effectively ended by the First World War, when the lucrative German market for slate collapsed. The 19th-century wharves survive, but the slate warehouses have been replaced by holiday apartments and the harbour is used by leisure yachts.

 

The Cob is a prominent embankment built across the Glaslyn estuary in 1811 by William Madocks to reclaim land at Traeth Mawr for agriculture. It opened with a four-day feast and Eisteddfod celebrating the roadway connecting Caernarfonshire to Meirionnydd, which figured in Madocks's plans for a road from London to his proposed port at Porthdinllaen. Three weeks later, the embankment was breached by high tides and Madocks's supporters had to drum up money and men from all Caernarfonshire to repair the breach and strengthen the whole embankment. By 1814 it was open again, but Madocks's finances were in ruins. By 1836 the Ffestiniog Railway had opened its line across the embankment. It then become the main route for Ffestiniog slate to reach the new port at Porthmadog. In 1927 the Cob was breached again and took several months to repair. In 2012, 260 metres of the embankment were widened on the seaward side of the Porthmadog end to allow a second platform to be added to the Ffestiniog Railway's Harbour Station.

 

The former tollhouse at the north-western end of the Cob has slate-clad walls. It is one of few buildings to retain the interlocking slate ridge-tiles devised by Moses Kellow, manager of Croesor Quarry. The toll was abolished in 2003 when the Welsh Assembly Government bought the Cob.

 

Pen Cei, to the west of the harbour was a centre of the harbour's commercial activities. Boats were built and repaired. There were slate wharves for each quarry company with tracks connecting to the railway. Bron Guallt, built in 1895, was the Oakeley Quarry shipping agent's house. Grisiau Mawr ("Big Steps") connected the quay to Garth and houses were built for the ship owners and sea captains. A School of Navigation was also built.

 

Melin Yr Wyddfa ("Snowdon Mill") on Heol Y Wyddfa is a former flour mill built in 1862. A scheme of renovation and conversion to luxury flats began there, but has yet to reach completion.

 

The Welsh Highland Heritage Railway, not to be confused with Welsh Highland Railway, is a three-quarter-mile (1.2 km) heritage railway. It includes an award-winning miniature railway, a heritage centre, a shop and a cafe.

 

Kerfoots, in a Victorian building on Stryd Fawr, is a small department store founded in 1874. It contains a unique spiral staircase, chandeliers and slender cast-iron columns to support the upper floors. The Millennium Dome, constructed by local craftsmen in 1999 to mark the store's 125th anniversary, is made of stained glass depicting scenes from Porthmadog in 1874.

 

The Royal Sportsman Hotel (Welsh: Gwesty'r Heliwr) on Stryd Fawr was built in 1862 as a staging post on the turnpike road to Porthdinllaen. The arrival of the railway five years later brought rising numbers of tourists, and the hotel soon became famous for its liveried carriage and horses to take guests to local sightseeing spots. The building is of Ffestiniog slate; the original stone and slate fireplaces remain.

 

The War Memorial stands on top of Ynys Galch, one of the former islands reclaimed from Traeth Mawr. Taking the form of a Celtic cross and standing 16 feet (4.9 m) high, it was fashioned from Trefor granite and unveiled "in memory of ninety-seven fallen war heroes of Madoc Vale" in 1922.

 

On Moel y Gest, a hill above the town, is an Iron Age stone-walled hill fort.

 

Notable people

The local artist Rob Piercy (born 1946), was named Welsh Artist of the Year in 2002. Porthmadog-born painter Elfyn Lewis (born 1969), won the National Eisteddfod of Wales Gold Medal for fine art in 2009 and the Welsh Artist of the Year prize in 2010.

Three members of hip-hop band Genod Droog were from Porthmadog. *Welsh singer Duffy (born 1984), shot her first video Rockferry in the town. Supergrass have filmed a video at Morfa Bychan and Portmeirion for the song "Alright", which featured in the 1995 album I Should Coco. Part of the movie Macbeth (1971) was filmed at Black Rock Sands, as well as the cover art photography for the Manic Street Preachers 1998 album This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours.

Morfa Bychan was the home of David Owen (1712–1741), a blind harpist and composer, who died aged just 29.[84] Tradition has it that on his death bed he called for his harp and composed the air Dafydd y Garreg Wen. Words were added a century later by John Ceiriog Hughes (1832–1887).[85]

The Welsh-language poet William Ambrose (1813–1873), (bardic name Emrys), was minister of the Independent chapel in the town up to his death.

The ashes of the poet R. S. Thomas (1913–2000) are buried in the churchyard of St John's Church in Ffordd Penamser. An earlier poet raised in the town was Mary Davies (1846–1882), who wrote in Welsh.

T. E. Lawrence (1888–1935), known as Lawrence of Arabia, was born at what is now Lawrence House in Tremadog. He became renowned for his role in the Arab Revolt of 1916 and for his vivid writings about his experiences.

To finance the construction and repairs to the Cob, William Madocks (1773–1828), let out his own house in Tremadog. His first tenant was the vegetarian poet Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), who antagonised locals by criticising the production of sheep for consumption and running up debts with local merchants. Shelley made a hasty departure after an alleged attempt on his life by a nocturnal intruder, without paying his rent or contributing to the fund set up to support Madocks. During his tenancy, Shelley had written Queen Mab.

The Spooner family contributed a major amount to developing railways in the area over more than 70 years in the 19th century.

WWE Wrestler Mason Ryan (born 1982), real name Barri Griffiths is from the area.

 

Sport

Porthmadog Football Club, founded in 1872, is one of the oldest in Wales. It plays at Y Traeth. The club won the North Wales League in 1902/1903 and reached the final of the Welsh Amateur Cup in 1905/1906. It again won the league championship in 1937/1938 and was Welsh Amateur Cup winner in 1955/56 and 1956/57. It was league champion for three successive seasons in 1966/69, and twice so in the 1970s. In 1989/1990 it topped the Welsh Alliance League and gained a place in the new Cymru Alliance. The club became an inaugural member of the League of Wales in 1992, in the first season finishing ninth. The following year Porthmadog striker Dave Taylor was the highest scoring player in Europe. The club nearly folded in 1995/96 for financial reasons and lost its place in the League of Wales in 1998. It played the following year in the Cymru Alliance, winning the League Cup, but not until 2002/03 did it gain a 19-point lead over its nearest rivals to regain the Welsh Premier League. The club was heavily fined and had points deducted by the Football Association of Wales in 2007 after a referee was racially abused by a supporter, but an appeal to an independent tribunal reduced the fine and the points were reinstated. In the 2008/2009 season Porthmadog narrowly avoided relegation, finishing 16th.

 

Clwb Rygbi Porthmadog, based at Clwb Chwaraeon Madog, plays rugby union in WRU Division 3 North organised by the Welsh Rugby Union, having gained promotion from the Gwynedd league in the 2011/2012 season.

 

Porthmadog Golf Club at Morfa Bychan opened in 1906 on land rented from a farmer. The original tenancy agreement stipulated that golfers must take no game, hares, rabbits or wildfowl and pay compensation for any sheep or cattle killed or injured. The landlord agreed not to turn on to the land any bull or savage cattle. Created by James Braid, five times winner of the British Open, the course is a mixture of heath and links. The first nine holes head inland over heathland. The final nine, heading back towards the sea, are pure links. The 14th hole, "The Himalayas", is a 378 yards (346 m) par 4 with a huge natural bunker hiding the green from the tee.

 

Porthmadog Sailing Club, formed in 1958, initially operated from a marquee in a field. In 1964 the club merged with Trawsfynydd Sailing Club and a clubhouse was built. Weekend dinghy racing is run and facilities are provided for cruisers.

 

Madoc Yacht Club, founded in 1970, is based in the former harbourmaster's office and has an extensive cruising and racing programme, including two races to Ireland. In 2001 a Celtic longboat was purchased and a sea-rowing section formed, which now has four boats. The club competes as part of the Welsh Sea Rowing Association

 

Glaslyn Leisure Centre on Stryd y Llan has a 25-metre swimming pool and sports hall, badminton, squash and tennis courts, a sauna, a five-a-side football pitch and a dance studio.

 

Sea angling is popular in the coast villages. Borth-y-Gest offers flounder, bass, mullet, whiting and mackerel. Morfa Bychan provides bass, flounder, eel, whiting and occasional turbot. Bass, flounder and huge schools of whiting are found at Black Rock Sands, along with thornback ray, mackerel and garfish. Bass, flatfish, eel and some very large mullet can be caught in Porthmadog Harbour, in the heart of the town, though care must be taken to avoid taking the poisonous lesser weever.

 

Glaslyn Angling Association controls fishing rights on most of Afon Glaslyn up to Beddgelert. It mainly holds sea trout, but salmon and brown trout appear. The river had suffered from acid rain and afforestation, but its water quality has improved. Glan Morfa Mawr Trout Fishery at Morfa Bychan is stocked with rainbow trout

 

A cycle route crosses the Cob as part of Lôn Las Cymru, the Welsh national route from Holyhead in the north to either Cardiff or Chepstow in the south. It is 250 miles (400 km) long and crosses three mountain ranges.

 

Tremadog's quality rock climbing brings climbers from all over Britain, the dolerite cliffs often being dry when it is too wet to climb in the mountains of Snowdonia. Craig Bwlch y Moch is seen as one of the best crags in Wales.

 

A fell race on the slopes of Moel y Gest known as "Râs Moel y Gest" is held each year, starting in the town.

 

Bathing is popular at the broad beach of Black Rock Sands, with a predicted water quality of "excellent". Borth-y-Gest has a sand-and-pebble beach where bathing is safe inshore, but there are fast currents further out.

 

Gwynedd is a county in the north-west of Wales. It borders Anglesey across the Menai Strait to the north, Conwy, Denbighshire, and Powys to the east, Ceredigion over the Dyfi estuary to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west. The city of Bangor is the largest settlement, and the administrative centre is Caernarfon. The preserved county of Gwynedd, which is used for ceremonial purposes, includes the Isle of Anglesey.

 

Gwynedd is the second largest county in Wales but sparsely populated, with an area of 979 square miles (2,540 km2) and a population of 117,400. After Bangor (18,322), the largest settlements are Caernarfon (9,852), Bethesda (4,735), and Pwllheli (4,076). The county has the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in Wales, at 64.4%, and is considered a heartland of the language.

 

The geography of Gwynedd is mountainous, with a long coastline to the west. Much of the county is covered by Snowdonia National Park (Eryri), which contains Wales's highest mountain, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa; 3,560 feet, 1,090 m). To the west, the Llŷn Peninsula is flatter and renowned for its scenic coastline, part of which is protected by the Llŷn AONB. Gwynedd also contains several of Wales's largest lakes and reservoirs, including the largest, Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid).

 

The area which is now the county has played a prominent part in the history of Wales. It formed part of the core of the Kingdom of Gwynedd and the native Principality of Wales, which under the House of Aberffraw remained independent from the Kingdom of England until Edward I's conquest between 1277 and 1283. Edward built the castles at Caernarfon and Harlech, which form part of the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd World Heritage Site. During the Industrial Revolution the slate industry rapidly developed; in the late nineteenth century the neighbouring Penrhyn and Dinorwic quarries were the largest in the world, and the Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales is now a World Heritage Site. Gwynedd covers the majority of the historic counties of Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire.

 

In the past, historians such as J. E. Lloyd assumed that the Celtic source of the word Gwynedd meant 'collection of tribes' – the same root as the Irish fine, meaning 'tribe'. Further, a connection is recognised between the name and the Irish Féni, an early ethnonym for the Irish themselves, related to fían, 'company of hunting and fighting men, company of warriors under a leader'. Perhaps *u̯en-, u̯enə ('strive, hope, wish') is the Indo-European stem. The Irish settled in NW Wales, and in Dyfed, at the end of the Roman era. Venedotia was the Latin form, and in Penmachno there is a memorial stone from c. AD 500 which reads: Cantiori Hic Iacit Venedotis ('Here lies Cantiorix, citizen of Gwynedd'). The name was retained by the Brythons when the kingdom of Gwynedd was formed in the 5th century, and it remained until the invasion of Edward I. This historical name was revived when the new county was formed in 1974.

 

Gwynedd was an independent kingdom from the end of the Roman period until the 13th century, when it was conquered by England. The modern Gwynedd was one of eight Welsh counties created on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. It covered the entirety of the historic counties of Anglesey and Caernarfonshire, and all of Merionethshire apart from Edeirnion Rural District (which went to Clwyd); and also a few parishes of Denbighshire: Llanrwst, Llansanffraid Glan Conwy, Eglwysbach, Llanddoged, Llanrwst and Tir Ifan.

 

The county was divided into five districts: Aberconwy, Arfon, Dwyfor, Meirionnydd and Anglesey.

 

The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 abolished the 1974 county (and the five districts) on 1 April 1996, and its area was divided: the Isle of Anglesey became an independent unitary authority, and Aberconwy (which included the former Denbighshire parishes) passed to the new Conwy County Borough. The remainder of the county was constituted as a principal area, with the name Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire, as it covers most of the areas of those two historic counties. As one of its first actions, the Council renamed itself Gwynedd on 2 April 1996. The present Gwynedd local government area is governed by Gwynedd Council. As a unitary authority, the modern entity no longer has any districts, but Arfon, Dwyfor and Meirionnydd remain as area committees.

 

The pre-1996 boundaries were retained as a preserved county for a few purposes such as the Lieutenancy. In 2003, the boundary with Clwyd was adjusted to match the modern local government boundary, so that the preserved county now covers the two local government areas of Gwynedd and Anglesey. Conwy county borough is now entirely within Clwyd.

 

A Gwynedd Constabulary was formed in 1950 by the merger of the Anglesey, Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire forces. A further amalgamation took place in the 1960s when Gwynedd Constabulary was merged with the Flintshire and Denbighshire county forces, retaining the name Gwynedd. In one proposal for local government reform in Wales, Gwynedd had been proposed as a name for a local authority covering all of north Wales, but the scheme as enacted divided this area between Gwynedd and Clwyd. To prevent confusion, the Gwynedd Constabulary was therefore renamed the North Wales Police.

 

The Snowdonia National Park was formed in 1951. After the 1974 local authority reorganisation, the park fell entirely within the boundaries of Gwynedd, and was run as a department of Gwynedd County Council. After the 1996 local government reorganisation, part of the park fell under Conwy County Borough, and the park's administration separated from the Gwynedd council. Gwynedd Council still appoints nine of the eighteen members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority; Conwy County Borough Council appoints three; and the Welsh Government appoints the remaining six.

 

There has been considerable inwards migration to Gwynedd, particularly from England. According to the 2021 census, 66.6% of residents had been born in Wales whilst 27.1% were born in England.

 

The county has a mixed economy. An important part of the economy is based on tourism: many visitors are attracted by the many beaches and the mountains. A significant part of the county lies within the Snowdonia National Park, which extends from the north coast down to the district of Meirionnydd in the south. But tourism provides seasonal employment and thus there is a shortage of jobs in the winter.

 

Agriculture is less important than in the past, especially in terms of the number of people who earn their living on the land, but it remains an important element of the economy.

 

The most important of the traditional industries is the slate industry, but these days only a small percentage of workers earn their living in the slate quarries.

 

Industries which have developed more recently include TV and sound studios: the record company Sain has its HQ in the county.

 

The education sector is also very important for the local economy, including Bangor University and Further Education colleges, Coleg Meirion-Dwyfor and Coleg Menai, both now part of Grŵp Llandrillo Menai.

 

The proportion of respondents in the 2011 census who said they could speak Welsh.

Gwynedd has the highest proportion of people in Wales who can speak Welsh. According to the 2021 census, 64.4% of the population aged three and over stated that they could speak Welsh,[7] while 64.4% noted that they could speak Welsh in the 2011 census.

 

It is estimated that 83% of the county's Welsh-speakers are fluent, the highest percentage of all counties in Wales.[9] The age group with the highest proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd were those between ages 5–15, of whom 92.3% stated that they could speak Welsh in 2011.

 

The proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd declined between 1991 and 2001,[10] from 72.1% to 68.7%, even though the proportion of Welsh speakers in Wales as a whole increased during that decade to 20.5%.

 

The Annual Population Survey estimated that as of March 2023, 77.0% of those in Gwynedd aged three years and above could speak Welsh.

 

Notable people

Leslie Bonnet (1902–1985), RAF officer, writer; originated the Welsh Harlequin duck in Criccieth

Sir Dave Brailsford (born 1964), cycling coach; grew up in Deiniolen, near Caernarfon

Duffy (born 1984), singer, songwriter and actress; born in Bangor, Gwynedd

Edward II of England (1284–1327), born in Caernarfon Castle

Elin Fflur (born 1984), singer-songwriter, TV and radio presenter; went to Bangor University

Bryn Fôn (born 1954), actor and singer-songwriter; born in Llanllyfni, Caernarfonshire.

Wayne Hennessey (born 1987), football goalkeeper with 108 caps for Wales; born in Bangor, Gwynedd

John Jones (c. 1530 – 1598), a Franciscan friar, Roman Catholic priest and martyr; born at Clynnog

Sir Love Jones-Parry, 1st Baronet (1832–1891), landowner and politician, co-founder of the Y Wladfa settlement in Patagonia

T. E. Lawrence (1888–1935), archaeologist, army officer and inspiration for Lawrence of Arabia, born in Tremadog

David Lloyd George (1863–1945), statesman and Prime Minister; lived in Llanystumdwy from infancy

Sasha (born 1969), disc jockey, born in Bangor, Gwynedd

Sir Bryn Terfel (born 1965), bass-baritone opera and concert singer from Pant Glas

Sir Clough Williams-Ellis (1883–1978), architect of Portmeirion

Owain Fôn Williams, (born 1987), footballer with 443 club caps; born and raised in Penygroes, Gwynedd.

Hedd Wyn (1887–1917), poet from the village of Trawsfynydd; killed in WWI

"Hi my name is LaShawna and this photo is for our best friend on Flickr, TorontoBlueWhite, who loves mature African-American women in glasses and turtlenecks!"

Well. Only slightly imposing....

I need a big hat and a fob.

Noplies @ Represent Festival Balingen 2018

 

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Cliff, Barn, Tree

Tone

Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows, and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image.

 

Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes. Blending is most easily done with a medium that does not immediately fix itself, such as graphite, chalk, or charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects. For shading and blending, the artist can use a blending stump, tissue, a kneaded eraser, a fingertip, or any combination of them. A piece of chamois is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a somewhat blunt point.

 

Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing include hatching and stippling. There are a number of other methods for producing texture in the picture: in addition to choosing a suitable paper, the type of drawing material and the drawing technique will result in different textures. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture will be more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended area. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones in close proximity; a light edge next to a dark background will stand out to the eye, and almost appear to float above the surface.

   

### ........must view as slide show.......##

Another model representing a piece of sheer evil American motoring: a Hummer H2.

Representing model range available for the UK market. Part-works based.

 

Cronología abreviada de la imposición y la entrega (Por. C. Fazio)

 

I

 

El pasado 22 de noviembre, la 51 reunión interparlamentaria México-Estados Unidos concluyó con la difusión de un comunicado conjunto, en el que la delegación estadunidense manifestó su interés "por una mayor interdependencia y seguridad energética de Norteamérica". En la reunión, Michael McCaul, presidente de la delegación visitante y del Comité de Seguridad Interior de la Cámara de Representantes de Estados Unidos, elogió el paquete de contrarreformas neoliberales impulsado por Enrique Peña y el Pacto por México y, tras mencionar los acuerdos transfronterizos de hidrocarburos de su país con México, abogó por una profundización de la "alianza energética" entre ambos y Canadá.

 

En el marco de las privatizaciones en curso de Petróleos Mexicanos (Pemex) y la Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE) en el Congreso mexicano, las "aspiraciones" de McCaul y los parlamentarios estadunidenses no fueron para nada inocentes. Abrevan en la histórica ambición anexionista y de clase que desde los tiempos del secretario de Estado William H. Seward, en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, se expresó en un proyecto de control infraestructural y económico de dimensiones continentales que incluía la absorción de México y Canadá; proyecto revitalizado en documentos oficiales del gobierno de Franklyn Delano Roosevelt en 1941, cuando se diseñó la Doctrina de Áreas Ampliadas (Grand Area Doctrine), plan geopolítico de integración vertical imperial para la competencia comercial entre bloques, con eje en la noción de "seguridad nacional" estadunidense.

 

En su última fase, dicho proceso arranca a finales de los años 70 del siglo pasado, cuando el lobby petrolero texano logró colocar en la Oficina Oval a Ronald Reagan y George Bush padre. Veamos:

 

1973. El embargo de la Organización de Países Exportadores de Petróleo (OPEP) a Estados Unidos, a raíz de su apoyo a Israel en la guerra de Yom Kippur, exhibió su vulnerabilidad energética y generó un trauma geoestratégico. Desde entonces, de cara a cualquier interrupción futura del flujo de hidrocarburos (petróleo y gas natural) del golfo Pérsico, Washington priorizó por razones de "seguridad nacional" sus políticas hacia "fuentes amigables, estables y seguras" como Inglaterra, Canadá, México y Venezuela.

 

1979. La vinculación entre la seguridad, la dependencia estratégica y las iniciativas para la inclusión de Canadá y México en esquemas de "integración" de América del Norte ingresa como tema central de la seguridad nacional de Estados Unidos. Para dejar de ser "rehenes" de la OPEP y de cara a la pugna interimperialista con los megabloques económicos de la Unión Europea y el Asia/Pacífico (Japón y los tigres asiáticos) que desafían la hegemonía de Estados Unidos, ese año, cuando el tema del petróleo y el gas era casi un tabú en las relaciones bilateral y regional, Ronald Reagan promueve en su campaña por la Casa Blanca la "desvinculación" del petróleo mexicano y el gas natural canadiense del mercado mundial y la "regionalización" de los recursos hidrocarburíficos de ambos países bajo la idea de un "mercado común energético" de América del Norte.

 

Años 80. En el caso de México, los mayores obstáculos para la conformación de un mercomún energético en el área espacial y territorial de Norteamérica eran el nacionalismo revolucionario, con su artículo 27 constitucional, y la noción misma de la soberanía nacional mexicana. Para librar esos escollos, Washington optó por instrumentos "no militares" (es decir, financieros y monetarios derivados de las líneas de condicionalidad del Banco Mundial, el FMI y el BID atadas a la deuda externa) y de "inteligencia política" (cooptación-corrupción de gobernantes, políticos y empresarios y las presiones derivadas de sus eventuales vínculos con el tráfico de drogas y otros ilícitos).

 

Históricamente, al aparato militar y diplomático estadunidense no le ha sido difícil detectar esas vulnerabilidades, porque, como dijo el ex secretario de Estado de Woodrow Wilson, Robert Lansing, "dominar a México es extremadamente fácil porque basta con controlar a un solo hombre: el presidente". Labor que han venido desarrollando los emisarios de Washington desde el primer gobierno neoliberal de Miguel de la Madrid hasta el presente, con Enrique Peña, pasando por Carlos Salinas (líder de la facción santannista de lo que Manuel Buendía llamó "neopolkos"), Ernesto Zedillo, Vicente Fox y Felipe Calderón. En abono de lo anterior, y como señaló hace más de dos lustros John Saxe-Fernández en La compra-venta de México, desde 1982 se ha venido generalizando en México el "quintacolumnismo", es decir, una quinta columna integrada por un grupo de poder local colaboracionista, antinacional y entreguista, afín a un anexionismo vertical, subordinado y dependiente de Estados Unidos.

 

1991. Durante el gobierno salinista, en el marco de la primera guerra del golfo Pérsico, Timothy O’Leary dio a conocer que en una reunión celebrada en Toronto, el 12 de junio de ese año, Los Pinos y la Casa Blanca pactaron que "sin modificar la Constitución mexicana", el petróleo y las operaciones nacionales e internacionales de Pemex entraran en las negociaciones del Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte (TLCAN o NAFTA, por sus siglas en inglés).

 

1994. Con la entrada en vigor del TLCAN, definido por el ex director de la CIA William Colby como un instrumento importante para "desvanecer" la soberanía mexicana y "reorientar" la función y la existencia misma de México como Estado nación, se profundizó el proceso de "constitucionalización del neoliberalismo disciplinario". Esto es, el ajuste del aparato normativo mexicano con el fin de garantizar "seguridad jurídica" a los inversionistas privados extranjeros, con especial fruición, la desde entonces furtiva, larvada e ilegal contrarreforma a los artículos 27 y 28 de la Constitución en materia energética: electricidad, agua, petróleo, gas natural y otros minerales considerados "críticos y estratégicos" por el Pentágono.

 

II

 

Con la entrada en vigor del Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte (TLCAN) en 1994, Estados Unidos y los organismos financieros "internacionales" (BM, FMI, BID, verdaderos perros guardianes al servicio del Departamento del Tesoro y las compañías multinacionales), han venido avanzando sin límite de continuidad en el "cogobierno" o "manejo conjunto" del territorio nacional y sus recursos geoestratégicos. Incluida la privatización "multimodal" de la infraestructura (carreteras, puertos, aeropuertos, vías de ferrocarril, redes de fibra óptica, de electricidad e hidrocarburos), propósito principal del Plan Puebla Panamá (PPP), diseñado durante la administración de Ernesto Zedillo y profundizado con Vicente Fox.

 

2000-2001. Tras la elección de Fox en julio de 2000, Washington arreció en sus propósitos de transformar el espacio territorial mexicano, de adecuarlo con las nuevas mercancías, a los nuevos negocios y tecnologías. De cuadricularlo, ordenarlo y hacerlo funcional y "productivo".

 

Durante su campaña electoral, en un debate televisado con Al Gore en octubre de 2000, el entonces gobernador de Texas, George W. Bush, recuperó la idea de Reagan y su padre (George Walker Bush, ex director de la CIA y vicepresidente de los dos mandatos de Reagan, a quien sucedió en 1988) de formar un "mercomún energético de América del Norte". Dijo: "Le hablé (a Fox) de cómo sería mejor apresurar la exploración de gas natural en México y transportarlo a Estados Unidos para que seamos menos dependientes de fuentes externas de petróleo crudo". En febrero de 2001, el experto George Baker, directivo de Mexico Energy Intelligence, planteó que Bush podía ofrecer fondos para convertir a Pemex en la mejor empresa petrolera del mundo. "Por supuesto, tendría que ser una propuesta del presidente Fox, que no corresponde plantear al presidente Bush", dijo Baker. En marzo, Bush no tuvo empacho en afirmar que el gas encontrado en México era "hemisférico" y debía beneficiar a Estados Unidos. Afirmó entonces: "Una buena política energética es aquella que entiende que tenemos energía en nuestro hemisferio y cómo explotarlo mejor y transportarlo a los mercados". Poco antes, con Fox de anfitrión, el secretario de Energía de EU, Spencer Abraham, había logrado introducir en la Declaración de México −suscrita por los ministros de Energía del hemisferio− una frase que abogaba por la "integración energética" del continente. Allí quedó formado un grupo de trabajo trilateral (integrado por Abraham y los ministros del ramo de Canadá y México). "Encontramos que hay dependencia mutua, sin socios minoritarios ni socios mayoritarios", dijo entonces Abraham desafiando la ley que rige la fábula del tiburón y las sardinas.

 

La idea de crear "redes" o "corredores energéticos" a través de ductos transfronterizos para el intercambio de hidrocarburos, así como la integración eléctrica entre Estados Unidos, Canadá y México, fue retomada en la Cumbre de Quebec (abril de 2001), donde participaron 34 jefes de Estado y de gobierno de América. Uno de los compromisos de la cumbre fue "norteamericanizar los mercados de energía" −ante la deficiencia de Estados Unidos en la materia esgrimida por Bush−, para lo cual se requería "cambiar el marco legislativo y regulatorio" de los países involucrados.

 

En mayo de 2001, el presidente Bush −principal operativo del cártel petrolero-gasero texano conformado por las trasnacionales Exxon-Mobil, Halliburton, Enron y El Paso Corporation− dio a conocer su plan energético nacional (conocido como Plan Cheney), donde el combustible extranjero pasó a ser el eje del proyecto. En ese esquema, México fue definido como una "fuente primordial" para garantizar la "seguridad energética" de Estados Unidos.

 

Varios meses antes de los atentados contra las Torres Gemelas, el Grupo para el Desarrollo de una Política Energética Nacional, que elaboró el Plan Cheney, había mostrado un mapa de la República Mexicana que identificaba las cuencas de Burgos, Sabinas y Pedregosas, en el norte de México, frente a Texas (dominios del clan Bush), como las principales reservas de gas no explotado. En esa región, sugería el documento, podría darse una interrelación energética "natural". El grupo recomendó a Bush que instruyera a sus secretarios de Estado y de Energía para que, en consulta con la Comisión Reguladora de Energía, se revisaran los "permisos presidenciales" para la construcción de infraestructura que permita el cruce de petróleo, gas natural y electricidad, y se propongan las reformas a las regulaciones que sean necesarias para hacerlas compatibles con el comercio intrafronterizo.

 

Cuando en septiembre de 2001 Fox visitó a Bush en Washington, ambos recibieron la propuesta del Consejo Binacional México-Estados Unidos de llevar a cabo, cuanto antes, la integración energética de Norteamérica. El principal destinatario de la solicitud fue Fox: a él le recomendaron aumentar la inversión privada en Pemex; abrir el sector de refinación de crudo al capital extranjero; dividir en varias compañías la red de oleoductos mexicanos y acceder a una pronta integración eléctrica con Estados Unidos. Para todo ello, señalaron, hay opciones: "liberalizando los marcos regulatorios y legales". Es decir, modificando la Constitución mexicana.

 

2002. El 20 de septiembre de ese año Bush presentó su Estrategia de Seguridad Nacional en la Casa Blanca. Entre las nociones básicas del documento, una decía: "Debe mejorar la seguridad energética (de Estados Unidos). Fortaleceremos nuestra propia seguridad energética y la prosperidad compartida de la economía mundial, colaborando con nuestros aliados, socios comerciales y productores de energía". En buen romance, fue el anuncio estratégico de la Alianza para la Seguridad y la Prosperidad de América del Norte (Aspan), suscrita en Waco, Texas, el 23 de marzo de 2005.

 

III

 

Año 2005. Según lo definió entonces la llamada Fuerza de Tarea Independiente (sic) sobre el Futuro de Norteamérica −cuyos copresidentes eran el ex viceprimer ministro de Canadá, John Manley; el ex gobernador de Massachusetts, William Weld y el ex secretario mexicano de Hacienda, Pedro Aspe−, el nuevo "paradigma" en las relaciones de México con Estados Unidos y Canadá ha sido la Alianza para la Seguridad y la Prosperidad de América del Norte (ASPAN).

 

El "menú" del pacto trilateral, definido entonces por la Casa Blanca con el colaboracionismo de tecnoburócratas gubernamentales, asociaciones empresariales y círculos intelectuales conservadores y entreguistas de Canadá y México, incluyó seis puntos básicos de seguridad: militar, interna, energética, global, social y de acceso al agua dulce. No fue casual que los puntos de la agenda definían los intereses geoestratégicos de Washington; subordinaban el comercio a los asuntos de seguridad definidos en la doctrina Bush de guerra preventiva y lucha contra el "terrorismo", y perseguían una dirección única: la dominación imperial estadunidense en el siglo XXI.

 

Los objetivos claves del "nuevo acuerdo" −en cuya elaboración participó de manera activa Andrés Rozental Gutman, medio hermano del ex canciller del foxismo Jorge G. Castañeda− fueron desarrollar mecanismos de seguridad marítima, aérea y terrestre que permitieran hacer frente a cualquier "amenaza" en América del Norte; una estrategia energética basada en el incremento de la oferta para satisfacer las "necesidades" de la región (léase Estados Unidos), y facilitar inversiones en infraestructura energética, para las mejoras tecnológicas, la producción y el suministro confiable de energéticos, mejorando la "cooperación" en la materia.

 

En forma complementaria, un objetivo estratégico de la política petrolera del dúo Bush-Cheney fue persuadir u obligar a México y países productores del golfo Pérsico a que abrieran sus empresas estatales a la inversión multinacional privada. En ese sentido, en Waco, Bush aprovechó la extrema debilidad del presidente Fox y definió la nueva agenda, que los tecnoburócratas locales tratarían de rellenar después con regulaciones, estándares y modificaciones graduales, pequeñas pero sustanciales, de modo de ir "armonizando" la legislación mexicana con los intereses de Washington y las trasnacionales del sector energético.

 

A su vez, para garantizar "la producción y el suministro confiable de energéticos" en Norteamérica −que comenzaba ya a tomar forma como nuevo espacio geopolítico y geoeconómico−, los estrategas castrenses de Washington impulsaron la idea de un "perímetro exterior de seguridad", lo que colocó a Canadá y México bajo el manto militar nuclear del Comando Estadunidense de Defensa Aeroespacial (conocido como NORAD, por sus siglas en inglés), y su extensión al Comando Norte (creado en 2002), ambos bajo el mando del Pentágono, encargados de proteger de facto los suelos, mares y cielos trinacionales. La anuencia tácita de Fox al plan de seguridad de Bush, colocó desde entonces al territorio mexicano como blanco de cualquier contingencia bélica interimperialista. Pero, además, ese proyecto estadunidense que asumió a México como problema doméstico, incluyó el sellamiento militar del Golfo de México, desde los cabos de la Florida hasta la península de Yucatán, y el corrimiento de la frontera norte al istmo de Tehuantepec para controlar el tránsito de indocumentados mexicanos, centro y sudamericanos, según el diseño original del Plan Puebla-Panamá.

 

La ASPAN (el TLCAN militarizado), que desde su concreción ha venido funcionando con un "gobierno sombra" de las élites empresariales y militares de Estados Unidos y sus socios menores en Canadá y México, incluyó una integración energética transfronteriza (petróleo, gas natural, electricidad) subordinada a Washington y megaproyectos del capital trasnacional que subsumieron los criterios económicos a los de seguridad, justificando así acciones que de otro modo no podrían ser admitidas por ser violatorias de la soberanía nacional, y una normativa supranacional que hizo a un lado el control legislativo (según la Constitución, el Senado es el encargado de vigilar los acuerdos internacionales suscritos por el Poder Ejecutivo), mientras se impusieron leyes contrainsurgentes que criminalizaron la protesta y la pobreza y globalizaron el disciplinamiento social.

 

Año 2007. Ya bajo el mandato espurio de Felipe Calderón, la Iniciativa Mérida, anunciada por George W. Bush en Washington el 22 de octubre de 2007, fue diseñada como un paquete de asistencia militar en especie a México por un monto de mil 400 millones de dólares para el trienio 2008-2010. El "nuevo paradigma de cooperación" entre Estados Unidos y México en materia de seguridad estuvo dirigido a hacer frente a "amenazas comunes" asimétricas, mismas que fueron identificadas como organizaciones trasnacionales del crimen organizado, en particular las dedicadas al narcotráfico, el tráfico de armas, las actividades financieras ilícitas, el tráfico de divisas y la trata de personas. Con un dato adicional: la virtual equiparación desde la óptica punitiva estadunidense de tres términos y sus manifestaciones concretas: terroristas, narcotraficantes y migrantes sin documentación válida (indocumentados).

 

Símil del Plan Colombia, en su parte sustantiva, el millonario paquete de asistencia militar incluyó aviones y helicópteros de combate, barcos, lanchas; armamento y equipo bélico, radares y sofisticados instrumentos para monitoreo aéreo e intervención de comunicaciones; software para análisis de datos asociados a inteligencia financiera, y recursos para sufragar cursos de entrenamiento y asesorías del Pentágono, la CIA, el FBI, la DEA y otros organismos de seguridad estadunidenses a sus contrapartes mexicanas. También incluyó recursos para la instrumentación de reformas judiciales, penales y de procuración de justicia, áreas que de manera paulatina serían homologadas a las de Estados Unidos.

 

IV

 

Integrado de facto desde 2002 al "perímetro de seguridad" de Estados Unidos, el territorio de México quedó incluido en la zona bajo control del Comando Norte del Pentágono. A su vez, en el marco de la ASPAN (el TLCAN militarizado, 2005), la Iniciativa Mérida (2007) llevaría a una desnacionalización acelerada del sistema de seguridad interna. Desde entonces, Estados Unidos sería codiseñador de la estrategia de "seguridad nacional" mexicana, lo que, más allá de juegos semánticos, significó una cesión de soberanía.

 

Definida por el entonces embajador de EE.UU. en México, Antonio Garza, como el "proyecto más agresivo" jamás impulsado por la Casa Blanca en el hemisferio occidental, la Iniciativa Mérida fue diseñada en función de la agenda de seguridad de Washington. Las prioridades de la administración Bush fueron: guerra a las drogas (en el territorio mexicano); guerra al terrorismo (ídem); seguridad fronteriza (en los confines norte y sur de México); control sobre la seguridad pública y las distintas policías de México; penetración de las fuerzas armadas locales (Ejército y Marina de Guerra); construcción de instituciones y reglas de ley similares a las de Estados Unidos (homologación de leyes como parte de la integración silenciosa y subordinada de México).

 

En ese sentido, las contrarreformas calderonistas fueron parte de la agenda policial-militar-judicial-penal de EE.UU., ya que se encaminaron no sólo a la adopción de facto de medidas similares a las del "Estado de excepción" de la era Bush (Ley Patriota, Comisiones Militares, Ley Marcial), sino que también, vía la pretendida modificación o derogación de la Ley para Conservar la Neutralidad del País, buscaba permitir la proyección del poder militar del Pentágono (aéreo, naval y terrestre, incluyendo las fuerzas especiales), en el territorio nacional y los espacios marítimo y aéreo (lo que luego ocurrió de manera no tan encubierta, drones incluidos), y la creación de bases militares, a la postre denominadas Oficinas Bilaterales de Inteligencia o centros de fusión.

 

2008. La energía y la política irían de la mano desde comienzos de ese año. En los círculos financieros se afirmó entonces que la privatización de Petróleos Mexicanos (Pemex) estaba próxima. Pero para ello se requerían reformas constitucionales y el presidente Felipe Calderón necesitaba conseguir los votos en el Congreso del Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI).

 

En ese contexto se reveló que Pemex, la mayor empresa paraestatal y principal contribuyente fiscal de México, había establecido convenios de cooperación con cinco multinacionales: la angloholandesa Royal Dutch Shell; Petrobras, de Brasil; Statoil de Holanda; la canadiense Nexen y el gigante petrolero estadunidense Chevron-Texaco. Según autoridades de Pemex, se trataban de convenios "sin carácter comercial" en materia de investigación científica y tecnológica, apegados a los ordenamientos constitucionales y legales vigentes entonces en el país.

 

Sin embargo, en diciembre anterior La Jornada había denunciado que existía un convenio de carácter confidencial con la Shell, para realizar actividades de exploración en el campo petrolero de Chicontepec, Veracruz, lo que estaba vedado por la Constitución. Entonces se especuló que el llamado Proyecto Margarita permitiría posicionar a la empresa angloholandesa en el país, ante una eventual eliminación de las restricciones constitucionales a la inversión privada en el sector energético.

 

Pemex clasificó como "información confidencial" los resultados derivados de los acuerdos suscritos con esas cinco compañías, y asumió el compromiso de ocultar los datos al Instituto Federal de Acceso a la Información y Protección de Datos (Ifai). Si Pemex rompía la reserva de los convenios debería pagar una indemnización de 500 mil dólares por evento. Y en caso de una controversia entre ambas partes, ésta se tendría que dirimir en las cortes internacionales de conformidad con el reglamento de arbitraje de la Cámara Internacional de Comercio, con sede en París, Francia.

 

Calderón dijo que Pemex no se privatizaría, lo que a todas luces fue una actitud demagógica, ya que en 2003, siendo ministro de Energía en el gabinete de Vicente Fox, había abogado por la apertura al capital privado de la Compañía Federal de Electricidad (CFE), mediante adecuaciones al texto de los artículos 27 y 28 constitucionales, con el fin de otorgar "certidumbre jurídica" a los inversionistas extranjeros. Ahora sólo era cuestión de cambiar sector "eléctrico" por "energético".

 

No era secreto que los distintos gobiernos neoliberales habían venido suscribiendo acuerdos inconfesables con empresas internacionales como el firmado con Shell. Entre los trucos semánticos que intentaban ocultar la privatización por partes de Pemex al margen de la Constitución, se había llegado a hablar de "acuerdos verbales", alianzas "sin documento alguno", convenios de "colaboración" y "pactos sin carácter comercial."

 

El 4 de marzo, en horario estelar, el gobierno de Calderón puso en marcha una millonaria estrategia propagandística televisiva dirigida a convencer a la población sobre la necesidad de que Pemex se asociara con empresas privadas, nacionales y extranjeras, para explorar "un tesoro escondido" a 3 mil metros de profundidad en el golfo de México. En lo que fue descrito como un doble juego gubernamental para abrir el sector de los energéticos al capital privado, se reveló la existencia de dos versiones del espot oficial: en el portal de YouTube, el promocional, que incluía gráficas satelitales e imágenes en tercera dimensión, hablaba de "alianzas" estratégicas con empresas privadas para la exploración en aguas profundas; pero esa palabra fue mutilada en la televisión abierta, lo que constituyó una manipulación intencional para ocultar que la iniciativa era en pro de una "alianza estratégica" o de "cuates", de la administración Calderón con los tiburones del sector energético trasnacional.

 

www.jornada.unam.mx/2013/11/25/opinion/021a1pol

www.jornada.unam.mx/2013/12/09/opinion/027a1pol

www.jornada.unam.mx/2013/12/23/opinion/024a1pol

www.jornada.unam.mx/2014/01/06/opinion/015a1pol

 

Detail of the Golden Window, one of the final pair of nave windows representing the soul's final journey into Heaven. This window was designed by Lawrence Lee and represents the Heavenly City, studded with gemstones and with a large figure of Archangel Michael at the centre. At the base a shadowy Christ-like figure appears to welcome us.

 

Coventry's Cathedral is a unique synthesis of old a new, born of wartime suffering and forged in the spirit of postwar optimism, famous for it's history and for being the most radically modern of Anglican cathedrals. Two cathedral's stand side by side, the ruins of the medieval building, destroyed by incendiary bombs in 1940 and the bold new building designed by Basil Spence and opened in 1962.

 

It is a common misconception that Coventry lost it's first cathedral in the wartime blitz, but the bombs actually destroyed it's second; the original medieval cathedral was the monastic St Mary's, a large cruciform building believed to have been similar in appearance to Lichfield Cathedral (whose diocese it shared). Tragically it became the only English cathedral to be destroyed during the Reformation, after which it was quickly quarried away, leaving only scant fragments, but enough evidence survives to indicate it's rich decoration (some pieces were displayed nearby in the Priory Visitors Centre, sadly since closed). Foundations of it's apse were found during the building of the new cathedral in the 1950s, thus technically three cathedrals share the same site.

 

The mainly 15th century St Michael's parish church became the seat of the new diocese of Coventry in 1918, and being one of the largest parish churches in the country it was upgraded to cathedral status without structural changes (unlike most 'parish church' cathedrals created in the early 20th century). It lasted in this role a mere 22 years before being burned to the ground in the 1940 Coventry Blitz, leaving only the outer walls and the magnificent tapering tower and spire (the extensive arcades and clerestoreys collapsed completely in the fire, precipitated by the roof reinforcement girders, installed in the Victorian restoration, that buckled in the intense heat).

 

The determination to rebuild the cathedral in some form was born on the day of the bombing, however it wasn't until the mid 1950s that a competition was held and Sir Basil Spence's design was chosen. Spence had been so moved by experiencing the ruined church he resolved to retain it entirely to serve as a forecourt to the new church. He envisaged the two being linked by a glass screen wall so that the old church would be visible from within the new.

 

Built between 1957-62 at a right-angle to the ruins, the new cathedral attracted controversy for it's modern form, and yet some modernists argued that it didn't go far enough, after all there are echoes of the Gothic style in the great stone-mullioned windows of the nave and the net vaulting (actually a free-standing canopy) within. What is exceptional is the way art has been used as such an integral part of the building, a watershed moment, revolutionising the concept of religious art in Britain.

 

Spence employed some of the biggest names in contemporary art to contribute their vision to his; the exterior is adorned with Jacob Epstein's triumphant bronze figures of Archangel Michael (patron of the cathedral) vanquishing the Devil. At the entrance is the remarkable glass wall, engraved by John Hutton with strikingly stylised figures of saints and angels, and allowing the interior of the new to communicate with the ruin. Inside, the great tapestry of Christ in majesty surrounded by the evangelistic creatures, draws the eye beyond the high altar; it was designed by Graham Sutherland and was the largest tapestry ever made.

 

However one of the greatest features of Coventry is it's wealth of modern stained glass, something Spence resolved to include having witnessed the bleakness of Chartres Cathedral in wartime, all it's stained glass having been removed. The first window encountered on entering is the enormous 'chess-board' baptistry window filled with stunning abstract glass by John Piper & Patrick Reyntiens, a symphony of glowing colour. The staggered nave walls are illuminated by ten narrow floor to ceiling windows filled with semi-abstract symbolic designs arranged in pairs of dominant colours (green, red, multi-coloured, purple/blue and gold) representing the souls journey to maturity, and revealed gradually as one approaches the altar. This amazing project was the work of three designers lead by master glass artist Lawrence Lee of the Royal College of Art along with Keith New and Geoffrey Clarke (each artist designed three of the windows individually and all collaborated on the last).

 

The cathedral still dazzles the visitor with the boldness of it's vision, but alas, half a century on, it was not a vision to be repeated and few of the churches and cathedrals built since can claim to have embraced the synthesis of art and architecture in the way Basil Spence did at Coventry.

 

The cathedral is generally open to visitors most days. For more see below:-

www.coventrycathedral.org.uk/

En Biodiversidad virtual

 

y también Twiter

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Drepanothrix dentata no es pulgón, es una pulga, pero pulga acuática que no pica ni salta, solo tiene de pulga su minúsculo tamaño de pulga de pulgas, invisible crustáceo que a golpe de remo de sus antenas de árbol se mueve entre las nubes de sedimento que reposan en el lecho del Lago.

 

Las ramas de las antenas de este crustáceo volador recuerdan a la armadura de las alas de un murciélago y así, con alas invisibles Drepanothrix las extiende como largos remos en su caminar bajo el agua.

 

Como todos los Branquiópodos, Drepanothrix respira por las patas, sus flecos plumosos son sus branquias y recogen del agua el oxígeno que requiere para su intensa actividad.

 

El género Drepanothrix está representado en la Península Ibérica por una sola especie, Drepanothrix dentata , de la que se conocen muy pocas localidades en nuestro país, tres hasta ahora (dos de los embalses gallegos de Mao y Chandreja y otra en la Laguna de Río Pequeño en la Sierra Segundera) que con ésta del Lago serán cuatro; todas ellas situadas en el noroeste del territorio ibérico.

 

La característica morfológica más destacada de este pequeño crustáceo es la presencia de una escotadura en forma de aleta de arpón situada en el margen dorsal de su caparazón, además de otras más específicas relacionadas con la estructura de sus antenas. El margen del caparazón de Drepanothrix presenta todas las sedas de parecida longitud y dirigidas hacia la zona ventral de su cuerpo.

 

El cuerpo de Drepanothrix es corto y ovalado y se ensancha hacia la parte posterior y su cabeza, grande y de forma triangular muestra un ocelo bien desarrollado de tamaño inferior y próximo a la mitad del que tiene su ojo compuesto. Está protegido por una coraza formada por dos valvas de quitina, translúcidas y reticuladas en la zona ventral, en cuyo interior se encuentran sus delicados órganos, un corazón que late acelerado sobre el dorso, el intestino replegado y sinuoso cuyo extremo terminal se abre en la garra posterior en las hembras.

 

Solo asoman de esta armadura los ojos desiguales situados sobre un rostro plano y las antenas y anténulas, que además de órganos sensoriales, desempeñan un importante papel en el desplazamiento de estos organismos. Esta coraza no crece y por ello los branquiópodos mudan hasta cinco veces antes de conseguir alcanzar la madurez sexual.

 

Drepanothrix vive en la zona bentónica, tanto en las zonas próximas a la orilla, como en los fondos algo más profundos a los que llega la luz y suele habitar en zonas de aguas poco mineralizadas en ambientes que van desde las aguas oligotróficas a las moderamente eutróficas y es un género que se encuentra particularmente adepatado a la vida entre los detritus.

 

La morfología de los machos de esta especie no se conoce tan bien como la de las hembras, porque se encuentran en muy raras ocasiones, pero su cuerpo es más esbelto y alargado. En la Península Ibérica nunca han sido hallados ejemplares de sexo masculino y ésta es muy posiblemente la primera vez que se citan y fotografían en territorio ibérico.

 

La fotografía que mostramos, se ha realizado a 200 aumentos empleando la técnica de contraste de interferencia, se ha tomado sobre una muestra recolectada a cinco metros de profundidad, el trece de septiembre de 2015, por los buceadores del Club de buceo Arvalis en las inmediaciones de la playa de Folgoso en el Lago de Sanabria (Zamora), desde el catamarán Helios Sanabria el primer catamarán construido en el Planeta propulsado por energía eólica y solar.

 

Presentación ponencia congreso internacional de Limnología de la AIL

 

El Lago en Europa

 

Informes de contaminación en el Lago de Sanabria

 

Informe de evolución de la contaminación en el Lago de Sanabria

 

Reportaje en Tele5.

 

El Lago en TVE.

 

Orange Zinnia Elegans - the scarlet zinnia represents constancy.

A Photowalk in my Wildflower Garden

July was a busy, colorful month.

Pictures represent many different places - Redwood City, Newport Beach, Morro Bay, San Francisco, Palo Alto, Menlo Park, Mt. Shasta, Klamath Falls, Crater Lake, Tule Lake, Monte Sereno, Calaveras County, Alpine County and Arnold. Looks like my travels are over for a while as I start a new job on Monday.

 

1. Arnold Rim Trail, 2. The Mountains of Alpine County, 3. Calaveras State Park - The Big Tree & Me, 4. Cornsilk, 5. The Ring of Fire, 6. A Bevy of Blonde Beauties at Crater Lake, 7. Ripples & Reflections, 8. Night Photography #2 - Blues on Friday Night, 9. All the Lights On, 10. Welcome to Oregon - Prepare to Be Bugged !, 11. Mt. Shasta - East Side, 12. Blue Damselfly, 13. Crater Lake - The Bluest Blue, 14. Shasta Lake - Drought Year !, 15. Commitment #6 - Love Never Fails, 16. Commitment #5 - Healthy Eating, 17. Commitment #4 - Gardening, 18. Commitment #3 - Save the Bay, 19. Commitment #2 - Waiting to Ripen, 20. Tenderness - A Study of Rodin's "The Kiss", 21. Texture #7 - Agapanthus Blooms, 22. Texture #6 - Swagger, 23. Dusk at Morro Bay, 24. Texture #5 - Spinach Salad, 25. Texture #4 - Day at the Ballpark, 26. Texture #3 - Bison Burger, It's What's For Dinner, 27. Texture #2 - Field of Lavender, 28. Texture #1 - Corn on the Cob, 29. Cormorant in Morro Bay, 30. Golden Sunset - Morro Bay, 31. Red, White & Blue, 32. Newport Beach Back Bay Hazy Afternoon, 33. God Bless America, 34. Center #3 - Just the Nose, 35. Center #2 - Just a Fig

Melbourne, Vic, 1999.

Représentation exceptionnelle en présence des élèves de l'Ecole du Nord.

Mise en scène et adaptation David Bobée, texte Henrik Ibsen.

 

Déc.2021 - Théâtre du Nord/Lille

©Kalimba